Orelegr, pe THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Epirorn; EDWARD S. DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Proressorns GEORGE L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, W. G. FARLOW anp WM. M. DAVIS, or CamsBrince, Proressors ADDISON E. VERRILL, HORACE L. WELLS, L. V. PIRSSON anp H. E. GREGORY, or New Haven, Proressor HENRY S. WILLIAMS, or Irwaca, Proressor JOSEPH S. AMES, or Bautimore, Me. J. S. DILLER, oF Wasuineton. FOURTH SERIES VOL. XXX—[WHOLE NUMBER, CLXXX.] WITH TWO PLATES. NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. IES IG THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR COMPANY NEW HAVEN CONTENTS TO VOLUME Xxx. Number 175. Page Art. I.—Platinum-Rhodium Thermoelement from 0° to 1755°; genie OSNVANYS: Wer) ea Mareen a Lo eee Se call IJ.—Remarkable Twins of Atacamite and on some other Copper Minerals from Collahurasi, Tarapaca, Chili ; by WEE, PoRpateese soca.) Portes ens |) ees 16 III.-- Crustal Warping in the Temagami-Temiskaming Dis- PuichyOntamiarmiy Li. Vio IRSSON 22205... Jesse k eee 25 1V.—Jurassic Age of the “Jurassic Flora of Oregon” ; by Ee Een OW TON i). 024 oe. eee roe he ak AEs 8 33 V.— Geologic Bearing of the Peat Beds of Anticosti Island ; Dye ee ne RWIEINEIO MET a oes sae Ge Sb 65 VI.—Hydrolysis of Esters of Halogen Substituted Acids ; DyeADORUSHmiand J. VW. Inm 2. 2-2 oo. ee 72 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Quantitative Reagent for Iron and Copper, BiurTz and HéprKe: Detection and Determination of Very Minute Quantities of Silver, G. S. Wuirsy, 79.—Beryllium Formates, S. Tantar: Recalcula- tion of the Atomic Weights, F. W. Cuarxe, 80.—Pressure of Light on Gases, P. LmespmepEW: Coherers, W. H. EccuEs: Measurement of High Pressure, 81.—Radiochemistry, A. T. CamMERon: Acht Vorlesungungen tiber Theoretische Physik, M. PuancK, 82.—National Physical Laboratory, 83. Geology and Mineralogy—United States Geological Survey, G. O. Smitu, 83.—Illinois Geological Survey, 84.—Northern Territory of South Aus- tralia, H. Y. L. Brown, 85.—Corrasion by Gravity Streams with Applica- tions of the Ice Flood Hypothesis, E. C. ANDREWS, 86.—Antike Tierwelt, O. KeturR: Orders of Mammals, W. K. Grecory: Analyse der Silikat- und Karbonatgesteine, W. F. HinLeEBrRanp, 88.—Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks, H. S. Wasnineton: Handbuch der Mineralogie, C. Hintze : Crystallography ; An Elementary Manual for the Laboratory, M. E. WapDswortH, §9.—Brief Notices of some recently described Minerals, 90.—Cristallisations des Grottes de Belgique, W. Prinz, 91.—Minéralogie de la France et de ses Colonies, A. LAcrorx, 92. Natural History—Fungous Diseases of Plants, B. M. Ducear, 92.—British Freshwater Rhizopoda and Heliozoa: Guide to the Genera and Classifica- tion of the North American Orthoptera, S. H. ScuppmR: Nature Study by Grades, H. H. Cummines: The Body and its Defences, F. G. Jewrerr: A Synonymic Catalogue of Orthoptera, W. F. Kirpy, 93.—Catalogue of British Hymenoptera of the Family Chalcidide, C. MortEy: Catalogue of the Noctuidz in the British Museum, G, F. Hampson: Museum of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, 94. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Carnegie Foundation for the Advance- ment of Teaching, 94.—Carnegie Institution of Washington : Publications of the Allegheny Observatory of the University of Pittsburgh, 95. Obituary—WiuiAM PHIPPS BLAKE, 95: GEORGE FREDERIC BARKER: FRANKLIN C. Ropinson: AuGuUST von Mickwitz: Rosert H. Gorpon. lv CONTENTS. Nunober ra 76. Art. VII.—Artificial Lava-Flow and its Spherulitic Crystal- lization, by L..V. Pirsson. (With ‘Plate 1)e- =) s2eeenmod VIII.—Inversion of Temperature Amplitudes and Depart- ures in the United States, by F. H. Biemtow -------.--- 115 IX.—Effect of the Presence of Alkalies in Beryl upon its Optical (Properties, by W. . Porpeeeeasseee= es 1128 X.—-Correlation of the Guadalupian and the Kansas Sections, by J. W. BenpE:. 2 02: ean Dee eee mee a XI.—Application of Potassium Ferricyanide in Alka- line Solution to the Estimation of Vanadium and Chro- mium, by H. KE. Patmar *: 2222 oe eee een seen XII.—Ludwigite from Montana, by W. T. ScuaLiErR.. .--- 146 XIII.—Chemical and Optical Study of a Labradorite, by W...E. Borp and W. M. BrApinveteese eee 151 XIV.—Halley’s Comet, by G F. Cuampurs...----------- 154 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Geology—Cement Resources of Virginia west of the Blue Ridge, R. S. Bass- LER : Proposed Groups of Pennsylvanian Rocks of Hastern Oklahoma, C. N. Goutp, D. W. OnerRn and L. L. Hurcaison: Yorkshire Type Ammon- ites, S. S. Buckman, 197. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Physical and Commercial Geography ; A Study of Certain Conditions of Commerce, H. E. GRecory, A. G. KELLER and A, L. Bisnop: Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, C. G. Hop- Kins, 158—Publications of the Smithsonian Institution, 160. Obituary—JOHANN GOTTFRIED GALLE: Dr. CHARLES ABIATHAR Watts, 160 CONTENTS. Number Ire, Art. XV.—Use of the Grating in Interferometry, by C. | SVASAUIS) «Ay 8 a Sg XVI.-—Fox Hills Sandstone and Lance Formation (‘“Ceratops Beds”) in South Dakota, North Dakota and Eastern Pyayomunie bi LW Wis STANTONG 2 eee tis wee oh XVII.—New Occurrence of Hydrogiobertite, by R.C. WEtis XVIII.—New Occurrence of Plumbojarosite, by W. F. Hirus- BEANDIAUOUE aH WW RIGHT, 22s 5 Lei ete XIX.—Heat of Formation of the Oxides of Cobalt and Nickel ; and sixth paper on the Heat of Combination of Acidic Oxides with Sodium Oxide ; by W. G. Mrxtzr XX.—Mosesite,a New Mercury Mineral from Terlingua, Texas, by F. A. Canrreip, W. F. Hitiesranp, and W. I AS GUSANILEE TEARS Ae ko ae a ee A Oe XXI.—Researches upon the Complexity of Tellurium, by Vere EcepR UN Te wege ery le eg Aa ele. Sn ae | amine XXII.—Gravimetric Estimation of Vanadium as Silver Vanadate, by P. E. Brownine and H. E. Paumer ---- XXITI.—Brachiopod genus ea in the Devonian of MAScOUTInO NE ©. SCHUCH MRT em teen Bere. 2 Suc Crore HREDERIC) BARKER 22. sone 292222) 225852 fons ee Page 193 220 225 vi CONTENTS. Number 178. Page Arr. XXIV.—Nature of the Ionization Produced by a Rays; by FY. E.Wismerocm) 2. .2: ra aici ahaa te et ee ea 233 XXV.—Geology of the Serra do Mulato, State of Bahia, Brazil byw. C; BRANNES) 220 2225 2.2.25 ee 256 XXVI.—Australian Meteorite; by L. L. Smira ---..--..-- 264 XXVII.—Cambrian Conglomerate of Ripton in Vermont; byaelaiN Dam Sao See cee ace tae eee , 267 XXVIII.—Some Tests upon the Synthetic Sapphires of Ver- newils by, A.D PMOSES [el poe thee er are eee 271 XXIX.—Cretaceous Lycopodium; by E. W. Brerry-.---..- 275 XXX.—New Units in Aero-physics; by A. McApim_.-..-- 277 XXXI.—Gageite, a New Mineral from Franklin, New Jersey: by A. Ho Paimnnips 2 tees eee So eee 28: SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, Chemistry and Physics—Carbon Monosulphide, J. Dewar and H. O. Jonss, 285.—Action of Carbon-Tetrachloride upon heated Anhydrides, Oxides, and several Minerals, CAMBOULIVES: New Method for Separating Tin and Antimony, FiscHer and TureLtn, 286.—Manufacture of Ethyl Alcohol from Sawdust, A. CLASSEN, 287. Geology and Natural History—California Earthquake of April 18, 1906 ; The Mechanics of the Earthquake, H. F. Rerp, 287.—West Virginia Geo- logical Survey, G. P. GrimsLEY : Supplementary Investigation in 1909 of the Earth and Isostasy, J. F. Hayrorp, 290.—Gold Hill Mining District of North Carolina, F. B. Lanny, 291.—University of Illinois Bulletin : New Bureau of Mines of the United States Geological Survey, 292.—Hvolu- tion and Function of Living Purposive Matter, N. C. Macnamara : Dis- cussion on the Origin of Vertebrates, 293.—The Vegetable Proteins, T. B. OspornE: The Science and Philosophy of the Organism, H. Drimscu, 294. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—British Association for the Advance- ment of Science, 294.—Carnegie Institution of Washington: Les Theories Modernes du Soliel, J. Bostpr, 295.—Celestial Hjectamenta, H. WILDE: Elementary Dynamics for Students of Engineering, KE. S. Ferry, 296. CONTENTS. vii Number 179. Page Art. XXXII.—Pleistocene Glaciation and the Coral Reef Teno nena Deki Ge OAD Wire name ion ok = os eee 297 XXXII. ine obable Identity of Podolite with Dahllite ; by Wi aut OSGHAME RE sea he yore) oso aos 4 oot Oe oe of Stelznerite with Antlerite ; by W. T. ROLY VIO a) 2.-) es ai ee eee ae 311 XXXV.—Hlectromagnetic Emission Theory of Meh 3 by J. USTUINTA Sch Sete A SS a ee ee XXXVI.—Apparent Variations of the Vertical observed at the Cheltenham Magnetic Observatory; by J. E. ESTE ANN Kepner ey ee oes he Daca Seta BOS XXXVII.—Tombador Escarpment in the State of Bahia, Brailedbyae uC.) DRANNDR = ve ooo oes Ue ee eee 335 XXXVIII.—Note on the Age of the Tribes Hill Formation ; Rogen rap ERP CINCO) NID ee Saree are ot er eee eR Se 344 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Metallic Radium, Mme. Curtz and A, DEBIERNE;: Separation of Antimony and Tin by Distillation, W. Prato: Hssentials of Chemistry, R. P. Witutams, 347.—Text-Book ‘of Organic Chemistry, W. A. Noyrs: Allen’s Commercial Organic Analysis, W. A. Davis and S. S. SaptteR: Analytical Chemistry; Volume II, Quantitative Analysis, F. P. TREADWELL: Ozone and Ultra-Violet Light, E. v. Baur, 348.— Influence of Pressure upon the Absorption of Ultra-Red Radiation in Gases, E. v. Banr: Metallic Radium, Mme. Curte: Wireless Telegraphy, Marcon1t; New Alloy: Handbuch der Spectroscopie, H. Kaysrr, 349.— Physical Measurements, A. W. Durr and A. W. HwreLu: Der Lichtbogen als Wechselstromerzeuger, W. WAGNER, 390, Geology and Mineralogy—Diverse Effects of Glaciation on the Cretaceous Clays, A. C. Hawkins, 350.—The Middle Devonian of Ohio, C. R. Sraur- FER : Palzoniscid Fishes from the Albert Shales of New Brunswick, L. M, Lampe: Outlines of Geologic History with especial reference to North America, 354.—Paleontology and the Recapitulation Theory, E. R, Cum- INGS; Ordovician Stromatoporoids, W. A. ParxKs, 355.—Foasil Plants, A, C. Stwarp, 456.—Canada, Department of Mines, 357.—Barbierite, W. T. ScHALLER, 308.—Brief notices of some recently described Minerals, 309.—Les Roches alcalines de Tahiti, A. Lacrorx, 360 viii CONTENTS. Number 180. Page Arr. XXXIX.—Stegosaurus ungulatus Marsh, recently mounted at the Peabody Museum of Yale University ; by B.S. Dumas OW ith Plate Wil) 222s s seen eee 361 XL.—Use of Metallic Potassium in Determining Halogens in Benzol Derivatives; by C. H. Maryotr ._..._.__.- 378 XLI.—New Genus of Peccaries ; by F. B. Loomis .-_..._-- 381 XLIT.—Geology and Topography of the Serra de Jacobina, State of Bahia, Brazil; by J. C. BRannarR --.--- -.-- 385 XLIII.—Indirect Method for Determining Columbium and Tantalum ; by H. W. Foors and R. W. Lanewey .-.-- 393 XLIV.—Note on a Recent Method for Separating Tantalum and Columbium; by H. W. Foors and R. W. Lanetry 401 XLV.—Symmetric Arrangement in the Elements of the Pale- ozoic Platform of North America ; by R. Rumpremann 403 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chenvistry and Physics—Behavior of Metallic Copper towards Gases, Sr1m- VERTS and KrumBHAAR: Diffusion of Crude Petroleum through Fuller’s Earth, Gitpin and Bransky, 412.—Vacuum-tight Seals between Iron and Glass, H. J. 8. Sanp: Structure of Meteoric Alloys, W. GumRTLER ; Lique- faction of Helium, H. K. Ounus, 413.—Photoelectric Fatigue, H. S. ALLEN: New Radiant Emission from the Spark, R. W. Woop: Steriliza- tion by Ultra-Violet Rays, B. Dacumrre, 414.—International Congress of Radiology and Electricity, B. B. Botrwoop, 415. Geology and Natural History—Publications of the United States Geological Survey, 417.—Federal Bureau of Mines, J. A. Hommes: Olenellus and other Genera of the Mesonacide, C. D. Waucort, 419.—Bellerophonkalke yon Oberkrain und ihre Brachiopodenfauna, F. Kossmat and C. Drennr, 420.—Phylogeny of the Felidw, W. D. Marranw, 421.—Beaked Whales of the family Ziphiide in the United States National Museum, IF’. W. TRur: Resurvey of the Maryland-Pennsylvania Boundary part of the Mason and Dixon Line, 422.—Maryland Geological Survey, W. B. CuarK: Report of the Conservation Commission of Maryland for 1908-1909: Preliminary Report on the Geology of the Monarch Mining District, Chaffee County, Col., R. D. Crawrorp: Geology of the Grayback Mining District, Costilla County, Col., 423—Erdbeben ; Eine Hinfithrung in die Erdbebenkunde, W.H. Hozsss: Variations Périodiques des Glaciers, E. BRUcKkNER et E. Muret: Etudes Glaciologiques, Tirol Autrichien, Massif des Grand Rousses, 424.—Beitrage zur Geologie der Samoainseln, I. FREIDLANDER : Artificial Lava Flow and its Spherulitic Crystallization, 425.—Economic Geology, H. Ries, 426.—Ore Deposits of New Mexico; Meteor Crater in Northern Central Arizona, D. M. BarrincEr, 427. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—National Academy of Sciences; Plant Life of Maryland: International Institute of Vulcanology at Naples; Studies in Spiritism, A. KE. Tanner, 430. ‘Obituary.—WiLLiam Henry Brewer, Davin P. PENHALLOw, Otto LUE- DECKE, 431. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE [FOURTH SERIES.] +0 Arr. 1.—TZhe Platinum-Rhodiwm Thermoelement From 0° to 1755°; by Rosprerr Bb. Sosman. CONTENTS : . Introduction and Plan. Seale of Temperatures. . Melting Point of Platinum. . Interpolation. . Relation of Thermal E.M.F. to Composition. . Summary. OSU 09 Wr 1. Introduction and Plan. In two recent papers from this laboratory,* there have been published the results of a revision of the nitrogen thermometer seale from 400° to 1100° and of an extension of the scale to 1550°. The plan of that research was essentially as follows : it consisted, first, in selecting certain fixed thermometric points, usually melting points of metals, and in determining their reproducibility ; second, in making a measurement of the true temperature on the nitrogen scale at or close by one of these fixed points; third, in transferrmg this known temperature by means of a thermoelement over to the fixed point in question. This transference by the thermoelement was necessary because the platinum-rhodium thermometer bulb could not be put directly into melting or solidifying substances at high tempera- tures. A portion of the second papert was taken up with a discussion of the standardization of the platinum-rhodium *Some New Measurements with the Gas Thermometer, A. L. Day and J. K. Clement, this Journal (4), xxvi, 405-463, 1908; The Nitrogen Ther- mometer from Zine to Palladium, A. L. Day and R. B. Sosman, ibid. (4), xxix, 93-161, 1910. + Loc. cit., pp. 121-128, 140, and 147-151. Am. Jour. Scl.—FourtH Srries, VoL. XXX, No. 175.—Juty, 1910. 1 2 Sosman—Platinum-Rhodium Thermoelement. thermoelement. It was shown that the relation of thermal e.m.f. to temperature can be represented over the range studied (400° to 1550°) by two parabolic curves, by means of which temperatures between the standard melting points can be interpolated with an average accuracy of one degree. Since this thermoelement can be conveniently used for the measurement of temperatures beyond 1550°, continuing up to the melting point of the platinum wire at 1755°, it was thought desirable to extend its interpolation curve to cover the region between palladium and platinum (1549°-1755°). In this region the thermoelement is the most accurate means we have for measuring temperatures. Below 300°, on the other hand, the sensitiveness of the platinum-rhodium element is very low compared with the platinum resistance thermometer, the copper-constantan thermoelement, or the mercury thermometer. Nevertheless, it is often convenient to use this element for measurements in the lower range; hence we have in addition determined the course of the thermoelement curve from 0° to 300°. The present paper contains the results of these exten- sions in the form of a table, which has been found very convenient in this laboratory for the thermoelectric measure- ment of all temperatures from 0° to 1775°. In connection with the work on the nitrogen thermometer referred to above, some data were obtained on the thermal electromotive force of rhodium alloys of various compositions, which have been brought together with the few earlier deter- minations that are available, to show the relation of the thermal e.m.f. to the percentage of rhodium in the alloy. 2. Scale of Tenperatures. The melting and boiling points of pure substances form the best basis for the calibration of secondary measuring devices, such as the thermoelement, after these points have once been determined on the gas thermometer. The 0° and 100° points are familiar. In the neighborhood of 200° and 300° the boil- ing points of pure naphthalene and benzophenon were used. The best gas thermometer determinations of these two points, by Callendar and Griffiths,* and by Jaquerod and Wassmer,t differ by 0°26° at 218° and 0°4° at 305°. We have adopted the data of Jaquerod and Wassmer, until further gas thermom- eter measurements shall have brought out the reasons for these differences. The values are 217°68° for naphthalene and 305°44° for benzophenon, at 760™™ pressure. * Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., elxxxii, A, 43-72, 119-157, 1892. + Jour. Chim. Phys., ii, 52-78, 1904. tThe results of Jaquerod and Wassmer have been used as the standard since 1904 by the Research Laboratory of Physical Chemistry at the Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology, in their work on electrical conductivity at high temperatures. Sosman—Platinum-Rhodium Thermoelement. 8 In our revision of the nitrogen scale from zine to palladium,* one measurement was made at the melting point of cadmium, to give an indication of the course of the thermoelement curve. Being only a single measurement, this has not as much weight as the higher temperatures, which were measured under varied conditions. The value obtained was 320:0°. The difference between benzophenon and cadmium, determined with three thermoelements, is 14°9°, which agrees within 0-1° with a similar comparison made at the Bureau of Standards, using a resistance thermometer and different samples of the materials. On the basis of the benzophenon value adopted above, this difference makes the cadmium point 820°3°. We have arbitra- rily connected the two portions of the temperature scale at this point by taking the mean, 320°2°, for cadmium. Since in this region temper atures cannot be conveniently obtained closer than 0-2° with the platinum-rhodium element, the values are abundantly accurate for our present purpose. From zine to palladium, we have used, throughout, the scale of temperatures published in our recent paper.t It should not be overlooked that the value which we have used for zine indicates a lower value for the boiling point of sulphur than the figure 444°5 now in general use. The four independent gas thermometer determinations that have been made of the sulphur point, although agreeing unusually well, are not free from the possibility of errors of several tenths of a degree, and this fact, taken together with the variability in the point itself with different experimental conditions, makes it probable that the absolute value given for the sulphur point is at least no more reliable than the value given below for the zine point. 3. Melting Point of Platinum. For the purpose of interpolating between the melting points of palladium and platinum, it was necessary to determine, on a number of thermoelements, the thermal e.m.f. at the latter temperature. This was done by heating the element up to the melting point of the platinum wire, within a glazed Mar- quardt porcelain tube, in the region of maximum temperature of aresistance furnace. The furnace was of the carbon tube type.{ Carbon monoxide around the outside of the porcelain tube protected the furnace from oxidation, and a current of dry air in the inside prevented contamination of the thermo- element. Both wires of the element were enclosed in Mar- quardt capillaries, leaving only about 2™™ of the platinum exposed next to the junction. It was always this portion that * Loe. cit. + Loe. cit., p. 161. $¢S. A. Tucker, Trans. Amer. Hlectrochem. Soc.. xi, 303, 1907. 4 Sosman—Platinum-Rhodium Thermoelement. melted, the point being marked by a halt of about one minute in the gradual rise in temperature of the element, preceding the formation of a globule and the interruption of the circuit. New Marquardt tubes were used for each deter- mination. Several elements were examined for contamination after the measurement,* and no appreciable amount was found. A vertical section of the furnace is shown in fig. 1. Fig. 1. Lanne: Carborundum os LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL LLY YA pare t TTPO TOTTTET TL Zi Thermoelement Carbon-tube furnace for melting point of platinum. Scale, 1:4. In Table I are given the experimental results. The values are in microvolts, corrected as discussed in the paper already referred to.t The silver point, being about half way between 0° and platinum, is included in order to indicate the general course of the interpolation curve. * Method described in Day and Sosman, loc. cit., p. 116. + Day and Sosman, loc. cit., p. 119. Sosman—Platinum-Rhodium Thermoelement. 5 With these are included the results obtained by other observers with similar ten per cent rhodium alloys. Harker* measured the e.m.f. at the melting point of the platinum wire in a resistance furnace of refractory oxides. Waidner and Burgesst made similar measurements in connection with their optical determination of the melting point. Their figures, being in terms of the United States legal volt (Clark at 15°= 1-484) have been corrected to the true volt (Clark at 15°= 14828). Other investigators (Holborn and Henning,t Nernst and von Wartenberg,§ Holborn and Valentiner|) have measured the ‘melting point of platinum in various ways, but without recording the thermoelectric data. TABLE I,—THERMAL E.M.F. at MeLtrine Point oF PLATINUM. Date No. of Per cent Rhin Silver Platinum Element alloy wire microvolts | microvolts 1910—19 Feb.-__| F 10 9103 18619 24 Feb.__.| F 10 9103 18613 25 Feb..-.} Y 10 | 9139 18695 25 Feb.--.| Z 10 9018 18487 8 Mar._..| J 10 9106 18603 1 Mar.---| LJ 1 1960 3060 15 Apr..--| KJ 0) 6495 12444 2 Mar.---| Lid 15 10375 22303 4 Mar.-_-| lisd 15 10375 22310 1905—Harker___| N.P.L.3 10 (9084) 18580 oe Gel ie eal See Mea lia) 10 (9100) 18693 1907—W. and B.| P2 10 (9024) 18369 us nS P3 10 (9040) 18556 fe = Ss: 10 (8991) 18250 In general, the curves for all the different 10 per cent ele- ments, both our own and those of other observers, are similar in form, and the divergence of each from the mean increases with increasing temperature. In this connection it should be remarked that the e.m.f. at the palladium point (16140 micro- volts) obtained by Holborn and Valentiner with an element whose gold point was 10295, agrees almost exactly with a simi- lar element from our series, with a gold point of 10295 and palladium point of 16143. The disagreement between various observers as to the melting points of these metals i is, then, not so much a matter of purity of metals or accuracy of thermo- electric measurements, as it is of the evaluation of these in terms of the nitrogen thermometer. It is of interest to find what value would be obtained for the melting point of platinum by extrapolating the curves of our * J. A. Harker, Proc. Roy. Soc., lxxvi, A, 285-250, 1905. +C. W. Waidner and G. K. Burgess, Bull. Bur. Standards, iii, 200, 1907. { L. Holborn and F. Henning, Sitzb. Berl, Akad., xii, 311-317, 1905. SW. Nernst and H. von Wartenberg, Ber. deut. Phys. Ges., iv, 48-58, 1906. || L. Holborn and §S. Valentiner, Ann. Phys., xxii, 1-48, 1907. » 6 Sosman—Platinum-Rhodium Thermoelement. own elements, on which we have complete data, using for this purpose the portion of the curve from 1100° to 1550°. A arabola passed through the melting points of copper (1082°6°), diopside (1391°2°) « and palladium (1549: 2°), gives, in the -case of the various 10 per cent elements, values ‘tor platinum from 1748° to 1753°; the 1 per cent alloy gives 1750°-1755° (low sensitiveness) ; the 5 per cent, 1752° 5 and the 15 per cent, 1755°. The mean is 1752°. In the preceding paper it was pointed out* that the avail- able optical determinations of the melting points of palladium and platinum agree very well as to the difference between these two points, although disagreeing as to their absolute value. The mean value of this difference is 206°. Having fixed the palladium point on the nitrogen thermometer, we were able therefore to give the melting point of platinum as 1755° with an estimated accuracy of 3°, The extrapolated value in the preceding paragraph agrees with this figure, 1755°, within the estimated limit of accurac’ IN parallel case to this is found in the values obtained by extrapolating the resistance thermometer above 500°, which come remarkably close to those obtained by the nitrogen thermometer, but which should not on that account be viven equal weight with a real measurement. There is no reason to expect that such extrapolation will give true results, for the downward extrapolation of the thermoelement equation, and likewise of the resistance thermometer,t goes far astray. The extrapolated values given above for platinum should therefore be considered as merely confirmatory, not as having any independent weight, and we have accordingly, in calculating the interpolation curve for the thermoelement from 1550° to 1750°, used our original value of 1755° for platinum.t The summarized temperature scale adopted for present use in this laboratory for the calibration of thermoelements is as follows: Ice, m. p. 0° Water, b. p. se 0° + 0:037 (p—760) Naphthalene, b. p. 17-7° + 0°057 (p-760) Benzophenon, b. p. ay 1° + 0:063 (p-760) Cadmium, m. p. 320°2° Zine, m. p. 418°2° Antimony, m. p. (in CO) 629°2° Silver, m. p. (in CO) 960°0° Gold, m. p. 1062°4° Copper, m. p. (in CO) 1082°6° * Day and Sosman, loc. cit., p. 160. + Travers and Gwyer, Zeitschr. phys. Chem., lii, 487, 1905. t In view of these facts, it is evident that Harker’s figure, 1710°, obtained by extrapolating the curves of a number of platinum-rhodium and _ platin- iridium thermoelements from 1100° up to their melting points, has little or no value as an estimate of the melting point of platinum. Microvolts, Sosman—Platinum-Rhodium Thermoelement. i Diopside, m. p. 1391°2° Nickel, m. p. (in N,) 1452°3° Cobalt, m. p. tin N,) 1489°8° Palladium, m. p. 1549°2° Platinum, m. p. 1755° 4. Interpolation. For interpolation between these points we may use either an empirical equation or series of equations, or we may plot the temperatures and microvolts and draw a smooth curve through the points. The results of one method have no better claim to accuracy than the results of the other, for an empirical equation is essentially nothing but an imaginary curved ruler. A plotted curve on a scale large enough to get the requisite accuracy of reading would, however, take a sheet at least 30 Hie. 21 Temperature. ‘ Deviation of typical thermoelements from standard curve. feet square. But if instead of plotting microvolts directly against degrees, we plot the deviation from the straight line, e=107, the sheet required is reduced to about 3 feet square. If further, we plot the deviations of each element from an arbitrary standard curve, instead of the deviations from a straight line, the usual 50°" x 40™ sheet is ample. The figures of Table II represent such a curve, which lies very close to the actual curve for the standard thermoelement E used in the work on the nitrogen thermometer. It is made up of several parabolas connected by transition curves. The deviations of various other elements, in use in the laboratory, from this standard are plotted in fig. 2. These curves are obtained by plotting the differences between the reading of the element and that of the assumed standard at each calibra- tion point. An example will serve to make clear the method of convert- ing microvolts into degrees with this table and curve. It is 8 Sosman—Platinum-Rhodium Thermoelement. desired to find the temperature corresponding to a reading of 8931 microvolts on element Z. It is evident from the table that the temperature is in the neighborhood of 950°. At about this temperature, element Z reads 92 microvolts below the assumed standard ; adding 92 microvolts to 8931 gives 9023 microvolts as the corresponding standard reading, and this by interpola- - tion in the table gives 952°3°. The tenths, of course, mean little in absolute value; but temperature differences, in case measurements are made with similar elements under similar conditions, can often be obtained to tenths of a degree. The use of this table and deviation-curve avoids the caleu- lation and recalculation of thermoelement curves and the tabu- lation of their readings. If the calibration of an element changes by a few microvolts, the deviation-curve is merely raised or lowered by a corresponding amount. If the value adopted for one of the calibration points is changed, the cor- responding reading in microvolts of the assumed standard is also changed, and all the deviation-curves take a slightly dif- ferent course in the neighborhood of that point. The table and curves make it possible, furthermore, to estimate tempera- tures (with an accuracy of perhaps 5°) with a new thermo- element, by simply calibrating it at, say, two points such as silver and diopside, and thus locating it among the family of deviation-curves. 5. elation of Thermal E. MF. to Composition. In the course of the work on the nitrogen thermometer, the standard 10 per cent elements were compared with elements whose alloy wires contained 1 per cent and 15 per cent rho- dium. The e.m.f. of the 20 per cent alloy, of which the bulb was made, was determined by two methods,* for the purpose of evaluating the differential readings on the nitrogen ther- mometer bulb. To make the series more complete, a 5 per cent alloy was obtained from Heraeus and its readings against pure platinum were compared with the standards. A similar series of comparisons was made in 1892 by Hol- born and Wien,t+t using alloys with 9, 10, 11, 15, 20, 30, 40, and 100 per cent rhodium. This work was done, however, just at the beginning of the careful work of Mylius on the separation of the platinum metals, and the alloys then available were not pure. In the lower percentage alloys, different elements of the same nominal composition gave e.m.f.’s differ- ing by 10 per cent or more, and varying differently with temperature. In the higher percentages, the e.m.f. varies little with the composition, and the results have therefore * Day and Sosman, loc. cit., p. 119. +L. Holborn and W. Wien, Uber die Messung hoher Temperaturen. Ann. Phys., xlvii, 107-134, 1892. TO 1795°, t e Diff. t e 0 300 2315 55 10 | 55 305°4 Benzo. 2365 57 20 112 310 2407 60 30 172 320 2500 62 40 234 320°2 Cd 2502 63 50 297 330 2593 65 60 362 340 2687 67 70 429 350 2781 69 80 498 360 2875 71 90 569 370 2969 72 100 641 & 380 3064 7 110 714 390 3159 i 120 789 400 3254 77 130 866 - 410 3350 7 140 944 A 418'2 Zn 3429 il 150 1023 a 420 3446 160 1103 430 3042 81 170 1184 440 3639 82 180 1266 . 450 3736 8 190 1349 460 3833 84 200 1433 470 3931 85 210 1518 480 4029 2177 Napht. 1584 490 4127 86 220 1604 500 4226 86 230 1690 510 4325 87 240 1777 520 4424 88 250 1865 530 4524 89 260 1954 540 4624 89 270 2043 050 4724 90 280 21383 560 4824 91 290 2224 570 4925 91 Taste II],—Stanparp Curve or Exement Pr: (90 Pr 10 Ra) From 0° Diff. 100 100 100 860 870 Diff. 104 104 104 108 108 110 110 111 TaBLE IIl.—Sranparp CurRvVE or ELEMENT Pr: (90 Pr 10 Ru) From 0° _ To 1755°.—Coneluded. 960'0 Ag 970 980 990 1000 1010 1060 1062-4 Au 1070 1080 10826 1090 1100 1110 Cu e Diff.) ¢ e 8211 1170 11572 111 8822 1180 11692 112 8434 1190 11812 112 8546 1200 11932 112 8658 1210 12052 118 8771 1220 12172 118 8884 1230 12292 113 8997 1240 12412 114 9111 1250 12532 114 9111 1260 12652 9225 1270 12772 114 9339 1280 12892 115 9454 1290 13012 115 9569 1300 13132 116 9685 1310 13252 116 9801 1320 13372 116 9917 1330 13492 117 10034 1340 13612 117 10151 1350 13733 117 10268 1360 13854 118 10296 1370 13975 10386 1380 14095 118 10504 1390 14216 118 10535 13912 Diops. 14231 10622 1400 14337 118 10740 1410 14458 118 10858 1420 14579 119 10977 1430 14699 119 11096 1440 14820 119 11215 1450 14941 119 11334 W523 Ni 14969 119 11458 1460 15062 119 Diff. 120 121 1480 1490 1500 1550 1560 1570 1580 1590 1600 1610 1489'8 Co 0 1549'2 Pd 0 Pt e Diff. 15188 15804: 154283 15425 15546 15666 15787 15908 16029 16140 16150 16491 16512 16632 16753 16873 17093 17113 17288 17353 17473 175938 17713 17833 17953 18073 18193 18313 18433 18553 18613 Sosman—Platinum-Rhodium Thermoelement. 11 some value in indicating the course of the curve of e.m.f. and composition. The data have been corrected to our tempera- ture scale, and also for the difference in e.m.f. standards. Holborn and Day* in 1899 obtained the e.m.f. of pure plat- inum against two samples of pure rhodium up to 1300°. The data have been corrected to correspond to our temperature seale. Waidner and Burgess+ measured the e.m.f. of the 10 per cent against the 20 per cent alloy, using two samples, at vari- ous points up to 1755°. The addition of this value to the e.m.f. of the 10 per cent alloy against pure platinum gives an independent check on our direct measurements with the 20 per cent alloy. As appears on the curves in fig. 4, the agree- ment is very good. TasLe IJ].—THeRMAL E.M.F. oF PurRE PLATINUM AGAINST PLATINUM- RHopIuM ALLOYS, IN MILLIVOLts. 10% t 1% 5% 15% 20% | 380%t | 40%t | 100%§ Low | High rand: ard 100°} 0°21 | 0:55} 0°63) 0°64) 0°64) 0:65) -... | ---. | ---. | 0°65 200 | O42} 1-18) 1°41} 1:43) 4°43) 1:50) ---. | ---. | ---- | 1-51 3800 | 0°68 | 1°85) 2°28) 2°32] 2°32] 2-41) . 2:34 | 2:45) 2:57 400 | 0°84 | 2:53] 3:21) 8:26] 3:25] 3:45] 3:50] 3°50) 3°64] 3°76 500 | 1°05 | 3:22) 4:17) 4:28) 4:23] 4:55) 4:60] 4:74) 4:93] 5:08 600 | 1:25 | 3°92} 5:16] 5°24) 5:23] 5-71) 5°83] 6:06] 6:31) 6°55 700 | 1:45 | 4:62} 6:19| 628) 6:27) 6:94] 718] 7:49] 7:80} 8:14 800 | 1:65 | 5:33) 7:25) 7:35) 7:33] 8:23) 8:60} 9:01 | 9:37] 9°87 900 | 1°85 | 6:05} 8°35} 8:46] 8:48] 9:57) 10°09 | 10°67 | 11:09 | 11°74 1000 | 2:05 | 6:79| 9:47] 9-60) 9:57 | 10-96 | 11°65 | 12°42 | 12-94 | 13°74 1100 | 2:25 | 7-53 | 10°64 | 10°77 | 10°74 | 12-40 | 18°29 | 14°33 | 14:99 | 15:87 1200 | 2°45 | 8:29 | 11:82 | 11:97 ; 11:98 | 13-87 | 14:96 | 16:39 | 17:13 | 18:10 1800 | 2°65 | 9-06 | 18:02 | 18-18 | 18:13 | 15:38 | 16°65 | 18°51 | 19-51 | 20°46 1400 | 2°86 | 9°82 | 14:22 | 14°39 | 14°34 | 16-89 | 18°39 | 20°67 | 21°73 | ___- 1500 | 3:06 | 10°56 | 15°48 | 15-61 | 15°55 | 18-41 | 20715} ____| ____]| ---. 1600 | 3°26 | 11:31 | 16°63 | 16°82 | 16°75 | 19-94 | 21:90} .__] ___. | —-_- 1700 | 3:46 | 12:05 | 17:83 | 18:08 | 17°95 | 21-47 | 23°65 | ---_] .--. | ---- 1755 | 3°56 | 12°44 | 18°49 | 18-70 | 18: 61] 22°31 | 24:55 | ____] --.. |] --_- The summarized data are given in Table III. For the 10 per cent alloy three values are given: first, the lowest-reading of the twelve elements used with the nitrogen. thermometer; second, the highest-reading ; and third, the standard element E. The frequent comparisons of the platinum and rhodium wires of the standard 10 per cent elements during the work on the nitrogen thermometer, show that the differences among *Thermoelectricity in Certain Metals, this Journal (4), viii, 303-8, 1899 ; Ann. Phys. (4), ii, 522, 1900; Sitzb. Berl. Akad., xxxvi, 691-5, 1899. + Bur. Bull. Standards, iii, 200, 1907. : { Holborn and Wien, 1892, loc. cit. $ Holborn and Day, mean value, 1899, loc. cit. 12 Sosman—Platinum-Rhodium Thermoclement. them are due partly to the platinum wire and partly to the alloy. Element Z, for instance, reads lower than E chiefly because the platinum wire of Z, is more impure than that of E; the effect of this impurity is partly neutralized by an apparently larger amount of rhodium in the alloy wire. This appears from the data in the table below, which show com- parisons between several typical 10 per cent elements. The purest platinum appears to be that of J. If the thermoelec- tric effect of rhodium is proportional to its percentage from 0 to 1 per cent, then about 0°05 per cent rhodium in the plati- num wire would be sufficient to produce the difference between Zand E. The data are in microvolts. E.M.F. of Pt E.M.F. of Rh Difference wire against Pt wire against Rh between , Element of E at 1500° of E at 1500° elements Worccese.s + 12 +75 + 63 ie a) es Re eT T HT +67 —110 bo NOR an gt + 75 +47 — 28 1 Se eget eh SEY} + 1 — 6 Jee eee. — 9 +1 + 10 The data of Table III are plotted in fig. 3, which shows the relation between temperature and thermal e.m.f. for various alloys. The 30 per cent and 40 per cent curves represent the data of Holborn and Wien. The curve for pure rhodium represents the mean of the two samples of Holborn and Day. There is no indication of a break in any of the curves, over the entire range of temperature. In fig. 4 the data of Table III are plotted to show the rela- tion of the thermal e.m.f. at various constant temperatures to the composition of the alloy wire, the cold junction being in every case at 0°. At all temperatures the e.m.f. increases very rapidly with the first additions of rhodium, and at 20 per cent the value has already reached 81 to 93 per cent of the e.m.f. of platinum against pure rhodium. The thermoelectric power, or rate of change of e.m.f. with de > dit? tration of the alloy. The values are in microvolts, against pure platinum. The curves for all temperatures are similar in form and approach the curve for 1755° as an envelope. In a recent study of the thermoelectric properties at low temperatures of the alloys of tellurium with antimony, tin, and bismuth, and of antimony with silver, Haken* comes to the conclusion that a thermoelectric curve of the form of those in fig. 5 accompanies the formation of a solid solution between the end components, while compounds are marked by sharp maxima or minima. The thermoelectric curves of the systems * Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges., xii, 229-39, 1910. temperature is plotted in fig. 5 against the atomic concen- Thermal Hlectromotive Force — Millivolts. Sosman—Platinum-Rhodium Thermoelement. 13 Fie. 3. : [ee [ peer a1 neo egoe. 20 | - Sal eae wenn 19 hae ar 18 poaah GA ora GI LE 17 = 16 18 SE 14 Se ea A 13 of ary a cae Fee) «o/ « 12 }——}> S 2 1 10 ol | 3 ——- Bes 5 8 + SS 3 = 5 ast 3 Viet 2 — Baan a 100° 200° 300° 400° 500" 600° 700° 800° 900° 1000" 1100" 1200° 1300° 1400" 15007 1600" 1700" 1785~ Temperature. Relation of temperature to thermal electromotive force of platinum against platinum-rhodium alloys. SS Sosman—Platinum-Rhodium Thermoelement. 14 “UOT}IsOduIOD OLUIO}B 0} | 2p jo uoyRray ‘soe UINIpoy-wnuye]d Fo WoIs ap 3 ‘minuyeld ysurese 1aMod oL1yoeje0m10q4 -oduroo 03 ‘a “eor0F GATZOMMOAYOITO [BUIIEYY FO WOLyBley ook 06 08 OL 09 O Ove OCm Oca O} IS eae 2d ao Wain P¥ W0q/oH ssebing pur 1euprom hog pus ws0qjoy UDUISOS Sosman —Platinum-Rhodium Thermoelement. 15 copper-cobalt, by Reichardt ;* copper-nickel, by Feussner and Lindeck ; + and silver-zine, by Puschin and Maximenko,t show a similar relationship between the form of the curve and the constitution of the alloy. The alloys of platinum and rhodium have not been studied microscopically or thermally, but measurements in our carbon- tube furnace showed that the melting points of the 1 per cent and 5 per cent alloys are higher than 1755°. The melting point of the 10 per cent alloy is given by von Wartenberg § as 1830°, and of pure rhodium as 1940°. It is very probable, therefore, that platinum and rhodium form solid solutions at least as far as 55 atomic per cent rhodium, with no compounds, over the range of temperature covered by the data. 6. Summary. 1. In continuation of the recent work from the Geophysical Laboratory on the nitrogen thermometer from zine to palla- dium the interpolation curve of the thermoelement Pt: (90 Pt 10Rh) has been extended downward to 0° and upward to the melting point of platinum, 1755°. The standard scale of temperatures adopted is given on page 6. 2. The value of the melting point of platinum obtained by extrapolation of the curves of thermoelements with from 1 to 15 per cent rhodium confirms the value 1755° within the esti- mated limit of 5°. 3. A simple method of interpolating temperatures with the 10 per cent thermoelement by means of a standard curve (Table II, p. 9) and deviation curves (p. 7) is described. 4, The variation of thermal e.m.f. with the temperature and composition of the alloy wire is shown graphically in figs. 3 and 4, pages 13 and 14. The variation, both with temperature and with composition, is, within the limits of error, continuous over the entire range studied. de ” dt perature and composition of alloys of platinum and rhodium, is shown graphically in fig. 5, page 14. The data indicate the formation of solid solutions, but no compounds, from 0 to 55 atomic per cent of rhodium. 5. The variation of thermoelectric power, —, with the tem- Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D. C., April 30, 1910. * Ann. Phys, (4), vi, 882-55, 1901. + Wiss. Abb. Phys.-Tech. Reichsanst., ii, 1895. ¢ Jour. Russ. Phys. Chem. Ges., xli, 500-524, 1909. § Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges., xii, 121-127, 1910. 16) OW. EB. Ford—Remarkable Twins of Atacamite. Arr. I1.—On some Remarkable Twins of Atacamite and on some other Copper Minerals from Oollahurasi, Tara- paca, Chii; by W. E: Forp. Some time ago a suite of copper minerals from Collahurasi, Chili, was pr esented to the Brush Collection by Mr. Ernest Schernikow of New York City. They included the following rare species: atacamite, brochantite, olivenite, clinoclasite, and conichalcite. The atacamite and the brochantite occurred in erystals and in considerable quantity, so that they offered excellent opportunities for investigation. Atacamite.—This mineral was found in crystalline masses made up for the most part of quite small crystals, but at times Hire. 1. Fie. 2. Fic. 3. showing individuals four or five millimeters in length. These crystals on examination proved to be unusually interesting. The forms present were few, being m (110), # (140), 6 (010), e(011), r(111) and 7 (121). The majority of the crystals showed only the brachypinacoid, unit prism, and dome, illus- trated in figure 1. The pyramids 7 and m and the prism « were only observed on a few individuals and then only as small truncations, as shown in figure 2. The interest in the crystals lay, however, in the constant and unusual twinning that they showed. The law of twinning is new to atacamite and in some ways proved very puzzling and difficult to explain, but — — W. BE. Ford—Remarkable Twins of Atacamite. 17 the close agreement between the measured and calculated angles, as shown in the tables below, leaves no doubt that it has at least been correctly formulated. The law of twinning may be stated as follows: One of the e planes of the twin individual is always parallel to one of the ¢ faces of the individual in normal position. This is readily seen on inspection of the erystals, for one brachydome face of the twin always “flashes” with one of the dome faces of the nor- mal individual. Further, the twinned individual has been turned on the pole to ¢(011) as if on a twinning axis through such an angle that the second ¢ face of the twin falls in the prism zone of the crystal in normal position. These relations can be best explained by use of figure 3, drawn, not from a Fie. 4. crystal, but rather to illustrate the law. Face e of the crystal in twin position (No. II) is parallel to e of the individual in _normal position (No. I), while e’ of No. II falls in the same zone as the prism and pinacoid faces of the vertical crystal. These facts were proven when the twin crystals were placed upon the reflection goniometer. The signals from the e faces of the two individuals coincided with each other, and the sig- nal from ¢’ of No. II fell in the same zone as the prism faces of No. I. This was found to be true on all the crystals meas- ured, with only such slight variations as the occasional rather Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH SERIES, VOL. XXX, No. 175.—Juty, 1910. 2 18 W. &. Ford—Remarkable Twins of Atacamite. | indifferent quality of the faces could easily account for. The relations existing between the two individuals is shown in the stereographic projection, figure 4. In order to bring the two individuals into their respective positions, i. e., e’ of No. II into the prism zone of No. I, we have to conceive of individual No. II as being turned about the pole of ¢(011) as an axis through an are of 112° 40’. This is the fact that makes these twins unusual and difficult to ex- plain. The are of revolution of a twin crystal about a twinning axis is usually 180° or sometimes 120°. On account of this peculiarity we cannot consider, at least in the usual sense, either the plane e, although it is common to the two individuals, as a twinning plane nor its pole as a twinning axis. The plane whose pole is lettered P on the stereographic projection, and which is shown as the plane of junction of the two individuals in figure 3, would answer to the ordinary definition for a twin- ning plane. The twinned half of the erystal could be obtained from the normal half by reflection over this plane, as is shown in the stereographic projection, for upon a great circle drawn from any face of individual No I through the pole P will be found at an equal angular distance on the other side of P, the cor- responding face of the twinned individual, No. If. But this plane P does not correspond in its position to any erystal face on atacamite, falling nearest to the possible pyramid (475). The proof of the law of twinning as stated lies in the follow- ing tables of measured and calculated angles. The erystals were measured on both the two-circle and one-circle goniom- eters, the angles obtained on each being given. 1. Angles measured on the two-circle goniometer giving the position of the faces of the twin individual. Faces Measured Calculated of Ce ee —————— Ta a F No. II 0) Average p Average @ p € Be 85/6) 36— 50). | 37 S16" 136°) 50! OO Pa Oe toads 26 a | 36 24 | Eu 162° 290'* | S07 eo 63. 1 Oe ORAS Sen Seis OMe. cary 62 12 62° 46 90 21 r NO a G2 wb Or 0) Gor 22) | 89 24 J Ti 28 joe!) Ste oilges | BP ee Way 192.00) No ASM age) 94h gon eee aeNs f 3 laa 12a 38) 2) W. £. Ford—Remarkable Twins of Atacamite. 19 Faces Measured Calculated fe oo aa =) No. II () Average p Average ) p m' 47° 45'* | 83° Bon) 47 38 | 84 8 | Aay 25 | 46° 31! 83 46 46 20 \ 82 58 , S30 49 47-847 081’ 46 31 | 85 Diet| 46 Bo || 84 54 | 46 12 J 84 2 J ° 1% ° ! b Be oe t 80° 29’ tee ue t AG Bi BIG EP ay: 2. Angles measured on a one-circle goniometer between faces of individuals I and II. Measured Average Calculated ‘e' of No. I A é' of No. I 106° 24' | 105 54 | ° ! ° ! 106 23 r 106° 11 106° 10 106) 3515) m of No. I a é’ of No. II 5° 44’ \ 6 20 (eo) fo} 1/ Bide r 5° 58 5° 534 5. BB a) "of No. LAm" of No. II 10° 39’ ) Wh in f ° ' ° 1 10 49 f 11 1 10° 57 Hi 1a m of No.l A m" of No. IL 67° 563’ | 67° 58 64° 54! (clo a a MO INOa IA, TO! OH INO AUT GS) US Set Aa Me eae. gue yf 76° 29 76 50 | The above tables give all the measured angles on the differ- ent crystals without regard to the quality of the faces and the consequent authority of the angles. In general, however, the average values of the angles of the different series are reason- ably close to the calculated angles. In the case of the table of the measurements made on the two-circle goniometer the angle, derived from the measurement of the best crystal and the one which permitted of the most accurate adjustment on the goniometer, is given first in each list and is further marked by an asterisk, The agreement between these angles and the corresponding theoretical values is quite close. The widest variation between the measured and the calculated angles is to be found in the case of the faces in the prism zone, and with 20 W. E. Ford—Remarkable Twins of Atacamite. these faces particularly in the case of the ¢ angles. This is a result to be expected from the usual rather poor quality of the prism faces and from the fact that they are frequently verti- cally striated. It will be noticed that in the case of the one-circle goniom- eter measurements the agreement between the measured and the calculated angles is much closer and in general is very satis- factory. This is as would be expected, since with these small erystals having not the best of faces the adjustment of a crys- tal upon the two-cirele goniometer is difficult and can only be approximate at the best, vand consequently the angles measured upon it have not as oveat an authority as those made upon the one-circle instrument where the adjustment is made for each measurement. Considering, however, all the measurements, their agreement with the theoretical angles is sufficiently exact to prove without doubt that the law of “twinning has been cor- rectly stated. The author does not know of any case of twinning strictly analogous to the one outlined above, and he does not offer any elaborate explanation or theory to account for the peculiarities shown by these twins. An interesting and probably significant fact is that, when in twin position, the faces of individual No. I lie for the most part within a few degrees, at least, of the faces of the normal individual, No. I. This is clearly brought out in the stereographic pr ojection, figure 4, where Z of No. IL lies near m of No. 1; m’’ of II near m/” of IER aoe Ore JUL saver C0 i and yO sok Il falls near the macrodome zone of I. It would seem here as if we had a case of twinning in which the position of the twin individual was controlled rather by parallelism of a prominent face and by zonal relations between the two individuals than by the presence of a common twin- ning plane or axis. The plane P, which if a possible crystal plane would be considered as the twinning plane, may be reyarded as a composition or accommodation plane similar in a way to the rhombic section found in the plagioclase feld- spars when they twin according to the pericline law. That all regular intergrowths of crystals do not obey the ordinary laws of twinning has been recognized for some time.* These intergrowths are not accidental in character, but obey laws that can be definitely formulated; they are to be found repeatedly on different specimens and must be included in any complete discussion of twinning. Goldschmidt has recently attempted to include these unusual intergrowths in a new clas- sification of twins and has given various names to the new groups he has formed, such as “ Heterozwillinge,” ‘ Kin- * See Goldschmidt, Zs. Kr, xxx, 254, 1898; xliii, 347, 1907. W. B. Ford—Remarkable Twins of Atacamite. 21 flichige Verwachsung,” “ Einzonige Verwachsung.”’* It is to be expected, as attention is called to these twins of lower symmetry, that more examples will be discovered and still other groups formed. In fact the twins described in this paper do not seem to exactly fit into any of the groups in Goldschmidt’s scheme, resembling most nearly, however, his group of “hetero-twins.” A hetero-twin of orthoclase recently described by Paul and Goldschmidt+ is in some respects sim- ilar to these twins of atacamite. The law governing the ortho- clase twin is stated as follows: the face c(001) of No. II is parallel with (010) of No. I; the zone ¢(001)-m (110) of No. II corresponds with zone 6 (010)-c (001) of No. I, and face 6(010) of No. II falls in the zone c(001)-y (201) of No. 1. Here we have in the two individuals a parallelism of two unlike faces, two unlike zones falling together and a prom- inent face of one individual falling in a prominent zone of the other. In the case of the atacamite twins we have, on the other hand, two similar faces in parallel position and a promi- nent face on No. II lying in a prominent zone of No. I, and a Broa the faces of No. II lying near to faces or zones of 0. Fie. 5. Fie. 6. Fie. 7.» oe As A i oY The twin crystals are of two types. The first, which is illus- trated in figures 5 to 7, is of an interpenetration type where one individual grows through another or projects from it. Usually in this type one individual is much larger than the other, and the smaller is seen in the group of faces at one of its ends projecting from the side of the first. Such a crystal is shown in figure 5. Of such an intergrowth there can be two sorts, depending upon whether the twin individual has been turned toward the front or the back of the one in normal position. Figure 6 shows such a twin with No. II projecting from the back of No. I. These twins appear sometimes in very complex groups, one individual being twinned upon the first, a third being in twin position in regard to the second, ete. Such * Zs, Ky., xliii, 582, 1907. +Zs. Kr., xlv, 471, 1909. 22 W. £. Ford—Remarkable Twins of Atacamite. a complex group is represented in figure 7, No. II being in twin position in respect to No. I, while No. III is in twin osition in respect to No. II, e of III being parallel to e’ of I, ete. The second type of twin crystals, although governed by the same law, is very different in habit. It consists-of a normal indi- vidual having a rather stout development, with its dome faces Fie. 8. at either end nearly if not entirely covered by four individuals in twin position. Two of these twin individuals have one of their e faces parallel to one of the planes of the crystal in normal posi- tion, one twin being revolved toward the front and the other toward the back. The other two twin individuals have a similar relationship and arrangement except one of their e¢ faces is par- allel to the second ¢ face of the normal crystal. These twinned individuals usually show only the faces of the prism and the brachypinacoid, which, lying on the top of the normal crystal, form shallow troughs running in the direction of the brachy- axis on either side above the position of its dome faces. Occa- sionally e faces of the twins are found either at the side forming a projection over b(010) of the normal crystal or sometimes in slight reéntrant angles along the crest of the crystal. These relations are shown on the stereographic projection, figure 8, which gives the forms of the crystal in normal position and the prism and pinacoid faces of the four different twin posi- W. EF. Ford—Remarkable Twins of Atacamite. 28 tions, II, III, 1V, and V. A erystal of this type is illustrated in figure 9, where the four twin individuals do not entirely cover up the dome faces of the normal crystal. This figure also shows the e face common to twins IV and V above the d face of the normal crystal. At times the faces in twin position completely envelope the ends of the normal crystal, allowing only the faces of its prism zone to show. A doubly terminated crystal of this type is shown in figure 10. Figure 11 is the same as figure 10 with the lines of the back faces showing in order to assist in forming a mental picture of these strange twin groups. In addition to groups such as figured there are much more complicated ones in which both types of twins are found with bewildering relations to each other. Fie. 9. Fie. 10. Fie. 11. An analysis was made of the atacamite crystals which agreed closely with the theoretical composition of the mineral as shown below. : Theory (ONS = 5 Ae epee ee ace 16°55 16°6 CU eS ne ye VB 14°82 14:9 CuO eee sae oe se 56:01 55'8 ERO etree Se 2 VORGO 12°7 if Och cee Le a a ee 100:07 100°0 24 W. £. Ford—Remarkable Twins of Atacamite. Brochantite.—Brochantite was the most common mineral observed on the specimens. It occurs generally in slender prismatic crystals that interlace and cross each other to form granular crystalline masses. Occasionally a erys- Fie. 12. tal with good faces was observed that could be measured. The following forms were identified : 6 (010), m (110), (120), “and v(101), and their characteristic development is shown in figure 12. In addition to this type of occurrence, brochant- ite was observed in very slender, almost capillary, prisms arranged in radiating tufts on the surface of the gangue material. With its transparent, bright green color, this variety makes very strik- ing and beautiful specimens. A quantitative analysis of these slender crystals was carried far enough to establish their identity with brochant- ite. An analysis of the type of material first deseribed was carried to completion. The ma- terial analyzed was of ideal purity, and the results agree very closely with the theoretical values. The results of the analysis follow : m\m| 7 I II Average Theory CoOres Eo ee 70°41 70°16 . 70°29 70°37 SO a Foe 17°51 17°59 17°54 = 17°69 Fie Reem 11°91 12°01 11°96 11°94 99°79 100:00 Olivenite occurs on the specimens as slender to acicular pris- matic erystals of light to dark olive-green color. The mineral gave the appropriate tests for olivenite, and one erystal was found which had terminal planes sufficiently good to permit of decisive measurements being made. The prism zone of the crystals was always deeply striated, and terminal planes were only rarely observed. Clinoclasite was observed on only a few specimens, and then in microscopic crystals. It was identified by its blue-black color and the blowpipe tests that it gave. Conichalcite was found very sparingly in the characteristic emerald-green glob- ular form. Other copper minerals in small amount were observed, some of which could not be positively identified with any known species but which occurred in too small an amount to permit of investigation. Mineralogical Laboratory of the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University, New Haven, Conn., February, 1910. L. V. Pirsson—Crustal Warping in Ontario. 25 Arr. I1.—Crustal Warping in the Temagami-Temiska- ming District, Ontario; by L. V. Pirsson.* Tue gradual rising of the great Ontarian shield, upon whose southwestern flank the great lakes are being slowly tilted to the southwestward, presents a geologic problem of primary importance. We may reasonably expect that fuller knowledge concerning it will throw much light on secular continental movements. This tilting and the various phenomena to which it has given rise have been the subjects of study by various geologists, par- ticularly Gilbert and Taylor, whose results have been published in a notable series of articles.. The latter has especially studied the sequence of events arising along the north shores of the Great Lakes from their southward canting, and, in his paper on the former Lake Algonquin stage of the lakesystem, he presents a map upon which the node lines, or axes of tilting, are given.t It is of great importance that this work should be carried to the northward, and especially to the northeast, so that ulti- mately the crest and extent of the rising shield may be deter- mined. So far not much work in this direction has been undertaken with this object in view, and in this brief paper the writer desires to point out a region whose topographic features appear to offer much of interest and significance in connection with this matter. His attention was first called to it in the summer of 1907, on a visit to the mining region of Cobalt, during which Lake Temagami was traversed and Lake Temiskaming and the Ottawa valley descended. No detailed studies were carried out, but the observations made en route on journeys lasting a couple of weeks in this area aroused his interest in it, and this has been deepened by a study of what has been written upon it, and especially by the excellent report and geologic maps of Barlow{ and of the Provincial geologists on the mining district. The facts given in this article are taken mostly from these sources, supplemented in a few cases ’ by original observations. Lake Temiskaming.—This lake is nearly 70 miles long from the point where the River des Quinzes enters it to the outlet at the head of the Long Sault Rapids. While in the upper por- tion it is several miles wide, this width soon diminishes and the greater part of the lower portion is not over a mile broad, or is even less; in some stretches it is not wider than the Ottawa River to which it gives rise. There is a difference of water * Abstract of a paper given before the Yale Geological Club, April, 1909. { F. B. Taylor, Amer, Geol., vol. xv, p. 116, 1895. ft Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. of Can., vol. x, 1897, Rep. I. 26 Pirsson—Crustal Warping in the level between the head and foot, at times, of one or two feet and this gives a distinct current through the lake, which at the narrower constrictions becomes quite pronounced. The gen- eral direction of the lake is south-southeast. | While the upper part of the valley oceupied by the lake is more open, the greater part, where the lake is narrow, is a deep trench cut in the gneisses of the old upland. Thus from the shores rise Fie. 1. A; DES QUINZES ’ 2 & 12 Ig SCALE INMILES ron > = = gS) Drainage map of the Temagami—-Temiskaming Region. abruptly bold rocky hills with heights ranging from 350 to 600 feet, which in many places pass into towering cliffs. ‘Thus the aspect of the lake is like that of a fiord, and it is in truth a miniature Saguenay. At the same time, considering its nar- rowness, the lake is remarkably deep. From the Opemika Narrows at the point marked A on the map, Barlow found that the depth gradually increased until it reached 470 feet near the mouth of the Kipiwa* River. This is near the middle of * This name is spelled in a variety of ways ; even on the same official map more than one appears. The spelling selected seems the simplest and to express the sounds as the inhabitants pronounce it; the writer, however, disclaims any attempt to fix usage. Temagami-Temiskaming District, Ontario. 27 the lake; from here it gradually shallows and opposite the mouth of Montreal River is 350 feet deep. At the point B on the map, old Fort Narrows, there is a very marked contrac- tion, owing to a heavy deposit of sand and gravel in the trench at this place. The depth on this is perhaps 50 feet and the lake again deepens to the north but does not reach the great depths of the lower part. It is also to be noted that where these great depths were obtained it was not only in the middle of the channel but close up to either shore. From what has been stated it will be seen that the total depth of the trench, or rather canyon occupied by the lake, from the surface of the old upland to the lake bottom, is about 1000 feet at the deepest point. shallowing gradually either way, north and south. At the deepest point the former can- yon is about one-half filled with water. What is the origin of this lake? For one of its size and nature in this region three possibilities present themselves : it may be a rock basin cut by the ice sheet ; it may be a river valley dammed by glacial drift, or it may be a warped valley. In regard to the first, since the general direction of flow of the ice sheet was toward the southwest or more accurately S. 14° W., as given by Barlow, it is inconceivable that it could have cut such a deep and narrow gorge transverse to its direction of flow. Barlow’s list of glacial striz shows, as might be expected, that in the upper, wider portion of the lake valley the topography exercised enough control to produce an undercurrent in the ice, trending to the southeast. As the valley contracts this becomes less evident and the western bank, with striz in the direction of southwest flow, shows it was receiving the impact of the general moving ice sheet. In such a narrow, constricted gorge the local sub-current might be expected to die out, the trench would become packed with nearly motionless ice, up to the average level of the plateau, which would support the ice-sheet moving transversely across it. It seems improbable, therefore, not only that the basin was cut by the ice, but even that the pre-glacial valley was to any great extent deepened by its scour. The general appearance of the gorge, and the lack of truncated spurs, seems also to indicate no great amount of glacial control of its topography. It probably existed pretty much as it is to-day before the advent of the continental ice-sheet. The explanation of a morainal dam also seems improbable when one considers the depth of the lake, the fact that the deepest part is not near the outlet but near the middle, and the character of the river bed below the outlet. There is no direct evidence of such a dam, and, as Barlow* remarks of the river * Loe. cit. p. 171. 28 L. V. Pirsson—Crustal Warping in the bed below the outlet: “ Very little rock in sztw can now be seen, although it is evident from the topography that the detri- tus was deposited in a pre-existing shallow narrows.” Even were it admitted that the valley was dammed with glacial drift to a depth of 500 feet at this point, there would still be a rock barrier at the Mountain Rapids at the foot of the next stretch of still water, known as Seven League Lake, whose surface is about 50 feet lower than that of the main lake above, and which discharges down a rapids obstructed by rocky reefs and islets. Thus, even if a morainal dam exists of the great depth postulated, it can only be regarded as a secondary affair, form- ing a sort of facing on the downward slope toward the lake center of the bed-rock barrier beneath and giving at the most a height of some extra 50 feet to the lake.’ It is not intended, of course, to deny in this that morainal deposits may not lie on the floor of the old canyon. They probably do, and the real rock floor may lie considerably deeper than the present bottom of the lake. At old Fort Narrows (B, on map) the gorge in large part is filled with a glacial deposit nearly choking the pre-existing narrows at this point. This very probably represents material accumu- lated by the local southeastward sub-glacial current in the ice which would be checked at this point. Only, as Barlow re- marks, it could not have been originally much greater than it is now since on the down-stream side it slopes off with great sharpness to the depths of the lake. If it once projected some- what above the present lake surface it was rapidly cut away until a grade was established between the two parts of the lake, and since then no great change in it has occurred. The first two hypotheses of lake origin having been consid- ered and dismissed there remains the third, and-it now seems fairly evident that the lake represents a pre-glacial canyon which, by down-warping in its middle part, has become flooded. The total amount of down warp may be roughly estimated to be as much as 500 feet in the center of a distance of 50 miles in a general north to northwest and south to southeast direction. Lake Kipiwa.—tt such down-warping has occurred, it can scarcely be supposed that the immediate region wonld not be affected by it and the other drainages and lakes should show evidences of it. While not enough is known of those geologic features of the area which would offer decisive evidence on this point, there are some facts which appear to favorit. Thus Lake Kipiwa is so near to Lake Temiskaming and parallels it for such a distance that it should also be affected. It has not been seen by the writer, but Barlow describes it as filling several valleys parallel in a general way to Lake Temiskaming. These, like Temiskaming, cut across the general direction of Temagami-Temiskaming District, Ontario. 29 foliation of the gneissic rocks. The depth of the lake is not known. It has at present two outlets, the natural one by the Kipiwa River at the north end, and an artificial one produced by adam at the outlet of the lake into the Kipiwa river and by the blasting away of the crest of a low rocky barrier by the lumbermen which causes the lake to discharge by Gordon’s Creek into Temiskaming at the point marked “ Outlet” on the map. Thus it would appear as if the canting of the lake to the north by the down warp had left the old outlet dry and caused it to seek a new one by the Kipiwa River. The latter, as it enters Temiskaming, is a swift, foaming torrent which plunges down over the rocks into the main lake at a point where the latter is nearly 400 feet deep, without entering through any distinct valley. As one sees it, it appears to have all the marks of topographic youth. Lake Temagami.—This lake, some 40 miles to the west of Temiskaming, is also a many branched valley system which has been flooded and which discharges by two natural outlets, one at the north, the other at the south end. Neither of these has been seen by the writer, but from what he has been able to learn it is inferred that both are over rock rims. The greatest depth of the lake obtained by sounding near the central west shore is about 170 feet. The double outlet in connection with the warped character of the Temiskaming canyon is very sug- gestive, but since the direction of the axial line of the warped trough, as it would pass westward from Temiskaming, is not known, it may pass through Temagami Lake, or to the north, or south of it. In the first case the valley system would be flooded, and former water-work on shores near the central part would be drowned ; if either of the latter two, the lake would have been canted north or south respectively and wave-work, such as beaches or sea-cliffs, would be elevated at the north or south ends. It should also not be forgotten that as the lake has many arms, some of them may have served as a former outlet and have been choked by a moraine dam which has caused the flooding and overflow elsewhere of the valley system. ‘These are points which can only be settled by a care- ful study of its entire shore line, and it offers an attractive problem for investigation. Drainage System.—In this connection attention is also directed to the remarkable drainage plan of the region (fig. 1). It is impossible to see it and avoid the conviction that there has been a distinct control in its production by rock structure. What is here evident on a small scale map is also striking on the large scale one of the mining district prepared by Miller.* This feature of the region has been previously commented *14th Ann. Rep. Bureau of Mines, Ontario, 1905, 30 L. V. Pirsson—Crustal Warping in the upon. Bell,* in noting the course of Lake Temiskaming, sug- gests that it follows the course of a great dike which has been eroded ; a suggestion which Barlow’s geological map shows to be untenable. Hobbs,t in a short paper on fracture systems, briefly alludes to this drainage plan and gives a map of a part of the area showing its peculiar nature. He attributes it to joints. Miller} gives a more extended discussion of the systems of lines, and states that it is impossible to tell whether they fol- low faults or folds. A study of Barlow’s geologic maps of the Nipissing and Temiskaming sheets shows that these depressional lines of drainage are independent of the distribution of the rocks. The Montreal River, which holds a straight course through gray- wacke, slate, quartzite, and diabase, is a striking example of this. In a few cases, however, as plotted on the map, they appear to lie over the contact of formations. A consideration of the strike, especially of the planes of foliation of the gneissic areas, shows that they sometimes follow it, but just as often, and especially in the larger depressions, cut directly across it. Either the drainage plan is directly conditioned by the present rock structures, or it is one that has been inherited ; that is to say, it is superimposed upon the present surface by overlying formations, which once existed but have now disappeared. It is true that a remnant of an overlying formation, generally attributed to the Niagara, is found at the north end of Lake Temiskaming, but to restore this over the whole region would not only involve great improbabilities but would in itself give no explanation, for we should still have to account for the con- ditions in such an overlying series which would initiate such a drainage. It is also difficult to see how simple folding could produce such a rectangular net-work. On the whole, as sug- gested by Hobbs and Miller, it seems most probable that a sys- tem of nearly right-angled jointing and faulting has initiated planes of structural weakness through the region, which the streams have taken advantage of, and which has therefore exer- cised a directive control over them. While, as Miller remarks, it is difficult to directly prove this, since such lines of weakness in rock structure, or of displacement, are now for the most part covered by lakes, streams, and swamps, yet some corroborative evidence may be gleaned from Barlow’s report where the jointed character of the rocks along the Montreal River is men- tioned, and in one place of the direction of these joints as deter- mining the course of the river.§ Many more such instances should be found when the region is more closely studied. * Bull. Geol. Soc. America, vol. v, p. 365, 1894. + Trans. Wise. Acad. Sci., vol. xv, p. 19, 1905. tRep. of the Bureau of Mines, Ontario, vol. xvi, pt. ii, 1907, p. 36. § Loe. cit., p. 224. Temagami-Temiskaming District, Ontario. 31 If it be admitted that the drainage system is the outward revelation of an inward one of rock-fracturing, weakness, and probably to some extent displacement, then the network ap- pears like the result of Daubrée’s experiment on the induction of jointing by torsional warping.* It would seem natural to refer the lakes in part to minor warps or displacements of pre- existent channels along these lines of weakness, although in part they are probably due to morainal dams and to glacial scour. Time of Warping.—lf such warping with fracturing has taken place, the questions naturally arise as to when it occurred and if it is still continuing. The region has, as yet, not been studied in sufficient detail, with such questions in mind, to afford decisive answers. Some facts there are, however, which have a bearing on these points. Thus Millert points out that the mineral veins follow closely the same systems as the water courses, and the deduction from this must follow that they are either contemporaneous or later than the formation of the frac- ture system. But the silver veins have been glaciated and con- sequently the fracture system is pre-glacial. Miller indeed refers it to post-middle Huronian time, this view being based on the hypothesis that the deposition of the ores was the result of the intrusions of diabase which are referred to this period. But inspection of the maps shows that the larger elements of the fracture systems, as indicated by the drainage lines, pass through these diabases as well as the older rocks. HC1+ CO, + C,H,OH. Preparation of Hsters.—The methyl and ethyl acetates were prepared in part by the method of Phelps{ and in part by the method of Thomsen. The propyl and isobutyl acetates were prepared by acting with acetyl chloride on the corresponding alcohol. This reaction is rapid and practically quantitative. The halogen substituted esters were generally prepared by the action of chloracetyl chloride and bromacetyl bromide on an alcohol. The methyl and ethyl esters of chor- acetic acid, however, were prepared from chloracetic acid and alcohol by the method of Thomsen. The mixture of esters with the excess of acid and alcohol was neutralized with Na,CO, and diluted by pouring into a large volume of water. The layers formed were separated and the ester was washed with water, dried over CaCl, and fractionated. The part boil- ing within 0°1° to 0°3° of the boiling point given in the litera- ture was taken for the experiments. The halogen substituted acetic esters are pungent com- pounds. When perfectly pure they are not disagreeable, but after hydrolysis or before purification their vapors are very irritating to the eyes and mucous membrane. As the vapors of the impure ester contain excess of acid and the mixture of acid and alcohol after hydrolysis have the same effect on the eyes, * This point will be investigated by the authors. + Ostwald, Zeitschr. phys. Chem., iii, 418. } This Journal, xxiii, 368, 1907. ; § Thomsen’s Thermochemische Untersuchungen, iv, 201. T4 Drushel and Hili—Esters of Halogen Substituted Acids, this action is probably due to the presence of the halogen- substituted acetic acid. The Thermostat.—The thermostat used. is cylindrical in form, about 380 inches deep and 33 inches in diameter. It is built of tinned copper and covered with a half-inch layer of felt. It is supported on a heavy iron plate with a twelve-inch hole in the center. This plate rests on legs about eight inches above the floor so that one or more burners may be placed beneath. A coil of lead-pipe around the inner wall about half- way up, conducting steam or cold water, aids in rapidly chang- THERMO-REGULATOR. A and B, toluol; C and D, mercury ; E, alcohol. ing the temperature. For instance, when it is necessary to change from a temperature of 25° to one of 40° this pipe is connected with a steam pipe and steam heat is utilized. On the other hand, a slow stream of cold water enables one to work at a temperature below that of the room. When working at high temperatures the thermostat is covered with asbestos board to prevent radiation of heat from the large surface. The thermo-regulator is of special pattern and allows the temperature to be changed at will. This apparatus, shown in the accompanying cut, consists of a vertical cylindrical bulb of 400°" capacity filled with toluol. To the top of this bulb Drushel and HMil—Esters of Halogen Substituted Acids. T5 two tubes are sealed. These curve downward for about six inches, then upward above the top of the toluol bulb, the downward portion consisting of 8"" glass tubing and the upward portion of heavy capillary tubing. To the upper end of one of the capillary tubes is sealed a elass-stopper ed bulb hav- ing a stopcock. A platinum wire is sealed into the other above the level of the water in the thermostat. To the upper end of this capillary tube is sealed an enlarged tube closed with a two-holed rubber stopper carrying an adjustable elec- trode terminating in a platinum wire. These electrodes are connected with a gas regulator of the Hahn type.* Mercury fills both capillaries and a portion of each of the larger tubes connecting the capillaries with the toluol bulb, the mercury columns being so adjusted that their weights balance each other, thereby preventing leakage of toluol at the stopcock. The tube with the adjustable electrode is filled with alcohol to prevent sparking. When it is desired to change the tempera- ture of the thermostat, all that is necessary to set the thermo- regulator is to open the stopcock of the bulb to allow the toluol to pass through and close it again when the proper temperature is reached. The final adjustment is made by raising or lowering the electrode by turning the screw. A Beckmann’s thermometer, graduated to 0-01", is set and clamped in the thermostat to indicate the temperature. Stirring is effected by means of a two-flanged stirrer mounted on ball- bearings and driven by a low speed motor, which is in series with the gas regulator and in parallel with a resistance. Rotary stirring is prevented by a rectangular copper plate fixed near the bottom of the thermostat and so placed as to direct the current upwards. The temperature can be main- tained constant within +0-01° C. Procedure.—In the case of the esters readily soluble in N/20 acid the amount required to make up a N/20 solution was weighed out in a small flask and dissolved in 250° of the acid used which had previously been warmed in the thermo- stat to the temperature at which we were working. The mixture was then poured into pressure flasks and these were submerged in the thermostat to within an inch of their mouths. At first Erlenmeyer flasks of about 500° capacity were used, but there was always more or less variation in concentration due to evaporation into the space above the solution and condensation on the colder upper surfaces of the flask. The smaller flasks had less vacant space and being well submerged condensation was prevented to a great extent. At regular intervals a 25°™* portion of the reaction mixture was withdrawn with a pipette and run into about 100% of * Zeitschr. phys. Chem., xliv, 525. 76 Drushel and Hill—Esters of Halogen Substituted Acids. cold distilled water in a 300° flask. The pipette was allowed to drain 40 seconds and the time at the end of this period was recorded. As soon as possible the mixture was titrated with N/10 Ba(OH), with phenolphthalein as an indicator. The end titrations were made on the contents of one of the flasks, usually after the lapse of a week. In the case of the less soluble esters a longer period was necessary before equilibrium was reached. Where N/20 solutions of the esters could not be prepared, saturated solutions were used. These were prepared by adding an excess of ester to the acid solution previously brought to the required temperature in the thermostat. After shaking vigorously for a few seconds the solution was rapidly filtered through a dry filter paper into pressure flasks and placed in the thermostat. This method was adopted to give a homogeneous mixture during hydrolysis. In Table I are given results of individual experiments. Table II is a summary of the results obtained; the values of K given are averages of values for each experiment. Léwen- herz’s and deHemptinne’s results calculated for 25° and N/20 acid are also found in Table II. Both used the formula : ] 3 4 3 ; k= 7 x log where ¢ represents time in 5-minute units, AS 2 A represents initial concentration of the ester. and A—~w is concentration at the end of ¢ X 5 minutes. Lowenherz worked at 40° and deHemptinne at 25°; both used N/10 hydrochloric acid as a catalyzer. Therefore in calculating the former’s results for 25° and N/20 hydrochloric acid, the following formula was used : where K is the velocity constant for 25° and N/20 acid with one-minute time units, 2°3 is the factor to transform to natural logarithms, 3°8 is the coefficient for the temperature change 25° to 40° N/10 acid as found by Lowenherz. Throughout our work the formula K=""x log (T, — %) — log (T,— T,), which is the same formula expressed in terms of titrations, has been used. We have, however, expressed time in one-minute units and multiplied by 2°3 to convert ordinary logarithms to natural logarithms. Lowenherz found experimentally that the temperature coefficient of N/10 hydrochloric acid for the change from 25° to 40° is 3°8. To obtain this he determined the reaction velocity constant for the same ester at 25° and at 40° and divided the Drushel and Hiti—Esters of Halogen Substituted Acids. TT latter by the former. In the same way we determined the coetticient for N/20 hydrochloric acid for the temperature change: from 25° to 85° and found it.to be 2:0. For N/20 hydrobromie acid it has been found to be 1:7. For the range 25° to 40° hydrochloric has a coefficient of 3:0. These coeffici- ents have been used in calculating some of the results for Table I. On inspection of this table it will be seen that the rate of hydrolysis is lowered to a.marked extent by the introduction of one atom of halogen, the chlorine substituted esters having the lowest rate. The contents of the acetates, chloracetates and bromacetates are to each other as 33: 21: 25. Apparently the most favorable conditions for hydrolysis exist when both base and acid are weak.* In the hydrolysis of the acetic esters we have such conditions, for the alcohols are weak bases and acetic acid is a weak acid, giving a relatively large constant. Chloracetic acid is a stronger acid and the rate of hydrolysis is correspondingly lower. Bromacetic acid is not so strong as chloracetic but much stronger than acetic acid} and its esters are found to have constants slightly larger than those of the chloracetic esters but smaller than those of the acetic esters. The nature of the alcohol seems to have little effect on the rate of hydrolysis. TaBLe I, Methyl Bromacetate Methyl Acetate Methyl Chloracetate 10°x K 10° x K 10°x K 25° and ‘(05N HBr 25° and ‘(0ON HCl 25° and :06N HCl I II 33'8 25°8 26-4 24:7 29-5 27-0 26-6 25°3 33°5 25:2 26°2 24°6 33°50 27-0 25°5 33°2 30°0 Mean 33:0 Mean 26'3 26°0 —Mean— 24'8 Ethyl Acetate I II Ethyl Chloracetate Ethyl Bromacetate 25° and 40° and 25° and 25° and ‘05N HBr ‘OON HCl 123N HCl ‘094N HCl I II 30°1 248° 39°8 24°4 23°6 28:0 224: 30°0 23°1 24°6 30°3 272" 36°2 23'8 23°83 31°5 229° 40°8 29°3 38°9 29°8 —Mean— 243° Mean 38°9 23°8 —Mean— 23°8 * Nernst, Theoretical Chemistry, p. 521. + By inversion of cane sugar Ostwald found acetic acid has value of ‘004 and chloracetic acid ‘048 that of hydrochloric acid. From determinations of affinity constants he found that chloracetic and bromacetic acids have values near to cach other, viz., 0°155 and 0188. See Jour. prakt. Chem. (2), xxix, 385, 1884. Also Zeitschr. phys. Chem., iii, 418. 78 Drushel and Hill—Esters of Halogen Substituted Acids. Propyl Acetate Propyl Chloracetate Propyl Bromacetate I II I II I II 40° and 40° and 25° and 40° and 25° and 40° and *123N HCl ‘O8N HCl ‘0O5N HCl ‘O8N HCl ‘OSN HBr ‘08N HBr 220° 201° 20°4 93:0 26°9 134° 239: 160° 18°6 99:0 26°9 110° 228° 160° 19°5 92.0 25°3 22°9 229° —-Mean- 173° 20°7 —Mean-— 95:0 26°3 —Mean- 122° Isobutyl Acetate Isobutyl Chloraéetate Isobutyl Bromacetate I II I II I Il 25° and 25° and 25° and 35° and 25° and 35° and ‘066N HCl -066N HCl -05N HCl ‘05N HCl ‘OSN HBr ‘05N HBr 44°3 46°7 22°5 43°5 25°4 41°3 44-8 - 43°5 20°3 43°5 22°5 40°9 42°1 43°8 21°4 42°6 26°3 40°3 45°0 43°4 21°2 41°6 24.0 42°4 44:4 44:5 21°6 45:1 26°0 40°7 ; — — 24:0 40°7 | 43°5 —Mean- 44°3 21-4 -Mean-— 43°3 — 24:7 —Mean-— 41:2 TABLE II. Mean values of Table I calculated for 25° and N/20 acid. Mean of Methyl Ethyl Propyl Isobutyl series 10° K 10° K 10° K 10° K 10° K Acetate 33°2 80°3 31°0 32°8 32°6 35:0 32:9 34:0 33°4 33°3* 33°7* 33°4* Monochlor- 20:1 21°3 20°7 21°4 20°8 Acetate 21°8+ 199+ 18)-7 21°4 Monobrom- 26:0 24°8 26°3 24:7 25-0 Acetate 24°8 24°4 25:0 24:7 * Calculated from deHemptinne’s work; Zeitschr. f. phys. Chem., xiii, 561. + Calculated from Léwenherz’s work: Zeitschr. f. phys. Chem., xv, 397. Summary. 1. The esters of monochlor- and monobromacetic acid show no tendency to decompose with liberation of halogen in aque- ous solutions of hydrochloric and hydrobromic acid. Esters of iodine substituted acetic acid in hydriodic acid solution liberate iodine either from the acid set free or from the ester itself. 2. The rate of hydrolysis depending chiefly on the nature of the acid in the ester, is lowered by introduction of halogen in the acid. The acetic, chloracetic, and bromacetic esters of the same alcohol have constants which are in the ratio 33: 21: 25. The esters of the different alcohols and any one acid differ but little in the velocity of this acid hydrolysis reaction.* 3. The temperature coefficient for -05N hydrochloric acid used as a catalyzer for the temperature interval of 25° to 35° is 20; for 25° to 40° it is 3°0; for -05N hydrobromic acid it j is 1-7 for the interval of 25° to 35°, * This has been shown also by the work of Julius Meyer and others, see Zeitschr. phys. Chem., lxvi, 81-125. Chemistry and Physics. 79 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. Curmistry AND Purysics. 1. A Quantitative Reagent for Iron and Copper.—In recent years various organic products have come into use as reagents for precipitating metals in quantitative analysis. One of the latest of these is nitroso-phenyl-hydroxylamine, C,H,N(NO)OH, introduced by Baudisch for the precipitation of ferric iron and copper. The ammonium salt of this base is an article of com- merce under the name “ Kupferron.” Brirrz and Héprxs have put the reagent to test and have obtained very satisfactory results. In the precipitation of iron a large amount of acid, either hydrochloric, sulphuric or acetic, may be present ; even 20°° of concentrated hydrochlorie acid in 100° of solution does no harm. The reagent was used in 6 per cent solution, being added at room temperature with stirring. The end of the pre- cipitation is readily observed by the formation of a white precipi- tate of the base itself following the reddish brown iron precipitate. It is recommended to use an excess of about a fifth of the reagent. After 15-20 minutes the precipitate may be filtered on paper, preferably with suction, washed with water at room temperature until the acid is removed, then with strongly ammoniacal water to remove the excess of reagent, and then again with water. he ignition requires some care to prevent loss. Excellent results ‘were obtained in this way in the determination of iron in the presence of aluminium, nickel, and chromium, where in extreme cases as much as 50 parts of each of these metals to 1 part of iron were present. The fact that these separations can be made makes the method a valuable one. For the determination of copper with this reagent a large excess of mineral acid is to be avoided, and acetic acid appears to be best. Otherwise the operation is the same as for ferric iron, except that the excess of reagent was removed with 1 per cent sodium carbonate solution. Good results were obtained in sepa- rating copper from 10 parts of zinc using acetic acid solution, but for the separation of copper from cadmium it was found necessary to use dilute mineral acid solution. Attempts to sepa- rate iron and copper by precipitating both together and dissolv- ing out the copper compound on the filter with ammonia gave slightly high results for the iron. As far as the experiments have gone, it appears that iron and copper cannot be separated from silver, mercury, lead or tin, as these metals are also precipitated.—Zeztschr. anorg. Chem., |\xvi, 426, H. L. W. 2. The Detection and Determination of Very Minute Quanti- ties of Silver.—The estimation of very small quantities of silver is of importance particularly in connection with atomic weight 80 Scientific Intelligence. determinations, where it is necessary to take into account even the amount of silver chloride dissolved in cold water. G. 8. Wnuirsy of the Royal College of Science, in London, has found a very delicate reaction for this purpose, which consists in adding sodium hydroxide and an organic substance, preferably cane sugar, to the silver solution and heating. He takes 50° of the liquid, adds a drop of rather strong sugar solution, places the 150° beaker containing the liquid in a boiling water bath for 2 minutes, then adds 6 drops of a normal solution of sodium hydroxide, and heats for 20 or 30 seconds longer. The yellow color produced, which appears to be due to colloidal silver, is now put into a Nessler tube and compared with colors produced in the same way from known amounts of silver. The colors are accurately proportional to the quantities of silver present, and in this way it is possible to determine 0:000002 o. of the metal in 50°, or 0:00004 g. in a liter. The author considers the delicacy of the reaction to be about the same as that of the nephelometer method of Richards and Wells, but he thinks that it is more easily and quickly carried out, and involves no complications.— Zeitschr. anorg. Chem., \xvii. H. L. W. _ 38. Beryllium Formates.—It has been found by 8. Tanrar that when beryllium carbonate is dissolved in an excess of formic acid the normal formate Be(CHO,), is formed, which is stable upon evaporating the liquid even at a temperature of 100-110°C. This behavior is entirely different from that of the acetate, pro- pionate and isobutterate, which are all basic salts correspond- ing to the acetate Be,O(C,H,O,),, even when anhydrous acids are employed and the evaporation is carried out at a low tempera- ature, and in order to obtain normal salts of these acids it is nec- essary to heat the basic salts in sealed tubes with mixtures of the anhydrous acids and their anhydrides. The normal formate, however, is partly hydrolized with the formation of a basic salt upon boiling with water, and when the dry salt is heated under a diminished pressure of 30-35™™ decomposition takes place and the basic salt Be,O(CHO,), sublimes. Another organic salt of beryllium is thus added to the list of its remarkable compounds which volatilize without decomposition. This basic salt was pre- pared in another way, by boiling a solution of the normal formate with the calculated quantity of the carbontate.— Berichte, xliii, 1230. H. L. W. 4, A Recalculation of the Atomic Weights ; by Frank Wice- GLESWORTH CLARKE. 8vo, pp. 548. Washington, 1910. Pub- lished by the Smithsonian Institution. This is the third edition, revised and enlarged, of Dr. Clarke’s well-known work, which first appeared in 1882. There is no doubt that the previous editions, in making manifest the imper- fections of many of the data, and in pointing out in what direc- tion new work was needed, have had a most important influence upon recent activity in atomic weight research. This recent work has been so extensive and important, particularly that of Chemistry and Physics. 81 Richards and his pupils, that the present edition has been made necessary. The clear view that this book gives of all atomic weight investigations, and the impression given of the most laborious calculations and the most painstaking conclusions, are its important features. The author has followed his original plan of subject- ing all the data, unless they are clearly defective, to a mathemati- cal treatment according to their probable errors. In this treat- ment most of the older work has practically no influence upon the final results, although in some instances older work seems to have too great an effect upon modern work that is probably freer from constant errors. It is probable that Dr. Clarke’s method must be abandoned eventually in favor of using only the most accurate modern results in calculating the atomic weights, but more work appears to be needed before this can be accomplished satisfactorily. In any case the present work is most useful and important. H. L. W. 5. Pressure of Light on Gases.—PxrTER LEBEDEW calls atten- tion to a paper by J. Kepler, “De Cometis Auguste Vindeli- corum, 1619,” in which the author comes to the conclusion that the repulsion of comets’ tails by the sun is due to a pressure exercised by the light rays. Lebedew also discusses a paper of Fitzgerald, who working on Maxwell’s well-known calculation of light pressure, calculated the magnitude of this pressure on the supposition that each gas molecule behaved like an absolutely black sphere under light pressure as black spheres of much larger dimensions. Lebedew quotes recent investigators to show that no restrictions are necessary to the theory that the gas molecule behaves as an absolutely black body, and he proceeds to measure the effect of light pressure, which Kepler was the first to predict—which Maxwell calculated—which Lebedew showed by investigation, and which Arrhenius has made the basis of a wide generalization i in cosmical physics. The results of Lebedew’s investigation are as follows : (1.) The existence of the pressure of light on gas is shown experimentally. (2.) The pressures are directly proportional to the quantity of energy impinging and to the absorption coefficients of the gas. (3.) ) Within the faults of observation Fitzgerald’s contentions are shown to be true.—Ann. der Physik, No. 7, 1910, pp. 411- 437. vege 6. Coherers.—Dr. W. H. Eccies examines the subject of coherers, mathematically and experimentally, and puts forward the hypothesis that the properties of an oxide coherer “‘ may arise solely from the temperature variations caused in the minute mass of oxide at the contact by the electrical oscillations and by the applied e.m.f.— Phil. Mag., June, 1910, pp. 869-888. au 7. Measurement of High Pressure.—The Reichanstalt at Char- lottenburg continues its work on the measurement of pressure by Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtH Serius, Vout. XXX, No. 175.—Juxy, 1910. 6 82 Scientific Intelligence. the change of resistance in manganine wire under pressure. The measurements show that the change is a linear one up to the limit employed, that of 800k,/em*. Dr. Bridgeman has shown in the Jefferson Physical Laboratory that the change is linear up to 11,000 atmospheres.—Zeitschrift fiir Instrumentenkunde, May, 1910, p. 154. Dende 8. Radiochemistry ; by A. T. Cammron. Pp. viii, 174, with 3 portraits and 15 figures. London, 1910 (J. M. Dent & Sons).— The author says in his preface : “The book is intended to be of use to those who, having some knowledge of chemistry and physics, wish to know accurately the facts and theories of the subject at the present time ; it is also intended as an introduction for others who wish to master the subject in its entirety.” After having read the book through carefully the reviewer has been unable to avoid the unpleasant conclusion that the author has distinctly failed to attain the ideals set forth in the preceding quotation. A few, typical illustrations may serve to justify this adverse criticism. In the first place, the book contains many errors in physics: On pages 17 and 90 the incorrect formule At —At ; eT /lL=e ” and “v,/0,=e .”, occur respectively. The former equation leads to “2 =e ee (page 18), which means that a negative time is required for the activity to fall to half value. The accepted definition of the direction of an electrical current is violated on page 22. On page 26 the following remarkable sentence may be found: “The secondary rays, occa- sionally called 8-rays, also travel in straight lines, and otherwise obey the light laws, but are deflected by a magnetic field.” On page 94 we read: “ Ultraviolet light (7. ¢., electrons) decomposes WioUe lon tae ee ” On the other hand, the book abounds in infelici- ties of expression which may be charitably ascribed to careless proof-reading. H. S. U. 9. Acht Vorlesungungen tiber Theoretische Physik ; von Dr. Max Prancx. Pp. 127. Leipzig, 1910 (8. Hirzel).—These lec- tures by the distinguished professor of theoretical physics in the University of Berlin were given at Columbia University last year. The first two lectures deal with the fundamental distinction between reversible and irreversible processes, and with the appli- cation of thermodynamics to dilute solutions. The third and fourth lectures are devoted to the atomic theory of matter and to the connection between this theory and the empirical princi- ples of thermodynamics. In the two following lectures the - theory of “black-body radiation” is developed ; this is a sub- ject in which Planck was a pioneer and these two lectures con- tain a masterly presentation of a very difficult problem and of the progress which has been made toward its solution. In the seventh lecture, the general application of the Principle of Least Action to all reversible phenomena is discussed ; and the last lec- ture contains a very clear and enthusiastic exposition of Hin- stein’s Principle of Relativity. All the lectures are marked by Geology and Mineralogy. 83 the lucidity and conciseness which are characteristic of the author. They form an admirable résumé of the present state of theoretical physics and will be read with pleasure and profit by any student of the science. There is perhaps a tendency toward dogmatism in regard to the philosophical interpretation of cer- tain results; but the class of readers to whom the book is addressed will have a sufficiently wide knowledge of the subject to escape the danger of overlooking other points of view. H. A. B, 10. Lhe National Physical Laboratory. Report for the Year 1909. 103 pp., with 2 plates. Teddington, 1910 (W. F. Parrott). —The annual report of the British Standards Laboratory gives evidence of the excellent character of the work which is being done there. The organization of the laboratory embraces five departments : Physics, Engineering, Metallurgy, the Richmond Observatory, and the Eskdalemuir Observatory. Brief reports are given of the work accomplished during 1909 by each depart- ment, and of their plans for 1910. An interesting feature is the steady development of international coéperation with the Bureau of Standards and the Geophysical Laboratory at Washington, with the German Reichsanstalt, and other national laboratories. H. A. B. II. Gwronrogy ann Mineraroey. 1. United States Geological Survey ; Guorce Oris Situ, Director.—Recent publications of the U. 8. Geological Survey are noted in the following list (continued from xxix, pp. 363-365): Torograpnic ATLAS.—Forty-two sheets. Forios.—No. 170. Mercersburg—Chambersburg Folio, Penn- sylvania; by Gzorce W. Srosr. Pp. 19, with 18 figures, one chart, and 3 colored maps. No. 173. Laramie-Sherman Folio; by N. H. Darton, Evrot BiackweE.per, and C. EK, Srepenraayu. Pp. 17, with 7 colored maps and 11 figures. Butietins.—No. 398. Geology and Oil Resources of the Coalinga District, California; by RatpH Arnotp and Rosertr ANDERSON. With a Report on the Chemical and Physical Proper- ties of the Oils; by Irvine C. Atten. Pp. 354, 52 plates, 9 figures. No. 406. Preliminary Report on the McKittrick-Sunset Oil Region, Kern and San Luis Obispo Counties, California; by Rate ARNotp and Harry R. Jounson. Pp. 225, 5 plates, 2 figures. ; No, 407. Geology and Ore Deposits of the Bullfrog District, Nevada; by F. L. Ranson, W. H. Emmons, and G. H. Garrey. Pp. 130, 14 plates, 20 figures. No. 415. Coal Fields of Northwestern Colorado and North- eastern Utah ; by Horr 8. Gaur. Pp. 265, 22 plates, 8 figures. No. 417. Mineral Resources of the Nabesna—White River District, Alaska ; by F. H. Morrir and Avoten Knorr. With 84 Scientific Intelligence. A Section on the Quaternary ; by S. R. Carrs. Pp. 64, 5 plates, 3 figures. : No. 419. Analysis of Rocks and Minerals from the Laboratory of the United States Geological Survey, 1880 to 1908 ; tabulated by F. W. Crarke. Pp. xii, 323, No. 420. Economic Geology of the Feldspar Deposits of the United States; by Epson 8. Bastin. Pp. 85, 4 plates. No. 422. The Analysis of Silicate and Carbonate Rocks: A Revision of Bulletin 305 ; by W. F. Hititesrand. Pp. 239, 27 figures. No. 428. Tbe Purchase of Coal by the Government under Specifications, with Analyses of Coal delivered for the Fiscal Year 1908-9 ; by Gxorcx 8. Porr. Pp. 80, 8 tables. No. 430. Advance Chapters from Contributions to Economic Geology—A. Gold and Silver; by J. M. Hitt, F. L. Hiss, D. F. MacDonatp and J. T. Parper—B. Part I. Copper ; by LL. C. Graton, H. 8. Gat, and G. W. Srosz. Pp. 66, 5 figures—C. Lead and zine; by L. J. PeppErsERc—E. Iron and manganese; by HK. C. Harper, J. L. Ricu, A. C. Spencer, and Sipney Paice. Pp. 56, 1 plate, 4 figures—G. Mineral Paints; by J. C. Sropparp, A. C. Catuen, F. T. Acre and J. L. Dynan—I. Salines; by C. L. Brecer and A. R. Scuvrrz. Water Suppriy Paprrs.—No. 236. The Quality of Surface Waters in the United States. Part I—Analyses of Waters east of the one hundredth meridian ; by R. B. Dotx. Pp. 123. Nos. 241-249. Surface Water Supply of the United States, 1907-8. Prepared under the direction of M. O. Lerauton. No. 241, Part I. North Atlantic Coast; by H. K. Barrows and R. H. Botsrer. Pp. 356, 6 plates. No, 243. Part III. Ohio River Basin; by A. H. Horton, M. R. Harz, and R. H. Boxster. Pp. 224, 4 plates, 1 tigure. No. 244. Part IV. St. Lawrence River Basin ; by H. K. Barrows, A. H. Horron, and R. H. Borsrer. Pp. 163, 7 plates, 1 figure. No. 245. Part V. Upper Missis- sippi River and Hudson Bay Basins; by A. H. Horron, E. F. Cuanpier, and R. H. Boxster. Pp. 133, 5 plates, 1 figure. No. 247. Part VII. Lower Mississippi Basin; by W. B. Freeman, W. A. Lamp and R. H. Botster. No. 248. Part VIII. Western Gulf of Mexico; by W. B. Freeman, W. A. Lams, and R. H. Botsrer. Pp. 171, 4 plates, 1 figure. No. 249. Part IX. Colorado River Basin ; by W. B. Freeman and R. H. Borsrer. Pp. 206, 10 plates. 2. Illinois Geological Survey. Bulletin No. 13, The Missis- sippi Valley between Savanna and Davenport; by J. Ernest Carman. Pp. xi, 85; 23 plates, 26 figures and map. Univer- sity of Illinois, Urbana, 1909.—This is another of the excellent educational bulletins issued by the Illinois Survey. While the object of the bulletin is to give a detailed account of the strati- graphy, physiography and glacial geology of this part of the Mississippi Valley, it should attract readers beyond the state because of the clear way in which the accepted views regarding glaciation, and particularly eolian sand and loess, are discussed. Geology and Mineralogy. 85 Bulletin No. 14, Year-Book for 1908; H. Fosrmr Bary, Director. Pp. viii, 386, 5 plates, 5 figures. —The Illinois Survey continues to do a large amount of eftective work as indicated by its publications and its plans for the future. Its organization, including the geological section, topographic section, and drainage section, is admirably designed to meet the particular needs of the state. Furthermore, desire to prevent duplication of work is indicated by the fact that the Survey is in active codperation with the United States Geological Survey, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, the State Water Survey, the Internal _ Improvement Commission, the State Conservation Commission, as well as with the University of Illinois and Augustana College. The request for an increase in the annual appropriation from $25,000 to $35,000 is certainly justified by the work accomplished. The important classes of work undertaken by the Geological Section are: The study of drill records in connection with stratigraphic work under the direction of Weller, Savage and others, with a view to ultimately making a structural map of the state ; a study of the coal fields preliminary to detailed mapping ; investigation of Portland cement material including clays and shales. The fact that Illinois ranks second in coal production explains the need for stratigraphic and structural work; and the large importation of Portland cement justifies care in investigat- ing local resources. The Topographic Section in codperation with the Geological Survey has mapped 4366 square miles, leaving, however, a large part of the state, 47,847 square miles, still to be covered. The Drainage Section is devoting its attention chiefly to an examina- tion of “bottom lands” because at the present time 90 per cent of these lands are unprotected from floods, and it is estimated that $100,000,000 would be added to farm values of the state if these lands could be reclaimed. Seven special reports are included in this bulletin. H. E. G. 3. Northern Territory of South Australia: North and East- ern Coasts. Report of Geological Reconnaissance from Van Dieman Gulf to the McArthur River, ete., made by the Govern- ment Geologist in 1907, by H. Y. L. Brown. Government Geologist. Pp. 12, with map. Adelaide, 1909.—Continuing the exploration carried on during 1905, Mr. Brown explored in a pre- liminary way the region along the North Australian Coast line from Van Dieman Gulf to Melville Bay. This region is practi- cally unknown scientifically, a fact which justifies the inclusion of notes regarding the condition of the natives, the character of the coast line, the fauna, flora and climate of the region as well as the geology. In this reconnaissance trip no detailed geologi- cal work was done, but the presence of the pre-Cambrian, Cam- brian, Permo-Carboniferous, Cretaceous, and Tertiary sediments are proven, as well as the presence of basalt, and certain other types of volcanic rock. Valuable gold deposits were found, the presence of tin and bauxite in commercial quantities was demon- strated, and the boring for coal at Mallison Island, Arnheim Bay, and Boroloola is recommended. 86 Scientific Intelligence. It is to be hoped that the reconnaissance survey is to be fol- lowed by detailed work, which will result in a fuller knowledge of this interesting and unknown region. H. E. G. 4, Corrasion 3 y Gravity Streams with Applications of the Ice Flood Hypothesis ; by K.C. ANpRrews, Department of Mines, Sydney. Reprinted from Journal and Proe. of the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, vol. xliii, pp. 204-330, with 11 figs., 3 appendices and a pibliosraphy.- This is an important paper which should be called to the attention of American geologists interested in surface processes. The author is best “known by his pre- vious paper on the Ice Flood Hypothesis,* in which he main- tained the excessive erosive power of glaciers during their period of maximum development, or flood, as s compared with their weak erosive effects during stages of recession. In the present paper he takes up the subject of stream erosion more broadly as the action of the grayity stream, irrespective of the fluid or solid which composes it, and discusses the laws of its movement. To sum up the results of his conclusions it may be noted,—that U-shaped valleys and cirques are forms characteristic of maxi- mum or flood erosion and are not forms solely dependent upon ice asa medium. Even where the stream of ice or water covers a region broadly it will erode unequally. During the flood stages it shows an excessive effect upon the bottoms of the principal channels in contrast to its flood plain and increases the relief of the region. During drought stages aggradation tends to take place within these overdeepened and oversteepened channel walls. Through the formulation of these principles the author discusses changes in the character of glacial erosion between the ice age and the present, and draws distinctions between those features which are essentially peculiar to ice as a medium. Applications of his discussions resulting in some new conclusions are made, among other regions, to the California Sierras, the Finger Lake region, the St. Lawrence and the Hudson Rivers. As the original paper may be difficult of access to many who may wish to quote some of Andrews’ statements, the following conclusions are quoted, the bearing of which may be better appre- ciated in the light of the preceding statements: “A. Inductive Studies,—(1) Cirques, hanging valleys, rock basins, facetted spurs (or spurless walls), smoothed cols, ‘steps,” and “treads” occur in all recently glaciated regions. (2) In pro- portion to the intensity of the recent glaciation so are these pecu- liar land profiles pronounced in number, size, and appearance. (3) In localities not glaciated recently such peculiar land profiles are absent. (4) All “these forms are matched in miniature along any channel determined by thunderstorm waters. (5) Along the beds of even large stream channels similar forms occur to those just enumerated. (6) The forms in all these cases are similarly situated with respect to their enveloping channels. (7) The forms in each case are adjusted to the size of the various stream * Jour. Geol., vol. xiv, pp. 22-54, 1906. Geology and Mineralogy. 87 \ volumes (whether ice or water) known to have been associated with them. “ B. Inductive Studies.—(1) All streams in nature are due pri- marily to pressure and weight. (2) The path of any stream par- ticle tends to the parabolic form. (8) All must seek the lines of least resistance, and inasmuch as a vertical force (gravity) deter- mines the flow, the lines of least resistance will be the lines of quickest descent for streams. (4) All streams therefore tend to fellow the thalwegs of each other as opportunity arises.. (5) Increased pressure as weight implies the increased mobility or velocity of a stream. (6) Increased velocity implies corrasive action rising in a high geometrical ratio. (7) From the forego- ing the profiles of all stream channels formed individually by one stream type only should therefore be similar in general appear- ance. (8) The forms developed by the general stream have been worked out by means of these principles. (9) But the forms deduced for the general stream are matched in nature in the case of the ordinary water stream (which has been definitely observed moreover to have formed its own channel profiles). (10) There- fore any group of such similarly shaped, similarly situated, and similarly associated profiles as those deduced for the general stream can be satisfactorily explained by stream action. (11) But such groups of forms occur in regions of recent glaciation. (12) They can be satisfactorily explained, therefore, by stream action. (13) Moreover, glaciers themselves are streams. (14) Glaciers in recent times occupied the same general relations (as to size, surface, and so on) to cirques, lake basins, over-deepened valleys, and other associated forms which the general stream type has been deduced to occupy with regard to its own channel forms. (15) With the exception of a glacier no other stream in these glaciated regions is known which had the power to fashion the typical cirque, rock basin and spur “facet.” (16) Glaciers there- fore, in all probability, formed the typical cirques, the fiord and Alpine basins, the spurless chasms of Alpine regions, as also the hanging valleys and the “steps” and “treads” in Alpine valleys. ““C, Apparent Lack of Ice Corrasion as Hvidenced by a Study of Present Glaciers.—The channel form is adjusted to the strength of the stream. Upon a reduction of stream volume a readjust- ment of the channel grade is set up, and the stream appears most inert at the locations of the maximum energy exerted by the larger stream. ‘This is the case with present-day glaciers. The recent ice-floods formed cirques, rock basins, and other forms adjusted to their own size and strength, while the deglaciated valleys of to-day evidence the very recent retreat of the last ice flood. ‘The channel grade, therefore, must now be readjusted. This being so, morainic material must fall out along the old cut- ting curves, and the ice generally must be most ‘inert at spots like fiords and lake basins. This explains the apparent anomaly otherwise of the association of inert and banded glaciers with cirques and rock basins, and the occupation of old ice- cutting curves by moraines.” H. E.G J.B. 88 Scientific Intelligence. 5. Die Antike Tierwelt; by Orro Krier. Erster Band. Siiugetiere I. Pp. xii, 434, with 145 text-figures and 3 plates. Leipzig, 1909 (Wm. Engelmann), —This very interesting volume describes, with many illustrations, the various mammals known to the ancients, not only the domesticated animals but wild and some mythical forms as well: more than 200 species and varieties all told, such as are depicted in statuary, bas reliefs, mu- ral paintings, coins and vases, or described by the writers of old. The volume opens with a brief résumé of the zoological system of Aristotle, the remainder of the book being devoted to the Mammalia, of which the principal forms described are the apes, the lion and other felines, the dog, hyena, bear, many rodents, among which are mentioned the conies (Hyrazx), which are nearer the proboscideans among the ungulates than the hares which they superficially resemble. Horses, deer, giraffe, antelope, and their kind were well known to the ancients, and the elephants, including the hairy mammoth, which is depicted in prehistoric drawings upon eavern walls of France, Rhinoceros, swine, seals, and an. amazing picture of a docile unicorn from the medizval “ Physiologius” close the volume. There are three plates of coins and medals bearing animal subjects. The book, with its excellent illustrations and clear type, is of great interest and value to the natural historian as well as to the general reader. R. 8. L. 6. The Orders of Mammals; by Witttam K. Gregory. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, Vol. xxvii, Feb. 1910, pp. 1-525, and 32 text-figures.—Part I of this impor- tant memoir contains a history of the ordinal classification of mammals, while Part II deals with the genetic relations of the mammalian orders, a discussion of the origin of the Mammalia, and the problem of the auditory ossicles. Dr. Gr egory’s position in the American Museum which calls for so much literary as well as scientific research, together with close association with Professor Osborn and Dr. W. D. Matthew, have aided in fitting him pecu- larly for the preparation of such a work. The author’s thor- oughness may readily be imagined by his devoting some time to a preliminary study of Descartes and the principles of inductive philosophy in order that his phylogenetic speculation be not ren- dered migratory by faulty reasoning. This thoroughness is the keynote of the whole endeavor and has resulted in so valuable a work that a teacher of paleontology as well as one who deals with living mammals will find it a mine of information above price. It is written in the author’s clear and very delightful style, while the typography is fully up to the high standard of the Museum’s other publications. R. 8. L, 7. Analyse der Silikat- und Karbonatgesteine ; von W. F. HiILLEBRAND. 8vo, pp. 258. Leipzig 1910 (W. Engelmann),— This is essentially a translation into German, by E. Witxr- Dorrurt, of Bulletin No. 305 of the U. 8. Geological Survey (1907) by the same author.* At the same time, however, con- * A revised edition has recently appeared as Bulletin 422, see p. 84. Geology and Mineralogy. 89 siderable alterations and additions to the text of the original volume have been made by the author, which embody. the results of more recent researches on methods of analytical work. They relate chiefly to the preparation of samples for analysis and to the estimation of water and the oxides of iron. The writer in his preface to the German edition pays a grace- ful tribute to the German masters, especially Bunsen, under whom he studied, and this volume will be evidence to the chemists of that nationality that the seed sowed at that time has brought a fruitful harvest. There is no one who has greater skill, or has had a wider experience, in silicate analysis than the author, or who has done more to bring the analyses of rocks to a high standard, and it is well that his views and methods should have as wide an extension as possible. Te wVinee 8. Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks; by H. S. Wasuineton. Second edition, Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, pp. 200. New York, 1910 (Wiley & Sons).—This is a new edition of Washington’s useful and practical treatise on rock analysis. New methods and modes of procedure, which have been tested by the author, have been introduced and numerous changes have been made in the text where more detail appeared to be needed. The analysis of carbonate rocks, as a special subject, has not been treated, as the latest work of Dr. Hillebrand, recently noticed in this Journal, covers this, and they are of minor importance to the petrographer. The complete and accurate analysis of silicate rocks is one of the most intricate and difficult tasks the analytical chemist is called upon to perform, but by the aid of this work, in which every detail of operation is completely stated, even one of limited experience in this field may attain excellent results if he care- fully follows its directions. It may be confidently recommended to chemists and petrographers, and should find a place in every chemical library. We Ve deh 9. Handbuch der Minerologie ; von Dr. Cart Hintze. Erster Band. Dreizehnte Lieferung. Pp. 1921-2080. Leipzig, 1910 (Veit & Comp.).—The successive parts of Hintze’s monumental work on Mineralogy do not appear at very frequent intervals, but are none the less welcome on that account. ‘This is the twenty- fifth section of the entire work and the thirteenth of the first vol- ume ; it is devoted to the oxides and chiefly to the species of the diaspore-goethite group. 10. Crystallography: An Elementary Manual for the Labo- ratory ; by M. Epwarp Wapswortu. Pp. xvi (20), 299, with 612 figures, and 25 plates. Philadelphia (John Joseph McVey), 1909.—This new Crystallography is based on the lectures deliv- ered by the author at Harvard in 1873 and subsequently developed by him in University work elsewhere. Being prepared for those studying the subject in a general way only, the mathematical side is omitted entirely, and the discussion is limited to simple and readable descriptions of the different systems and the forms 90 Scientific Intelligence. peculiar to them, with a statement of the different types of sym- bols in use, The work differs from most books of similar scope in that the triclinic system is introduced first, a method which the author has found to give the best results with his pupils. The figures are numerous and are all presented in a series of twenty-five plates printed on thin paper and placed at the end of the volume. 11. Brief Notices of some recently described Minerals.—Ano- PHORITE is an alkaline amphibole described by W. Freudenberg as occurring in the shonkinite of Katzenbuckel, Baden. It has the pleochroism of Brégger’s cataphorite, but differs in chemical composition and in optical orientation ; specific gravity, 3°166. Analysis gave : SiO. TiO, Al,O; Fes0; FeO MnO MgO CaO Na,O K,0 H,0 49°79 3°37 198 754 918 0836 11:59 3:16 7:92 1:85 1°52 = 100°26 —Ref. in Jahrb. Min., i, 34, 1910. BiryirE is a hydrated silicate of calcium and aluminium described by A. Lacroix from the pegmatite veins of Mt. Bity, Maharitra, Madagascar. It occurs in minute hexagonal (pseudo- hexagonal) plates of a yellowish-white color; hardness, 5°5 ; specific gravity, 3°05. An analysis by Pisani gave: SiO, Al,O; CaO BeO MgO Li,O Na,O K,O0 H.0 81°95 41°75 14:30 2:27 018 2:73 0-40 016 650 =100:19 — Bull. Soc. Min., xxxi, 241, 1908. BrRUGNATELLITE is a hydrate and carbonate of ferric iron and magnesium, described by E. Artini, from Val Malenco, where it occurs in a serpentized peridotite. It forms lamellar aggregates of micaceous aspect, easy cleavage, pearly luster and flesh-red color. An analysis gave : CO, Fe.0; MgO MnO H,O insol. 7°78 13°20 42°79 1°80 33°77 1:03 = 100°37 From this the formula is calculated : MgCO,.5Mg(OH),.Fe(OH),.4H,0. Named after Professor L. Brugnatelli of Pavia.—Rivista Min. Itol., xxvii, 119, 1909. HALuerirez is a silver-white mica with pearly luster described by Ph. Barbier, from the pegmatite of Mesvres, Autunois, It is near paragonite, yielding 7°63 p.c. Na,O and 1:26 Li,O. Named after Professor Haller of Paris.—C. &., exlvi, 1220, 1908. J OAQUINITE is a rare titano-silicate of calcium and iron described by G. D. Louderback in a recent pamphlet which gives an exhaus- tive account of the remarkable barium titano-silicate benitoite. It occurs in small, honey-yellow or light brown crystals, enclosed in both natrolite and neptunite ; the crystals are imperfect in form, but are referred with probability to the orthorhombic sys- Geology and Mineralogy. 91 tem. Its hardness is 55-6, specific gravity, 3°85-3°9, and refrac- tive index high, greater than 1°73. Only qualitative tests have thus far been made, but it is hoped that material for a complete analysis may be obtained.— Bull. Geol. Univ. Ca alifornia, Vv, p. 331 PLANcHEITE is a hydrated copper silicate described by La- croix from Mindouli, French Oongo. It occurs in fibrous masses of a blue color associated with dioptase ; specific gravity, 3°36. An analysis by Pisani gave: SiO, 37:16 CuO 59°20 FeO tr. H,O 4:50 = 100°86. Named after M. Planché.— Bull. Soc. Min., xxxi, 250, 1908. Ris6R17TE is a niobate of the yttrium and cerium metals with other elements; it is described by O. Hauser from the pegmatite of Risér in southern Norway. It has a brown color, and is opti- cally isotropic, probably from alteration ; hardness, 5°5 ; specific gravity, 4:179; after ignition, 4°678. It is not far from fergu- sonite, but contains uranium in very small amount only. —_Ref. in Jahrb. Min., i, 37, 1910. Rosasire is a carbonate of copper and zine, described by D. Lovisato from the Rosas mine, Sulcis, Sardinia. It occurs in mammillary masses with fibrous structure and green to sky-blue color ; hardness, 4°5, specific gravity, 4:07. Analysis gave : CO, CuO ZnO PbO H.0 30°44 36°34 33°57 tr. 0°21 = 100°56 —Rend. Ace. Line., xvii (2), 723, 1908. VasuEcyite is a basic aluminium phosphate described by Zimanyi, from the iron mines of Vashegy, Hungary. It occurs in dense white masses resembling meerschaum and immediately associated with variscite ; hardness, 2°5. An analysis by Loczka gave: P.O; } ~ 5 co at Year| gd | 2 et ee | Slee Rey |, 8 5 8 [48] 8 room mer feat lsh Sh ea eames le Soft eee ea Bh a (873 |+ 12)+ 14/4 24) + 1/+ 2/4+48/+12] +35) + 2) + 1/+ 10/+ 20/4181) 471 |—109 — 49/— g/— 20/—54/—32/— 2/— 4) — 3} —40| —40|/— 40)/— 10/—290 1874 |+ 60\+ 30/+ 20) + 4/+32/+40)+32) +28] +15] +12/+ 14)+ 10/+297) 426 — i{j— sgi— 15)/—é64/— 3/— 1/\— 2)/ — 9/—10|/— 6/— 3)— 7—129 i875 |+ 6+ I+ Bit 4/4+18/+18/+15) + 1) + 1) +25/4+ 12/4 75/4179) 757-|—399 —145|—144|— 63)—54/— 4/—12/—15) —30| —36| —25|— 48)— 2/—a78 1876 |+ 8O\+ 75/+ 3) +10)/+12/+18/+28) +385] + 5) +10/+ 6)+ 1/+283) 628 |— 6 — 5 Ol— 95|—12/— _7TI— 8i|— 2) —15] —27] —385|— 24)/—115|—345 1877 |+ 16/+144/+ 26'+ 5/+ 8!+12/4+27! +30) +24! 4+12)/+ 9!+128)+441! 642 — 4/— 5/— 36|/—24/—32!/—20/— 1) — 1] — 3] —24|/— 28/— 3/—201 1878 |+ 70)/+144)+165|+64)+ 6)/+20)4+49) +52) +10) + 5/4 20)/+ 1/+656) 842 |+470 = 12/— 5 O/— 2)/—28)/—17/— 1 0/—18)—18|/— 5/— 80/—186 1879 |+ 28/4 42/+ 80/+25)+42)+18/+37) +10] +18) +72/+ 20)/+ 16)/+403) 602 — 17/— 20/— 1/—12/— 6/— 4/-- 1) — —26| — 1/—-13/— 90/—199 1880 |+156)/+ 63/+ 20)+21/+45/+20/4+ 2) +12) + 3/4 1/+ 1/+ 2)/+846) 795 |—108 — 9 18/— 35/—24/—12/— d5|/— 9) —15/ —25/ —10/—150)/—144/—449 1881 |}+ G6/+ 22/4 18] +20] +62/+35)/+ 28) +38) +54) +45/+ 14/+ 95/4487) 799 — 72'— 84i— 50/—42/— 1/—10/— 7| —12} —20| —23|— 40/— 1/—362 1882 |}+ 49/+ 98)/+ 35/+16/+ 2)/4+12/+ 9) +11] + 9) +35/+ 10)/4+ 14/+800} 524 — 14/— 24/— 18/—14/—44/— 8/—15| —10/ — 7) —20|— 25)— 25)/—224 1883 |+ 2/+ 25/+ 20)/+ 8/+ 1/4+20)4+15) + 6) +10) +20)+ 30)/+ 38/4195) 551 |—161 — 90/— 72)/— 24)/—20/—50/— 8/— 6) —12| —30|—36|— 6/— 2/—356 1884 |+ 2/+ 35/+ 15/+ 2)/+22/4+22)+12) + 5) +30) +48/4 11/+ 7)+211] 590 |—168 — 57/— 40/— 20/—30/—12/—20)/—18) —22| —24|— 4|— 6/—126|—379 1885 |}+ 5/+ 24/+ 40)4+20)+ 7/+ 4/412) + 3) 4+ 8) 4+12)+ 40)+ 42)+217| 544 |—110 — 80/— 66/— 45|— 6)/—21/—25|— 5) —30/ —13| —25/— 3/— 8!—3827 1886 }+ 38)/+ 72)/+ 3/418)+35/+ 9/420) +16) + 7) +30)/+ 2)+ 24/+239) 680 |—152 — 96/— 20/— 36/—15)— 4/—22/— 9) — 3) —11) —18/— 8d|/— 72|/—391 1887 |+ 24)/+ 42/4 54/+15)/+60/+30/+40) + 5) +10) + 9/+ 14/+ 4/+3807| 604 |+ 10 = Pi— 7O— 19)— 8/— 1/— 4/— 2) —14) —12) —39|— 8)— 48)--297 ( 1888 }+ 6)+ 84/+ 1/4+45)4+12)+12)/415) + 9) +30) +12/+ 11)/+ 42/4279) 664 |—106 —112/— 9/— 90)/—10/—43/— 7|— 6) —20| —30| —30|/— 22/— 6)/—385 1889 }+ 48)+ 2)+ 84)/+45)4+ 7/4+18)4+12) +15]} + 3) +18)4+ 13)/+135/+400] 676 |+124 — 25/— 45)— 9/— 1/—18/—382)/—15) —17| —40| —32/— 39/— 3)/—276 1890 |+ 62)4+ 65)+ 7/4+15)+16)4+20)+24) + 2} 4+ 6) + 2/+ 72/4 5d)+851) 611 — 48/— 15|/— 40)/— 3/—38/— 7|/— 8) —29]—380|—16/— 1/— 25|/—260 1891 }+102)+ 40/4 1/+81/+ 9)+ 7/+ 3/413) +45) +13/+ 14/+ 65/4343) 707 |— 21 — 24/— 75\|— %5|— 6)/—35|—22/—42| —20] — 3| —22/— 25/— 15|/—364 1892 }+ 9/+ 8d)+ 18)+ 4/+ 2/+11/4+ 8) + 7| +22) +15)+ 16)+ 2)+199) 528 j}—130 — 3d5/— 1/— 32/—30/—81|—20)/—15) —12|) —12}—10|— 27/— 54)/—329 1893 |+ 382)+ 12 0}+20)4+ 1)/+25)+15) + 3) +10) 4+ 4)/+ 2/+ 35/4159) 582 |—2 — 60/— 63)— 60/—70)—33)/—15)— 4| —24 | —22) —22|— 380/— 30/—423 1894 |4+ 32)+ 7+ 57/+80) +20) +25)+26) +18] +15) +28/+ 30/+ 48/+3836] 556 |+116 — 29)/— 64/— 10/— 2)—10)—25/—11| —20) —12) — 3|— 18/— 16)/—220 1895 }+ 2)+ 16)+ 18)4+45)/+15)+15}4+ 1) +10) +80) + 7)/+ 7+ 12/4178) 604 |—2 —108/— 75|— 32/— 3)/—15/—30/—40) — 9/| —20) —45|— 19/— 30|/—426 1896 }+ 52)4+117/+ 4/445) +49) +20)4+16) +18) + 1) +10/)+ 27/+ 56/+415} 712 — F— 2— 42)/—24)—18)/— ds/— 9) — 6) —45 | —32/—100)/— 7\/—297 1897 |}+ 6/+ 28/+ 35)/+12)+24)4+ 5/415) +15) +64) 4+49)+ 18\+ 7/+278) 527 — 20/— 8|/— 60/— 9/—30)/—22/—17| —18|} — 3) — 8|— 24/— 30)/—249 1898 }+ 39)+ 77) + 45) +18)+14) +20) +14) +19) +21) + 7/4+ 2)+ 2/4278) 568 |— 12 — 3d3)— 8)/— 33/—28)—24|/— 4;/— 9) — 5] — 6| —42|— 36/— 60|—290 i899 }+ 22/+ 1)+ 1/416) +20)412)+ 4) +30) +16) +80/+110)+ 6/+269| 724 |—186 — 6/—140|—140)—24|/—30 —1 — 20|—450 118 Bigelow—The Inversion of Temperature Amplitudes TaBLe I.—Tur TEMPERATURE DEPARTURES FOR THE UNritED Status, 18738-1909—Conceluded. : 4 * A nD Year| 4 nee | BS Be gree | SR al SR Se sie |e es re oe eee es ier Sa os Were Soh —S SS es eee ene eee ed | eee a J a Se ee eile | 1900 | +108) + 9+ 33) +48) +54) +42/+ 8) +388] +28] +75/+ 30/4 59) +532) 716 | +348 — 2)— 42)\— 30/—23/— 1/— 9/13) —20] —15| — 8/— 24/— 2/-134 1901 (+ 62)+ 7 + 40/412) +382) +25)+75) +21) + 6) +23/+ 30/4 12)+345) 567 | +123 — l— 49\— 14)—35)—19)—23)— 2) — 5| —14| — 4]— 20)— 36)/—222 1902 |+ 48/+ 40\/+ 63)/+19)+42)+12/4+ 7) +17] + 2] +80/+ 64/+ 7/4851] 615 |+ 87 |— 12)— 40/— 12/—13)— 5|—22)—19) —13| —46}— 2|/— 5|— 70|—264 1903 }+ 50/+ 12,4 45)+ 9)/4+10)+14)+ 3) + 7/ + 1) +80/+ 14/+ 18/4213) 594 |—168 — 3!/— 98\— 15|—17|—23)—47|—25) —20] —45 | —10|— 22|/— 56)—381 1904 |+ 18)+ 40)+ 45)+10)+12)+ 3/+ 1) + 5) +20) +20)/+ 48)+ 12)/+284) 536 |— 68 — 40/— 55)— 9/—40)—13)—32)/—30) —25| — 9] — 9|— 10/— 30)—802 1905 |}+ 10)+ 10 +185/+12)+13)+11)+ 9) +20] +40) + 5|+ 38)+ 12/+3820) 646 |— 6 — 56|— 70 — 1/—25)—30)—23/—30 — 7} — 1]—387|/— 8)— 38)—326) ! 1906 |+ 90)/+ 60+ 1/+42)+ 4+ 8/430) +20] +50) +17}/+ 17)+ 55)+394) 633 | +155 — 2— 8— 90|\— 5-12, —30/—24) -12] — 3|—25|— 12,— 16/—239 1907 |+ 66)+ 72)+ 90/4 7i+ 5)/+ 4/4+12/ +13] +19] +45)+ 382)+ 80)/+445) 841 |+ 49 — 80/— 23— 7|—63)—85 —45|—15) —30 | —17| —18|— 13 0|—396 1908 }+100)+ 48 + 80)+50)+ 9+ 7)+20 + 4] +50] +16)+ 52)+ 30/+466) 658 | +274 — 1/— 20 0|\— 2)/—36)/—42)—17| —19| — 6| —24/— 5\— 20)/—192 1909 |+ 48)/+ 64+ 18+ 6+ 1/4+10)+ 9) +28] +15) +12|)+ 90)/+ 2)+303) 581 |+ 25 — 16/— 4/— 18|—35|—36|— 4|—24| — 6| —10|—16|— 1|/—108|/—278 Mean temperature amplitude number..-....------------------------- 629 _ (8) These charts, in a more restricted problem, enable us immediately to test the phenomenon of the inversion of tem- peratures in the United States relative to that in the tropics, and to the variation of solar energy, whereby the force func- tion of the circulation in controlling the local temperatures of the temperate zones can be fully realized. It is necessary to integrate in a simple way the total effect of the temperature variations in the United States, by months and by years. We may conceive the temperature charts to represent cones, or topographical volumes of departures, and the volume for each month may be taken approximately, EA ey 3 max where A is the area of the region covered by a departure of one sign, and d,,,. is the maximum temperature variation at the apex, or practically the altitude of the cone. Since we are now ; 5 1 2 seeking only relative numbers, the factor 3 can be dispensed with as pertaining merely to the scale of the diagrams to be drawn, which is an indifferent matter. Thus, on fig. 1, take the area of the United States equal to 10; assume proportional parts for the positive and negative areas of departure, as 7 for the eastern or positive region, and 3 for the western or neg- and Departures in the United States. 119 ative region; the positive maximum departure, not neces- sarily the highest station, is taken as 7 degrees, so that we have 7X 7=+49 to represent the strength of the positive tem- perature departures during the month, May, 1896, in the United States ; the maximum negative departure for the west- ern districts is about 6 devrees, so that 38 x (— 6) = — 18 rep- resents the negative departure number for the same month ; the sum of these without signs, 49 + 18 = 67, is the total aver- age amplitude, that is the amount by which the temperature system departed from the normal in a series of high and low Pa Fic. 1. Temperature Departures, May, 1896. 481 similar charts have been drawn, giving the temperature variations in the United States from January, 1873, to December, 1909. waves; the sum of these numbers with signs, +49 -—18=+31, gives the average temperature excess for the United States, showing that this region averaged warmer than the normal for the month. Similarly, the numbers in Table I represent the relative changes in temperature for the United States month by month for 87 years, 1873 to 1909, inclusive. It can be seen by an inspection of Table I, that : (1) It is not possible always to treat the United States as a temperature unit in the midst of the world-departure (New- comb), because there are many months when, as May 6, 1896, this region is not all warmer, or all colder, than the normal. There is a tendency for the temperature to oscillate about a sort of nodal line on the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountain Plateau ; it sometimes happens that the interior of the United 120 = Bigelow—The Inversion of Temperature Amplitudes States is of one departure sign, while the Coast States, Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, Pacific, in whole or in part, are of the oppo- site sign. (2) The strength of the amplitudes in winter is about twice as great, sometimes three times as great, as in the summer. In the winter the sun and the warm zones withdraw to the south, and the cold polar air moves southward. The strength of amplitude means that alternately warm and cold areas of air, warm cyclonic streams from the south, and cold anticyclonic streams from the north, pass over the United States in a turbulent circulation, the crests and hollows further apart in some years than in others. If the mean amplitude is 629, then the range in amplitude is from 426 in 1874 to 842 in 1878, or 1907, or 66 per cent for the entire series. In some months the maximum temperature departure is between 20° and 25° F., in other months only 2° or 8° F. The fundamental question is whether these variations are purely accidental or not, and this will be taken up in the following section. (3) The excesses of temperature for the United States as a whole are shown in the last column of Table I, the maximum relative number being +470 in 1878 and —399 in 1875, indi- eating that during some years the temperature is maintained above the normal or average, and below the normal in others. The important point is to correlate the amplitudes and the excesses with solar phenomena in order to learn whether there is synchronism annually or not, and if any to classify its laws. Synchronism between the variations in the numbers representing the frequency of the solar prominences, the sun-spots, the Euro- pean terrestrial magnetic field, and the amplitudes or excesses of the temperature departures in the United States. The curves representing these frequency numbers are brought together in fig. 2. The curve of solar prominences is plotted from Table 2, this Journal, May, 1908, p. 417: that for the European magnetic field is from Table 3, same paper ; that for the sun-spot numbers is from Wolfer’s frequency numbers ; that for the temperature amplitudes is from the 15th column of Table 1 of this paper; and that for the tem- perature excesses is from the last column of the same table. I have not had an opportunity to extend the first two curves, of the prominences and the magnetic field, beyond the year 1905, as should be done. These curves are derived from relative numbers, and they are plotted on independent scales. The heavy mean line represents the consecutive means of the long- period, while the variations between this line and the original curve give the short-period residuais. It should be carefully noted that the curves of the temperature amplitudes and ex- cesses are plotted inversely to the three other curves. and Departures in the United States. 121 The synchronism in the long period between the two solar curves and three terrestrial curves cannot be questioned, that for the magnetic field being direct, and those for the temper- ature system of the United States being inverse. This result confirms the data and conclusions of my papers of 1894, 1898, 1903, mentioned above. The synchronism between the curves Fie. 2. 1890 1895, 1300 1905, Fie. 2. Prominences, magnetic field, sun-spots and the temperature amplitudes and excesses in the United States. of short period is not so well pronounced as for the long period, and that for several reasons. The prominences and the mag- netic curve are only approximate measures of the true solar radiation output, for which they stand as substitutes. We have no long-continued series of homogeneous radiation observations from which to construct a curve representing the gram calories 122 Bigelow—The Inversion of Temperature Amplitudes per square centimeter per minute, that is the actual energy of the incoming solar radiation, and we must for some years be content with the available data. The solar prominence num- bers are from the Italian spectroscopic observations on the edge of the solar disk, and these are only rough records of the total action of the solar mass as an emitter of radiant energy. Furthermore, the prominences break out earlier in the middle latitudes than near the equator or the poles, so that the general summation of prominence numbers obscures the times of free etlicient emission to the earth. It is evident that systematic spectroheliograph observations of the face of the sun should be made in favorable climates, and the records should be care- fully studied for the var iations of the emission of solar energy by months and by years. The European magnetic field is rep- resented by the mean horizontal force variations at a few sta- tions, three to five, whereas the mean magnetic variation should be computed for all three components at about 10 stations for the entire earth. It is proper to infer that the precise synchronism shown between the prominences, sun-spots, and magnetic field in the long period can be extended to the short period by the expenditure of sufficient well-directed labor. The temperature curves match the short-period variations of the solar curves approximately, that is enough to recognize the same sequence of crests for each. We have shown that the temperature data is in itself of the highest order. On the other hand, it suffers from considerable unsteadiness as regards its synchronism with the solar energy on account of the inversion effects produced by the atmospheric circulation. The varia- tions of temperature are direct with the solar energy in the Tropics, but inverse in the temperate zones. It follows that the high pressure belt is the node of this temperature effect, where the variation is indifferent. Since this belt is due to the circulation, and since the location of the belt in the United States is loosely defined, it is evident that some uncertainty in the temperature amplitudes and excesses must be expected. This high pressure belt usually runs from the Florida peninsula to northern California, but it is much broken up by the anticy- clonic and cyclonie circulation through which the air from the Tropics mixes with that from the temperate zone. It is easy to see that if these several curves could be suitably perfected, it would not be difficult to assert that certain com- ing years would be prospectively warmer or colder than usual. The years of maximum solar energy are years of minimum temperature and minimum amplitude. An increase of energy from the sun on the Tropics brings down colder air in the temperate zone and holds it more firmly at the surface of the earth, and the cold high areas are in excess, the winter and and Departures in the United States. 123 summer being cooler. The minimum solar action is followed by warmer seasons in the United States, a greater amplitude in the circulation of the warm and cold areas, and a more pro- nounced system of warm leakage currents from the Gulf of Mexico upon the Mississippi Valley. It is, also, seen that the succession of minor crests is usually about three years, this being the 3-year period first described by Bigelow in 1894. Fie. 3. Aa ake, EC aaa a Pom and AP A pA Ny N : iS — ie in ah J im = ea i Fic. 3, The location of the mean annual isotherms in the earth’s atmosphere. The Cause of the Inversion of Temperatures. In order that the cause of this important inversion of tem- peratures in the United States may be better understood, I will produce from my other unpublished studies on the Gen- eral Circulation a diagram of the distribution of the mean annual temperatures in “the atmosphere, as derived from balloon and kite ascensions, and from a study of the equations of motion. The vertical scale of the drawing is greatly magni- fied in fig. 3, in order to bring out the “fundamental facts. 124 Bigelow—The Inversion of Temperature Amplitudes Imagine the quadrant of the earth’s atmosphere between the equator and the poles to be rolled out into straight lines, and to extend from the surface to 16,000 meters in altitude. Then, the annual mean isotherms are disposed as indicated, subject to modification in details owing to the present lack of data, especially in the Tropics and the polar zones. The following facts should be noted: (1) In the lower levels the maximum temperature is at a higher altitude in latitude 30° to 40° than to the north or south of it; (2) the general depression of temperatures in the Tropics is due to the ascending circulation and adiabatic cooling; (3) the circulation in the Tropies is westward, because the isotherms rise upwards in going north and parallel to the earth’s axis; (4) the circulation in the temperate zone is eastward for the opposite reason (see paper, Monthly Weather Review, January, 1904); (5) the rate of circulation depends upon the density of the isotherms in a line parallel to the earth’s axis; (6) it is a maximum west- ward at the elevation 3000 to 4000 meters in the Tropics decreasing downwards and upwards, and reversing to eastward at about 10,000 meters (M. W. Review, April, 1904); (7) it increases upwards in the eastward drift of the temperate zones to about 12,000 meters and then falls off, as first shown in the International Cloud Report, 1898 ; (8) the chief function of the westward drift in the Tropics is to counteract by its motion the adiabatic cooling of the ascending air ; (9) the chief function of the eastward drift is by its motion to hold the heated air of the tropic zone away from the polar region ; (10) the small polar overflow in the upper levels is restricted to latitudes 50° or 60° by this circulation ; (11) there is no pronounced upper pole- ward current and no well-defined lower equatorward current, with a neutral piane separating them, as Ferrel assumed in his canal theory ; (12) the leakage currents from the Tropics to the temperate zones may occur in all levels, and then the cen- ters of action and the wandering cyclones and anticyclones are formed ; (13) the momenta of motion are continuously being readjusted between temperature and circulation to keep their sum a constant, and the angular rotation of the earth on its axis a constant; (14) in case the solar energy raises the tem- perature of the Tropics, with its westward drift, it follows that in the temperate zones there is an increase of eastward drift, a downflow of air, an increase of cold areas, and a decrease of amplitudes and the leakage currents; (15) an inversion of temperature in the temperate zone is a necessary result of this circulation, to balance an inerease of temperature in the Tropics from the solar radiation energy. This, then, accounts for the many discrepancies which have been announced by investigators when comparing station records directly with the and Departures in the United States. 125 sun-spot numbers. It must be fully admitted that meteorolo- gists have an exceedingly complex problem before them, but in view of the valuable results to be derived from a correct foreeast of seasonal weather conditions, they will be justified in pursuing these studies to a practical conclusion. Observations on the Solar Radiation and their Interpretation. It will be seen from the foregoing statement of the several lines of correlated phenomena that the continuous record of the solar radiation is the missing link in the chain. The prominences and the sun-spots are products of the outgoing radiant energy and the accompanying solar circulation; the magnetic field variations are one result of the absorption of the incoming radiation in the earth’s atmosphere, and the temper- ature changes are another product ot it, linked up with the cir- culation, and thence with the barometric pressure and weather conditions generally. The study of the entire series of observa- tional problems is greatly hindered at every turn by the instru- mental expense of securing the necessary original observations, and the complicated results to be inter preted. It constitutes the greatest world problem for future generations to more perfectly work up and utilize. At present the magnetic field, all things considered, is the most suitable for the practical foundation. We have numerous magnetic observatories in all parts of the world, and the observations are easily secured. The maenetic variations are direct products of the incoming radia- tion through the process of ionization and electric currents, but there is a regional assorting going on in the earth’s atmos- phere, part of the incoming energy being transformed in the outer, thin, dry layers, and “another part in the lower, dense, moist layers of the earth’s atmosphere. Certain corpuscles and cathode rays may have special, irregular operations in the outer layers to produce spasmodic magnetic storms, but it is the transformation of energy in the lower layers that are chiefly concerned with the diurnal and the annual periodic variations of the magnetic field. We have only to interpret these in terms of solar radiation and terrestrial circulation to connect up the two branches of this subject. The direct observations on the incoming solar radiation, by ineans of the bolometer readings on the individual rays of the spectrum, and the pyrheliometer on the total or integrated heat energy, are beset with unusual diftivulties, partly instrumental and partly meteorological. The splendid progress made by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in developing a relia- ble instrumental equipment makes us hopeful of a practical result in respect to the observations. The meteorological problem, depending upon the temporary constituents of the 126 Bigelow—The Inversion of Temperature Amplitudes atmosphere, is a subject of much perplexity. To illustrate the point we refer to fig. 4. Draw the black body curves of radiation for 7000° T and for 6000° T, by the Wien-Planck formula; lay down the curve of bolometer’ obser vations for a high oT as Mt. Whitney (Abbot) or Mt. Wilson (Abbot), in I, and for sea level, as Washington (Langley- Abbot), Il. Abbot reports that his recent high and low altitude observations on the same day agree for the three level observations at Washington, Mt. ‘Wilson, Mt. Whitney in producing a ¢otal amount of solar radiant ener gy equal to Fic. 4. Ae Pepe ese ea [00 Ql 02 08 04 05 06 07 08 O09 10 II 12 ~%IBT14 16 (16 17 18 19°°20f0 Fic. 4.—Black body radiation at 7000° T and 6000° T. Observed radiation on a high mountain (I) and at sea level (II). about 1:92 gram calories per cm* per minute on the outermost layer of the earth’s atmosphere. The depletion of the incom- ing radiation is chiefly by scattering, and it is progressive with the depth, the density and the impurity of the atmosphere, as determined by the dust, ice, and vapor contents, with the atoms and molecules of the gases themselves. In a word, the short waves are most heavily depleted and that progressively with the length of path, cutting off the apex of the pure energy curve in an irregular manner, so that it is very difficult to find the value of the maximum wave length from the obser- vations, which we wish to introduce in the ceneral formula, T . Ana = Constant, so as fully to determine the temperature of the radiating black body, responsible for the energy reaching the earth on a given date. Unless the crest of the radiation curve is found accu- rately, it will not be possible to assign any definitive tempera- ture to the solar envelope with enough precision to enter into competition with the curves of fig. 2, in the forecast of weather conditions. Furthermore, the evidence of the observations seems to be at present, that the incoming radiation does not fit » wee and Departures in the United States. 127 the ordinates of the black body at any one temperature. The wave lengths of the bolometer curve above 1-0 » seem to require by their greater length a solar temperature of about 7500° T, while the wave lengths of the curve from 0:00 w to 1:00 pu seem to be satisfied with something like 6500° T. If the sun is not radiating as a pure black body, as is very likely to be the fact, it follows that the study of the solar energy of radiation is an excessively complex problem. There is evidence from the prominences that the sun has an excess of energy along one diameter and a defect along the other at right angles to it; also, from the magnetic field that the areas of heat in solar longitude, while very irregular like incipient oceans and conti- nents, are yet capable of classification ; and, from the spectro- scope that the great variations in the angular velocities at the photosphere, as 26-7 days at the equator to 31:0 days at the poles, or 26-0 near the level of the upper chromosphere over the eauator to 29-0 days at the poles. These point to great changes in the local solar mass temperatures from place to place, though they may be deep seated. Such variations of the heat of the radiation energy at the sun, and of the absorbing and depleting capacities of the earth’s atmosphere, render the problem of direct radiation measures one of exceptional dift- culty. On the other hand, we have in the earth’s magnetic field one of the most sensitive, natural instruments for regis- tering the effects of solar radiant energy, which will be utilized before long in its highest functions. If ionization is a direct product of radiation, and it is registered accurately though indirectly in the magnetic field, it follows that this is our easiest approach to a working method of handling the materials in questions. It will doubtless require much more labor to remove some of the barriers that still stand in our way. The simple or superficial application of the standard formulas of radiation to the temperature indicated in fig. 3, will show how far we are from accounting for this distribution by any of the elementary methods heretofore discussed. It is necessary to separate the circulation effects from the radiation effects, and to separate the incoming radiation effects from the outgoing radiating effects. As none of these steps have yet been taken, we may consider the subject of the relations between radiation, temperature and circulation as virgin ground for an extensive research. It is well to note the growth of interest and conviction in the minds of students regarding the practical validity of this solar-terrestrial problem. We have only to recall the numer- ous papers on the subject in recent years, besides those of the writer, by Langley, Abbot, Fewle, Lockyer, Clayton, Clough, Artowski, Merecki, and the several International Commissions on Solar Physics and Meteorology. U.S. Weather Bureau, Washington, D. C. 128 Ford—Lfect of the Presence of Alkalies in Beryl. Arr. [IX.—The Lffect of the Presence of Alkalies in Beryl upon its Optical Properties ; by W. E. Forp. Tue attention of the writer was called to the subject of the effect of the presence of alkalies in beryl upon its optical prop- erties by a note in an article by Lacroix* on the tourmaline- bearing pegmatite veins of Madagascar. A description is given there of a rose-colored beryl which possessed unusually high values for its indices of refraction and specific gravity, and which on qualitative examination showed the presence of alkalies, notably cesium. The assumption naturally followed that these abnormal values for the refractive indices and specific gravity were due to the presence of the alkalies in the mineral. This seemed a point of sufficient interest and import- ance to merit further investigation. The role played by the alkalies in beryl was determined in this laboratory, a number of years ago, through a series of analyses by Penfield,t and later by the same investigator and Sperry. Specimens of the beryls rich in alkalies upon which these analyses were made are preserved in the Brush collec- tion, and in two cases yielded material suitable for optical investigation. It was possible to make an orientated prism and to measure the indices of refraction of the beryl from Willi- mantic, Conn., analyzed by Penfield,t and also of the cesium beryl from Hebron, Maine, analyzed first by Penfield,+ and then later by Wells.§ In addition to these, two other beryls were investigated, first the pink beryl from San Diego Co., Cali- fornia, in which the writer determined qualitatively some years ago the presence of alkalies,| and second, the rose beryl from Madagascar, presumably the same as described by Lacroix. Specimens of the Madagascar beryl of gem quality were generously placed at the writer’s disposal by Dr. G. F. Kunz. An analysis was first made of the pink beryl from Mesa Grande, San Diego Co., California, the material being furnished by an irregular fragment of gem quality which was presented to the Brush collection by Mr. E. Schernikow. The analysis showed a total of 1-48 per cent of alkali oxides, a smaller amount than had been anticipated and, further, gave no test for the presence of cesium. As the specimen analyzed showed no crystal faces it was impossible to cut an orientated prism from it by means of which the two indices of refraction could be determined. A prism was, however, cut at random from a fragment of the material and the value of the index for the ordinary ray obtained. There was in the Brush collection a small crystal group of faintly pink beryl from the neighboring * Bull. Soc. Min., xxxi, 218, 1908. + This Journal, xxviii, 25, 1884. ¢ Ibid, xxxvi, 317, 1888. § Dana’s System of Mineralogy, 6th ed., p. 407. | This Journal, xxii, 22, 217, 1906. Ford—Liffect of the Presence of Alkalies in Beryl. 129 locality of Pala and, thinking, that from this specimen both indices might be determined, an orientated prism was cut from it and measurements of the two indices made. The values of the indices for the ordinary rays as determined from the two prisms were, however, quite different, that of the Pala beryl being the higher. This suggested that the two specimens differed in the amount of the alkali oxides which they contained and this was proven by sacrificing enough of the crystal to permit the making of a determination of the alkalies present. The Pala beryl was found to contain 3°77 per cent of alkali oxides of which over half of a per cent proved to be cesium oxide. The rose-colored beryl from Madagascar contained still more alkalies, 4°98 per cent in all, 1:60 per cent of which was cesium oxide. The material analyzed showed no crystal faces and the prism for the measurement of the indices of refraction, also, had to be cut at random. It happened, however, that it must have been cut with its edge very closely parallel to the direction of the optical axis for the birefringence shown was quite what would have been expected through the study of the various other results. In order to prove the orientation of the prism, a section was cut from it at right angles to its faces and, in conver- gent light, this section showed an unaxial interference figure nearly symmetrically centered in the field of conoscope. So the I II Til IV Vv Mesa Grande Willimantic Pala Madagascar Hebron Analyst, Analyst, Analyst, Analyst, Analyst, Ford Penfield Ford Ford Wells SiOk Les 64:98 65°72 undet. 62°79 62°44 ENO ASI 18°40 undet. 17°73 17-74 Here. eae eh aS ae 0°40 HeO}, 52 aw eee 0°26 pe ee ae IA OR Fa 0°12 faee trace ne BeO ._.. 18°42 13°08 undet. 11°43 11°36 (OO Re eer ease 0°57 1:70 3°60 KO POs 0°12 0°28 NES eee Nia On 0°84 0-75 1°59 1°60 1:13 WikOn ae = 0°46 0°28 1°33 1°68 1°60 ene 2°16 2°06 undet. 2°65 2°03 Total _. 99:90 100°79 nets 99°58 100°30 Total alkalies 1°48 1°15 3°77 4°98 6°33 Specific gravity 2°714 2°73 2°785 2°79 2°80 o Ss 158157 1°58455 159239 1°59500 159824 ey undet. 157835 158488 (1°58691)* 1°59014 wo—€e= ‘00620 700751 ( :00809)* -00810 * Approximate. Am. JouR. Sco1.—FourtTH SERIES, VoL. XXX, No. 176.—Avucust, 1910. 9 130 Ford—LHffect of the Presence of Alkalies in Beryl. : values of the index for the extraordinary ray and the birefrin- gence, as determined from the prism, while not exactly correct, must be very nearly so and consequently they have been quoted, the figures being enclosed in each case in a parenthesis. Above are given the various analyses with the corresponding determinations of the indices of refraction and specific gravity. The indices of refraction were all measured in sodium light. From the consideration of the above table it is quite clear that the replacement of beryllium oxide in beryl by the various alkali oxides raises both the specific gravity and the values for the indices of refraction in the mineral. There is also shown an increase in the amount of birefringence as the percentage of the alkali oxides rises. The relationship that exists in minerals between their composition and their optical constants is at best exceedingly complicated. And in the case of beryl where one oxide (BeO) is replaced in varying amounts by four other oxides (Li,O, Na,O, K,O, and Cs,O), possessing widely differing molecular weights, it is impossible in our present state of knowledge to derive any law that shall accurately codrdinate the chemical and optical factors. It is, however, a recognized fact that, in general, where a mineral varies in its composition by the isomorphous replacement of one element or oxide by another, the values of the indices of refraction and the specific gravity are raised, when the repiacing element or oxide has a higher atomic or molecular weight than the one replaced and vice versa. The results of the present investigation of beryl are fully in accord with this principle. The effect of such variation in composition upon the birefringence of the mineral is, however, apparently not necessarily a corresponding one, although, in the case of beryl, it also rises in amount with increase in the values of the indices of refraction. An interesting fact might be noticed in this connection. Ordinarily because of their comparative low molecular weights (excepting in the case of the rare oxide of cesium) the intro- duction of alkali oxides into a mineral serves to lower its indices of refraction and birefringence. The opposite is true in beryl and apparently so because the oxide replaced, BeO, has a lower molecular weight than any of the alkali oxides, the respective values being as follows: BeO, 25:1; Li,O, 30-06 ; Na,O, 62°10; K,O, 94°30; Cs,O, 281-76. It could, therefore, be reasonably assumed that the introduction of any of the alkalies would cause the rise of the values for the refractive indices, but it is probable, however, that the presence of cesium oxide with its high molecular weight would have the predominating influence. Laboratory of Mineralogy, Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University, New Haven, Conn., June, 1910. Beede—The Guadalupian and Kansas Sections. 131 Art. X.—The Correlation of the Guadalupian and the Kansas Sections* ; by J. W. Brrpe.t Introduction.—The appearance of the “Guadalupian Fauna” t again brought into prominence the question concerning the age of the rocks of Kansas and Oklahoma that have usually been referred to the lower Permian. The writer thought it quite necessary to make a trip to the Guadalupe region last season in order to determine anew the stratigraphic relationship and, if possible, to determine the paleontologic interrelations of the red beds and the Guadalupian limestones. These red beds are common to the Texas and Kansas regions, and their age and relationships are known. If the relative position of these beds to the Guadalupian deposits could be established, then the cor- relation of the deposits with those of Kansas could readily be made. The outcrop of the Guadalupian strata were therefore studied during the summer of 1909, and with the assistance of Mr. Hal P. Bybee during the earlier part of the season. Stratigraphy. Our visit to the region last summer was for the purpose of reviewing the stratigraphic relationship and determining whether the Pecos valley red beds actually occupied a higher position than the Guadalupian limestones and, if possible, to _ secure fossils from them which would demonstrate their age. Only the general itinerary and more important observations will be mentioned here. After a brief survey of the region lying east of the Davis mountains, from Phantom Lake to Kent, and San Martine, Texas, we traveled west and north from Toyah over the Creta- ceous red beds, and along the eastern outcrop of the Delaware mountain formation to Guadalupe Point. Here the upper part of the type section of the Guadalupian series was studied and collections made. Then at Carlsbad, New Mexico, the Pecos valley red beds with the subjacent limestones and sandstone were seen, with broad, low anticlines of the upper Guadalupian limestone protruding through them. Farther west the gypsum deposits of the red beds appeared in the synclines and on the sides of the anticlines. East of Queen the upper-Guadalupian limestones rise from beneath the gypsum beds and form the mass of the Guadalupe mountains of this region, some thirty miles north of Guadalupe Point. A trip south through the * Read before the Paleontological Society of America, Dec., 1909. + By permission of the State Geologist of Kansas. ¢ Girty, U.S. Geol. Sury., Prof. Paper 58, 1908 [1909]. See also Rich- ardson’s paper in this Journal, April, 1910, pp. 325-387. 182. SJ. W. Beede—Correlation of the Guadalupian mountains to the Texas line gave assurance of the stratigraphic position of the uppermost beds shown at Carlsbad and at Queen. Near Carlsbad were studied a locality thirteen miles west of town (five miles west of McKitrick spring), and another at the mouth of Dark canyon. The beds here consist of thin lime- stones and covered slopes apparently composed of soft sand- stones or clays. Shales are visible at McKitrick spring. These rocks overlie the massive upper Guadalupian limestone. Nu- merous pieces of yellowish sandstone were seen on the north side of Pine canyon, near Guadalupe Point on the top of the mountain, though none were seen in place. Near the head of Dog canyon and about Queen the sandstones are in place. The stratigraphy is well shown in Sitting Bull canyon just below Queen. The physical character of the Capitan in the northeln extension of the Guadalupes changes rapidly. In Pine canyon itself it seems to be composed to some extent of large lenticular masses, while in Sitting Bull canyon rocks nearly 500 feet below the summits of the mountain show cross-bedding on a magnificent scale. Sometimes the lithological character of the beds varies very rapidly. North of the region of Guadalupe Point, the purer limestones appear to be replaced by those of dolomitic appearance, and with this change the Capitan fauna ceases, being nearly unknown north of the Texas line. In the vicinity of Carlsbad the general stratigraphic relations of the red beds and underlying limestones and sandstones are well shown. SION orcas > / ae Me i Santa Fe piers i é y Liga) 4) oN § : CECE] EP ly Mera d | slowly for that class of sediments. Thus, though disturb- ances raised the southern part of the Guadalupe limestones above sea level and permitted their partial removal and the subsequent deposition of the upper red beds upon the eroded surface, the fauna may well have been an early Permian fauna. Until further data are at hand I am much inclined to this latter hypothesis. The fact that several hundred feet of the Kansas Permian deposits grade off into typical red beds in a very short distance in Oklahoma is suggestive of possible conditions east of the Guadalupes. If such were the case, we 140 SJ. W. Beede—Correlation of the Guadalupian. would expect the Guadalupian faunas to cease as abruptly upon the strata changing to the red beds as the Kansas faunas do upon entering the Oklahoma red beds. At the same time, owing to the very nature of the origin of the red beds, their extreme southwestern part may have been deposited slightly later than the main mass farther to the north and east. However, this is regarded more in the nature of a possibility than a probability. The accompanying map (fig. 3) indicates the probable rela- tionship of the marine areas during Council Grove-Chase and Guadalupian time in the immediate area under consideration. No attempt is made to show the full extent of deposits laid down at this time. The full lines indicate marine conditions and the lines alternating with stippled ones eontinental-marine deposition. The extent to which the two factors contributed to the formation of the red beds is at present unknown. The area of marine conditions in Central Texas is to represent the Albany sea. Bloomington, Indiana. Palmer— Potassium Ferricyanide in Alkaline Solution. 141 Arr. XI.—The Application of Potassium Ferricyanide in Alkaline Solution to the Estimation of Vanadium and Chromium ; by Howarp E. Parmer. [Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ. —cexiii. ] In previous papers from this laboratory methods for the estimation of cerium in the presence of the other rare earths,* for the estimation of thalltum,+ and for the estimation of arsenic, antimony, and tint have been described, based on the oxidizing action of potassium ferricyanide in alkaline solution, and reoxidation by permanganate of the resulting ferrocyanide in acid solution. The present paper deals with the application of these reac- tions to the estimation of vanadium and chromium. The reactions involved may be represented by the following equations : V,0,+2K,FeC,N,+2KOH=V,O,+2K,FeC,N,+H,0. Cr,O, + 6K,FeC,N,+6KOH=2Cr0O,+6K,FeO,N,+3H,0. 5K,FeC,N, + KMnO,+4H,SO,= : 5K,FeC,.N,+3K,SO,+MnSO,+4H,0. Estimation of Vanadium. A solution of ammonium vanadate was made up by dissolv- ing pure ammonium vanadate in water, and standardized by evaporating definite portions in a platinum crucible and weigh- ing as V,O, after ignition. Through definite portions of the standardized solution of ammonium vanadate, made slightly acid with hydrochlorie acid, a current of sulphur dioxide was passed until the clear blue color indicated complete reduction of the vanadium to the con- dition of V,O,. Thesolution was then boiled in a current of car- bon dioxide until the last traces of sulphur dioxide were removed. To the cooled solution a solution of potassium ferricyanide containing at least ten times as much ferricyanide as is theoret- ically necessary for the oxidation, and a solution containing about 6 grams of potassium hydroxide were added, having the solutions of ferricyanide and potassium hydroxide sufliciently concentrated so that the total volume of the solution was about 100 or 125 cubic centimeters. At least the amounts of ferri- eyanide and potassium hydroxide stated were found to be nec- essary to ensure complete oxidation of the vanadium with the concentration employed, and if the solution was more dilute, more ferricyanide was required. It then became necessary to remove the vanadium before acidification and titration with * This Journal, xxvi, 83. + Ibid., xxvii, 879. + Ibid., xxix, 399. 142 Palmer—Potassium Ferricyanide in Alkaline Solution. permanganate, as, if not removed, it would form a precipitate with the ferrocyanide. The removal of the vanadium was effected by means of a solution of barium hydroxide, which completely precipitated the vanadium as barium vanadate ; this precipitate, after settling, was filtered off on an asbestos felt, and the filtrate and washings were acidified with hydrochloric acid and titrated with permanganate. Titration in sulphuric acid solution was unsatisfactory on account of the difficulty in noting the end point in the presence of the precipitate of barium sulphate which was formed by the action of the sul- phuric acid on the excess of the barium salt, and it has been found, in connection with the previous work, that, unlike the case of ferrous salts, ferrocyanide may safely be titrated by ermanganate in the cold in dilute hydrochloric acid solution. MMe results of the determinations are recorded in Table I. TABLE I. V.0O; K,FeC.N, KOH V2.0; taken used used found Error grm. grm. grm. grm. grm. (1) 0'0960 4 6 0:0959 — 0:0001 (2) 0°0960, 4 6 0'0954 —0:0006 3) 0:0960 4 6 0:'0956 —0:0004 (4) 0°0960 4 6 0°0962: +0°0002 (5) 0:0960 4 6 0'0956 —0'0004 (6) 0:0960 4 6 0:0959 —0°0001 (7) 0°0960 4 6 0'0961 +0:'0001 (8) 0°0960 4 6 0°'0961 +0:0001 (9) 0°0960 4 6 0:0960 +0°0000 (10) 0'0960 4 6 0°0961 +0°0001 Estimation of Chromium. As Bollenbach and Luchmann have recently shown,* chro- mium may be quantitatively oxidized from the condition of Cr,O, to the condition of CrO, by potassium ferricyanide in alkaline solution, and a measure of the oxidation obtained by titrating with permanganate the ferrocyanide formed. According to their method an excess of at least 4 to 6 times the theoretical amount of potassium ferricyanide and 40 to 50 cubic centimeters of a 2-normal solution of sodium hydroxide were added to the solution containing the chromium to insure complete oxidation of the chromium. The oxidized chromium was removed by precipitation as barium chromate by means of barium hydroxide solution, and filtration. The filtrate was then acidified with hydrochloric acid and titrated with perman- ganate according to Bollenbach’s modification of De Haen’s method,+ designed to overcome the difficulty involved in * Zeitschr. fiir anorg. Chem., Ix, 446. + Zeitschr. fiir anal. Chem., xlvii, 687. Palmer— Potassium Ferricyanide in Alkaline Solution. 1438 obtaining an exact end point in the titration of large amounts of ferrocyanide, owing to the formation of a precipitate of K,MnFeO,N, during the titration, as was first pointed out by Gritzner.* This modification consisted in adding an excess of permanganate to the solution and, after the precipitate had . . . nv cleared up, titrating back the excess of permanganate with — potassium ferrocyanide in the presence of a trace of a ferric salt, the formation of a permanent green coloration due to the ferric ferrocyanide indicating the end point. In experiments carried on in coufirmation of this method a solution of potassium chromate was used, whose standard had been determined by precipitating definite portions as mercurous chromate and weighing as Or,O, after ignition ; and also by precipitating as chromium hydroxide by ammonia, after reduc- tion with hydrochloric acid and aleohol, and weighing as Cr,O,. The determinations were made as follows: Portions of the standardized solution were made slightly acid with hydrochlo- ric acid, and a eurrent of sulphur dioxide was passed through the solution until the clear green color indicated complete reduction of the chromium to the condition of Or,O,. The sulphur dioxide was then expelled by boiling’ in a current of carbon. dioxide. To the cooled solution potassium ferricyanide and potassium hydroxide were added in solution and the pro- cedure given by Bollenbach and Luchmann, as outlined above, was followed. However, using the amounts of ferricyanide and potassium hydroxide given by Bollenbach and Luchmann as sufficient to completely oxidize the chromium, the low results of Table II were obtained, indicating that the oxidation of the chromium was incomplete; but by using about 15 times the theoretical amount of potassium ferricyanide and a rather strong solution of potassium hydroxide, with the total volume of the solution about 100 or 125 cubic centimeters, as in the experiments recorded in Table III, results were obtained which were in accordance with the theoretical. As in the previous work, a correction had to be applied to the determinations for the amount of permanganate taken up by the ferricyanide alone. Taste II. CrOs K;FeCoNeg KOH CrOs taken used used found Error erm. grm. germ. erm. grm. (1) 071010 6 1) 0:0979 —(0-0031 (2) 0°1010 8 16 0°0981 —0:°0029 (3) 0'1010 8 16 0°0989 —0:'0021 (4) 0:1010 8 WO it 0°0997 —0°'0013 * Chem. Zentralblatt, 1902, i, 500. 144 Palmer—Potassium Ferricyanide in Alkaline Solution. Tanie III. CrOs K,FeCyNo KOH CrOs taken used used found Error grm. grm. grm, grm., germ. (1) 0°1010 16 15 01016 -+-0:0006 (2) O'LOLO 16 15 O'1014 + 0:0004 (8) 0°1010 16 15 0'10138 + 0'0008 (4) 0°0505 16 15 01514 +-0°0009 (5) 0°0505 16 15 0'0506 . + 0:0001 Estimation of Vanadium and Chromium when present together. For the estimation of both vanadium and chromium when present together, the following method was worked out: The solution contaming the vanadium and chromium, both in the higher condition of oxidation, was divided into two portions. Into one portion of the solution, made slightly acid with hydro- ehlorie acid, sulphur dioxide was passed until the reduction of the vanadium and the chromium was complete; the solution was then boiled in a current of carbon oxide until the last traces of sulphur dioxide were expelled. To the cooled solu- tion a sufficient excess of potassium ferricyanide and potassium hydroxide were added in solution. By this process the chro- mium was oxidized from the condition of Cr,O, to the condition of CrO, and the vanadium from the condition of V,O, to the condition of V,O,. After allowing the solution to stand a few minutes, a solution of barium hydroxide was added to complete precipitation. The combined precipitates of barium chro- mate and barium vanadate were filtered off on asbestos and thoroughly washed; the filtrate was made acid with dilute hydrochlorie acid and titrated with a known amount of per- ; ; rete : manganate in excess, and the excess titrated with > potassium ferrocyanide, according to the method given above. In the other portion of the solution the vanadium was deter- mined as follows: The solution, about 100 cubic centimeters in volume, was made acid with from 10 to 15 cubic centimeters of glacial acetic acid, and hydrogen peroxide was added. The solution was then heated to boiling and boiled for a few min- utes; by this process the perchromic acid and the pervanadic acid, which were first formed in the cold, were decomposed, the chromium being reduced to the condition of Cr,O,, while the vanadium remained in the condition of VEOR The solution was diluted somewhat, and a solution of lead acetate was added to complete precipitation of the lead vanadate; the chromium, being in the condition of Or,O,, was not precipitated. The solution was stirred vigorously to coagulate the precipitate, and Palmer—Potassium Ferricyanide in Alkaline Solution. 145 was heated to boiling, which had the effect of making the pre- cipitate more compact. The precipitate was filtered off on asbestos, washed thoroughly, and dissolved in potassium hydroxide. The solution was made strongly acid with sul- phurie acid, whereby the lead was precipitated as the sulphate, while the vanadic acid remained in solution. A current of sulphur dioxide was then passed through the solution until the blue color indicated complete reduction of the vanadium to the tetroxide condition ; and the sulphur dioxide was ex- pelled by boiling in a current of carbon dioxide. The warm solution was then titrated with permanganate until the first permanent pink color appeared ; and this could be easily recognized in the presence of the white precipitate of lead sulphate. This titration gave a measure of the amount of vanadium present; and by subtracting the number of cubic centimeters of permanganate used in this titration from the number of cubic centimeters used in the preceding titration, the number of cubic centimeters corresponding to the oxidation of the chro- mium from Cr,O, to CrO, was obtained. The results of the determinations are given in Table IV. TaBLe IV. V2.0; CrOs; V.0O5 CrOs taken taken found Error found Error erm. erm. grm. erm, erm. grm. (1) 0°1139 0°1010 0'1134 .—0:0005 0°1010 + 0°0000 (2) 071139 01010 0°1139 +0°0000 0:1017 +0°'0007 (3) 0°11389 0°1010 071134 —0°0000 0°1019 +0:0009 (4) 0°1139 01010 0:1142 + 0:00038 0°1019 + 0°0009 (5) 0°1139 0°1010 O-1131 —0'0008 O°1015 + 0°0005 (6) 0°1139 0°1010 0°1134 —0:'0005 0'1016 + 0:°0006 (7) 0'1189 0:0505 0:1139 - 0°0000 0°0507 + 0°0002 (8) 0'1139 0°0505 0°1134 —0°0005 0°0507 +0°0002 (9) 0°0569 0:0505 0:0565 —0°'0004 0°0505 +0:0000 (10) 0:0569 0°0505 0°0563 —0°0006 0°0508 + 0°0003 Am. Jour. Sct.—FourtH Series, Vou. XXX, No. 176.—Avusust, 1910. 146 W. 7. Schaller—Ludwigite from Montana. Arr. XII.—Ludwigite from Montana; by Watpremar T. SCHALLER. Occurrence and Association. Tur ludwigite here described was collected at Philipsburg, Montana, by Mr. Donald F. MacDonald and sent to the chemical laboratory of the Survey for determination by Mr. F. C. Calkins. It is stated to occur in metamorphosed limestone with large bodies of magnetite. An examination of a thin section showed that a member of the olivine group was sprinkled throughout the ludwigite and in addition a minute amount of a carbonate and a secondary fibrous mineral was present. The lndwigite forms small spherulites composed of radiating fibers of a very dark green or nearly black color. In its physical properties it resembles the original ludwigite from Hungary. Under the microscope with high magnification the fibers extinguish parallel and show a strong pleochroism, parallel to the elongation a sea-green, normal thereto a chest- nut-brown with stronger absorption in the brown than in the green. The refractive index is much higher than 1:67. The olivine mineral has a mean refractive index of about 1°66 and cleavage sections, parallel to 6 {010}, showing a and have refractive indices lying between 1°65 and 1°66. The minerai must therefore be very low in ferrous iron and is referred to forsterite. As no calcium was noted in the analysis, the carbonate is either magnesite or siderite. Analysis. The sample free from magnetite but containing a small quantity of forsterite and minute amounts of the colorless fibrous mineral and the carbonate, gave on analysis the follow- ing results, the figures in the last column showing the values with the forsterite and carbonate deducted and the analysis recalculated to 100 per cent. The ferrous iron was determined by a modification of Pratt’s method,* using finely ground material. Some experi- ments conducted by Dr. Hillebrand on samples of this mineral showed that the oxidizing effect of grinding on the ferrous iron was slight. The first value for alumina (1°98 per cent) was obtained as the difference between the gravimetric determination of R,O, and the subsequent volumetric titration *Hillebrand, W. F. The Analysis of Silicate and Carbonate Rocks, Bull. 305, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1907, p. 138. W. T. Schaller—Ludwigite from Montana. 147 Analysis of Ludwigite from Montana. Analysis of ludwigite mixed with forsterite Analysis of and carbonate, ludwigite. 1 2 3 Average HeO: seen. 2. 6°12 5°53 5°74 5°79 OY MgO eevee J COLO 38°60 39°42 39°04 33°78 uNotaliron =). | so'sopenoo.On gies jhe Fe,0O, ete Set aches sean aahds 29°73 BIBT SiO, - easy uae 8°97 8°74 8°85 8°85 bags Al,O, ahs Suara 1:98 1°64 fess 1°81 QM H,O+ ms hrege tere 97 ssid ae 97 1°24 H,O— mi eere “91 95 "85 “90 113 Co, eee eicysetey= 28 43 Bers 36 fs Be B,O, Bee ete 13°48 neon seo 13°48 16°94 100°93 100°00 of the iron with permanganate solution. The iron and aluminum chloride solution was repeatedly evaporated with methyl alcohol to expel all the boric acid. The second value (1°64 per cent) was determined by precipitating the alumina by phenylhydrazine, as described by Allen.* As the two determinations agree fairly well, the presence of a small amount of alumina in the sample seems well confirmed. The higher result of the first case is probably due to the retention of a small amount of boric acid. Whether the alumina belongs to the ludwigite or to one of the accompanying minerals is difficult to decide, but it has here been included in the borate. The boric acid content has also been determined by Wherry and Chapin,t who give as the average of their results 12°82 per cent B,O,, a value slightly lower than the one here given. The water content, though small, is still of sufficient importance to merit consideration. While no definite con- clusion has been reached, it is believed that most, if not all, of the water is really unessential to the mineral. The determi- nations were made on the finely ground material and consider- able water was thereby unquestionably taken up by the mineral.t As some water may also have been furnished by the secondary fibrous material, it therefore seems justifiable to conclude that a good part, if not all, of the water reported in the analysis is extraneous. It has been entirely omitted in the consideration of the ratios deduced from the analyses. * Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. xxv, p. 421, 1908. See also Bull. 305, U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 95. {+ Determination of Boric Acid in Insoluble Silicates, HE. T. Wherry and W. 4H. Chapin. Journ, Amer. Chem. Soce., vol. xxx, p. 1691, 1908. { For data on this point, see this Journal, vol. xxv, p. 328, 1908. 148 W. 7. Schaller—Ludwigite from Montana. Discussion of Formula. From the tigures of the average analysis, the ratios were calculated and found to be as follows : Ratios of ludwigite analysis, Moores. OHOOH act ci ua ane _.. (3°57 MgO FeO ale i) eee ante | r592 1-00 | 43 FeO Fe,O, ----- 1858 [Less 1475 Mg, SiO, Saree AT Op ihe? 177 and 82 MgCO,] { 2088 408 Hoey wees 1475 COM kre 82 Bish gee B26". Ss oA neat ye 1926 1-02 The ratios agree well with the formula generally given for ludwigite, 4RO. Fe,0,-B,O, The high water content obtained by Whitfield,* on the Hungarian material, namely 3°62 per cent, is substantiated neither by the analysis of the Montana mineral, as given above, nor by the analysis of the material from Hungary, as described beyond. Yet both samples yield about a per cent of water which is at present impossible to prove foreign to the mineral and may, in time, be shown to be an essential constituent thereof. If the water given off above 107° (H,O+) be considered as essential to the mineral, a formula of about the proportions RO: Fe,O,:B,O,: H,O = 16:4:4:1 would result. While the ratios agree well with the general formula of ludwigite, the amount of ferrous iron is too small (even by referring all the ferrous iron in the analysis to ludwigite and none to either the forsterite or the carbonate) for the formula FeO.Fe,O,.83Mg0.B,0,. From the data given above, the for- mula for the Montana ludwigite may be written -57MgO. 43FeO. 3MgO. B,O,, showing an isomorphous mixture of a Ferrous ferric magnesian borate with a muagnesian ferric magnesian borate, the latter being in excess. As has been previously shown by the analyses of Ludwig and Sipéez and of Whitfield and confirmed by the analysis given beyond, the Hungarian mineral approximates closely to the definite formula FeO.Fe,O,.3Mg0.B,0,, though one anal- ysis by Ludwig and Sipéez shows a slight deficiency in the ferrous iron. The mineral from Montana, however, is very much lower in the ferrous iron and correspondingly higher in the magnesia, the ratios of B,O,: Fe,O,: FeO+MgO remain- ing constant. There is here, then, sufficient evidence of the existence of magnesian ferric borate, Mg0.Fe, O,.3Mg0O.B,0,, free from ferrous iron, not yet found in nature in the pure state but preponderant in the Montana ludwigite, being present * Whitfield, this Journal, vol. xxxiv, p. 284, 1887. W. 7. Schaller—Ludwigite from Montana. 149 in isomorphous mixture with the corresponding ferrous ferric magnesian borate, to the extent of 57 per cent or over half. If some of the ferrous iron present in the sample belongs to the forsterite or the carbonate, the percentage of the magnesian borate would be still greater. Ludwigite from Hungary. For comparison with the above, an analysis was also made of the ludwigite from Hungary. The quantitative analysis, made on the finely radiating black mineral, is as follows : Analysis of ludwigite from Hungary. 1 2 3 Average HeOee eet ok es W584 15°68 15°80 15°84 NIG OR ieee cs waiad 28°86 28°88 eis 28°88 Total iron as Fe,O,-. 53°35 52°74 53°72 28 8 ei O Mee a ae Ss se ya aes 35°67 AO AE 2. 50 52 ee 51 FIRO AS HN eee 78 "86 ae 82 COR aie el -90 raf Re os 90 Amsolhs. Peete ee "32 “40 3 ee 36 BiOreeeee Bast ie. [17:02] 2s: aS [17°02] 100°00 The ratios from the average analysis give, after deducting sufficient MeO for the CO, to form magnesite, the formula FeO.Fe,O,.83Mg0.B,0,, as shown below. Ratios of ludwigite analysis. HCO se acer pe ne eee 220 99 Ma Opsedet eu osp 2 102 3:06 is Od 8 ae attain 223-100 Bi One ee or ee ade 243 1:09 COMME MR sp ie 100) ea Summary. The isomorphous relation of the FeO and MgO in ludwigite can be well shown by bringing together the available analyses, which also shows how closely the mineral from Hungary agrees with the calculated values for the pure ferrous-iron ferric magnesian borate. The first column gives the calculated values for FeO.Fe,O,.3Mg0.B,O,, the second, third, fourth, and fifth the analyses of the Hungarian mineral and the sixth that of ludwigite from Montana. 150 W. 7. Schaller—Ludwigite from Montana. Analyses of ludwigite, 1 2 3 4 5 6 FeO. Fes03 Ludwigite from Hungary Ludwigite 3Mg0.B.05 analyzed by : from Ludwig & Ludwig & Montana Sipoez Schaller Whitfield Sipdez ReO.- 17201 17°67 15°84 15°78 12°46 OMT MgO... 28°61 26°91 28°88 30°57 31°69 33°78 Fe,O,- 37°81 39°29 37°67 35°93 39°92 37°37 ALO; ee Ce ee ate te te B,O,-. 1657 15°06 [17-02] 12°04 16:09 16°94 MnO n= mea tr. sae 0°16 cn aa HOS ice. | pleeeeben aaron Aa 1) 1: ROP Mee eI Sap) rbrer oF) ijaye SIO, ce hea TW) ROG ae he eestor paca COSTE eas Aft 8 0:90 beaks Bad Be a —— 100°00 98°98 100700 =100°16 §=©100°16 §=100°00 The second analysis (column 5) by Ludwig and Sipéez shows a slight replacement of the ferrous iron by magnesia, carried out to a much larger extent in the mineral from Mon- tana. All new occurrences of ludwigite should be carefully examined chemically, as the possibility of the existence of the ferrous-iron free magnesian borate is strongly indicated by the above analyses. Chemical Laboratory, U. 8. Geological Survey. Ford and Bradley—Study of a Labradorite. 151 Arr. XIII.—Chemical and Optical Study of a Labradorite; by W. E. Forp and W. M. Braptry. Trrovex the courtesy of Dr. George F. Kunz the Brush Mineral Collection received some time ago a suite of water- worn pebbles of a perfectly clear and almost colorless mineral which on investigation proved to be a labradorite. The locality from which the specimen came is given by a corre- spondent of Dr. Kunz as the Altai Mountains, in Mexico, just across the international boundary from New Mexico. The specimens offered ideal material for chemical and optical study, and as plagioclase feldspars of this composition are nut very frequent in occurrence, it was thought that a brief description of the mineral would be of interest. The analysis by Bradley gave the following results: I II Average Molecular Ratios SiO, Ae 51°27 51°21 51°24 *8483 Al,O, a ee 30°89 30°79 30°84 "3017 CaOr 222 Pee. 13°52 13°65 13°59 "24292 Na,O cic aeese 3°74 3°78 3°76 "0605 0623 K,O ae 0°18 0°16 0°17 ‘0018 Fe,O, eee 0-71 0°75 0°73 etc Ign PUN Dosa 0°24 0°15 0°24 see 100°55 100°59 100°57 Molecular Albite Anorthite Ratios Molecule Molecule SiO, eaten ae °8483 "3738 (or 6:00) 4745 (or 2°00) Al,O, Send ye *3017 0623 (or 1:00) °2348 (or 1-009) Na,O0 +K,O = -0628 0623 (or 1:00) (Ohi Oy Rear "9422 "2492 (or 1-021) Ratio of albite molecule to anorthite molecule, 1: 1:918. The small amount of water is considered to be hydroscopic and the 0-7 per cent of ferric oxide is assumed to be due to small inclusions of hematite as explained in a later paragraph. On calculation the analysis gives, as is shown above, the ratio of the albite molecule to that of anorthite as 1:1:918. This places the mineral in about the middle of the labradorite series. The specific gravity of the material analyzed was found to be 2-718. The theoretical value for the specific gravity of a mixture corresponding to Ab,An,,,, obtained by using the values of the specific gravities for the end members of the 152. Ford and Bradley—Study of a Labradorite. Sone as given by Day and Allen,* (Albite = 2°605 ; Anorthite 12) 2-765) was found to be 2°710. ithe mineral was water-clear and almost colorless, showing only in the larger pieces a faint tinge of yellow. In some cleavage fragments, when viewed Sa pect to the poorer cleavage face 6(010), a copper-like reflection was seen, similar to that in the sun-stone from Tvedestrand, Norway. It was evidently due to minute tabular inclusions of some iron oxide, probable hematite, which lay in planes parallel to J (010). On examination under the micr oscope with a high-power lens these inclusions were seen to be very minute and without erystal outline, many of them possessing a curved shape similar to that of acomma. One fragment showed larger inclusions which in this case were arranged parallel to both cleavage directions. These larger inclusions were more regular in shape, being in general like very thin wafers with a circular or slightly elliptical outline and having a lens-shaped cross-section. A thin section of this specimen oround parallel to one of its cleavage surfaces showed under the mier oscope, first a series of nearly circular inclusions of a copper color scattered irregularly over the field and which were lying parallel to the plane of the section, and second, a series of thin, lens-shaped inclusions arranged in parallel lines, these latter being the cross sections of the inclusions lying in the cleavage plane perpendicular to the section. Of the two cleavages, the one parallel to the base, ¢ (001), was excellent, while, as is usually the case with the feldspars near the anorthite end of the plagioclase series, the cleavage parallel to 6 (010) was imperfect and difficult to obtain. Several measurements of the cleavage angle were made on different fragments, the two best giving the following closely agreeing angles, 85° 49’ and 85° 50’. Sections were ground parallel to each cleavage face and the angles of extinction were measured in sodium light with the trace of the cleavage of the other face. On account of the imperfect cleavage parallel to (010), the two sections that were made parallel to this face were carefully adjusted so that in each case they made with the basal cleavage an angle having a value within a few minutes of theory. Sections parallel to ¢ (001) were easily made, but because of the imper- fect nature of the cleavage parallel to (010) it was not always possible to be certain of this direction in the section. The method adopted was to find a cleavage fragment that showed both cleavages present, as proven by the measured angle between them, and then to grind the section parallel to *The Isomorphism and Thermal Properties of the Feldspars; Carnegie Institution Pablication, No. 31, p. 74, 1905 Ford and Bradley—Study of a Labradorite. 153 c(001), making note of the direction of the line of cleavage of } (010). The average values of a series of readings of the extinction angles of the two sections made in each case with the direc- tion of cleavage of the other face were as follows : Measured Calculated on b (010) =~ —94° 37 — 95° 33 on ¢ (001) = 4 SQN —11°58 In the second column are given the theoretical values of the extinction angles of the respective sections, calculated by Mallard’s formula, as given by Schuster.* The agreement of the measured and calculated values is fairly satisfactory. Both sections when viewed in convergent polarized light show the emergence of an optic axis just beyond the field of the microscope. Laboratory of Mineralogy, Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University, New Haven, June, 1910. * Min. Petr. Mitth., v, 192, 1882. 154 G. F. Chambers—Halley’s Comet. Arr. XIV.—Halley’s Comet; by Grorer F, Cuamerrs, FURS) Tuis brochure, extracted almost verbatim from the author’s extended work, The Story of the Comets, published last year, is intended to meet the large demand occasioned by the return of Halley’s comet for knowledge with regard to this comet and such facts regarding comets in general as are necessary to make the account of an individual comet intelligible in itself. It contains all that needs to be known by the general reader of the past history of this comet and also of its present appear- ance up to the time of its perihelion passage, shortly after which this pamphlet was published. The purpose of the present article is to present for reference in a form accessible to readers of this Journal a summary of this pamphlet, supplemented by reports of the later period of the comet’s visibility sufficient to give a comprehensive view of the knowledge acquired from the latest apparition of what is generally considered to be, historically at least, the most interesting of all comets. In anticipation of the return of the comet elaborate prepara- tions were made by mathematical astronomers for its early discovery. The labor of preparation was much increased by the large perturbation by Jupiter soon after the perihelion of 1835. Nevertheless as early as 1864 Pontécoulant assigned a date for the next perihelion which proved to be a close approx- imation, and the final predictions of Cowell and Crommelin published in January 1909 were but three days in error, the actual date of perihelion being April 19. This result was con- siderably closer than any obtained for the return in 1835. The competition for the earliest discovery of the comet by photography was very keen and aroused much interest the world over. The first announcement of its appearance was made by Wolf from a plate taken September 11, 1909, at Heidelberg. Soon after it was found to have been fixed on a plate taken at Greenwich, Sept. 13, and some months later it was identified on a plate taken by Keeling at Helwan in Egypt late in August. Search had begun at Greenwich and Heidelberg as far back as the early part of 1908, while an unsuccessful search by Dr. O. J. Lee at the Yerkes Observatory in December, 1908, led him to conclude that it was not then as bright as the 17th magnitude. The first visual observation of the comet was made at the Lick Observatory with the 36-inch reflector on October 16. During November and December observations were numer- ous at various observatories, but on the whole they were neither * Oxford, Clarendon Press. New York, Henry Froude, pp. 48. G. F. Chambers—Halley’s Comet. 155 very satisfactory in themselves nor consistent with one another. It seems altogether probable that the brightness of the comet fluctuated irregularly i in a manner not dependent on its distance from the earth and sun, and this appears to the present writer to be the one fact of any special scientific interest noted con- cerning the comet during its entire period of visibility. Rev. E. T. RB. Phillips, at Ashstead in Surrey, observed it on ten nights between November 22 and December 29 and reported as follows: “Tt has never regained the brightness of November 22, when it was quite unexpectedly about magnitude 10, but it exhibited some fluctuations in light. After ‘being very faint at the end of November (nearly as s low as magnitude 12) it revived some- what in the early part of December, but on December 6, under excellent observing conditions, it was again as faint as magni- tude 11°5 or 12. On December 8 it could just be glimpsed occasionally with 33 inches eccentric stop and its magnitude was probably about 11. It was not seen again owing to bad weather till 18th, when it was surprisingly faint considering its greater proximity, probably below magnitude 12, and on 20th it was probably below magnitude 125. On 25th the moon was nearly full, and the comet invisible, but it was again observed on 28th. On that occasion it appeared about as diffi- cult as when it was first seen at Ashstead on November 16. The estimated magnitude was 13.” During January, February and March the comet approached superior conjunction, and observations were for this reason limited and unimportant, though during January it became vis- ible to the naked eye under favorable conditions, but not in the United States on account of its south declination. Shortly before its perihelion passage, April 19, the comet passed behind the sun and appeared to the west of it in the early morning, rising at the earliest about 3 a. m. Observations were now again limited by the brief period of visibility before strong twilight, the prevalence of cloudy weather and the light of the moon, which was full on April 24. During the first part of May, while it had not yet much re- ceded from the sun and was still approaching the earth, the tail attained its greatest brightness but in length was very consid- erably foreshortened. For a short time near perihelion it was traced in the morning sky to a length of 140°. After passing between the earth and sun on May 19, when it was very nearly in true conjunction, the tail was displayed at a large angle to the line of sight in the evening sky, and after the full moon of May 22 at a good distance above the horizon, but by reason of its increased distance from the sun it was much diminished in brightness. 156 G. EF. Chambers— Halley's Comet. By the great majority of non-professional observers, who had been long waiting for a view, it will be remembered as it appeared around May 24 between 9 and 10 p. m., some 10° below Regulus and about of the 2d magnitude, with a tail faint but well defined, straight and easily discernible to the naked eye for a length of 25°, pointing almost directly toward the planet Jupiter, which was some 40° from the nucleus. The curvature of the tail was considerable but was not con- spicuous either before or after its perigee because the plane of the curvature was but little inclined to the line of sight. It was sufficient so that the tail was seen in the morning sky on the 20th of April, the day after the comet passed between the earth and the sun, the nucleus at the same time being in the evening sky. It is not unlikely that this phenomenon was due to the for- mation of two separate tails of Bredechins types, extending on opposite sides of the earth at the same time. In comparison with former appearances there is considerable evidence that the tail was somewhat less brilliant than here- tofore, though the difference was not very remarkable nor more than was to be expected. Considerable interest was felt in the passage of the earth through the tail, which on account of the curvature probably occurred on the 20th of April instead of the day of conjunction. Indeed, on account of the uncertainty as to the distribution of the cometic matter and the amount of curvature, it is not possible to assert positively that the earth actually passed through any portion of the tail. No evidence of the occurrence was obtained in the form of afterglow or shooting-stars, nor was any special effort to this end made by astronomers. A suggestion of analyzing great volumes of air for several days after the 20th to detect unusual chemical constituents was not considered worth the trouble, if indeed it were practicable. The oceurrence of this phenomenon took a strong hold on the popular imagination, and in spite of all that was published as to the impossibility of any harm from it or the possibility of even detecting it, ignorant people were genuinely alarmed and great numbers kept watch in the streets of the cities during the night of the 19th, though in fact, as before ex- plained, the earth did not actually pass through the tail until the 20th, if at all. At the time of the publication of this article no detailed reports of spectroscopic observations have appeared. WILLIAM BEEBE. Setentifie Intelligence. 157 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. GEOLOGY. 1. The Cement Resources of Virginia west of the Blue Ridge ; by Ray 8. Basster. Bull. No. I-A, Virginia Geological Sur- vey 1909 [1910], pp. x and’ 309, and 30 plates.—The author has here brought together a great deal of information relating to the limestones and shale formations of the state west of the Blue Ridge. This information has been gleaned from all sources and especially from the extensive travels of the author throughout the state in tracing the various boundaries of the Ordovician formations. Many chemical analyses of the limestones are given. Stratigraphers will find here much new and detailed information regarding the Ordovician, Silurian, and Lower Devonian forma- tions. The guide fossils to the more important cement-bearing formations are illustrated in plates and these will be of great service to the field worker in his age determination of the various deposits. The printing and illustrations are good and the book is above the average of state geological reports. ¢.'S. 2. Proposed Groups of Pennsylvanian Rocks of Eastern Oklahoma ; by Cuas. N. Goutp, D. W. Oungern and L. L. Hurcuison. ‘Whe State University of Oklahoma Research Bulle- tin, No. 3. Pp. 15 and1 map. Norman, 1910.—The Pennsyl- vanian sediments of Oklahoma have a thickness of from 10,000 to 12,000 feet, of which at least three-fourths is shale. At definite intervals in these deposits occur limestones known as the Clare- more (Fort Scott), Lenapah, Pawhuska and Wreford. On the basis of the position of these limestones the Pennsylvanian is divided into the Muskogee (9550 feet thick and coal-bearing), Tulsa (about 1200 feet thick), Sapula (about 1000), and the Ralston (about 800) groups. Cc. S. 3. Yorkshire Type Ammonites ; edited by S. 8. Buckman. London, 1910 (Wesley & Son).—The Jurassic (Lias and Oolite) ammonites of Yorkshire, inadequately described in the early days of geology by Young and Bird, John Phillips and Martin Simpson, are to be illustrated in this work by excellent photographs made mainly by J. W. Tutcher. Each species appears on independent sheets, as in the Palaeontologia Universalis, and reproduces the original description and new photographs of the type specimens where these are extant. The editor supplements this informa- tion by additional matter that he has gathered during a lifetime, modernizing each species. There are to be about 200 plates. The work is to appear in about 16 parts of about 12 to 16 plates each and the edition is to be limited to 250 copies. Each part, post free, costs 3 shillings 6 pence. Two parts have now appeared having 24 plates, heliotype and half-tone, and 22 species descriptions. ‘The work is necessary to all students of ammo- nites. : C. Ss. 158 Scientific Intelligence. II. Miscetiraneous Sorenriric IntreLLicENorR. 1. Physical and Commercial Geography : A study of Certain Controlling Conditions of Commerce; by Hnreerr Ernest GreGory, ALBERT GALLOWAY KELLER, and Avarp Lonerry Bisnor. Pp. vi, 469, with 3 plates. Boston, 1910 (Ginn & Co.),— The foregoing work contains the substance of courses given at Yale. In form and style it is a companion volume to Keller’s Colonization, and is issued under Professor Keller’s editorial supervision. Like that work, its purpose is to interpret rather than to enumerate or describe, and to deal with types rather than with details. The subject matter is three-fold and the work is divided into three corresponding parts. Part I (Gregory) discusses the phys- ical environment, giving attention chiefly to those features which clearly affect the life of man, including, however, a brief account of the struggle for existence among plants and animals. Part II (Keller) is entitled “ Relation of Man to Natural Conditions,” but actually covers both natural and human controls of commerce, closing with a brief consideration of commercial policies. Part III (Bishop), on “‘ The Geography of Trade,” is devoted to the United States and its possessions, the British Empire, and the German Empire. Within each country, however, the material is assembled by industries rather than by sections : for example, there are separate chapters on the vegetable, animal, mineral, manufacturing, transportation, and merchandizing industries of the United States. At the end there is also a chapter on miscel- laneous products not produced chiefly in the countries already treated. In point of method the book is consequently of the fusion type represented by Adams, dealing both with regions and with world industries. It is liberally supplied with cross references and has a good statistical appendix. It is, further, assumed that the student will have access to some text on physical geography and to an atlas of physical, historical and political geography. The work unquestionably marks a distinct advance in the treatment of economic geography. It is intended primarily for college classes and it will assuredly be welcomed by all who believe that economic geography is (or should be) something more than a compend of isolated and unrelated statistics. The book also contains much of interest to the general reader, pro- vided he be capable of consecutive thought. EDWARD VAN DYKE ROBINSON. University of Minnesota. 2. Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture ; by Crrit G. Hopkins. Pp. xxiii, 653. Boston (Ginn & Company).—This work is ‘‘ dedicated to the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, the rightful guardians of Miscellaneous Intelligence. 159 American Soils.” The author states that his object is “ to teach the science of soil fertility and permanent agriculture” by giving facts rather than theories. The work is divided into four parts and an appendix. Part I (pp. 1-158) embraces a discussion of molecules, valence, certain fundamental chemical laws, the more common chemical elements, radicals, acids, bases, salts, and certain principles of chemical nomenclature. It treats of the chemistry of plant nutrition and synthesis ; minerals of agricultural importance ; and soil forma- tion, classification, and description, as conducted by the Bureau of Soils of the United States Department of Agriculture. It also contains a brief reference to crop requirements, and to sources of plant food. This part, though possibly capable of being read with profit by the farmer, is too technical in character for those not studiously inclined ; it will, however, be found useful to those students of agriculture who have not already laid a broad chem- ical foundation, and who wish in a brief way to secure at least an elementary idea of the relation of chemistry to soils and to plant production. Part II (pp. 159-342) is devoted to ground limestone and its use, to the phosphorus compounds more commonly used for agri- cultural purposes; to organic matter in its relation to soil improve- ment; and to the fixation of nitrogen by direct bacterial agencies, as well as through the medium of symbiosis. Following a brief chapter on systems of rotations for grain farming, is an extended chapter on farm manures, bone meal, basic slag phosphate, and phosphate rock. The special emphasis on the latter is doubtless due to the efforts of the author to promote its use as a fertilizer on certain of the soils of Illinois. Part II closes with a lengthy chapter on theories of soil fer- tility, beginning with those of van Helmont, advanced about three hundred years ago, and extending to certain recent and much disputed theories advanced and supported chiefly or wholly by the Bureau of Soils of the United States Department of Agri- culture. The author points out that a recent investigator of the question in Kentucky finds that these views are not generally accepted and taught in the agricultural colleges of the United States, as had been claimed by the Bureau of Soils at a previous congressional hearing. He also takes occasion to express his opinion concerning these views with characteristic energy and vigor. Part III is devoted to soil investigations by culture experi- ments. In this connection extended reference is made to the long continued field experiments at Rothamsted, England. Special attention is also given to the field experiments at the Pennsyl- vania State College, at Wooster, Ohio, in the South, in Canada, and in the author’s own state of Illinois. The closing chapter deals with pot-culture and water-culture experiments in compar- ison with field results. In this connection the author calls atten- tion to certain shortcomings of the paraffined. wire-basket method 160 Scientific Intelligence. of the Bureau of Soils, as a means of determining actual soil deficiencies. Part IV treats of prepared commercial fertilizers, and briefly of indirect manures, of agencies protective against plant dis- eases and insect pests, of critical periods in plant life, losses of plant food from plants and soils ; also of factors of importance in crop production, and of those involving success in farming. The Appendix contains more or less miscellaneous matter, and tables of agricultural interest. The work is original in its composition, but is perhaps too contro- versial to meet accepted ideas, if intended as a text-book. It lays unusual emphasis on certain matters like limestone and phosphate rock, but contains a vast amount of matter which will cause it to be welcomed as a valuable addition to our agricultural literature. H. J, WHEELER, 8. Publications of the Smithsonian Institution.—Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 48, The Choctaw of Bayou Lacomb, St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana; by Davin I. Busanetr, Jr. Pp. viii, 37, with 22 plates and 1 figure. Washington, 1909. The following volumes in the series of Smithsonian Miscella- neous Collections have also appeared: Vol. 51, No. 4. Hodgkins Fund (Publication 1869). The Mechanics of the Earth’s Atmos- phere: A Collection of Translations; by CiEvELAND ABBE, Third Collection. Pp. iv, 617. Vol. 54, No.3. The Constants of Nature. Part V. A Recal- culation of the Atomic Weights. Third edition, revised and enlarged; by Frank WicGLeswortH CLARKE. (Publication 1923.) Pp.iv,548. Noticed on p. 80 of this volume. Volume.55. (Publication 1920.) Bibliography of Aeronau- tics ; by Paut Brocnerr. Pp. xiv, 940. Vol. 56, No. 1. The Scales of the African Characinid Fishes ; by T. D. A. CockErr tt, Pp. 10, with 2 plates. (Publication 1929.). No.3. The Scales of the Mormyrid Fishes with Remarks on Albula and Elops; by T. D. A. Cockrrett. (Publication 1931.) Pp. 4, with 3 figures. Washington, 1910. OBITUARY. _ JOHANN GOTTFRIED GaLLE, the German astronomer and the first observer of the planet Neptune, died at Potsdam on July 10, at the age of ninety-eight years. Dr. Cuoartes Apraruar Wuits, the geologist, died at his home in Washington on June 29, at the age of eighty-four years. He was professor of Natural History in the University of Iowa from 1867-73, and in Bowdoin College from 1873-75. He was also State Geologist of Iowa from 1866-70, and was connected as geologist and paleontologist with the U. 8S. Government Sur- veys from 1874-92; he was also actively associated with the Smithsonian Institution and the U.S. National Museum. His original contributions to geology and paleontology were numer- ous and important. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE [FOURTH SERIES.] —___4)—__ Arr. XV.—The Use of the Grating in Interferometry ,* by C. Barus. 1. Introductory. 1t was pointed out elsewheret that on replacing the symmetrically oblique transparent mirror in Michelson’s adjustment by a glass grating,t gg, fig. 1 (for instance), it is possible, with ordinary plate glass and a non- silvered grating, to produce interferences between pairs of dif- fraected spectra, D’D", if returned by nearly equidistant mir- rors M/ and JV to a telescope in the line Y. Both of these spectra are very brilliant and not very unequally so, and the coincidence of spectrum lines, both horizontally and vertically, brings out the phenomenon. ‘This is of the ring type and not of the line type heretofore (1. ¢.) discussed ; but it occupies the whole field of the spectrum from red to violet. One obtains brilliant large confocal ellipses with horizontal and_ vertical symmetry, and the spectrum lines, simultaneously in focus, may serve either as major or minor axes. Their interfer- ometer motion is twofold in character, consisting of radial motion combined with a drift of the figure as a whole ina horizontal direction. Naturally a fine slit is of advantage, but the experiment succeeds with a wide slit, especially in the red, even after spectrum lines vanish. Such ellipses (as I shall call them, though they are probably ovals) .as have their centers in the field are clearly due to reflection from the same surface as shown in figure 1; curved - * Abridged from a Report to the Carnegie Institution of Washington. + Science, xxxii, p. 92, 1910; cf. Phil. Mag., July, 1910. { My thanks are due to Prof. J. S. Ames, who was good enough to lend me this grating. ; ; Am. Jour. Sct.—Fourts SERIES, Vou. XXX, No. 17%7.—Srpremper, 1910. 11 162 Barus Use of the Grating in Interferometry. lines or ellipses with remote centers are due to simultaneous reflections of the component rays from the opposite faces of the grating, so that the angle of the wedge of glass cannot be excluded. All owe their vertical and horizontal symmetry to the vertical slit and horizontal spectrum. ‘The ellipses are identically present in the successive orders of spectra at once. These elliptical fringes thus embody with the preceding (1. ¢.) the common property of being duplex in character ; only here the motion of dark rings to or from the centers of the ellipse, as a fine adjustment, is associated with a displacement of the fringes bodily through the spectrum (coarse adjustment). This displacement may be from red to violet or from violet to red as the virtual air-space increases in thickness, depending upon the adjustment, as will presently appear. In other words, for a given small interferometer motion of mirror, there is in general less displacement of fringes bodily than radial motion of fringes to or from the center. Slight deflection of the mirror is chiefly accompanied by radial motion of the fringes.* The effect thus produced is to give sharpness to the interfer- ence pattern, which soon vanishes for approximate adjustments of spectra. Similarly the micrometer screw produces a rapid passage of the pattern through its maximum size, a play of the screw of -1°™ being sufficient to pass from fringes of one extreme of small size, through the maximum size to the final extreme. On the other hand, there are many regions of interference ; in fact, different groups of interferences may sometimes be in the field at once, or more usually corresponding to slightly differ- ent angles between the mirrors and grating. All admissible angles, provided that symmetry is maintained (the virtual plane of the grating bisecting the angle of the mirrors), bring out the phenomenon. ‘This points to the fact that the earlier phenomenon referred to (1. ¢.) in which the center or normal ray was virtually at an infinite distance, is now produced near an accessible center, even if this is not actually in the field. However, in the earlier case when the angle of incidence is zero, curved lines may also be obtainable. Experiments with a silvered grating showed no advantage, whether the transparent film covered the grating or the plane face of the glass. In fact in case of good adjustment the phe- nomenon is so strong as to need no accessory treatment. This is, in fact, one of its advantages. A great difficulty in adjust- ment is the occurrence of stationary fringes due to the rear face of the grating. These may even wipe out the spectrum lines; but usually they lie at a finite focus and are not seen * This changes the effective thickness of the grating. Barus— Use of the Grating in Interferometry. 168 with a sharp spectrum. Fortunately many positions are avail- able for obtaining the ellipses, so that a satisfactory one is easily found. Unless all overlapping spectra show sharp lines the adjustment is very tedious. The amount of grating space is less than 1 sq. em., though, of course, a larger size is con- venient for experiment. 2. Special properties.—The motion of the ellipses bodily across the spectrum, corresponding to the increased or decreased virtual air space (micrometer screw), shows that whereas the vertical dimension or axes (direction of fixed color) do not appreciably change,* the horizontal axes grow rapidly smaller ; i. e., the ellipse is more eccentric from red to violet. With the erating used, however (about 2800 lines per em.), the major axis remained vertical, i. e. the circular form was not reached throughout the first order even in extreme red. It follows from this that in the second order the major axis of the ellipses will probably be horizontal, and this was found to be strikingly true. The figure, moreover, is necessarily coarser and the lights and shadows in greater contrast. In the third order the ellipses are drawn out horizontally to a corre- spondingly greater degree. Thus it is clear that with a more dispersive grating, the circular or even the horizontally elon- gated form must occur in the first order. Spectrum lines are very distinct, particularly in the second order. In all orders of spectra the centers of the ellipses are simultaneously on the same spectrum line and their vertical dimensions are about the same. Hence the spectrum lines may be used instead of cross hairs as they are fixed landmarks among the moving ellipses. With replica gratings the center of the ellipses is usually remote ; i. e., reflection does not easily take place at the grating surface. Apart from this the curved lines are good and strong. Samples must be tried out, in which the lines are as clear as possible in all the overlapping spectra. Six gratings of this kind were examined with about the same results. The centers of the ellipses could only rarely be brought into the field. It has been stated that considerable width of slit is admis- sible. Moreover the focal plane of the collimator (convergent or divergent) light or the focus of the telescope makes little difference, though the condition of parallel rays is naturally preferable. An eye focused for infinity sees the fringes very well without the telescope and they may be also caught on a screen; but coming through a slit they are liable to be dark and the advantage of the telescope is obvious. The second order is particularly accessible for naked-eye observation, and the light and black appearance is accentuated, but they are * Probably referable to increased refraction and decreased diffraction from red to violet. ; | 164 = Barus— Use of the Grating in Interferometry. liable to be irregular. Inclining the collimator moves the spectrum across the fringes vertically, while inclination of the telescope moves both equally. In this way the centers may often be found. With strong tipping, however, the figure becomes distorted or open above and below, as would be expected. If the light is intensified for projection or naked- eye work, there is also distortion. It is not necessary and apparently of little advantage to have the reflections from the mirrors J/ and JV occur at normal incidence. In fact the patch of white light on the grating surface and the return patch of spectrum may be over an inch Hie. i. apart. Inasmuch as the spectra are rigorously coincident, it follows that (apart from the refraction of the thick plate glass) the grating must be symmetrical with respect to the mirrors ; i. e., intersect the angle between them. Very little difference of size or shape is observable between extremes of such adjust- ment. Thus I rotated the grating about 10° (larger angles being unavailable), without appreciable effect, after one of the mirrors had been correspondingly adjusted. On examination of the effective air distances of the mirrors MM and WV from the grating, it is found that three positions are favorable to interference; in the first case (case A), J/ is farther away than JV from the corresponding faces of the glass plate; in the second (case B), they are about equidistant ; finally in the third (case C), JV is farther away, symmetrically with the first adjustment. For each case the admissible play Barus— Use of the Grating in Interferometry. 165 of mirror (micrometer screw) does not much exceed 1™™ for ordinary magnification. The second equidistant adjustment brings out the lines or ellipses with distant centers, and there are usually three types easily found (after one has appeared), by slightly inclining either mirror around a horizontal axis by a tangent screw. Thus as seen in fig. 2, fine lines, say 135° to the horizontal, coarse, nearly circular lines, concave downward or upward as the case may be, and finally broad lines, say 45° to the axis, may appear in succession. If the erating is rotated 180° around its normal, convexity upward changes to concavity upward, showing the wedge angle of the glass plate to be effective. The micrometer screw will pass any of these forms through a succession of inclinations Fie. 2. g. : . ; KL Ren unchangéd) the ring type is left in the field ; though the solitary ring type may change to the multiple type. This is true for case A or case C. It is also true for the eccentric type case L, where line types single or multiple reappear at slightly differ ent mirror angles. Briefly, rotation has no effect on the march of ellipses — through the spectrum; but in case & it changes convex lines downward to concave lines, and vice versa. Nor has reversal of grating any effect on the march, The position of the grating with respect to the mirrors (three places being available) alone determines this result, certainly in the opposed cases A and C, and probably in case B. The use of a compensator in either of the component rays is always accompanied by the two effects in question; 1. e., there is both relatively large radial motion of the fringes and rela- tively small displacement. Within the field of the telescope one may therefore be evaluated in terms of the other, the two having the stated relation of coarse and fine adjustments. In case B the fringes will rotate, expand, or contract. 3. Hlementary theory.—The endeavor must now be made to explain these results more in detail. For this purpose the diagrams of fig. 1 may be consulted. In the erating used at an incidence of about 45°, the angle of diffraction in the first order was about 32° 39’ for the PD, sodium line, there being about 2,847 lines to the em., corresponding to a grating space of D=-0003512™. Thus /D='1677. The index of refraction was assumed to be 1°53 for the same line. The diagrams are drawn for an angle of incidence of 45° and for normal reflection from the mirrors J/ and WV. In ease of the grating given, the three positions of the grating at which interferences occur were about °6°™ apart and are marked 124, 100, and 76 scale parts, on the micrometer screw normal to the Barus— Use of the Grating in Interferometry. 167 ‘ grating. In other words, it was convenient to move the grat- ing at ‘the center of the ‘spectrometer, rather than the mirrors Mand N adjustably attached near the edge of the plate grad- uated in degrees. In group “A at 124, the short air path is to WZ, the long path to Nv: in group O at 76, the reverse is true. In group > B at 100, the system is self- compensating and the air paths about equal. In all cases the angle of diffraction, 0, is less than the angle of incidence, 7. There are, of course, corresponding cases, 8 > 7%, which have not been drawn, because they merely dupli- cate the cases given, at a different angle. It is assumed that after more than one direct reflection or one diffraction, the interferences are no longer observable. The diagrams 124 and 76 show that the two reflections of the component rays at the grating take place at the same sur- face. Hence the occurrence of centered figures or rings. On the contrary, the reflections in diagram 100 take place at the two different faces of the grating, respectively. Hence the angle of the grating is included and liable to produce eccentric ring systems. The center may be so far off that the dark lines are nearly straight, but they change their inclination as the vertical projection of the center moves horizontally through the field. Some of these cases may coalesce in practice or they may destroy each other, more or less. I have taken a single inci- dent ray from which may come two parallel emergent rays, which are brought to interfere by the telescope. It would have been just as convenient to have taken the two corresponding incident rays which interfere in a single emergent ray. From the position of the mirrors it is clear that the regularly re- fracted rays are not returned. Only rays first diffracted at the grating (where they may also be reflected) are returned by the mirrors. As a whole we may distinguish two typical cases,—those in which both component rays are diffracted as in number 1 or refracted as in number 2, and those in which one component ray is refracted and the other diffracted. If 2 and @’ are the angles of incidence and diffraction in air, and 7 and @ the cor- responding angles of refraction and diffraction in glass, the path differences Ax are as follows: No.1. Aw=2yue/ cos 0=2°2™. era =2ue/ cos r+2e sin 6 (tan r—tan 6)=2°5™. tah =2me/ cos 0=2°2°™. ie = Zero. ome = —2Que/ cos 6+ 2ue/ vos r+ 2e tan 7 sin 6’, 168 Barus—Use of the Grating in Interferometry. No. 6. Zero, cc vf “ “ Ri ce “ 9. Aw=—2ue/ cos 6=2°2°™. 1.0; =—2yue/ cos O=2'2°™, Here wu is the index of refraction and e the thickness of the glass plate of the grating, and excess of path for the JZ ray is reckoned positive. These paths must be compensated by corresponding decrements and increments respectively of the air paths GZ and GN. Ordinarily, these path differences in glass being fixed for the given angles @, would fall away; but they vary essentially with color, and hence the degree of com- pensation is never the same for all colors. Furthermore, although the wave fronts of the two rays are the same on emergence, this does not imply coincidence of phase even in such cases as numbers 1 and 2, for instance: the absolute lengths of paths in glass are quite different, although their differences are the same. Consequently the cases 1 and 2 would again interfere if superimposed, one case being first diffracted and the other first refracted.* The path differences are respectively, 3 4 Noi 1,23) Age ( S — (tan 7—tan 6) sin 6’) = 4s cos@ cosr ln i ] em No. 2, 1: == 6 te palioaei + (tan 7—tan (6 sin 6’) ee 28} If the grating is moved Az em. parallel to itself to be equal to these increments A 2, at an angle 90°—@ to the grating, 2A2= A2 cos 0 remembering that Aw and Az are passed over twice. Thus it is not surprising that so many cases were identified. It is also apparent that the air compensations are very different. and hence identification is facilitated. Finally, since a vertical slit and collimator are used, the section of a beam of light passing through the grating by a horizontal plane consists of parallel rays; the section by a vertical plane, however, is convergent. It is interesting to find the numerical data for the above equations, assuming that 2 = 45°, 0’ — 32° 39’, e = -68™, uw = 1°53 (estimated), A/D = 1677, for the sodium line of the spectrum. The results are given with the equations. Their mean value is about 2°3°", which is equivalent to a displace- ment of grating A z= ‘6, the value actually found. It follows, moreover, that the center of the ring system order, 7 0, must move from red to violet or the reverse, * A glass plate with identical gratings on both sides is here in question. Burus— Use of the Grating in Interferometry. 169 inasmuch as the compensation takes successively, at each color, in the same way. Although the equations hold only for the center and the symmetrically oblique rays belonging to the rings have not been given consideration, an approximate computa- tion of the motion of the ring centers may nevertheless be attempted. The relations numbers 1, 3, 9, and 10, which are more important, may be taken. Here is ” in the order of the fringe, DY the grating space, 2 the difference of air path, 2eu / cos 8 + 2a = Ndr; this with sini — sin 0’ =dA/D, sin & =psin 6, du/dry= — ‘015 y/d, an experimental interpolation equation for the given glass, will on differentiation yield dz/dn, dz/de, dz/dX, ete. From these qualitative interpretation of the above and the following data is obtainable; but quantitatively they are too crude, because they ignore the essential feature of oblique reflection from JZ and VY. For the radial motion, if dz/dn is the displacement of grating normal to itself per fringe, dz dX cos 6 Ge 4 is near the truth. Omitting these equations, an example of the displacement and radial motion in a given experiment may be adduced ; the former were fully 16 times less sensitive per fringe than the latter. The displacement is thus a coarse adjustment in comparison with the usual radial motion of the fringes and this is the distinet advantage of the present method for many purposes. It is like a scale division into smaller and larger parts, where the enumeration of small parts alone would be confusing or impossible. The ratio of the micrometer value of displace- ment and radial motion per fringe may be given any value since dz/drx we. Thus e= ‘42 would correspond (for the same #) to 10 radial fringes for one displacement fringe. | Again if ¢= -04°™ the two micrometers would be equally sensitive. Or for e¢=-01™ (microscope cover glass), the lateral displacement is actually four times more sensitive than the radial motion. The sodium lines here make admirable cross hairs and the ocular itself need have none. The conditions are the same in the second order, and the coarser rings and spectrum lines are often easier to count. 4. Compensator—It is not necessary, however, to use thin glass, for if a compensator is provided, i.e., if the grating is on the common plane between two thicknesses of identical 170 = Barus—Use of the Grating in Interferometry. plane-parallel glass plates, one of which carries the grating, the ideal plane in question is provided. The ellipses in this case would be infinite in size and their displacements infinitely large. By partial compensation (compensator thinner) ellipses of any convenient size and rate of displacement may therefore be provided at pleasure. The following table gives some rough experimental data where z is the advance of the microm- eter screw normal to the grating, i. e., the displacement of the grating to move the center of fringes from the D to the d lines of the spectrum, ¢' the thickness of the compensator plate parallel to the mirror JZ or JV as stated. Displacement of ellipses from the D to the 6 line, by moving the grating Azcm. normal to itself. 7¢=45°, nearly. Grating : e= "68 cm.: D = -000,351 cm.; » =1°53 (estimated). Com- pensation shown by negative sign. Position p taken while the sodium line was the major axis. S nl Sy Micro- - 3 Pompen: are meter No of Mee 8 : thickness} grating cae pees fringe HUISDECE Ae) e’x10? p eo! 104xdz/dn n 4 oO cm. cm. cm, cm, —48 05. 30 12 o°5 Very large N —44 ‘08 35 oat at ot do. N —29 2 45 oe Bo, Large N —10 20 65 cae ee Mean N +48 "38 115 44 26 | Very small | M —65 00 10 4°5 De Enormous N +0 Lea 70 28 V5} Mean None Rotation of the compensator offers the usual easy method of adjustment. In the second order the first rings, on compen- sation, usually more than fill the field. This is of course even- tually the case in the first order also. With very perfect com- pensation the ellipses are quite eccentric and the opposed lines nearly vertical and straight. Hence their motion, partaking of the twofold character specified, is complicated but usually opposite in direction on the two sides of the center for the same micrometer displacement. The whole phenomenon may vanish within a half mm. of play of the grating, passing from fine lines through enormous ellipses back into reversed fine lines, all nearly vertical. The displacement of the grating by the micrometer screw is the same per fringe, no matter whether the ellipses are large Barus— Use of the Grating in Interferometry. 171 or small, and in the last table it was about :00025™ per fringe. The displacement at the mirror would be more than twice this. The radial motion per fringe is of the order of wave-length. Naturally the position p of the grating changes parallel to itself linearly with the thickness e’ of the compensator, supposing other conditions the same, so that p, 2, and dz/dn all vary lin- early with e’, the thickness of the compensator. Finally, the virtual thickness of the air film can only be brought to vanish by compensation, otherwise spectra if equidistant are unequal in length from red to violet, and vice versa. The full equations for the amounts of displacement, etc., requires an evaluation of d@/dn, which in turn must take into consideration that reflection from the mirrors cannot in gen- eral be normal, except for the one color instanced above. This investigation will have to be reserved for another com- munication. Brown University, Providence, R. I. 172 T. W. Stanton—Fox Hills Sandstone. Arr. XVI.—Fox Hills Sandstone and Lance Formation (“ Ceratops Beds”) in South Dakota, North Dakota and Eastern Wyoming ;* by Trmoray W. Sranron. Tuer Laramie question is a perennial problem for strati- graphers and paleontologists, but with the continued rapid accumulation of facts, as the detailed investigation of the stratigraphy is carried over the entire area involved, it is reasonable to hope that the problem will not be perpetual. At the present time one of the most important points at issue is the relationship of the Lance formation+ (“ Ceratops beds”) to the Laramie formation and to the conformable Cre- taceous sequence beneath the Laramie. Some geologists hold that the Lance formation wherever it has been studied rests unconformably on the Laramie or some older formation and that the unconformity beneath it represents a long, complex epoch of elevation and erosion. In this paper evidence will be presented to show that in the rather widely distributed areas discussed there is a real transition from the marine Cre- taceous Fox Hills sandstone into the Lance formation and that sedimentation was practically continuous from the one into the other and probably on through the Fort Union. — The data to be discussed were obtained in three areas mostly during the summer of 1909. One of these, which includes the Cheyenne River and Standing Rock Indian Reservations in northern South Dakota and southern North Dakota just west of the Missouri River, was examined for coal lands by Messrs. A. L. Beekly, Max Pishel and V. H. Barnett under the gen- eral supervision of Mr. W. R. Calvert. This investigation afforded an excellent opportunity for the study of the Fox Hills sandstone in its typical area and of its relations with the overlying Lance formation. A second area, which has been described in some detail by Prof. A. G. Leonard, is along the Little Missouri from Marmarth to Yule in the southwest corner of North Dakota, where IL spent five days. The third area is the well known Lance Creek region in Converse County, eastern Wyoming, where Hatcher made his great col- lection of the Triceratops fauna. Nearly a week was spent here in company with Messrs. M. R. Campbell and R. W. * Published by permission of the Director of the U. 8. Geological Survey. +The name Lance formation has recently been adopted by the United States Geological Survey for the ‘‘ Ceratops beds” of eastern Wyoming and adjacent areas. Itis an abbreviated form of the term ‘‘ Lance Creek beds” which J. B. Hatcher applied to these deposits in 1903 (American Geologist, vol. xxxi, p. 369) with the statement that the name is taken “from the principal stream in the region where they are best represented in Converse County, Wyoming.” T. W. Stanton—Fox Hills Sandstone. 1g Stone. The three areas, though separated by intervals of 100 to 150 miles, all belong tc the same general region, throughout which it is evident that closely similar conditions prevailed in the closing stages of the Cretaceous. Standing Rock and Cheyenne River Indian Reservations. A detailed description of this area will be given by Mr. Cal- vert and his assistants in a report which isin preparation. For the present purpose it isonly necessary to direct attention to a few points. The area lies on the west side of the Missouri River between Cheyenne River on the south and Cannonball River on the north and it is divided into three approximately equal parts by Moreau and Grand Rivers, tributaries to the Missouri from the west. The rocks are little disturbed and usually appear horizontal in ordinary exposures, but a more general study of their dis- tribution shows that they dip a few feet in the mile toward the north or northwest. The lowest formation exposed is the Pierre shale, the upper part of which is seen in the valleys of all the streams mentioned except the Cannonball. Above the Pierre is the Fox Hills sandstone in many places forming bluffs for long distances along the streams. This is the highest marine Cretaceous formation in the section. It extends up the Missouri as far as old Fort Rice, North Dakota, a few miles above the Cannonball, and underlies the higher ground in a broad belt of country southwest of that point. Overlying the Fox Hills sandstone is the less resistant non-marine Lance formation which in published reports has been called “Cera- tops beds,” “ Laramie,” “lower Fort Union” and “somber beds.” It frequently forms badlands in the inter-stream areas on the reservations and extends up the Missouri valley to Bis- marck and beyond. As the streams have cut through both the Lance formation and the Fox Hills sandstone for long dis- tances, the relations between the two formations are easily studied. The Fox Hills sandstone was first named by Meek and Hayden* in 1861, who stated that it “is most distinctly marked at Fox Hills, between Cheyenne and Moreau Rivers, above Fort Pierre.” In the words of their description “ this forma- tion is generally more arenaceous than the Fort Pierre group, and also differs in presenting a more yellowish or ferruginous tinge. Towards the base it consists of sandy clays, but as we ascend to the higher beds, we find the arenaceous matter increasing, so that at some-places the whole passes into a sand- stone. It is not separated by any strongly defined line of demareation from the formation below, the change from the * Proc, Acad. Nat. Sci, Phila., vol. xiii, pp. 419, 427, 174 T. W. Stanton—Fox Hills Sandstone. fine clays of the latter to the more sandy material above being usually very gradual. Nor are these two formations distin- guished by any abrupt change in the organic remains, since several of the fossils occurring in the upper beds of the Fort Pierre group pass up into the Fox Hills beds, while at some localities we find a complete mingling in the same bed of the forms usually found at these two horizons.” The total thick- ness of the formation was then estimated at 500 feet, but in previous papers dealing with only the typical area the thick- ness was given as 100 to 150 feet, an estimate which is nearer the truth for this particular area. The variable character of the formation is indicated by Meek and Hayden’s description just quoted and this vari- ability as to details becomes impressive after a number of lo¢gal sections have been examined. In some exposures nearly the whole formation is a soft, friable, cross- bedded gray or yellow- ish sandstone, usually with many iron-stained concretions and indurated masses as on Cannonball River, 6 miles above its mouth, where single exposures show 60 feet of sandstone and the base of the formation is not seen. At other places similar sandstones occur at the top and at the bottom and include indurated beds of considerable extent, while the middle portion of the formation is made up of more or less sandy shale in bands a few inches thick of alternating lighter and darker color. This banded shale contains considerable vegetable matter in the form of stems and comminuted fragments and in general lithologic character it closely resembles some parts of the over- lying Lance formation. At still other localities within short distances either the upper sandstone or the lower one or some- times both of them are found to thin or disappear as distinct beds, their places being taken by more shaly material. The whole formation gives ample evidence of irregular sedimenta- tion in the presence of strong, variable currents. The irregular character of the formation may be shown by describing a few local sections beginning on Grand River near the mouth of Dirt Lodge Creek about 20 miles southwest of McIntosh, South Dakota. On the south side of the river the following section is exposed : Section on Grand River near the mouth of Dirt Lodge Creek. Feet 1. Hard gray sandstone with Tuncredia americana and Halvanenites <2 2.25. See ot ee 3S eee eee 15 2. Banded shale with Zusciolaria scarboroughi, Thracia, AnchuraScaphites; etess--e ee eeu) 2 aa ee eee 3. Hard gray sandstone with TZaneredia americana and Haliy menites’ $.42¢..¢) 2: 2 fo bee e as: eee eres 10 4. Soft yellowish massive sandstone__.....--..----------- 40 5. Dark clay shale referred to the Pierre, exposed ---.----- 75 T. W. Stanton—Vfoxw Hills Sandstone. 175 All except the basal member of the section belong to the Fox Hills. The hard sandstones of Nos. 1 and 3 are merely local indura- tions which in some places are seen to pass horizontally into soft friable sandstone. Other exposures in the neighborhood especially on the north side of Grand River show that the upper sandstone, No. 1, is very near the top of the Fox Hills. About a mile northwest of the mouth of Dirt Lodge Creek and not more than two or three miles from the section just described the upper sandstone is represented by a few feet of sandy shale which pass upward into similar sandy shale about 4 feet thick, which is filled with brackish-water fossils includ- ing Ostrea glabra M. & H., O. subtrigonalis KE. & 8., Anomia micronema Meek, and Corbicula subelliptica var. moreauensis M. & H. Immediately above this brackish-water bed without any apparent stratigraphic break are shales, soft sandstones and carbonaceous beds, weathering imto badlands, and locally con- taining abundant remains of Triceratops, Trachodon, turtles and other members of the Lance formation fauna. About 3 miles east of the mouth of Dirt Lodge Creek in section 12, T. 20 N., R. 22 E., the oyster bed at the top of the Fox Hills is again exposed with the basal portion of the Lance formation above it. Vertebrate fossils of the types just mentioned are here abundant about 30 or 40 feet above the oyster bed. A few miles farther east on Grand River near the mouth of Fire-steel Creek the contact of the oyster bed with the underlying sandstone shows an irregular surface suggesting an unconformity, but facts to be recorded on subsequent pages will show that the oyster bed actually belongs to the Fox Hills sandstone as proved by its fauna. Another instructive section in T. 15 N., R. 18 E., on Thun- der Butte Creek about 30 miles south of Grand River, is as follows : Section on Thunder Butte Creek. Feet 1. Friable gray and yellow sandstone with many large indurated masses locally containing an oyster bed with an abundant brackish-water fauna mingled with many specimens of marine Fox Hills species (see list on p. 180). Some evidence of channeling and erosion at base of OV SUI ROC OME emmy uone fae Ao Ve i 20 2. Banded shale and shaly sandstone.--..-.....---------- 50 3. Dark, somewhat sandy, shale referred to the Pierre with Avicula linguiformis KE. & §8., Mactra warrenana Mii dipHeeteqelxposediee.s2. 55225 22.34 hssn eden 30 176 T. W. Stanton—fox Hills Sandstone. In this section the sandstone forms relatively a small part of the Fox Hills and the absence of a prominent lower bed makes the base of the formation uncertain. The fossils from the underlying shale so far as it is exposed belong to the Fox Hills fauna. The oyster bed in the upper member of the section at one point is a conspicuous indurated very fossiliferous bed fully fifteen feet thick, but it thins abruptly within a few yards to two feet or less, the variation being due to the irregularity of its base. In other exposures less than + mile distant its position is only marked by scattering brackish-water shells. The Lance formation is seen in neighboring higher exposures. The exposures a few miles farther sonth in T. 14 N., R. 19 E., on the south side of Moreau River show a section similar to that last described, but they give a better contact with the overlying Lance formation. ; Section on south side of Moreau River. Feet 1. Soft sandstone, sandy shale, and carbonaceous shale in alternating beds a few feet thick, forming the base of the Lance formation. Fossil plants at the top and associated with Unio in the lower 4 feet (Lot 5423. See list below), be sisi See Re AO ee eae Se ee at eye 40 2. Soft friable cross-bedded gray sandstone irregularly strati- fied with bands of darker sandy shale. Large concre- tions or indurated masses near the base contain Fox Hills species of Scaphites associated with Corbicula (No. 5969. See list on p. 180). The Corbicula occurs in abundance to the top of the bed -___-.--- .--- 30 to 40 3. Banded shale with a few marine Fox Hills fossils -_____- 60 4. Dark, somewhat sandy, shale referred to the Pierre but containing a Fox Hills fauna. Exposed.------..--.-- 50 The fossil plants collected in the lower 4 feet of the Lance formation at this place have been examined by Dr. F. H. Knowlton, who refers them to the Fort Union and identifies the following species: ; 5423. Thuya interrupta Newb. Sequoia Nordenskibldi Heer Populus cuneata Newb. Viburnum marginatum Vesq. Sequoia acuminata? ? Lesq. Leguminosites? n. sp. Cyperacites sp. Monocotyledon—new This list is given for the purpose of showing that the Fort Union flora ranges to the base of the Lance formation. All the other plant collections from this formation were likewise referred to the Fort Union. T. W. Stanton—Fow TTills Sandstone. slird7¢ The minimum thickness of sandstone in the Fox Hills of this region was seen in a section at Rattlesnake Butte near the northwest corner of T. 11 N., R. 19 E., about 15 miles south of Moreau River. Section at Rattlesnake Butte, South Dakota. Feet 1. Hard gray sandstone with Glyptostrobus Ungeri Heer, Taxodium occidentale Newb., Viburnum marginatum Lesq., Cornus Newberry? Hollick, and other plants re- ferred tothe “lower Hort: Union 222. 2522 223-:2.- .. 5; 2.uClave sna emma see to REE. BE feed ok aes LO 2.5 CAnbOnaceOunms i aleraeenies fart ees ToGo ee OY So 4 4. Clay shale with some carbonaceous bands ----.---- ------ 8 Go Camnonaceouseshiale sa ser am er sda Ue tenet SE AS a 7 6. Soft, friable yellowish sandstone with large concretions or indurated masses in the upper part, forming top of TOR PEN Sere eee aoe Gen he A We EN ooo 1D 7. Banded shale with a few marine Fox Hills shells__-_----.- 90 This is the base of the local exposure, but in the neighbor- hood dark shale referred to Pierre is seen not many feet lower. The upper 5 members evidently belong to the Lance formation. No.6 did not yield any fossils at this point, but on Mud Butte, about 5 miles south, the same horizon yielded the mixture of brackish-water and marine Fox Hills species listed as No. 5870 on p. 179. It is evident from these sections that the Fox Hills sandstone is variable throughout its thickness. The lower part is no more constant than the upper. Its base is therefore indefinite, and it is by no means certain that the top of the dark shale necessarily taken as the top of the Pierre in the different sec- tions represents exactly the same geologic horizon. The fauna of at least the upper 100 feet of Pierre shale is essentially a Fox Hills fauna, indicating shallow marine waters and differs very little from that of the overlying sandstone, while it lacks all the species which in other areas are especially characteristic of the Pierre. The most common and characteristic species of this fauna in the Fox Hills sandstone and the upper part of the Pierre shale are as follows: Avicula linguiformis K. & 8. Avicula nebrascanu EK. & S. Cucullea shumardi M. & H. Limopsis striatopunctata EK. & S. Leda (Yoldia) evanst M. & H. Nucula cancellata M. & H. Nucula planimarginata M. & H. Am. Jour. Sct.—FourtH SERigs, Vou. XXX, No. 177.—SEPrEMBER, 1910, 12 178 T. W. Stanton—Fouw Hills Sandstone. Lucina oecidentalis (Morton) Tancredi americana M. & T. Protocardia subquadrata BK. & 8, Callista deweyi M. & H. Zellina scitula M. & Th. Mactra warrenana M. & H. Cuspidaria ventricosa (M. & TH.) Lunatia occidentalis M. & TH. Lunatia concinna H. & M. Lunatia subcrassa M. & H. Anchuru (Drepanochilus) americana (KE. & 8.) Pyropsis bairdi M. & H. Fusciolaria (Piestochilus) culbertsoni M. & H. Fasciolaria buccinoides M. & H. Pyrifusus newberryi M. & TH. Fusus (Serrifusus) dakotensis M. & H. Cylichna volwaria M. & H. Haminea minor M. & H. Cinulia concinna M. & H. Sphenodiscus lenticuluris (Owen) Scaphites conradi (Morton) - Scaphites conradi var. intermedius Meek Scaphites abyssinus (Morton) Scaphites nicolleti (Morton) Scaphites cheyennensis (Owen) At some localities as on Grand River near Dirt Lodge Creek the sandstones are filled with Zancredia americana M. & H., with very few other species. At the top of the Fox Hills sandstone with its purely marine fauna there is a rather thin but widely distributed brackish- water bed, already several times referred to, which contains Ostrea, Anomia, Corbicula, Melania, etc., in great abundance. The zone in which this fauna occurs varies in thickness from 3 or 4 feet up to 40 feet and is lithologically very similar to the underlying marine beds, but its base is irregular at many places and shows channeling and other evidence of erosion. It was therefore regarded by the field geologists as the basal member of the overlying Lance formation resting unconformably on the Fox Hills. In the study of this brackish-water bed evidence was found at several localities, distributed over a considerable area, that there is a distinct transition without a break of any impor- tance between the marine Fox Hills sandstone and the brackish- water deposit. The paleontologic evidence consists of distinc- tive Fox Hills species belonging to such marine genera as Scaphites, Lunatia, and Tancredia, found directly associated in the same bed with the brackish-water forms and occurring with them in such a way that they must have lived together or near T. W. Stanton—Foxux Mills Sandstone. 179 each other and been imbedded at the same time. Such a mix- ture of faunas was found at five localities, as shown in the following lists. The marine Fox Hills species are marked with ans. 5870. Mud Butte, SW 1/4 Sec. 25, T. 11 N., R. 18 E., about 20 miles south of Moreau River. Ostrea subtrigonalis KB. & 8. Ostrea glabra M. & H. Anomia micronema Meek Modiola meeki (K. & 8.) ? Corbicula occidentalis M. & H. Corbicula cytheriformis M. & H. . Corbicula subelliptica var. moreauensis M. & H. Panopea? sp. * Teredo sp. Neritina bruneri White Neritina ( Velatella) baptista White Melania insculpta Meek var. Melania wyomingensis Meek Viviparus sp. Melampus sp. * Scaphites conradi (Morton) The stratigraphic relations at this locality have been described in connection with the Rattlesnake Butte section on p. 177. 5871. Sec. 2, T. 11 N., R. 19 E., about 4 miles south of Moreau River. Ostrea subtrigonalis KE. & 8. Anomia micronema Meek Corbicula subelliptica var. moreauensis M. & H. * Lunatia concinna H. & M. Mr. Barnett reports that the fossils were obtained from a small exposure of friable sandstone in which the fossiliferous band is two feet thick. 5938. SE 1/4 SW 1/4 Sec. 18, T. 17 N., R. 26 E. Ostrea glabra M. & H. Anomia sp. Corbicula occidentalis M. & H. * Tancredia ? n. sp. Melania insculpta Meek * Scaphites conradi (Morton) Mr. Barnett states that the fossiliferous bed is an indurated sandstone about 40 feet thick at the top of the Fox Hills. 180 T. W. Stanton—fox Hills Sandstone. 5969. See. 27, T. 14 N., R. 19 E.. South side of Moreau River, above Thunder Butte P. O. Corbicula nebrascensis M. & H. Melania insculpta Meek * Scaphites conradi var. intermedius Meek * Scaphites cheyennensis (Owen) The section in which this collection was obtained is described on p. 176. 5975. North side of Thunder Butte Creek near south line See. 12, TS DG Re a: Ostrea glabra M. & H. Anomia micronema Meek Corbicula occidentalis M. & H. Corbicula cytheriformis M. & H. Corbicula subelliptica var. moreauensis M. & H. * Tancredia americana M. & H. * Tuncredia ? ov. sp. * Tunatia subcrassa M. & H. ? Melampus sp. ‘ Melania wyomingensis Meek Melania insculpta Meek * Scaphites conradi (Morton) The section at this locality is described on p. 175. The brackish-water species elsewhere are found in the Laramie and in the non-marine formations of the Montana group, but the marine forms, especially the ammonoids, which give the best evidence as to age, belong to the Fox Hills fauna. It is clear from these occurrences that there was no erosion interval of any geological importance between the marine Fox Hills and the overlying brackish-water bed, and that the latter belongs to the Fox Hills epoch of sedimentation. Above the brackish-water horizon is the fresh-water Lance formation consisting of soft sandstones, shales, thin coals and carbonaceous shales, retaining the same general character through 500 or 600 feet of strata. The flora from these beds, ranging from the bottom to the top, is referred by Dr. Know]- ton to the Fort Union. Vertebrate fossils are common, espe- cially in the lower 100 feet and ranging down to the base. These include the dinosaurs Triceratops and Trachodon with several other genera that are characteristic of the Lance forma- tion fauna elsewhere. The history of the epoch immediately following the Fox Hills sedimentation in this region has received two very differ- ent interpretations. One is the view here presented, that with- out any unrepresented interval of importance there was gradual transition from marine conditions through brackish-waters to the land and fresh-water conditions that generally prevailed during the deposition of the Lance formation. The other T. W. Stanton—Fox [Hills Sandstone. 181 adopts the current interpretation of the evidence from fossil plants which refers the Lance formation to the Fort Union formation, assigned to the Eocene, and requires a period between the close of the Fox Hills and the beginning of the Lance formation long enough to represent the Laramie, Ara- pahoe, and Denver formations of the Denver Basin, together with the long intervals of erosion which preceded the Arapa- hoe and the Denver, and another interval supposed to be between the Denver andthe Fort Union. It has been asserted that the erosion preceding Arapahoe deposition cut down through 14,000 feet of stratified rocks in the Denver area. It is worthy of note that there are no Fort Union rocks or floras known in the Denver Basin and no plant-bearing formations older than the Lance formation in the area now under dis- cussion. Early in their field work last summer the geologists had determined that the Lance formation immediately overlies the Fox Hills, and had received reports that the plants from near their base belong to the Fort Union flora. Special search was therefore made for physical evidence of the unconformity and hiatus which the facts seemed to demand. The only horizon at which a somewhat generally distributed break was suggested is at the irregular base of the brackish-water bed, and this irregular surface was therefore tentatively taken as the base of the Lance formation on the supposition that it indicated a hiatus in the sedimentary record equivalent to the Laramie and post-Laramie formations of the Denver Basin. That there was no such break in the record at this horizon is definitely proved by the occurrence of ammonoids and other fossils char- acteristic of the marine Fox Hills in the brackish-water bed as already described. The brackish-water fossils in themselves give evidence of their Cretaceous age. In the first place, almost all of them belong to species that in other areas occur in unquestioned Cretaceous formations. Secondly, brackish waters with such a fauna as the one in question must have had con- nection with the sea and no connection with Tertiary seas is probable. Marine waters retreated from the region of the Rocky Mountains and Great Plains at or just before the close of the Cretaceous, and there is no evidence that the sea has approached the region since that time. The nearest marine deposits of Eocene or later age are in the lower Mississippi valley and in the Gulf coastal plain of Texas. This fact gives special importance to the occurrence of an oyster bed 500 feet above the base of the Lance formation on the Little Missouri River, North Dakota, which will be described on a subsequent page. It may be suggested that there is a stratigraphic break between the brackish-water and fresh-water horizons, but no 182 T. W. Stanton—foxw [ills Sandstone. io 6) evidence of such a break has been found there. It is true that at various levels throughout the Lance formation there is evi- dence of current action and irregular deposition shown in cross-bedding, varying thickness and uneven surfaces of sand- stones, and similar phenomena. Such features are character- istic of continental deposits, and have little weight as evidence of important unconformities unless supported by other lines of evidence. In this case all the irregularities observed seem to be of purely local character. Valley of the Little Missouri from Marmarth to Yule, North Dakota. In the southwest corner of North Dakota, near the town of - Marmarth on the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound Rail- way, the valley of the Little Missouri cuts down through the Lance formation and the Fox Hills into the Pierre, and ‘shows a section comparable with those in the Indian reservations which we have been discussing. The area has been described by Prof. A. G. Leonard,* and my observations added little to the facts he has recorded. The Pierre shale is exposed on Little Beaver Creek, about 5 miles southwest of Marmarth, and yields a typical Pierre fauna with less admixture of Fox Hills species than is found in the top of the Pierre in the reservations. Immediately above the Pierre shale is banded shale with a thickness of about 40 feet overlain by 40 feet of soft massive sandstone, yellow with iron-stained bands and concretions below, gr ading up into gray sandstone above. This sandstone yielded a few marine fossils, including Leda ( Yoldia) evansi, Tellina scitula, Entalis ? paupercula ‘and Lalymenites major, which confirm Leonard’s reference of the sandstone to the Fox Hills. In several bluff exposures along the creek the top of the gray sandstone shows an uneven eroded surface which Professor Leonard has photographed and describedt as an unconformity in the following words: “ It is well shown at two points on Little Beaver Creek in section 7, T. 132 N., Rh. 106 W. Here the massive sandstone forming the top of the Fox Hills is seen to have undergone erosion before the deposi- tion of the brown and black -highly carbonaceous and argilla- ceous sandstone, which shows cross-limitation in places. Some of the depressions of the former land surface have been eroded to a depth of 6 feet below the adjoining elevations.” Immedi- ately above this eroded surface is the Lance formation, which Professor Leonard has described as “‘ somber beds ” and “ lower Fort Union,” with an estimated thickness of about 600 feet extending northward down the river 15 or 20 miles to the * Sth Bienn. Rept. N. Dak. Geol. Surv., 1908, pp. 29-114. + Op. cit., pl. v, p. 72. > T. W. Stanton—Fox Hills Sandstone. 183 neighborhood of Yule P.O. There is a very slight northward dip. Beds of carbonaceous shale and impure lienites are dis- tributed throughout the formation beginning with the basal stratum, and in 1 the upper half, according to Leonard, there are 5 or 6 workable coal beds. Dinosaur remains, including Tri- ceratops and Trachodon, are not uncommon in the lower. part, especially in the badlands near the mouth of Bacon Creek, a mile northeast of Marmarth. The formation is in every par- ticular similar to the equivalent Lance formation in the Chey- enne River and Standing Rock reservations. Irregular deposition and erosion with deep channeling are strikinely exhibited at several localities and on different hori- zons. One example of erosion which is worthy of description in a separate article is clearly shown in a cut bank by the side of the railroad yard at Marmarth, probably less than 100 feet above the base of the Lance formation. A bed of carbonace- ous shale with an average thickness of 20 feet is exposed to its full length of 250 feet. Both the top and the bottom surfaces are irregular as if eroded, and the underlying sandstone and the argillaceous bands in the bed are filled with vertical roots of plants. One end of the bed fingers out into cross-bedded sand while the other end is abruptly truncated and abuts against a friable, cross-bedded yellowish gray sandstone similar to and continuous with the sand that overlies the carbonaceous bed. Here is evidence of erosion at the base of the carbonace- ous bed apparently as great as that at the base of the whole formation, and of still greater erosion at the top of the same bed. It will be noticed that in this area there is no brackish-water bed at the top of the Fox Hills. Instead the change is abrupt from marine to land or fresh-water deposits, but there is evi- dence that marine or at least brackish-water conditions con- tinued in a neighboring area for some time after non-marine deposition began. Professor Leonard reported the finding of an oyster bed in the upper purt of the “somber beds” about five miles southwest of Yule in sect. 16, T. 185 N., R. 105 W., which is only about 15 miles north of Marmarth. The locality was visited last summer and the oysters were found associated with a coal (apparently bed F of Leonard’s section*) about 175 feet above the river level and according to Leonard’s estimates approximately 500 feet above the base of the Lance formation and certainly above all the dinosaurs that have been found in the region. The abundant oysters referable to Ostrea sub- trigonalis and Ostrea glabra lie a few feet above the coal ina carbonaceous shale. In some places the shells form a nearly solid band 6 inches thick, and they are distributed in thin bands and scattered individuals through 7 feet of shale. Such * Sth Bienn, Rept. N. Dak. Geol. Surv., 1908, p. 78. 184 T. W. Stanton—Fow Hills Sandstone. an oyster bed must have been formed in tidal waters connected with the sea, and its presence here argues strongly for the assumption that the underlying portion of the Lance formation was formed near sea level so that a slight downward movement permitted local temporary admission of brackish water into the low lying swamps and marshes in which coal was forming. It is, therefore, most probable that the abrupt change from marine to fresh-water and land conditions seen near Marmarth is purely local, and that the eroded surface at the top of the Fox Hills does not represent a time interval of any geologic importance. Lance Creek Area, Converse County, Wyoming. This well-known area has been described by Hatcher* and by Stanton and Knowlton,t and has recently been further discussed by Knowltont and Stanton.§ In the examination of last summer special attention was given to the Fox Hills sand. stone and its relation with the basal portion of the Lance forma- tion. Our principal contribution to the knowledge of the stratigraphy of the area was the discovery that the marine Fox Hills deposits extend about 400 feet higher than had pre- viously been determined, and that non-marine coal-forming conditions were temporarily inaugurated here before the close of Fox Hills time. The first section examined is on the south side of Cheyenne River at the mouth of Lance Creek, and extending up the creek a mile and a half or two miles. Beginning at the top of a prominent white sandstone the section is as follows: Feet 1. White cross-bedded sandstone with irregular brown indu- rated bands, masses, and concretions _..-..--.-------- 50 2. Soft sandy shale with bands of lignitic shale. Fragments of dinosaur bone were found on the surface here... ---- 50 3. Sandy shale full of Corbicula cytheriformis ? and Corbi- cula subelliptica var. moreauensis...._.....----..---1 / 2-1 4. More or lessicarbonaceous) shaler 9 o- Sema eee on . Soft massive gray sandstone with many brown concretions 25 6. Gray sandstone and sandy shale with bands of sandstone containing Fox Hills fossils, about -.._--.---..-_.---- 150 7. Cross-bedded, ripple marked, reddish brown sandstone witharrecular’ bases 020 see opm ere yee ein es 8 to 10 8. Massive soft buff sandstone with many large concretions and indurated masses and an abundant Fox Hills fauna. 100 9. Pierre shale with only the top exposed. ..-.-.-- .------- * This Journal (3), vol. xlv, pp. 185-144, 1893. Am. Naturalist, vol. xxx, pp. 112-120, 1896. + Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. viii, pp. 128- 137, 1897. + Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., vol. xi, pp. "179-238, 1999. SIbid., pp. 239-293. ~ T. W. Stanton—Fox ITills Sandstone. 185 ! The following is the list of fossils collected in No. 8 of this section: Avicula fibrosa M. & FH. Leda ( Yoldia) sp. Spheriola? cordata M. & HH. Veniella humilis M. & H. Protocardia subquadrata BK. & 8. Linearia? formosa M. & H. Tellina scitula M. & H. Cuspidaria moreauensis (M. & II.) Entalis paupercula M. & H.? Lunatia occidentalis M. & H. Anchura sp. Fasciolaria (Piestochilus) culbertsoni M. & H. Haminea sp. Sphenodiscus lenticularis (Owen) Scaphites conradi (Morton) Scaphites conradi var. intermedius Meek. Scaphites abyssinus (Morton). No. 6 yielded the following: Nucula planimarginata M. & H. Avicula fibrosa M. & H. Cardium speciosum M. & H. Mactra warrenana M. & H. When studying the section it was believed that the upper four members belong to the Lance formation, but afterward when comparison was made with sections at the south end of the field it seemed more probable that all the beds examined here belong to the Fox Hills. The higher unquestioned Lance formation was not studied at this place. Two sections, which have been described by Stanton and Knowlton, were studied at the south end of the area, about 30 miles southwest of the mouth of Lance Creek. One of these lies about 2 miles east of Lance Creek, nearly opposite the mouth of Little Lightning Creek, and shows excellent exposures of Pierre, Fox Hills, and the lower part of the Lance formation, all dipping northward 14° to 19°. No attempt was made to obtain a detailed section of the Lance formation, but a meas- urement across the strike as far as the strata have steep dips shows a thickness of about 1700 feet above the upper white sandstone, which was later determined to be the top of the Fox Hills. To this should be added perhaps 400 or 500 feet for the thickness of the nearly horizontal upper strata of the Lance formation. The lowest point at which dinosaur bones were seen is about 300 feet above the top of the Fox Hills. The lower part of the section is as follows: 186 T. W. Stanton—Fouw Hills Sandstone. Section on divide between Lightning and Buck Creeks. Feet 1. Gray sandstone i222'C- .. 20S Oe ea eee eee 10 ob Shalem: sac peeet oS Ue ee oe eee | Sen Re 25 8. Sandstonevandishialle: ss) cei ey ee A re EEC (7) 4. Shale and coal) Qos s ie ee eee rea 5. Shale with brackish- water PAM Ae Sises Ae eee eee eT 20 Top of Fox Hills. 6. Massive white sandstone with brown concretions.....-. 40 7.’ Shaly. sandstone . 2.02 Cet. Gey ee ea eee 5 8) ‘Coallandicarbonaceous: salen se ee 15 9: Massivenwhite sandstone. ss eset ae ee oe 60 1.0; “Shale: gsc Ss Bee CS Ora ener cee yc a Ge nee 8 V1. Sandstone so SA Re ee ae ee ea ees ee ee 10 Os Shale ees: 2. eRe A eke Ve Sone ee A ae ae a 5 lsh Massiveswiitessamd stores ss) arene eee 100 14. Brownish gray sandstone in alternations of massive and more thinly bedidledina cies tien Teen ie ee eee) 15. .Gray-sandstone, so cee ak. oe ee ee 16.) Brown sandstone davsct 1 oe ee ee ae ie eee 20 17. Yellowish sandstone with Fox Hills fauna___-____-____- 30 Ne VPerre, SHAles 63 aoe Re ee ee The last section examined and perhaps the best exposed and most instructive of all is on Johnson Brothers’ ranch, near Buck Creek, about 8 miles east of the section just described. Beginning with the lowest strata of the Lance formation the section follows : Section on Buck Creek. : Feet 1) ‘Sandy shale withithin’beds*ot coal 2st! see eee eas 25 Top of Fox Hills. 2. Massive white sandstone with Halymenites major --.--- 60 3. Yellowish massive sandstone with brown concretions _-- 20 4. More thinly bedded brown sandstone with Halymenites.. 25 5) Massive white sandstone sss ene ees 22 ae 75 6, Soft somewhat sandy shales with thin sandstone bands containing marine Fox Hills shells-_-.-_...-.....--- 30 i, brown shaly sandstone see5se reese a. The refraction indices are high and were determined by the immersion method; €is about 1°785 and w> 1°825. The bire- fringence is strong and greater than ‘040. In convergent polar- ized light, the crystals are uniaxial, optically negative, with strong birefri ingence. Occasionally a slight opening of the dark interference cross was observed but was not of sutficient reou- larity in its occurrence to be significant. Washington, D. C. July 1. *This angle c:r was also determined by Dr. O. C. Farrington (letter of July 6, 1910), His measurements averaged 53° 30’, a value which agrees fairly well with the above. + This Journal (4), xiv, 213-215, 1902. Mixter—Formation of the Oxides of Cobalt and Nickel. 193 Arr. XIX.—The Heat of Formation of the Oxides of Oobalt and Nickel; and sixth paper on the Heat of Oom- bination of Acidic Oxides with Sodium Oxide; by W. G. Mixer. [Contributions from the Sheffield Chemical Laboratory of Yale University. | : Cobalt. 1. Heat of combustion of cobalt—The cobalt and its oxides used in the work were obtained from a cobalt carbonate of unknown souree. It was probably made by precipitation with ammonium carbonate, as it contamed ammonia. Metallic cobalt, which was reduced by hydrogen at about 420° and kept at this temperature for three hours and at a pressure of 65™™" of mercury and then left to cool, ignited spontaneously in the air. When the reduction was made at incipient redness, then lower- ing the temperature to 420° and reducing the pressure as above stated, the oxidation was less rapid in air. The metal reduced at 420° was dark grey and very bulky; that reduced at the higher temperature was lighter colored. Whether oxidation of the cobalt at common temperature was due to the finely divided state of the metal or to a content of hydrogen was not determined. The metal used for the calorimetric experiments was reduced at a cherry-red heat and cooled in hydrogen at atmospheric pressure. It probably oxidized slightly in the air. It was sifted through a 1/100 inch mesh. The method of determining the heat of oxidation of cobalt was as follows: The metal was spread over a flat, thin silver foil or mica tray 7 to 8° in diameter, which was fastened 3 to 6™ above the bottom of the bomb. The bomb was exhausted and then filled with dry oxygen at a pressure of 12 to 13 atmos- pheres. In the upper half of the bomb was a fine iron wire which was ignited by an electric current. The hot globule of magnetic oxide falling on the cobalt ignited it. The tray, the oxide formed and the unoxidized cobalt were all melted. The oxide was found in the bottom of the bomb in the shape of a black erystalline hollow lump about 3 wide and 2™ thick. The unburned metal was in one or more globules at the bottom of it. The observed weight of the solid contents of the lower half of the bomb less the weight of the tray, metal taken and Fe,O, from the iron wire, plus 4:4 per cent correction for water and volatile matter in the mica, gave the weight of oxygen taken up in the combustion. After weighing, the lump above mentioned was broken and the globules of metallic cobalt separated and weighed. To make sure that the oxide was then free from particles of the metal it was pulverized and Am. JouR. Scl.—FourtH SERIES, VoL. XXX, No. 177.—SEptemser, 1910. 194 Miwter—Formation of the Oxides of Cobalt and Nickel. stirred up in water with an electromagnet. noted of the metallic cobalt found in a fusion. Experiment 1.—The platinum electrode in the bomb was a millimeter thick and was about 3°" above the tray. The end of it melted off at the time of the combustion and dropped into the mass below and alloyed with the cobalt. Hence the gain in weight due to oxygen could not be found and, there- fore, the oxide was reduced by hydrogen. The loss in oxygen was 2°747 grams. The calorimetric result, 9658° + 2°747 = 3480° for 1 gram of oxygen taken up and for 16 grams 55,680°. Experiment 2.—This test was like the preceding except that a mica tray was used. It was placed lower in the bomb and farther from the platinum electrode, which, nevertheless, melted off. The cobalt oxide was reduced as before. The result for 16 grams of oxygen was 55°984°. The weight was Experiments 3 4 5 Cobaleweeny. 2 LNNee 12-417 grams 13°027 grams 15364 grams Cobalt unburned._--. 0°793 “ Orb OT mak: 166i Oe ‘eburned- prec L620 oS TOs On aie 13°7383 Micaritray 22sec 243 Ose wit 0497 =“ O'268 “ Oxygen taken up..- 3:088 ‘ 3°340 3“ Sy OGeiace Water equivalent of BY Stem. 22 2c 3,467: 3,000" ‘¢ 3,617" 9 Temperature interval 3°190° 3°396° 3°678° Heat effect _-..---.- 11,060 12,005 13,303° “ of oxidation of iron 50 48 50° 11,010 11,957 13,253° For 1 gram of oxygen. -..---- 3,565 3,580 3,576° ee ee fe AGObalbe ne Se ae 947 955 966° SCE eG tia een) ie ORY CON ae tone ee 57,040 57,280 57,216° Gb) ME Gua Mec Boo eilite Nemeere eer, 55,873° 56,845° 56,994° : 3°34 3°706 ig —— = 0° —— = — 0:20 ——— = 0°232 Oxygen ratio 193 ie 5 Tr 0°23 11°624 12°52 13°733 10_- == Orl9 == 0:22 = 0'2338 Cobalt ratio Bs 0°197 5 EG In 3 all of the metallic cobalt left was in one globule. The oxide obtained in this experiment was pulverized in a steel mortar and the powder stirred up in water with an electro- magnet which removed an insignificant quantity of black par- ticles. Next, 2°8969 grams of the powdered oxide, dried at 100°, was reduced by hydrogen, and 2°2800 grams or 78°74: per cent of cobalt obtained. CoO contains 78°67 and Co,O, Mixuter—Formation of the Ouides of Cobalt and Nickel. 195 73°44 per cent of cobalt. The cobalt was not quite pure, con- taining a little silicon and iron. The ratio of oxygen con- sumed to cobalt burned in experiments 3, 4, and 5 and the ratio found in the analysis given is very nearly 1 to 1, proving that the oxide is mostly CoO. Portions of oxide from the combustion were tested for a higher oxide by treating with hydrochloric acid. A small quantity of chlorine evolved indi- cated that the oxide contained a little Co,O,. Why then is not the ratio of oxygen to cobalt greater than 1 to 1 instead of slightly less? The presence of impurities accounts for it in the portion analyzed, and the fact that the oxygen ratios found in experiments 3, 4, and 5 are low, and also that the heat, effect calculated for one gram atom of cobalt burned is less than found for one gram atom of oxygen taken up, prove that the cobalt used in the experiments was slightly oxidized. Moreover, the formation of a small amount of Oo,O, affects the result but slightly since, as shown later, 3Co0+O—Co,0,+ 41,700°. The result, therefore, based on the oxygen consumed should be regarded as the better one. The average of the results is 57,179° at constant volume and 57,460° at constant pressure for the heat effect of 16 grams of oxygen combining with cobalt to form chiefly crystalline cobaltous oxide. Dulong* made one determination of the heat of combustion of cobalt and found that 1 liter of oxygen combining with cobalt gave a heat effect of 5721°. For 16 grams of oxygen the result is 64,000°. Cobaltous oxide in a finely divided and amorphous form oxidizes readily when heated in air to Co,O,, and Foote and Smith} have shown that the dissociation pressure of the latter oxide is 10™™ at 800°, the pressure rising rapidly with increas- ing temperature. These facts explain the formation of CoO when cobalt is burned in oxygen under pressure. The high temperature accompanying the reaction dissociates any Co,O, formed into CoO and O and the molten OoO falling upon the cold bomb is quickly changed to a solid which as it cools takes up oxygen only on its surface. The following experiment shows the slow rate of oxidation: 1:1424 gram of finely pul- verized cobaltous oxide of same lot taken for the analysis on p- 194 gained on heating to redness for 15 minutes in oxygen 0:0267, after 3 hours heating in air 0-0080, and then gained 0:0035 gram when heated an hour in oxygen. The total gain was 0°0332 gram; the calculated gain for complete oxidation to Co,O, being 0°0812 gram. 2. Heat of reaction of cobalt with sodium peroxide. Eaperiments 6 and 7.—Cobalt 4-000, sulphur 1-000, sodium *C.R., xii, 871, 1838. + J. Am. Chem. Soc., xxx, 1344, 196 Mixter—Lormation of the Ovides of Cobalt and Nickel. peroxide 20 grams. Thermal effect for 1 gram of cobalt 1039° and 1040°. For 59 grams, 61,360°. The fusions disintegrated slowly in cold water with evolu- tion of oxygen. The insoluble black residue contained sodium, water and a peroxide. 3. Heat of reaction of cobaltous-cobaltic owide with sodium peroxide.—Cobaltous-cobaltic oxide, prepared from carbonate by heating in air, yielded very nearly the theoretical amount of metal when reduced by hydrogen. It was in the form of a bulky powder. Experiment 8.—Oobaltous-cobaltie oxide 6:000, sulphur 1:000, sodium peroxide 15 grams. Heat effect of 1 gram Co,O, 286°. Experiment 9.—Cobaltous-cobaltic oxide 9-000, sulphur 1-500, sodium peroxide 22 grams. Heat effect of 1 gram Co,0, 282°. The fusions were good and gave off much oxygen when placed in cold water. The black residue left by water retained alkali after prolonged digestion and washing with water. After remaining for several days in a vacuum over sulphuric acid it was found to yield water and oxygen when heated. The average of the two results is 284. For a gram molecule of Co,O, it is 68,444°. 4. Heat of reaction of cobaltous oxide with sodium per- oxide.—Amorphous cobaltous oxide was prepared by heating the carbonate in a current of dry carbon dioxide. The follow- ing are the experiments : Leperiment 10.—Cobaltous oxide 8-000, sulphur 1:000, sodium peroxide 18 grams. Heat effect of 1 gram cobaltous oxide 394°. Experiment 11.—Cobaltous oxide 10°266, sulphur 1-000, sodium peroxide 21 grams. Heat effect of 1 gram of cobalt- ous oxide 414°. The average of the two results, 404° 75 = 30,390°. Summary of Results on Cobalt. Co++50 = -Co®@ (crystalline) tq ye = se eseeee ee 575° Co +0. =) CoO\(amorphous) 922 eee eee 50°5° 8Co4-+ 40: =v Cor@ 4c iy eee eee eee OBE 8CoO (amor) “-O' = ConO pee. see a eee 41°9° Cote 2Na/O, "= Na, CoO ray Na.O beer eee ee 61°4° 2Na- Ore 920 == 2INa, OF Freie ete os Se ise a eG Co, + 20y+ Na = NaCoO-e4-y a2 eee eee 100°2° Co,O, + 2Na,0, + Na,O = 3Na,CoO, + -.---- 684° 24,0 “207 iN Oe ee aoe eee ee pe 38°8° Co,O, + 20 + 38Na,0 = 3Na,CoO, + --------. 107°2° ee Mixter—Formation of the Owides of Cobalt and Nickel. 197 CoOWamor) i) NaO, =) Nai@oO, --) 2-2-2 22. 30°3° Nee Gin pO Na. OF beeen eons os ask 19°4° CoOns Ort NaO7= NaCaOn ss sls. 2222.3 49°7° Gog 20) -b Na. Ov =_ Na CoO. ve s-- -- 5 100°2° CoO =O + Na, Ou Na©oO. 2 --=----- + 49°7° Cor. O) = CoO (amorphous). 4-72.22 2--- 22.232. 50°5° 3(Co + 20 + Na,O) = 8Na,CoO, + .---------- 300°6° Co,Oy-+- 200-5 43NaO =) 3Na,CoOji-f _.-- ----=./ 107'28 SCO sett On CO OMe ans 3 SE oe 193°4° Sodium cobaltite, Na,CoO,, has not been isolated, but very probably is formed in the fusions where there is an excess of sodium peroxide because cobaltites of other metals exist, as for example BaCoO,, and MgQoO,. Whether Na,CoO, is formed in the fusion or some other sodium cobaltite makes no differ- ence in the heat of oxidation derived, since the same cobaltite is formed in the fusions containing either cobalt or a cobalt oxide. The heat effect of Na,O + CoO, cannot be derived from the results, since the heat of formation of CoO, is not known. It is, however, 78° or greater. Assuming that one atom of oxygen combining with CoO gives the same heat effect as when combining with 3000, we have Co + 20 = 50°5 + 41°9 = 92°4° and Co + 20 + Na,O = Na,O CoO, + .-------- 100°2° Cone OF COO Free ee eee ce hee a ss 92°4°? Na OF = CoOr— NatOY CoOn pari et 222 (ASE Nickel. Two preparations of nickel were made from nickel carbonate from the J. T. Baker Chemical Company by converting it into oxide and then reducing with hydrogen. The preparation designated as @ was reduced at a bright red heat. The nickel obtained was light gray and coherent. It was pulverized and sifted through 1/50 inch mesh. When burned in air it yielded only a trace of water, showing it to contain too little hydrogen to affect the calorimetric results. Another reduction was made (6) at a temperature of approximately 510°, and when it was complete the hydrogen was pumped out until the pressure fell to 30™™. The apparatus containing the metal was then left to cool. When it was poured into a bottle oxidation took place 198 Mixter—Formation of the Oxides of Cobalt and Nickel. so rapidly that the temperature of the metal rose 30°. The metal, marked 6, was darker colored and more voluminous than a. 5. Heat of combustion of nickel.—The following are the experiments : 1 2 3 4 Nickel: Ja2 eos 12°000(a@) 18°003(6) . 22:099(5) 16:000 grams (a) Mita tray 2 eee 0576 0°677 Silver ‘trayrey as: 3°1245 3°188 LY Oxygen taken up---- 2°127 3°527 3°789 2557 . Water equivalent of syatem hee oo 3,568° —-3,666- 3,647 3,674: a Temperature interval - 2°183° 3°470° 3°735° 2°508° 4 Heatetfectitece 2. ens - 7,789 12,721 13,622 9,214° “of oxidation given —48 —50 50 50° 4,741 12,671 13,572 9,164° For 1 gram of oxygen-. 3,640° 3,593° 3582° 3,584° The average is 3600° for 1 gram of oxygen combining with nickel. For 16 grams it is 57,600° at constant volume and 57,900° at constant pressure. The product of a combustion was a sintered mass having the shape of the layer of metal burned. The trays holding the nickel were in all cases melted, the mica forming a slag adher- ing to the nickel oxide and the silver falling away from it. It was impossible to separate the metal from the oxide by a mag- net as the two were so intimately mixed. In one trial an electro- magnet removed 5/6 of the pulverized material from water. The product of experiment 4,.in which a silver tray was used, contained a few black vitreous pieces which were also mag- netic. Small globules of nickel were also present, showing that temperature of the combustion was high. The metal oxi- dized in experiment 1 was 65 per cent of the amount present ; in 2, 75 per cent; in 3, 63 per cent; and 4, 59 per cent. The calculations are based on the oxygen taken up to form NiO, and there is no good reason for supposing that a lower oxide was formed. The heat of oxidation of cobalt has been regarded as a little greater than that of nickel as indicated by Thomsen’s results, which are Co,O,H,O—63,400°, and Ni,O,H,O=60,840°. Dulong’s results* are of the same order, namely, Co,O =64,000° and Ni,O=59,700°, each, however, from a single experiment found after his death recorded in his note-book. * Loc. cit. Mixter—Formation of the Oxides of Cobalt and Nickel. 199 The writer’s results, on the contrary, are practically alike, thus: Co+O=CoO(erystalline)+57,400° and Ni,+O=Ni,O+57,900°. As the nickelous oxide was sintered together and partly fused, it is compared with crystailine cobaltous oxide and not the amorphous form. Nickel does not burn well enough with sodium peroxide to give a satisfactory result. The amorphous nickelous oxide is more finely divided than the metal and appears to burn better, but it is impossible to interpret a thermal result without other data. Zine. 6. Heat of reaction of zine with sodium peroxide.—Zinc powder free from oxide was made by chipping off the metal on a lathe with a flexible chisel. A mixture of the powder and sodium peroxide burns when ignited by a hot wire with explosive violence and in a bomb yields a fused mass. Three combustions were made with the following mixtures : 1 2 3 Aines takeny. 5545.94.54 8:010 10°575 10°580 grams S ENOTMORIGIZEd) 54 eo <3 3 0:072 0-054 0-047 =“ SOM CLAC Oe th aot a Sp ass 7938 10°521 10533 =“ Sodium peroxide. -._-_---..-- 10° 15° 15: “¢ Heat effect of 1 gram of zinc 1,021° 1,048° 1,033° The mean, 1033 x 65:4 = 67,600° from which the heat of formation of sodium zincate is derived, is as follows: Pinte eNO = Noe ZNO cla os a nc tno So es 67°6° Na,O + O = Na,O, + Jey os hae tae Mere eteae 62, )) GPAs Zoe Os Nal Ol= Nai ZnO) til ibe 2220 See 08s. DeForerand* prepared compounds which may be regarded as hydrated peroxides of zine or zine oxide and hydrogen peroxide, as for example Zn,O, + 2H,O or 3ZnO + 2H,O,. Hence the question —Was a peroxide formed in the fusions described ? Evidently not, since in experiment 1 9:4 grams of sodium peroxide were required to form zine oxide, and in 2 and 3, 12°6 grams. DeForerandt+ calculated the heat of formation of zine oxide from the observations of other investigators, taking the atomic weight of zinc as 65, and obtained the following: * Ann. de Chem. et Phys. [7], xxvii, 26. + Loe. cit. 200 Mivter—Formation of the Oxides of Cobalt and Nickel. Dulonp \ccw- wen -eee ae eee 84°37° AndrewAe. ei jo. doko eee 87°20 are t 84°04 Favre and Silbermann ----_.-.-- fee Muripnatie.-. 22. 0; pees eee 85°23 [srs : 87°73 Dittiesc. oe Gules oe etek Seer 85-46 83°29 The mean is 85:06°._ DeForerand found for ZnO prepared at 125° 82-97° and for oxide made at the temperature of burning zine 847°. Ditte also worked with preparations of zine oxide which had been subjected to different temperatures. The results of the two investigators are essentially 83°0° for zine oxide prepared at a low temperature. Since the combustion of zine with sodium peroxide gives only 87:0° it is evident that the heat effect of Na,O + ZnO is very small, only 4:0 large calories. Manganese. 7. Heat of reaction of manganese with sodiwm peroxide.— Manganese for the work was prepared by the Goldschmidt method. It was free from aluminum and contained a trace of silicon. Three combustions of the following mixtures were made: 1 2 3 Manganese. cee oem toe 3°000 5000 5°116 grams Sul phinre fc see enc eee 1:000 1:000 0°500 <¢ Sodium peroxide -.--.---- ily 30° 30° u Result for 1 gram of manganese.. 2237° 2043° 1985° The fusions were green. Number 1 gave little gas when placed in water, the other two considerable gas. The solutions of all were green and much brown powder remained. In 1 the amount of sodium peroxide used was not sufficient to oxidize all of the manganese to MnO,, and since the result is higher than the others the inference is that MnO, is formed from MnO, with absorption of heat. The mean of the second and third results is 2014° and for 55 grams of manganese it is 110,770°. Hence, for the heat of the oxidation of manganese to MnO, plus the combination of the trioxide with sodium oxide we have Mn + 3Na,O, = Na,MnO, + 2Na,0 = ....-.. 110°8° ga: O ee sO%—"3Na, ON leer. ee eee 58°2° Mn + 30 + Na,O = Na,MnO, + -.-.--.------- 169-0° Miuter—Formation of the Oxides of Cobalt and Nickel. 201 8. Heat of reaction of manganese diowide with sodium perovide.—Manganese dioxide was prepared by heating man- ganese nitrate until the residue ceased to lose weight at 400°. A weighed amount of the dioxide left on ignition very nearly the calculated quantity of Mn,O,. Combustions of the following mixtures were made : Manganese dioxide ..-._.---.--- 8-000 10'000 grams Sulphur y62es-5- elie gt aman He 1:000 L000) "ss Sodium) peroxide Jo2-f5 245-24 19° 21° Result for 1 gram of MnO, -.----. 368° 323° The mean is 345° and for a gram molecule of manganese dioxide it is 30°0°, adding 19:4° for the heat of Na,O+O gives for MnO,+0+Na,O=—Na,MnO,+49°4°. For the heat effect of Mn + 20 we have 169-0° — 49-4° = 119°6°. As the experiments do not show that Mn and MnO, are completely oxidized in the fusion to MnO, the results are to be regarded as approximations. The errors cannot be large since Le Chateliers* found that Mn + 20 = MnO, (crystalline) +126-0° or 64° more than given above for amorphous MnO, ; and the heat of formation of an amorphous compound is always less than that of the crystalline form. Manganese trioxide decomposes at common temperature into the dioxide and oxygen. This spontaneous change indicates that the reaction MnO,+O is endothermic, at least it is not exothermic. The heat effect of MnO,,0, Na,O = 49°4° results chiefly from the reaction Na,O+MnO,. *C.R., exxii, 81. 202 Canjield, Hillebrand, and Schaller—Mosesite, Arr. XX.—Mosesite, a New Mercury Mineral from Ter- lingua, Tewas ; by F. A. Canrreip, W. F. Hitiesranp, and W. T. ScHac.er. Introduction. TuE name mosesite is proposed for a new mereury mineral from Terlingua, Brewster Oo., Texas, in honor of Prof. Alfred J. Moses of Columbia University, New York, who first defi- nitely described the interesting mercury minerals found in Texas. The three minerals, montroydite, terlinguaite and eglestonite, were named and definitely determined by him, and he also gave a preliminary notice of a fourth new one (later named kleinite). It is, therefore, with great pleasure on our part that we propose the name mosesite, which name, besides perpetuating the high attainments of Professor Moses in the science of mineralogy, is particularly appropriate as it links his naine with a group of minerals which he first definitely put on record. General Description (Ff. A. Canfield). While examining a recently acquired specimen of montroy- dite and calcite the attention of the writer was attracted to some small yellow crystals which were perched upon the crys- tals of calcite. They did not join the montroydite but were isolated and solitary ; they appeared to lie upon the surface of the calcite with but little or no bond. The slightest touch would loosen them, leaving no scar upon the calcite but merely a clean spot. A careful search revealed twenty-six crystals which will weigh, perhaps, ten milligrams. Twenty-two of the crystals are simple octahedrons, the others are spinel twins. No other forms were observed and none of the mineral was massive. Another specimen has lately been procured which is much the finer in every way. Hundreds of crystals are scattered over a surface (4™ x 6) of calcite which rests upon the pink- ish rock which is characteristic of the Terlingua specimens. Nearly all of the crystals are spinel twins. They are fre- quently grouped together in confused masses; one polysynthe- tic twin—a 5-ling—was seen. Simple octahedrons are rare. None was modified by other forms. No other mercury mineral is present on the specimen unless some delicate, elongated, light yellow particles should prove to be kleinite. It is impossible to tell to what conditions these specimens have been subjected. It is certain that the first specimen has been badly treated, since it is bruised and very dusty. a New Mercury Mineral from Terlingua, Texas. 208 There are no indications that the crystals are affected by the light. If light affects the color it must act very slowly. The color of those erystals, which are so situated as to have some protection from the light, is exactly like that of the most exposed. No difference in color could be noted between the surface and the interior of the crystals. Most of the erystals are translucent. The largest crystal found is brilliant and transparent, and measures 0°5"™ along its edge. Generally the faces of the erystals are bright and uneven. They are very brittle with signs of cleavage.* The fracture is uneven. The hardness slightly exceeds that of calcite. The mineral crum- bles to a powder under the pressure required for this test. No piece could be obtained that was large enough to determine the density. The luster is adamantine. The color is a rich lemon- to a canary-yellow. The streak and powder are a very pale yellow. When heated gradually to a low temperature in a closed tube the assay turns to a dark reddish brown, almost black. As the heat increases the color changes rapidly to white, but without changing the form of the original crystals. Fumes of calomel are given off and condense in the tube. Many glob- ules of mercury collect in the tube beyond the coating of calomel. Continued héating soon causes the assay to volatilize and disappear. If afresh fragment of the mineral is heated rapidly in the closed tube, it decrepitates violently, almost explosively, then it fuses and volatilizes. In cold hydrochloric acid the mineral is changed slowly to a white substance which retains the original form. If the acid is hot the change is more rapid but the product is the same. It is to be hoped that enough of the material will be found to enable a complete analysis to be made. No doubt there are specimens of this mineral in some of the collections, but they are overlooked, or they are incorrectly labeled. The second of the above-described specimens was labeled “ Ter- linguaite.” It is more like kleinite in appearance. Chemistry (W. &. Hillebrand). Chemically, so far as the very scanty material permitted of ascertaining, the composition of mosesite approaches that of kleinite, that is, it is a mereury-ammonium compound contain- ing chlorine and the sulphate group besides a little water. Determinations made on 0:04 gram of material gave 5 per cent Cl and 3°5 per cent SO,. The former amount is considerably lower and the latter somewhat higher than in kleinite, but the * Imperfect octahedral cleavage (W. T. S.). 204 Canfield, Hillebrand, and Schaller—Mosesite, values are no more than approximations. There is, however, one marked chemical difference, which will be considered later. Spectroscopic tests, that were kindly made by Dr. P. G. Nutting, at the Bureau of Standards, showed prominent mer- cury and nitrogen spectra and also the red line of hydrogen, the last being ascribed by him to water vapor. A singular feature of the behavior in vacuo was the immediate appearance, when the current was turned on and before the application of heat, of a mercury spectrum. The mineral was at the time not between the electrodes, but far to the rear of one of them, at the sealed end of the Plucker tube. Under these conditions the color of the mineral fragments underwent a pronounced and permanent change from bright yellow to a yellowish gray. With a minute crystal of kleinite there was a mere indication of the mercury lines before heating, and no color change was observed. As soon as the temperature of mosesite was raised to visible incipient decomposition, the spectra of both nitrogen and mercury became brilliant. As mentioned by Mr. Canfield, mosesite does not seem to undergo the color changes in sunlight and darkness that appear to be characteristic of the deeper colored crystals of kleinite. When heated in a narrow tube closed at one end, the color changes and the sublimates were much like those afforded by kleinite, and there was the same liberation of an active gas that set free iodine from potassium iodide. Ammonium bro- mide liberated ammonia as from kleinite. The behavior towards hydrochloric acid, noticed by Mr. Canfield, affords a certain chemical means of distinguishing mosesite from kleinite, where only these two are concerned. When covered with concentrated hydrochloric acid mosesite is entirely decomposed in a few hours, with separation of a cohe- rent white material that shows the behavior of calomel. The solution contains the sulphate and ammonium groups, beside much mercuric mercury. Kleinite, on the other hand, shows no perceptible change for a long time, but in the course of 48 hours a minute crystal of it was almost entirely decomposed. There remained only a whitish residue that looked as if it might be the clay matter that is such a persistent contaminant of the mineral. It was free from calomel. It will be remembered that the chemical evidence points to kleinite being a mixture or solution of mercury-ammonium chloride with a mercuric sulphate and perhaps chloride. There would seem to be an association of similar general char- acter in mosesite, but with a mercurous sulphate or chloride replacing in part or wholly the corresponding mercuric salts of kleinite. a New Mercury Mineral from Terlingua, Tewas. 205 Orystallography and Optical Properties (W. T. Schaller ), The erystals are apparently octahedra of the isometric sys- tem. Twinning on the spinel law has been observed several times, in which ease the crystals of mosesite are often flattened parallel to a pair of octahedral faces. Mr. Canfield has men- tioned a 5-ling, a spinel twin repeated five times. The faces of the erystals are never smooth. While bright and often highly polished, they are uneven and only a few of the faces give a single reflection. Most of the faces when measured on the goniometer give a number of signals, no particular one of which is brighter than the others. This has rendered the accurate determination of the form of the crystals impossible. An additional feature that has rendered accurate measurements difficult is the tendency for a number of crystals to grow together, sometimes in nearly parallel position and again in widely different positions. A mass of signals there- fore resulted from examining such groups of mosesite on the goniometer, and on the minute crystals that were available it was not possible to know what signals to measure and what ones to exclude. Where only two or three faces were meas- ured in a zone, it was well nigh impossible to be sure of having the zone accurately centered. The measurements, the occurrence of (probable) spinel twins and the optical relations, to be described below, make it fairly certain that the crystals of mosesite are in reality octahedra. No form other than the octahedron was observed. On part of a spinel twin, the faces of which gave a mass of very poor reflections, there were measured : SS ey RA ee en a he Be erga 70° 32’ eale. 0 A 0’ 4 = 68° (cleavage face) ._..-- ee « — 68° 28! pO ge eA Er RE i (14 (73 OK) == Anu Git a mm es & Abe le 38° 56" << A second crystal, also a spinel twin, gave: hz IO Siem Aes as etree ta res 109° 28’ cale. EPIL Siga a (ini tps 8, is ee fs a6 y Sei iilhe OGL eee neta yee HO? Se" oe Yia8 nee OMAN TE cere eee ea, Ct oC — 68° 51’ BEN Gy a Aer Bod (13 “ = 79° 98’ Deere Cin Wee saa 13 “ce Seon OGhaste seh ne ee 38> 56) ) * OA oO i = 38° 56’ Bh bl ate set oh Nee 66 (13 A third crystal was adjusted as closely as possible in polar position for two-circle measurement and on revolving the 206 Canfield, Hillebrand, and Schaller—Mosesite, erystal, the four octahedra faces were seen to lie in the posi- tions required for the form (111). From the above data, meager and poor as they are, the isometric character of the crystals is deduced, especially as this is supported by the investigation of the optical properties. Under the microscope mosesite is pale yellow, non-pleochroie and seems to possess a rather low double refraction. When a fragment is crushed many of the resultant pieces show the octa- hedral cleavage, either in their triangular or rhombic shape (when only two directions of cleavage are developed) or in three series of cleavage lines, parallel to the octahedral faces. A fragment of fluorite was crushed and examined under the microscope, when similar effects were seen, though in this case the cleavage was much better developed. The crystallographic investigation has shown that the crys- tals are in all probability isometric octahedra and should, therefore, be isotropic when examined under the microscope with crossed nicols. Such an examination, however, shows the mineral not to be isotropic but doubly refracting. On heating the mineral to 186°, the crystals lose their double refraction and become isotropic. Mosesite is therefore dimorphic, the isometric optical condition that agrees with the geometrical form being stable only above 186°, the mineral changing to the dimor phous doubly HOAETCELS ‘condition at temperatures below 186°. As examined at ordinary temperatures, i. e., as the mineral now occurs, the sections show great similarity to kleinite. Much of the material does not extinguish at all, other parts do so four times during a complete revolution of the stage and the interference-colors are fairly brilliant. On crushing a frag- ment between two glass slides and examining the very minute particles, they are seen to be nearly colorless and, unlike the larger pieces, isotropic. It seems as if the local heat developed by the crushing is sufficient to heat these small particles to at least 186° and cause their reversion to the isotropic state. Several different fragments were heated on glass slides, in an air oven to the temperature given, with the results shown in the following table: Liffect of heating Mosesite. Slide with Probable temp. mosesite. Temp. Effect. of change. ( 150° No change, mineral still doubly Hirst 2_- > refracting. ec Brown and isotropic. 150-200° ( Pr Brown and doubly refracting. | 16° Second... 4 ie Still doubly refr acting [ 189° Isotropic. 180-189° a New Mercury Mineral from Terlingua, Texas. 207 me re 169° Doubly refracting, but section : 1 too opaque for further study. Above 169° ( 169°. Doubly refracting. 184° cc “ce pour 186° Nearly isotropic. [ 190° Isotropic. 186-190° ( 184° Doubly refracting. | 186° Nearly isotropic. BPG a. 4 188) oe < 190° Isotropic, except for a few mi- nute doubly refracting spots. 184-186° 186° Doubly refracting. 192° Still doubly refracting in places but partly isotropic. This par- ticular piece may have been thicker than the others and therefore did not revert so readily. 186—192° + 186° Isotropic on thin edges, but doubly refracting in thicker center. 192° Isotropic. 186-192° Sixtheesee Seventh _. a 1 a From these data the temperature of reversion to the isotropic isometric state probably lies between 180° and 190° and is taken as 186°. If the “molecular inertia” of mosesite is consider- able, as is the case with kleinite,* then this temperature, namely 186°, is probably a little high. On cooling, the isotropic min- eral does not immediately again become | doubly refracting. Examination after 24 hours shows the mineral to be still iso- tropic. The change back seems to be, like that of kleinite, a very slow one, but doubtless it is gradually taking place. The section of kleinite descr ibed+ as almost entirely reverted after thirty months is now, after four years, completely changed back again to its original doubly refracting condition. The optical similarities, shown by these two minerals, coupled with their evident chemical relationship, suggested trying the effect of heating kleinite to the reversion temperature of moses- ite (186°). When this was done, kleinitet became optically isotropic like mosesite. The results of the experiments are shown in the table below. * Hillebrand, W. F., and Schaller, W. T., The Mercury Minerals from Terlingua, Texas. Bull. U. S. Geol. ‘Survey, No. 405, 1909, p. 26. + Loe. cit., p. 25. ¢ Frag ments were used that were not parallel to the base as these would become isotropic at 130°, kleinite being uniaxial, hexagonal. Slide with kleinite. Temp, eh eile ad | as7° oe eee { 194° { Second 177° (aare | 194° hinder R Effect of heating Kleinite. Effect, Doubly refracting, no change. “ “cc be “cc 208 Canfield, Hillebrand, and Schaller—Mosesite. | 7 | (73 “ 6c “c Probably too thick. Doubly refracting, no change. Isotropic. Doubly refracting, no change. Partly isotropic, the remainder doubly re fracting as before. The isotropic part while still transparent had become brown, the doubly refracting part remaining pale yellow. It would be premature to speculate on the significance of this observation on the optical behavior of kleinite. Flint— Researches upon the Complexity of Tellurium. 209 Arr. XXI.— Researches upon the Complexity of Tellurium ; by Winxram R. Frint. [Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—cexiv. | Introductory. In two papers* from this laboratory a description has been given of a hydrolytic method for the fractionation of tellurium. An account also has been given, in the second paper, of results obtained from a preliminary application of the process in which it was indicated not only that the substance might really be complex in spite of the almost conclusively negative evidence hitherto adduced, but also that its anomalous position in the periodic system might be due to the actual presence, as Mendeléeff predicted, of a constituent having a higher atomic weight. In the work referred to, the fractionation was so conducted as to produce both end fractions simultaneously, and since the method employed was practically that of fractional erystalli- zation, this involved, unless the operation had been long enough continued, the introduction into each of these portions of material from the middle fractions. It was therefore determined to modify the fractioning pro- cess in such a way as to secure a more rapid separation of each end fraction independently, and to apply it to a much larger amount of material. Preparation of Material. About one kilogram of crude tellurium dioxide, extracted by hydrochloric acid from electrolytic copper residues, supplied by the Baltimore Copper Smelting and Rolling Co., was treated by the same purification processes as those described in the papers cited, the distillation and redistillation, in hydrogen, being performed in this case in a silica tube, from porce- lain boats. The tube'was very carefully cleaned between the distillations, and, in redistilling, fresh boats were used. Plan of the Investigation. From the method of fractioning adopted, the investigation naturally divides into two parts, in the first of which will be described (1) determinations of the atomic weight of the tellurium in unfractionated material; and (2) the preparation by hydrolysis with water of a series of fractions, together with * Browning and Flint, this Journal, xxviii, 112 and 347. Am. Jour, Sci.—Fourtu Series, Vou. XXX, No. 177.—Srpremser, 1910. 14 210 Flint—Researches upon the Complexity of Tellurium. atomic weight estimations made upon the tellurium in them. In the second part will be given an account of an experiment upon a fractionation by nitric acid, and of a preliminary investigation of the less easily hydrolyzed fraction. Parr I. As a check upon the whole work, one hundred and _ fifty grams of the purified product were dissolved in nitric acid (sp. gr. 1:25) and erystallized out as basic nitrate by evapora- tion of the solution at about 85° C. After being washed with concentrated nitric acid, the basic nitrate was dried by heating at 110° to 120° C. in specially constructed electric drying ovens through which was passed a current of air dried by sulphuric acid. The air was bubbled first through a solution of potassium hydroxide, then through concentrated sulphuric acid, and finally filtered by passing through a tower containing cotton wool. Portions of this preparation were then weighed out in platinum and brought to constant weight by heating, for periods of about twelve hours each, at 140° OC. in air dried as just stated, in the electric heaters. The temperature was next raised, and the nitric acid expelled from the compound by ignition up to 425° to 450° for twenty to twenty-four hours. The experiments were finally completed by a short ignition over a bunsen burner at such a temperature as would ensure a glassy condition of the fused dioxide. In all the basic nitrate experiments detailed in this paper, the weighings were made by the method of oscillations. a standardized set of weights employed, and a correction for the inequality of the balance arms applied. Lastly, the weights were reduced to a vacuum. The corrected results of the determinations made upon the unfractionated material, which, excepting number 5, were performed in pairs, are given in Table I. It should be added that in no case was there evidence of the escape of traces of dioxide by volatilization. TaB_E I. Unfractionated Material. Exp. 2TeO..HNO; taken 2TeO., found Atomic weight grms. grms. of tellurium ie eee = 4°26930 3°56471 127-41 D gee ee 3°66863 3°06339 127°48 3 ee 3°17350 2°64983 127-46 4! See aoe 3°43498 2°86827 127°48 5 Pe eee 5°47269 456963 127°44 20°01910 16°71583 127:45 (Mean) Flint—Researches upon the Complexity of Tellurium. 211 It may be noted that the mean atomic weight, 127°45, is pr ac- tically identical with that found by Norris, and that the concordance of these experiments is quite as good as those given by him. The close agreement of this result with both the figure given by Norris and also those found by numerous other investigators indicates a complete correspondence in guality between the material employed in the present research and that used by others. It also confirms the general conclu- sion that the atomic weight of tellurium, when prepared by the ordinary methods, is 127°5. The Fractionation by Water Hydrolysis, and Atomic Weights of the Fractions Obtained. (See accompanying plan.) Five hundred grams more of the redistilled tellurium were oxidized by nitric acid and converted to tetrachloride by repeated evaporation with hydrochloric acid. The solution, containing as little excess of acid as possible, was, in four portions, diluted with about four liters each of boiling distilled water and allowed to cool. The white, crystalline dioxide which separated ont was collected on a filter and washed. After solution in hydrochloric acid (in slight excess) it was reprecipitated by abundant dilution as before. When the fourth repetition of this process had been made, using in each case only the dioxide which had been previously precipitated by dilution, a small portion of the fourth precipitate was taken out as a sample. This was erystallized from nitric acid by the usual method, and a second series of basic nitrate experi- ments, conducted in every way like those of Table I, was performed. The data of these are found in Table IL. Taste II. After Four Fractionations. Exp. 2TeO2..HNO; taken 2TeO. found Atomic weight grms. grms. of tellurium eas See 3°07931 2°56876 126°53 Dee Sa ee: 2°73622 2°28276 126°62 3) aoe 236328 1°97153 126°57 Ae eee oO. 84.9/7 1°73948 126-64 10°26378 9°56253 12659 (Mean) The fractionation process was continued with the remainder of the fourth precipitate in the same manner as before, and the operations repeated without change until ten fractionations *J. Am. Chem. Soc., xxviii, 1675. Plan of the First Fractionation. 500 grms. purified Te __ Oxidized by HNO, 600. + grms. TeO, HCI + H,0 | P Ted, HCl + H,0 | joe TeO Tcl + 4,0 __ | VE TeO, HCl + H,O Sample HNO, | P TeO, HCl + H,0 | 2TeO,. HNO, Te = 1266 | Tee TeO, HC) + H,O | PB TeO, HCl + H,0 | Pp TeO, HCl + H,0 | 12 8 TeO, HCl + H,O 1k Boiled TeO, HCl + H,O . Es Peo: HNO, | 2TeO,.HNO, Te = 124°3 Pe Sample 9 TeO, HNO, | 2TeO,.HNO, Te = 125°4 Th NH,OH + HO,H,0, | P TeO, Flint— Researches upon the Complexity of Tellurium. 218 had been performed. By heating to boiling the filtrate from the eighth precipitate a further separation of dioxide was obtained from this liquid, and boiling for ten or fifteen minutes threw out about 42 grams. Part of this sample was converted to basic nitrate and subjected to the same process of analysis as the previous preparations, the results being recorded in Table IL. Taste III. After Hight Fractionations. (From filtrate.) Exp. 2TeO..HNO; taken 2TeO, found Atomic weight grms. grms. of tellurium Levee Stee 9°12253 1°76842 125°36 eee ae 2°51320 2°09413 125°45 BL aS ie bar 3°76225 3°138447 125°32 Ait Le eas 3°88080 3°23336 125°36 12°27878 10°23038 125°37 (Mean) Fraction ten consisted of but twenty-three grams of dioxide. Since the fractioning process had reduced the quantity of dioxide from over 600 grams to a little more than twenty, it seemed possible that the limit might have been reached. About fifteen grams were consequently transformed to basic nitrate, in two separate preparations. The purpose of this was to eliminate, if possible, the objection that this lowering of the atomic weight might be due to lack of constancy of composi- tion of the basic nitrate. The first sample, the data of whose analysis by the basic nitrate method (applied exactly as described for the preceding preparations) are given in experi- ments one and two of Table IV, contained about five grams ; the second, experiments three to seven, sixteen grams. Taste LV. After Ten Fractionations. Exp. 2TeO,.HNO; taken 2TeO, found Atomic weight grms. orms. of tellurium Th eee Sadat 2°06311 1°71688 ° 124°25 Pigs were tae 2°18903 NSD 124°27 Bape = wees at 356161 2°96446 124-42 A ee Spee 2°99821 2°49537 124°37 Oe pa eet eens 2°86977 2°38824 _124°27 63 oes 2°47403 2°05898 124°31 Cle ee 4°85363 4°03943 124-32 21:00939 17°48508 124-39 (Mean) 214 Flint—Researches upon the Complexity of Tellurium. The concordance of these results is sufficiently close to indicate that the two preparations of fraction ten were prac- tically constant in composition. Experiment 7 in the above table was performed in parallel with experiment 5 of Table I. A comparison of the mean values given in the four preceding tables shows a remarkable lowering ‘of the atomic weight with the progress of the fractionation. Tn considering the difference between the mean result, 124-3, of Table IV, and that, 125°4, of Table ITI, it should be noted ‘that, since the material which gave the latter figure was derived from the filtrate of fraction eight, it was to have been expected that its atomic weight would be higher than that of fraction eight itself. Owing to the small quantity remaining of fraction fen, it was impossible to make another direct fractionation. But the dioxide pro- duced in the experiments of Table IV was dissolved in hydrochloric acid and the hydrolysis repeated once more, the precipitate being converted to basic nitrate. The basic nitrate experiments gave 124°62 and 124.64, but these figures cannot be accepted as conclusive. In the first place, they were made upon material which had already been used for previous deter- minations, in which the dioxide formed had been heated in platinum up to fusion. During the course of the basic nitrate experiments described in this paper, a progressive, but minute, loss of weight was observed in the platinum crucibles used. This fact suggests the possibility that the tellurium may have - become contaminated with a little platinum, which would of course raise the atomic weight found in these two experi- ments. And second, while these two experiments were in progress, an extreme humidity unfortunately characterized the weather. The tendency of this condition would be to increase the atomic weight also, since traces of moisture absorbed by the basic nitrate during those short, but necessary, periods in which it was out of the heaters and desiccator for the purpose of weighing, would tend to produce hydrolysis to dioxide, and the nitric acid liberated from the compound would be expelled in the next heating. This also would increase the value found for the atomic weight. It is therefore at present impossible to conclude with certainty that the figure 124°3 represents the true atomic weight of the element tellurium, since the value may perhaps lie a little below this number. Conclusion. Using the customary methods of purification, a large quantity of tellurium has been prepared. By the basic nitrate process, this has been shown, in five experiments with 20 grams of Flint— Researches upon the Complenity of Tellurium. 215 material, to have the atomic weight 127°5, generally accepted for tellurium. Repeated hydrolysis with hot water of a solution of 500 grams of this preparation in hydrochloric acid has furnished, in ten fractionations, a product consisting of twenty- three grams of dioxide. The tellurium in this fraction, it has been demonstrated, also by the basic nitrate method in seven experiments using twenty-one grams, has an atomic weight of 124°3. Two intermediate fractions, estimated in the same way, give values of 126-6 and 125-4 respectively, these three results taken together exhibiting a progressive diminution of the atomic weight. In March of the year 1869, Mendeléeff, in announcing the periodic law, made the following statement :* ‘“‘ Die Atomge- wichtsgrésse eines Elementes kann bisweilen corrigirt werden, sobald seine Analogien bekannt sind. So muss dass Atomge- wicht des Te nicht 128, sondern 128-126 sein.” The problem *inferentially stated by him, which for the last forty years has supplied the subject matter of researches too numerous to mention, appears to have been solved, and affirmatively, by the research herein described. Brauner’st various low results which he published in 1889 ; Heberlein’st value of 126-99; Steiner’s,§ of 126°4, obtained in 1901 by fractional distillation of diphenyl telluride ; Marek- wald’s,| of 126°85 in 1907, from fractional crystallization of telluric acid ; and the figure 126-53, found in 1909 by Brown- ing and Flint,§/ using hydrolysis with water, have been the chief divergences in the past from the accepted value. The present investigation has furnished more than twenty grams of a purified product possessing an atomic weight of 124°3. Since this preparation was extracted from a large quan- tity of material which is proved by its atomic weight, 127-45, to correspond to what has been hitherto considered elementary substance, the figure 124°3 is apparently the nearest approach which has yet been made to the true atomic weight of the element tellurium. AR Ts (Preliminary.) Experiments upon a Fractionation by Nitric Acid. In the purification of some crude tellurium by three crystal- lizations from nitrie acid, by the method of Norris, Fay, and Edgerly,** it was observed that a part was rather more insol- uble than the rest, in the nitric acid used (sp. gr. 1°25). A sep- *C. f. Ber., xiii, 1799. § Ber., xxxiv, 570. + J. Chem. Soc., lv, 382. || Ber., xl, 4730. t Dissert. Basel, 1898. {| Loc. cit. ** Am. Chem. Jour., xxiii, 105. 216 Flint—Researches upon the Complewity of Tellurium. aration was effected by decantation of the liquid from the less soluble portion. Both fractions were then evaporated to dryness and ignited to dioxide. Oarefully weighed equal quantities of these samples were dissolved with equal amounts of hydrochloric acid and diluted with equal amounts of boiling water. After standing for some hours, the precipitates were collected upon Gooch crucibles and washed, dried, and weighed. It was found that the fraction more insoluble in nitric acid gave about 6°5 per cent more dioxide, by the hydrolysis from hot water, than the other, or more soluble, portion. It was proved that this difference was not due to the presence of impurities detectable by careful qualitative analysis. A similar difference in solubility (in nitric acid) was noted in a recrystallization of part of the basic nitrate prepared from the 150-gram portion of purified tellurium described in Part I of this paper. After the whole of the sample taken had been finally gotten into solution, the greater part was thrown out, as’ basic nitrate, by sufficient concentration, and the liquid from which it had separated decanted from the crystals. These erystals were washed, and dried in the heater, as usual. The mother liquor was then evaporated to dryness and the residue ignited almost to redness, whereupon it developed an orange- red color and became distinctly crystalline in texture. The color was proved not to be due either to iron or to selenium, by the ordinary tests. Basie nitrate experiments performed upon the less soluble fraction, exactly as described in Part I, furnished the data (corrected) of the accompanying Table V. TABLE V. 2TeO..HNO; 2TeO, Atomic weight taken found of tellurium Exp. gms. gms. gms, Lt cee 1°98132 1°65281 126°53 Di aie Siemices 1°34204 111947 126°48 | Gy sea eyreg cle 1°36589 1°13945 126°55 A pa oe | Te 1°17057 0°97655 126°59 Bea cteae 1:07610 0°89765 126°50 Cpe ss eer 0°98468 0°82145 126°57 / (ita hh Nee 1°67119 - 1739396 126°44 tS he ye Sedete 1°53443 1°28006 126°56 Oke ue: wk 2°53215 2°11231 126°53 LO)) see ees ee 2°46437 2°05543 126°37 16°12274 13°44914 126'51 (Mean) The mean value found in this table, 126-5, is identical with that given by Browning and Flint as referred to in Part I. It 4 Flint— Researches upon the Complenity of Tellurium. 217 is likewise practically identical with the mean, 126°58, of Table II, in the previous part. Whether this fact indicates that a more rapid fractionation can be secured by the hydrolysis of the nitrate than by that of the chloride, remains for further investigation to prove. Atomie weight determinations of the more soluble fraction have not as yet been made. Investigation of the Fraction less easily Hydrolyzed by Water. (See accompanying plan.) The tellurium in the filtrates from the water hydrolysis described in the preceding part was recovered by treatment with ammonia and acetic acid. The dioxide thus secured was next dissolved in hydrochloric acid and the solution was diluted abundantly with boiling water and allowed to cool. The filtrate from the dioxide thus precipitated was again heated to boiling, and ammonia and acetic acid were added, in the usual way, to complete precipitation as dioxide of the remaining tellurium. This latter portion was re-treated in the same man- ner, and the process repeated twice more, each time using only the ammonia-acetic acid precipitate from the preceding operation. As the result of these four fractionations, almost exactly 500 grams of dioxide were obtained by the water precipitation, while the unhydrolyzed fraction secured by ammonia and acetic acid consisted of scarcely more than ten grams. From the fifth repetition, on the ten gram portion, a very small quantity of crystalline, pure white dioxide was obtained by dilution and cooling of the hydrochloric acid solution. The filtrate was heated to boiling and sufficient ammonia added to neutralize part of the acid, whereupon an orange-colored, crystalline deposit, similar to that obtained in the nitric acid fractionation above described, began to form. Boiling for ten or fifteen minutes threw out about eight grams of this product, which was separated by decantation of the liquid, washed, and dried. After filtermg the liquid and reheating it to boiling, more ammonia was added, but still not enough to neutralize all the acid present. By this means another crystalline deposit was secured, yellow in color, and only a gram or so in quantity. When the filtrate from the last mentioned substance was again heated and finally precipitated completely by ammonia and acetic acid, a minute amount of floccy precipitate appeared. Nothing precipitable by stannous chloride in either acid or alkaline solution was found in the last filtrate, and it was there- fore rejected. The floccy precipitate was collected on a filter, washed, and dried. Its amount was too small to admit of its 218 Flint— Researches upon the Compleaity of Tellurium. Plan of the Second Fractionation. 500° + grms. TeO, HC] + H,O K lie 1 Ted, NHOH ¥ HC,H,0, a Te, HCl + HO, iE By TeO, NH,OH + HO,H,O, ) | P PeOr HCl + H,O | le F, TeO, NH,OH + HC,H,O, | IP TeO, HCl + H,O a E 4 TeO NH,OH + Heat 2 white | | 8 By Crystalline, NH,OH + Heat orange-colored | | 8 grms. IPs F, Crystalline, NH,OH + HC,H,0O, yellow | 2 grms. “ia Flocey, nearly white HNO, + Heat ris Pale green 0-1 grm. being removed from the paper in any other way, and it was consequently dissolved off by nitric acid (sp. gr. 1:25), the solu- ' Flint— Researches upon the Complexity of Tellurium. 219 tion filtered twice on asbestos, and evaporated to dryness. The final product, which was ignited nearly to redness, consisted of about one-tenth of a gram of a pale green powder. The color of two of these substances suggested possible con- tamination by iron; that of the third by copper, or perhaps tungsten. No slightest traces of either iron or copper can be discovered by the usual tests. In hydrochloric acid solution all three give, with stannous chloride, black precipitates, simi- lar to tellurium. No bismuth or antimony can be detected. In fact, all reactions so far tried appear to be identical with those given by tellurium, with one exception. When an excess of ammonia is added to a solution of the green substance in hydrochloric acid, the precipitate obtained by neutralization of the acid is not completely dissolved by the excess of the alkali. The liquid filtered from this throws out a black substance, apparently tellurium, when acidified and treated with stannous chloride. The precipitate which did not dissolve in the excess of ammonia, when dissolved, after thorough washing, in hydrochlo- ric acid, gives also a black precipitate with the same reagent. Since tungstic oxide is soluble in ammonia, but is not precipi- tated (although reduced to lower oxides) by stannous chloride, the presence of tungsten is apparently disproved. It is besides difficult to understand how an element having a fusing point above 3000° C. could be volatilized with the tellurium in the poe of distillation at a very much lower temperature than this. - By the use of a greater quantity of material, the investiga- tor proposes to extract sufficient amounts of these products to enable him to determine their nature. This work is already begun, and a report upon it will be made as soon as it can be completed. 220 Browning and Palmer— Vanadium as Silwer Vanadate. 7 Arr. XX1Ti—The Gravimetric Estimation of Vanadium as Silver Vanadate ; by Putte E. Brownrne and Howarp E. PALMER. [Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—cexv. ] SitveR nitrate has long been known as a precipitant of solu- tions of vanadie acid, but, so far as the authors are aware, no method for the quantitative estimation of vanadium, based on the use of this reagent, has been published. The work to be described was undertaken to determine the conditions under which vanadium could be estimated gravimetrically as silver vanadate. For this work an exactly neutral solution of ammoniym vanadate was used, whose, standard had been determined by evaporating accurately measured portions to dryness in a platinum crucible and weighing as V,O, after gentle ignition. Attempts were first made to precipitate the silver vanadate in acetic acid solution. The solution of ammonium vanadate, acid with acetic acid, was heated to boiling, and a solution of silver nitrate was added, with stirring to coagulate the precipi- tate. The precipitate, after settling, was filtered off on asbes- tos, washed thoroughly, and weighed after gentle ignition. The experiments made in this way, under different conditions of acidity, and with different amounts of silver nitrate, are recorded in Table I, and indicate a variation in the composi- tion of the precipitate which is formed in acetic acid solution. Tasce I. Silver vanadate V.O; taken found VO; found Error erm, grm. grm. grm. (1) 0°0569 071978 0:0871 +0:0802 (2) 0°0569 0°1202 0°0529 —0°0040 (3) 071139 . 0°2275 0°1002 —0°0137 (4) 0°0569 O'2671 — 0°1176 + 0:0607 (5) 0°0569 O1717 0°0756 +0°0187 The effect was next tried of making’ the precipitation in exactly neutral solution as follows: The neutral solution of ammonium vanadate, about 200° in volume, was heated to boiling, and a solution of silver nitrate was added in excess, with vigorous stirring to coagulate the precipitate. The pre- cipitate was then filtered off on an asbestos felt contained in a platinum crucible, washed thoroughly, ignited at a gentle heat below the fusing point of silver vanadate, and weighed as AgVO,. Browning and Palmer— Vanadium as Silver Vanadate. 221 The results, recorded in Series A of Table II, indicate that the composition of the precliate formed in neutral solution approximates closely to the meta-form. In the experiments recorded in Series B of Table II, the solution of ammonium vanadate was made ammoniacal with ammonium hydroxide, and this solution was made neutral by boiling until the ammonia was completely expelled. To this solution, diluted to about 200°™’, and heated to boiling, silver nitrate was added, and the procedure given above was followed. The results indicate that the precipitate formed by adding silver nitrate to a solution made neutral by boiling off the ammonia from an ammoniacal solution, is of constant compo- sition. The experiments of Series C were made to determine whether any solution containing vanadium could be brought into the condition in which the silver metavanadate would be precipitated on the addition of silver nitrate, by making ammo- niacal and boiling off the ammonia. To this end the solution of ammonium vanadate was made acid with nitric acid, then made ammoniacal with ammonium hydroxide, and boiled to expel the ammonia; the solution was then treated as in the experiments of Series A. This method, as will be seen, gave the most satisfactory results. In this connection it should be noted that the ammoniacal solution, which is yellow at first, becomes colorless during the boiling, until finally, when the ammonia is almost completely expelled, the solution begins to turn yellow; the boiling should be stopped as soon as the solution begins to turn faintly yellow, because, if the boiling is continued further, the solution becomes too acid, and the precipitate which forms on the addition of silver nitrate has a varying composition which does not correspond to the meta- condition. The ease with which the silver vanadate settled out on stir- ring suggested that the vanadium might be estimated volu- metrically with a fair degree of accuracy, by adding a standard solution of silver nitrate to the hot neutral solution containing the vanadium, and noting the point at which the precipitation ceased : but attempts to do this met with unsatisfactory results. The gravimetric estimation of silver by the addition of an excess of a solution of ammonium vanadate to the solution containing the silver was also tried, but was abandoned on account of the unsatisfactory character of the precipitate and the difficulty with which it filtered. 222 Browning and Palmer— Vanadium as Silver Vanadate. Taste II, V.0, taken AgVO, found V,0O; found Error grm. grm. grm., grm. (A) (9) SO*LS9 0°2595 01143 +0°0004 (2) 00569 071291 0'0569 + 0°0000 (3) 0°0569 0°1277 0°0562 +0:0007 (4) 0°0569 0°13038 0°0574 + 0°0005 (5) 0°1066 0°2436 0°1073 +0°0007 (B) (1) 0°1066 0°2430 01070 +0 0004 (2) 0°1066 0°2429 0°1070 +0'0004 (3) 0°0533 0°1224 0°0539 +0°0006 (4) 0°0533 0°1221 0'0538 +0°0005 ! (5) 0°0569 . 0°1312 0:0578 +0:°0009 (C) (1) -0:0569 ~~. :0°1298 0°0569 —0:0000 (2) 071066 0°2419 0°1065 —0:0001 (3) 0°1066 0°2424 071068 +0:0002 4) 01066 0-2422 071066 +0:0000 (5) 0°0533 071215 00535 +0:0002 OC. Schuchert—Brachiopod genus Syringothyris. 223 Arr. XXIII.—On the Brachiopod genus Syringothyris in the Devonian of Missouri ; by Cuarres ScuvcHERrt. (Contributions from Peabody Museum, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.) AmeErIcAN species of Syringothyris are said to be restricted to the Lower Carboniferous or, better, the Mississippian, and . are known to range from the base of this system into the Sper- gen formation (Lanesville, Indiana). Professor Greger, of Fulton, Missouri, recently sent the writer specimens of Cyrtia occidentalis Swallow (Trans. St. Louis Acad., i, 1860: 648) that are unmistakable individuals of Syrzngothyris. These he gathered from the type locality ef the species in the Callaway limestone at Bellamy Springs and elsewhere in Callaway County, Missouri. This limestone is here the basal member of the Devonian invasion, and appears to be either of late Middle or early Upper Devonian time. The syrinx in S. occidentalis is as well developed as in S. hannibalensis, in both of which this plate, for pedicle muscle attachment, has not yet developed into the typical form de- scribed as the split tube by Hall and Clarke (Pal. N. Y., viii, pt. ii, 1894: 48). In these species the under side of the syrinx is slightly concave, widely open along the inner free end, and is marked by converging muscular growth ridges medially di- vided by a faintseptum. In S. hannibalensis the lateral walls of the syrinx close inward and form a more or less well-devel- oped split tube. In other and later species the tube is solid and only the innermost free end has a short depression to which the pedicle muscles are attached. S. occidentalis is as a rule less transverse than the other spe- cies of Syringothyris, and in this is most like the earliest Missis- sippian species. In the later forms S. cartert and S. texta the valves are more transverse. Keyes was the first to refer Swallow’s species to Syringothyris (Missouri Geol. Surv., v, 1894: 86), but as he gave no reasons for this reference and as the writer (Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., 87, 1897 : 199) had not then seen this shell, he preferred to follow Miller’s North American Geology and Paleontology, where it is placed doubtfully under Cyrtina. Syringothyris therefore originated in the Cordilleran sea during the later Devonian and not in the Atlantic province as the writer heretofore held, but it was not a conspicuous member of any fauna until Mississippian time. The genus is then present in most of the formations from the early Kinder- hook to the Keokuk, and it persists even into the Spergen of the Meramecian series. At no time, however, was there more than one species in a fauna and all these are very much alike. 224 CO. Schuchert—Brachiopod genus Syringothyris. Another phylum originated in the Atlantic realm of the Appalachian province in Spirifer randalli, which also has a well-developed syrinx, but differs from Syringothyris of the Mississippian sea in having a strongly plicated fold and sinus. This stock must be separated generically from those of the Mississippian sea because of its different phyletie derivation, and for it is proposed the generic name Syringopleura (from ‘syringe and pleura or rib, having reference to the plicated fold and sinus), with S. vandalli Simpson as the genotype. Another species probably also belonging to this stock is Spirifer alta Hall. Both occur in the basal Mississippic strata of the Appa- lachian province and appear to have no later descendants. Another similar development took place during the Upper Devonian (Ouray limestone) in the southwestern Cordilleran sea in Syringospira prima (Kindle, Bull. U. 8. Geol. Sury., 391, 1909: 28), a form with an excessively drawn out ventral cardinal area, and valves finely plicate throughout. Hall and Clarke mention still other stocks of Spirifer that tend to develop asyrinx. It would therefore appear that any late Devonian or late Mississippian Spirifer with a high cardi- nal area accompanied by much testaceous deposit in the rostral cavity of the ventral valve between the dental plates, may develop a more or less typical syrinx. The pedicle in all these forms emerges near the articulating cardinal edge in front of the syrinx and between the slightly diverging deltidial plates. To avoid the lengthening of the inner attached end of the ventral pedicle muscle there was developed the syrinx, a delthyrial plate that was progressively elongated to keep up with the constantly increasing width of the cardinal area. Any independent stock of Spirifer that can be shown to develop a syrinx will have to be distinguished under a distinct generic name to bring out its phylogenetic relations. The establishing of such genera, however, cannot be done without the best of material, and the clear evidence that the various stocks of Spirifer are actually not directly related phyle. In this determination the external characters, as the presence or absence of a plicated fold or sinus, lamellose or spinose growth lines, and the nature of the plications will be of much importance. George Frederic Barker. 225 GEORGE FREDERIC BARKER. Wuewn the writer of the following paragraphs began the study of chemistry in 1872, his text-book was an ‘“ Elementary Chemistry,” then in its tenth edition, written by Professor George F. Barker. At that time the writer never dreamed that it would be his privilege to become a colleague of this dis- tinguished scientist, nor that later he would be called upon to write in memory of this splendid teacher, profound student, and man of noblest character. The face of Dr. Barker was familiar to men of science, both in this country and abroad, as he made it a point, whenever possible, to meet with his fellows in science. On such occa- sions by his affability and courtesy he made a wide circle of friends, who in recent years have keenly felt his absence from their meetings, and were indeed shocked when the message of his death was announced. The writer had the opportunity to meet Dr. Barker daily for many years, not so intimately at first, but later with the greatest freedom and in true companionship. The impression made by him, at all times, was that of an earnest student of science, thoroughly conversant with its most recent advances and able to render subjects, which were dry and unattractive though important, so simple and so fascinating, that the ordinary layman could comprehend them with ease. His lectures to students were celebrated for their clarity of presen- tation as well as for their wide scope. He was painstaking in the presentation of his subject, and his constant endeavor was to make his students grasp the problems he placed before them. He spared no pains to make abstruse points clear, and if at times he seemed to demand almost too much and be a bit brusque, yet no earnest student was ever turned away ; he was, in a word, the true teacher, whose sole object was the welfare of those whom he taught. In the lecture room he had rare skill and facility as an experi- menter, and one of his chief joys was to illustrate his lectures, as far as possible, with an abundance of attractive and striking experiments. He often presented the most intricate topics before large audiences, reaching sometimes into the thousands, and so uniformly brilliant was his success that he became noted throughout the country as one capable of popularizing science as few could do it. The writer recalls an occasion in his younger days, when the Academy of Musie in Philadelphia was filled to its dome with an intensely interested and intelli- gent audience assembled to listen to his lecture on ‘“‘ Sound,” and, while seated in the “sky parlor” of the immense audito- rium, enjoying the discomforts peculiar.to his position, so Am. Jour. Sct.—Fourta Srries, Vou. XXX, No. 177.—SupremBer, 1910. 15 226 George Frederic Barker. intensely absorbing was the lecture and its experiments that at its conclusion it was difficult for him to realize that he had actually sat there more than an hour. Dr. Barker was much esteemed in the community where he lived by persons of all ranks. Fora number of years he served on the Board of Education in the city of Philadelphia, and there exerted an influence which was entirely for the good, and never to be forgotten. His contributions to municipal interests included studies of the local water supply, of the qual- ity of illuminating gas, and of the means for protecting public buildings from lightning. At various times he appeared as an expert in scientific matters, and in this field further demon- strated his spirit of careful investigation and absolute integrity and loyalty, as well as ability to be just and fair to all. Many of the cases called for the highest scientific knowledge and accuracy, which were abundantly supplied by him. By his colleagues on the teaching staff of the University of Pennsylvania he was most highly valued. His services were constantly engaged upon committees, and those who worked with him in such duties entertained but one impression, to wit, that he was capable of handling the most intricate and perplex- ing problems with fairness, calmness, and the best judgment. Indeed, it was a pleasure to be associated with him in work of this description ; his hearty codperation and his many helpful suggestions in the solution of university problems were appre- ciated by all his colleagues. Dr. Barker’s early academic training was received in the Boston Public Schools, and at the academy in South Berwick, Maine. He further served an apprenticeship with Joseph Weightman, a maker of scientific instruments, going thence to the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University, where he received the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy in the year 1858. He was deeply attached to his Alma Mater, and invariably spoke in terms of the highest praise and affection of his early teachers. His serious student days had, however, a bit of the modern in them, for if the writer remembers correctly, he was a member of the Varsity crew in the year of his graduation. Some years later, in the autumn of 1869, he became professor of Physiological Chemistry and Toxicology in the Yale Med- ical School, a chair created for him. During this period he served as expert for the State in several poison cases, the most noted being the Lydia Sherman case in New Haven. His active scientific career may be said to have commenced about this time. Thus this Journal in 1867 ( (2), xlii, 252) con- tains a brief article “ Upon the Silvering of Glass,” which is a modification of asuggestion of Béttger, consisting in adding to a boiling solution of Rochelle salt a solution of argentic nitrate, George Frederic Barker. 227 after which the boiling was continued for eight or ten minutes, the liquid allowed to cool, and then filtered. A second portion of the original silver solution was treated with ammonium hydroxide until the precipitate formed was almost redissolved, atter which water was added and the liquid filtered. To silver glass, equal portions of these two fluids. thoroughly mixed, were poured upon it. After a lapse of about ten minutes, a brilliant layer of metallic silver was deposited. By repeating the process the layer could be thickened to any desired extent. A somewhat earlier article is entitled “Account of the Casting of a Gigantic (Rodman) Gun at Fort Pitt Foundry” (abid., Xxxvil, 296); this contains some important practical sug- gestions. An interesting contribution is made by Dr. Barker, in the saine Journal ( (2), xliv, 268, 1867), in support of the view that formic acid is carbonous acid. He believed this to be true because of the ready formation of formic acid by the partial oxidation of carbon, and also because it resulted from the oxidation of carbonic acid. For these reasons he further con- cluded that formic acid was the acid of bivalent carbon. In an extended communication “On Normal and Derived Acids,” (ibid., xliv, 384), he arrived at the following con- clusions : “1, That all the bonds of any simple radical may be saturated by the monad hydryl (OH). 2. That the compounds this formed, being evidently normal, are conveniently designated by the prefix ortho. 3. That the equivalence of negative radicals varies through several stages, while that of positive rarely changes, and hence, that there may be a series of ortho-acids from a given negative radical, but only a single base from a positive one. 4. That by the removal of the elements of water from a normal or ortho-acid, a derived acid is produced, which may be indicated by the prefix meta. 5. That when there are several such derivatives, the Greek numeral prefixes di, tri, tetra, etc., may be used to indicate the number of molecules of water removed from the ortho-acid to yield the meta-form. 6. That interme- diate between the simple ortho- and the meta-acids are others containing more than a single atom of the negative radical ; and that these acids may be designated by di, tri, tetra, etc. (accord- ing to the number of negative atoms) prefixed to the name of the acid, while the number of molecules of water removed from amultiple of the normal acid to form them is indicated by the same numerals prefixed to the meta. 7. That while the negative atoms in the compounds just mentioned are united by oxygen, there may be other compounds whose negative or positive atoms are united directly ; thus producing a fourth class of acids and of bases. 228 George Frederic Barker. *“‘ By classifying thus the substances known as acids and bases, —and, of course, the salts derived from them—it is hoped that their relations to each other may be made clearer. And by giving them systematic names, their position in the series may be fixed, and a step taken toward the establishment of a national nomenclature.” In 1870, appeared his text-book of “ Elementary Chemistry, Theoretical and Inorganic,” which ran through many editions as well as translations into other languages. This was the first book in our language in which modern chou was presented systematically. The style of the book, as so many can testify from its study, is concise and clear. Wolcott Gibbs spoke of it as “a book wholly in the spirit of the most advanced thought in the science.” During his life at New Haven, he contributed a note “On the spectrum of an Anrora which appeared at New Haven, November 9, 1871.” The point of particular interest in this observation was the fact that the line of wave-length, 502, was not laid down in any authority accessible to the observer, as having been noted in the spectrum of the aurora. He adds: “Indeed, no previous observer, so far as I know, has seen any auroral line between the Frauenhofer lines 6 and F”’ (this Journal (3), ii, 465, 1871). Sometime later, he presented a second contribution ‘On the Spectrum of an Aurora of October 24,1872.” This aurora, like that of 1871, was distinguished by its radiant crimson color, and by its form. Dr. Barker remarks that in the lines that appeared in the spectrum, uone was new, though no previous observer had seen all of them at once. Vogel had seen five and four had been seen by Dr. Barker. Two of the lines nearly coincided with the solar lines F and G, but a considerable difference was observed in the spectrum of this aurora and that of 1871, for three lines of the aurora of 1872 had no corresponding line in the spectrum of the aurora of 1871. Dr. Barker was assistant to Dr. Bacon in the Harvard Med- ical School from 1859 to 1861; Professor of Chemistry in Wheaton College, Illinois, 1861; then in the Albany Medical College, where he received the degree of Doctor of Medicine (1862-1863), making while there a chemical examination of the viscera of a dead body, the first time it had ever been done in this country; next, in the University of Pittsburg (1863); he also delivered the lectures on Chemistry at Williams College in the years 1868 and 1869; and, after service in his Alma Mater, to which reference has already been made, he hecame Professor of Physics in the University of Pennsylvania (1872), where the remainder of his life was spent. At this period he published a contribution of considerable length, with the aid George Frederic Barker. 229 of illustrations, on ‘‘ A New Vertical Lantern Galvanometer,” in which claim is made for the general principles of construc- tion of the instrument, and the advantages possessed by it in the readiness with which it could be put into use, the brilliancy of the illuminated cirele of light which it gave upon the screen, its great range of delicacy by which all experimental requirements might be answered, and, finally, the satisfactory character of its performance as a demonstration galvanometer (Proc. Amer. Phil. Soe., xiv, 440). This was followed by a communication “On the Measurement of Electromotive Force (ibid., xx, 649), in which the author states: “ Having had occasion to make measurements of electromotive force by the method of com- parison, I have been Jed to devise a form of standard cell, which appears to have advantages over others heretofore used as to justify me in bringing it before the Society.” In 1880, before the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science, at its Boston meeting, Dr. Barker, as retiring President, delivered an address upon “Some Modern Aspects of the Life-Question,’ from which the following paragraphs are introduced: “ As Preston has suggested, if we regard this ether as a gas, defined by the kinetic theory that its molecules move in straight lines, but with an enormous length of free path, it is obvious that this ether may be clearly conceived of as the source of all the motions of ordinary matter. It is an enormous storehouse of energy, which is continually passing to and from ordinary matter, precisely as we know it to do in the case of radiant transmission. When potential energy becomes kinetic, the ether loses and the matter gains motion. When kinetic energy becomes potential, the lost energy of the matter is the motion gained by the ether. Before so simple a conception as this, both potential energy and action at a distance are easily given up. All energy is kinetic energy, the energy of motion. Giving now to the ether its store- house of tremendous power, and giving to it the ability to trans- fer this power to ordinary matter upon opportunity, and we have an environment compared with which the strongest steel is but the breath of the summer air. In presence of such an energy it is that we live and move. In the midst of such tremendous power do we act. Is it a wonder that out of such a reservoir the power by which we live should irresistibly rush into the organism and develop the transmitted energy which we recognize in the phenomema of life? Truly, as Spinoza has put it, ‘Those who fondly think they act with free will, dream with their eyes open.’” “Such are now the facts and theories to be found in the science of to-day considering the phenomena of life. Physiologically considered, life has no mysterious passages, no sacred precincts into which the unhallowed foot of science may not enter. Research has steadily diminished day by day the phenomena sup- 230 George Frederic Barker. posed vital. Physiology is daily assuming more and more the character of an applied science. Every action performed by the living body is sooner or later, apparently, to be pronounced chemical or physical. And when the last vestige of the vital principle as an independent entity shall disappear from the ter- minology of science, the word “ Life,” if it remain at all, will remain only to signify, as a collective term, the sum of the phe- nomena exhibited by an active organized or organic being.” In following the career of our friend there is plainly seen a versatility on his part, as well as a keen interest for other branches of science than that one to which he gave the best vears of his life. Thus, he is found a member of an expedition to Rawlings, Wyoming, for the purpose of reporting “On the Total Solar Eclipse of July 29, 1878”; his particular dyty being to observe with an analyzing spectroscope the presence, either of light, or of dark (Fraunhofer), lines in the spectrum of the corona. (See Proc. Amer. Phil. Soe., xviii, 1880.) Again, in connection with Professor Rowland, he reported “On the Efficiency of Edison’s Electric Light.” See this Journal (3), xix, 337. Dr. Barker was the first person to exhibit radium in this country (1894) after its isolation by Madame Curie in Paris. Radio-activity appealed so strongly to him, that it is not sur- ' prising to find a paper of his on ‘‘ Radio-activity of Thorium Minerals” in this Journal ( (4), xvi, 161, 1903). In this com- munication, the author introduces a number of original contri- butions. He repeated the experiments of Hofmann and Zer- ban, relative to the radio-activity of Brazilian monazite, which contains no uranium, and confirmed the results of these observ- ers, to wit: that the thorium from this monazite is probably radio-active. From a series of experiments, he further con- cluded that thorium is a primary radio-active substance, and added that the thorium emanation rapidly decays, falling to one-half its value in one minute, while that of the radium emanation retains its active properties tor several weeks. On the other hand, the excited radio-activity produced by the former emanation is much more prominent than that pro- duced by the latter. Since excited radio-activity can be pro- duced on bodies if the emanation be present, even in the absence of a radio-active substance, and since the amount of effect is directly proportional to the amount of emanation, it follows, first, that the production of excited radio-activity is a property of the emanation, and, therefore, is also produced in bodies where the radio-active emanations from thorinm aud radium are present: and second, that uranium and polonium, which do not give forth any emanation, do not possess the power of exciting radio-activity. In the present view of George Frederic Barker. 231 science, therefore, it would not be probable that the radio- activity of thorium is a secondary or excited radio-activity due to the uranium associated with it in the minerals previously named,” A very instructive address upon “ Radio-activity in Chem- istry” was delivered by Dr. Barker before the Chemical Society of Columbia University; it appeared in full in the School of Mines Quarterly (xxiv, 267). It has historical value, and will prove helpful to all wishing to familiarize themselves with the subject. It is accompanied with bibliographies cover- ing 90 titles by the most prominent investigators in this par- ticular field of research. In 1899, Harper and Bros. issued a small volume of 75 octavo pages on “ Rontgen Rays,” in which are incorporated memoirs by Réntgen, Stokes, and J. J. Thomson, translated and edited by Dr. Barker. On the 27th of May, 1893, the American Philosophical Society celebrated the 150th anniversary of its foundation, on which occasion Dr. Barker offered a paper on “ Electrical Progress since 1743.” This paper is a review of the advances in Physies since that early date, emphasizing in particular the contributions to electrical science by such persons as the immortal founder of the Society, Benjamin Franklin, and by Kinnersley, Robert Hare, Joseph Henry, Joseph, Saxton, David Rittenhouse, and Alexander D. Bache. ‘The labors of these men have mightly contributed to advance the develop- ment of scientific thought throughout the world, and so to bring about that exceptional evolution of electrical facts and theories which is the distinguishing feature of the science of the nineteenth century.” This little brochure is indeed worthy of study by every student of the physical sciences. Still other communications of Dr. Barker are “On the Henry Draper Memorial Photographs of Stellar Spectra” (Amer. Phil. Soc. xxiv, p. 166), “On the Use of Carbon Bisulphide in Prisms,” (this Journal (3), xxix, 269), in which communication there is presented to the public the observa- tions of his friend, Dr. Henry Draper, taken from the notes of the latter after his death; and “The Microphone of Hughes” (ibid. (3), xvi, 60), in which Dr. Barker takes occasion to say that the results obtained by Hughes had been clearly antici- pated by more than a year by those of Edison. Biographical memoirs of Frederick Augustus Genth, of Henry Draper, of John William Draper, and of M. Carey Lea were written for the National Academy by Dr. Barker, and he also prepared for the Smithsonian Institution annual reports upon Physics from the year 1881 to 1885, inclusive. These amount to 258 pages and represent the most recent advances in the science during these years. 232 George Frederic Barker. From 1868 to 1900 he was associate Editor of this Journal, and the abstracts of chemical and physical papers which he contributed regularly during this period are remarkable for their clearness and accuracy. In 1874-75 he was Editor of the Journal of the Franklin Institute. In 1892 appeared his “ Physics, Advanced Course” from the press of Henry Holt & Company, which immediately met with a most hearty reception and became a standard among the text-books on this important subject. ; It follows naturally that to one so active in the scientific world there should have been awarded numerous honors. Thus, in 1881, Dr. Barker was United States Commissioner to the Paris Electrical Exhibit, a delegate to the Electrical, Con- gress, and Vice-President of the Jury of Awards, receiving the decoration of Commander of the Legion of Honor in France; in 1884, he was United States Commissioner to the Electrical Exhibit in Philadelphia; and in 1893, a member of the Jury of Awards of the World’s Columbian Exposition. He was an active member of the National Academy of Sciences, serving on many of its important committees, and also of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, of which he was Vice-President twice, delivering on one of these occasions an address on “The Molecule and the Atom,’ a most valuable contribution to theoretical chemistry, and President in 1879; his presidential address in 1880 has already been referred to. He was a corresponding member of the British Association. He was President of the American Chemical Society (1891), the subject of his presidential address being “The Borderland between Physics and Chemistry.” He was Secretary and later a Vice-President of the American Philosophical Society from 1899 until 1909. He was a member of the Physical Society and of the Deutsche Chemische Gesellschaft. In 1899 he became an honorary member of the Royal Institute of Great Britain. He was the recipient of the following academic honors: Doctor of Science from the University of Pennsy]- vania in 1898; LL.D from Allegheny College in 1898; and LL.D from McGill University in 1900. He became Emeritus Professor of Physics in the University of Pennsylvania in 1900. He was a member of the Century Club of New York and the University Club of Washington. In 1861, Dr. Barker was married to Mary M. Treadway of New Haven, Conn., who with three daughters survive this devoted and loving husband and father. Dr. Barker was born at Charlestown, Mass., July 14, 1835, and died at Philadelphia on May 24,1910. His was a beau- tiful life, so full of service to his fellow-men and so rich in its achievements that it will ever remain a most precious memory to his many friends. Enear F. Smira. aie THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE [FOURTH SERIES. ] o> Arr. XXIV.—On the Nature of the Ionization Produced by a Rays ;* by Frank E. WaeeEtock. [Contributions from the Sloane Physical Laboratory of Yale University. ] WHEN a gas is ionized by a rays, it is well known that satu- ration is obtained only when a large potential gradient is applied between the plates of the ionization chamber. This is much larger than would be necessary if the lack of saturation were due to general recombination of the positive and negative ions formed, if they are distributed throughout the volume of the gas. Bragg and Kleemant have explained the lack of saturation experimentally obtained, on the hypothesis of ‘‘ Initial Recom- bination” ; the two ions made by corpuscular dissociation of a molecule, situated initially in the immediate vicinity of each other, are able to recombine and thus escape the electrode placed to receive them. On this hypothesis, lack of saturation would depend upon the number of ions formed per c¢.c. in a unit of time; it would be independent of the size and shape of the ionization chamber ; saturation would be easier with dimin- ished pressure, and “ Initial Recombination ” would be greater in the more complex gases. The experiments of Bragg and Kleeman show the above facts and “ Initial Recombination” seem to be a reasonable explanation of the lack of saturation at low voltages. Kleemant has shown that “Initial Recombination” is prac- tically absent in air ionized by X rays and is very small in gases * A Thesis presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Yale University, June, 1910. + On the Recombination of Ions in Air and other Gases, Phil. Mag., xi, 1906. tees ee of Ions, made by a, f, and y rays, Phil. Mag., xii, p. 278, Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH SERIES, VoL. XXX, No. 178.—Ocroser, 1910. 16 234 Wheelock—Nature of Ionization Produced by a Rays. ionized by Band y rays. These ionizing agents seem to effect a complete separation of the negative ions from their parent mole- cules. He has shown that lack of saturation for weak ionization with a rays is not due to diffusion of ions, nor does it depend upon a, the coefficient of recombination. “ Initial Recombi- nation” is greater the slower the velocity of the ionizing a particle, which probably means, the slower the velocity of the a particle the less the velocity of the ejected electron. Moulin*® has interpreted the lack of saturation on the hypoth- esis suggested, by Langevin, that in the case of ionization by a rays, where the number of ions produced by each a particle is very great, the ions produced are not at all uniformly distrib- uted in the volume of the gas, but are distributed, at least initially, in columns along the trajectory of the a particle. ' The ordinary recombination obtained between ions of the same column ought to exceed many times that which would be obtained for the same number of ions distributed through- out the volume. According to this hypothesis, recombination should be greater when the field is applied along the path of the a particle than when it is at right angles to the path. The parallel field would not break up the columns, while the per- pendicular field would produce a separation of the positive and negative ions, by breaking each column up into two. Moulin obtained saturation at about 200 volts per em. when the field was applied at right angles to the path, while from 1200 to 1500 volts per em. were necessary for the parallel field. He also found that saturation was more easily obtained when the pressure was decreased. In asecond papert Moulin describes some experiments using CO, and H, instead of air, and obtained results which confirm those of his previous paper. He also applied a field inclined at an angle of 45° to the path of the a particle and obtained curves which were in good agreement with those obtained by calculation. Moulin therefore concludes that the “ Initial Recombination” effect is negligible in comparison with that of general recombi- nation (a n*) within the columns. For yolume ionization, general recombination depends upon N, the number of ions per cc. If the ions are formed in columns, the density of ionization within the columns would be very great, since the ions would occupy only a very small fraction of the total volume of the chamber. It would be expected, therefore, on this hypothesis, that re- combination would be different at different parts of the range of the a particle, being greatest where the maximum number of ions is produced by the a particle. * Tonization of Gas by a rays and Hypothesis of Initial Recombination, Le Radium, May, 1908. + Comptes Rendus, June, 1909. . Wheelock—Nature of Ionization Produced by a Rays. 235 On the hypothesis of “ Initial Recombination” it would be expected that recombination would be less in the part of the range where the velocity of the a particle is greater, since the electron would probably be ejected with greater velocity and thus have more chance to escape the remaining positive ion. The a particle is a more efficient ionizing agent near the end of its path, but since it is moving slower here than when the source is nearer the chamber, more recombination would take place. This would also be the case if the lack of saturation were due to columnar ionization, because of the greater density of ions within the columns. The purpose of the experiments here described is :— I. (a) To compare the saturation curve obtained when an electric field is applied parallel to the path of the a particle with that obtained when the tield is perpendicular to the path ; (6) To compare the a ray curves with those obtained when 8 and y rays are used as ionizing agents. Il. To test for the existence of columnar ionization. Ill. To get a mathematical expression for the saturation curve, on the hypothesis of ionization in columns, and to com- pare the calculated curves with those experimentally obtained when the field is applied parallel to the path of the @ particle. IV. To show that the lack of agreement between the caleu- lated and experimental curves is not due to an inclination of the columns in the ionization chamber used. V. To compare the curves obtained with the source at dif- | ferent distances from the ionization chamber, for both parallel and perpendicular fields. Vi. To compare the curves obtained at different pressures in both chambers. Description of Apparatus. For the field parallel to the path of the a particle, the appa- ratus used (fig. 1) was similar to that of Bragg and Kleeman. The ionization chamber, 75°" in diameter and 4™™ in depth, was formed of a wire gauze N, insulated from the supporting ring by small pieces of amber, and a brass piate A, insulated from the top, E, of the containing vessel by means of an ebonite plug. A second wire gauze, D, grounded through the top of the containing vessel, formed with N a second ionization cham- ber, which prevented stray ions from entering the ignization chamber proper. ra The plate A was connected to one pair of quadrants of a Dolezalek electrometer, the second pair of quadrants being earthed. The gauze N was connected with a battery and could be charged to any desired potential. _The high potential wire C was carefully screened to prevent stray ions from being 236 Wheelock—Nature of Ionization Produced by a Rays. earried over to the plate A. The polonium, or other radio- active substance used, was placed on a carrier, R, which could be moved up and down by means of the screw G, the position of which was given by the scale 8. The apparatus used for testing the effect of a field perpen- dicular to the path of the a particle (fig. 2) consisted of a brass Fie. 1. Fie. 2. plate, C (8-5 by 2:5"), connected by B toa battery, a narrow brass strip, E (7:2 by 0:4), connected to one pair of quad- rants of the electrometer, and a brass plate, D, surrounding E and separated from it by an air space of 0-5". | The plate D was grounded through the top of the containing vessel and served as a guard ring. Wheelock—Nature of Ionization Produced by a Rays. 237 This chamber was used in the same containing vessel as that shown in fig. 1, so that the radio-active material being below, the field was perpendicular to the trajectory of the a particle. I. (a) Comparison of Curves obtained with the Field parallel and perpendicular to the Path of the a particle. When a gas is ionized by a rays, if the ions are formed in columns along the path of the a particle the saturation value of the current would be obtained for a much smaller potential gradient applied between the plates, when the field is perpen- dicular, than when it is applied along the path of the @ particle. The following data show this to be true and agree with the results obtained by Moulin: Parallel Field. Perpendicular Field. Source 2°6°" from the middle Source 2°6°™ from the middle of the chamber. of the chamber. Volts/em. Current % lack sat. ; Volts/em. Current % lack sat. 5 WAST 33'9 2 11°98 59°0 10 13°67 29°3 (1) 4 15°95 45-4 20 15:1 21°8 (2) 10 20°76 29'3 (1) 40 . 15°95 17-4 (3) 20 23°80 18°5 (2) 100 17°45 9°7 40 26°40 9°6 (3) 200 18°35 5-0 (4) 80 27°85 4-6 400 19°15 1°9 120 28°65 19 800 19°32 0°0 200 29°08 0°4 (4) 400* 29°18 0°07 1000 29°20 0:00 Norr.—For a direct comparison, see (1), (2), (8), (4), above, or fig. 3. The saturation curves are practically the same when a posi- tive charge is applied to the gauze of the ionization chamber as they are for a negative charge. This is true when the field is applied parallel or perpendicular to the path of the a particle. (6) When a weak source of 8 and y rays is used as the ionizing agent, saturation is practically obtained for a very small potential gradient applied between the plates. Parallel Field. Perpendicular Field. Source 51° from the middle of | Source 2°7°" from the middle of the chamber. the chamber. Volts/em. Current @lacksat. | Volts/em. Current @ lack sat. 5°0 6°95 6°0 2°0 2°75 5:2 40:0 7-0 5°4 4°0 2°84 2°1 200°0 12. Oi 8:0 2°87 1:0 800°0 7:4 0:0 40:0 29 0°0 1200°0 7:4 0:0 200:0 2°9 0°0 1000°0 2°9 0:0 Norr.—For curves see fig. 3. 238 Wheelock—Nature of Ionization Produced by a Rays. Fig. 3. io i eg Sm Sesame | Career eo ee a [deal es eS ee op Gaia SOMME pe aeamane | : 20 40 80 120 160 200 Volts per cm. ——> Current in scale divisions, ——~> — o A =a ray curve, parallel field. B=a ray eurve, perpendicular field. C =f and y ray curve, parallel field. D=8 and y ray curve, perpendicular field. The fact that for @ and y rays, saturation is obtained for small potential differences between the plates, has been explained by Kleeman as due to the electron, emitted in the act of ionization, being shot off with a velocity great enough to effect complete separation from the remaining positive ion, and therefore initial recombination would be negligible. General recombination would have very little effect in this case, since it is volume ionization from a very weak source. II. Zwidence of Columnar Ionization. When a gas is ionized by 8 or y rays, it has been seen that saturation is obtained at small voltages, if the ionization is small. It is found by experiment that as the ionization increases, a stronger field is necessary to obtain the saturation value. Wheelock— Nature of Ionization Produced by a Rays. 239 In the case of ionization by B rays, the ions are distributed throughout the volume of the gas, and general recombination, which depends upon the number of ions per ¢.c. in the gas, would be greater as the ionization is increased. It would not be expected that the ratio of the currents obtained with two sources of different intensities would be the same for different potential gradients. This is in accord with the ordinary theory of volume ionization and with all experiments hitherto made on ionization produced by 8, y, and Rontgen rays. On the other hand, when a gas is ionized by a rays, if the ions are formed in columns along the path of the a particle, an electric field applied along the path, that is along the axis of the column so formed, would not break up the column and the recombination occurring would be between ions belonging to the same column. It would be expected that the ratio of the currents obtained with sources of different intensities would be constant for different potential gradients applied, since each a particle makes the same number of ions in its path, and the density of ionization would be the same in any one column. When the field is applied at right angles to the direction of the column, each column would be separated into two, one of positive and the other of negative ions. With the perpendicular field two cases present themselves : first when the source is so weak that there are very few a par- ticles given off; second, when a stronger source is used. In the first case, very few columns would exist in the ion- ization chamber during the time required for the ions present to be carried over to the receiving plate by the electric field. The ions of one column would have little chance to recombine with those of another in going across the chamber. In the second case, with the stronger source, enough columns might exist in the chamber at any one time, so that the ions of one column would, when the field is applied, come within the sphere of influence of those of the opposite sign from another column. Recombination might then take place not only between ions of the same column but between those of different columns. In this case the ratio of the currents obtained with a given field would not be constant, because of the added recombina- tion of ions of different columns, which would vary with the number of columns present in the chamber. To apply this test for the existence of ions in columns it is necessary to obtain curves from sources of different intensity, with both parallel and perpendicular fields. (a) Curves were obtained with the radio-active source bare and when covered with a wire gauze to cut out part of the a particles. The density of ionization would be the same wher- ever ions exists, 1. e., within the columns. 240 Wheelock—Nature of Ionization Produced by a Rays. Parallel Field. Source 2°6™ from the middle of the chamber. Current - “a an) Ratio Volts /em. Without With of gauze gauze Currents 5 EU 3°13 2°46 10 8°35 3°35 2°5 20 9°12 3°59 2°54 40 9°65 3°76 2°57 100 10°6 4°2 2°52 200 Das? 4°51 2°48 400 11°5 4:7 2°45 Perpendicular Field. Source 2°6°™ from the middle of the chamber. Current = a s . Ratio Volts / cm. Without With of gauze gauze Currents 2°1 9°88 5°25 1°88 4°2 13°25 6°5 2°04 106 17°33 7°82 2°22 21°0 20°0 8°85 2°26 43°0 22°2 9°62 2°31 85°5 23°6 9°95 2°37 126°0 23°8 10°05 2°38 168°5 24:0 10°12 2°38 211°5 24°] 10°14 2°38 The ratio of currents is approximately constant for the parallel field but increases with the potential gradient for the perpendicular field; this is as would be expected if the ions are initially formed in columns. For the perpendicular field the ions of one column might interfere with those of another. (6) Two specimens of polonium were then used, one of which was about twenty-nine times as strong as the other, and the following data were obtained : Parallel Field. Source 26°" from the middle of the chamber. Current (a Weak Strong Polonium Polonium Ratio Ratio 3 min. 1 min. of for 3 min. readings readings Currents readings cap. without Volts / cm. 196°46 added cap. 5°25 1°39 6°82 4°9 29°4 20°9 1°63 8°0 4:9 29°4 42°5 1°75 8°55 4°89 29°34 86°3 1:91 9°42 4°93 29°58 196°3 2°08 9°85 4°73 28°4 355'0 2°15 10°1 4:7 28°2 Wheelock—Nature of lonization Produced by a Rays. 241 Again the ratio of deflections is approximately constant.* This could not be so if volume ionization existed, since the density of ionization in the one case would be twenty-nine times the density in the other, and general recombination would have a very different effect in the two cases. (c) Experiments were then made with the field at right angles to the path of the a particle, in which fan-shaped beams of different sizes and shapes were used. These were obtained by placing slits of different dimensions over the source. The different beams used were as shown in fig. 4. A B fo) Slit Slit Slit 5x 0°5™m 5x0:2mm 0°5x1:5™™ Perpendicular Field. Source 2°6 cm. from the middle of the chamber. Current = Aa ———, Ratio of Currents Volts / cm. Slit Slit Slit A/B A/C C/B 5x0:5™™ §x0°2™™ 0:5x1:5™™ 2°1 9°88 2:5 BOF 3°84 2°67 1°44 10°6 17°33 3°39 BPE 53017 3°23 1°6 21:0 20°0 3°65 5°77 5°48 3°47 1°58 43:0 22°29 3°9 6°29 5°7 3°53 1°61 85°5 23°6 4:07 6°56 5°8 3°58 161 211°5 24°] 4:15 6°68 5'8 3°6 161 From the above data it will be seen that the ratio of the currents C/B is practically constant. The ionization in both of these cases is small and the result appears to indicate that there are not enough columns in the chamber at any time to get interference of the ions of one column with those of another. *Tt is interesting to observe, that to compare the ionization produced by a rays from different sources, it is not necessary to obtain the saturation value of the current. This is very convenient, since for ionization by @ rays saturation is obtained only when the potential difference between the plates is very large, when the field is applied parallel to the path of the a particle. 242 Wheelock—Nature of Ionization Produced by a Ray : The current obtained with the beam A is much larger than that with either B or C. The ratios A/B and A/C are not constant. This looks as if, with beam A, enough columns do exist to give interference of the ions between columns and consequently more recombination occurs, (d) A further test for columnar ionization was made as follows: the radio-active source was covered by hollow cylin- ders of different diameters and heights. The source was kept at a fixed distance (2°6™) from the chamber and the internal dimensions of the hollow cylinders were varied so that the area of the plate receiving ions was constant in all cases, as shown in fig. 5. Fie. 5. a OOOOT,-C COT C OOO > 7 ) Se ee a ees eee Se c------=-- SE SSS seo as po NN U \ ‘ \ , \ ’ \ v; \ ‘ N ’ \ , N e i. ’ \ ‘ \ ‘ NS We MY ’ ‘\ ‘ ‘ ’ \ ‘ , \ ’ ‘ , ‘ ‘\ ’ Ny a N \ » « ZZ YW LA A B Cc D The internal dimensions of the cylinders are given below. Diameter Height A Ri ak 2S SO ae On 5mm 7-5mm Boa, ae eae 4 6:0 (Cha merece es oaks let Sing 3 4°5 ie he Ao Se ore 2 3°0 The following data were obtained: Parallel Field. Source 2°6°" from the middle of the chamber. —— Current——-—, Ratio Cylinder Cylinder of Volts/em 5x 75mm 4x 6™m™ Currents 5°4 8°33 6°68 1°25 21°5 9°78 7°87 1:24 107°5 . 114 9°12 1°25 427°5 12°38 9°8 1°26 1252°5 12°62 10°03 1°26 Cylinder Cylinder Volts/em 3 x 45mm 3 x 4mm Ratio 5°43 9°02 3°87 2°3 22°5 10°68 4°37 2°4 109°5 12°63 5°25 2°4 432°5 13°6 5°63 2°4 1297°5 13°83 Dit 2°4 Wheelock—Nature of Ionization Produced by a Rays. 243 As before, the ratio of the currents is constant, as would be expected if the ions are formed in columns. (e) The active deposit from thorium was also used as an lon- izing agent. This was obtained in the usual way by putting thorium hydroxide in a closed metal dish, through the top of which a small brass plug was placed. The containing vessel was charged positively and a difference of potential of about 300 volts was maintained between the vessel and the plug. The deflections were corrected for the decay of the excited activity. The plug was exposed for different lengths of time and the following data were obtained : Parallel Field. Active deposit 35°" from the middle of the chamber. ———Current-——— Ratio 27 hrs. 51 hrs. of Volts/em Exposure Exposure Currents 5°38 1°62 2°16 1°33 21°8 1:82 eOvi| 1°3 104'8 1°95 2°68 1:37 488°8 2°09 2°91 1°39 1013°8 Dar 3'0 1°38 The activity was tested at two different times during its decay with the following results : Parallel Field. Active deposit 3:5°™ from the middle of the chamber. ———Current-———, Ratio 65 hrs. After of Volts/em Exposure 6°5 hrs. Currents 5) 1°82 0°94 1°93 21°8 2-0 1:12 1°8 102°5 2°28 1°15 1°98 413°8 2°39 1:27 1°88 1086-0 B20) 1°29 1°86 The ratio is again constant when the field is applied parallel to the path of the a particle. The above deflections are not corrected for ionization due to the B and y rays of thorium B, but this is so small that it will have no appreciable effect. Experiment, therefore, seems to justify the assumption that in the case of ionization by @ rays, ions are formed in col- umns along the path of the a particle. These columns are not broken up by the parallel field, but are when the field is at right angles to the path. 244 Wheelock—Nature of Ionization Produced by a Rays. 1 Ill. A Theoretical Expression for the Saturation Curve. A theoretical expression for the saturation curve may be obtained as follows, on the hypothesis of the ions being formed in columns along the path of the a particle and a uniform dis- tribution of ions in the columns. Let N be the number of positive ions generated by one a particle in the chamber. - n, be the number of positive ions per c.c. a be radius of a column. b be depth of ionization chamber. The time for an ion to go from any position, 2, to the top plate is given by ny b —* where k = mobility of the ion kX and X = electric force. Limiting time for any ion to have a chance to recombine is 1/2 b since half of the ions are “ & X going each way. Limiting time during which an ion at # can recombine is 1/2 b eet kX Since the a particle passes through the chamber almost instantaneously, the ionization is over immediately dn - = an dt 1 1 whence ee yet — tale n n 0 Therefore, for an ion which starts at 2, the final density 2, that is the number of ions per c.¢. which will reach the plate, will be given by: 1 1 1 6—2 es a— n 2 kX The charge per column, reaching the plate, will be: b ena’ n, de b an, kX A = nate f = ~ 0 (2kX + an,b) — an x and — Wheelock—Nature of Ionization Produced by a Rays. 245 2kX + aN ( Since ora le De mae re or Q2 = rae aan log nx. | N=za Nb where Q; = charge per column reaching the electrode for a field X. Now let S = 7a’ = cross section of a column and g = mldebs : 5 a The above expression reduces to Q. = egs tog (1+ —) SE aera (B) If columnar ionization is to explain completely the lack of saturation obtained when a gas is ionized by a particles, the theoretical curve should fit the experimental curve. Comparison of the Experimental Curve with that given by Equation (B). Current obtained by Current calculated from experiment with the Equation B, made to fit parallel field. experimental curve at Source 2°6°™ from 0°25 volts /cm. and Volts /em. chamber. at saturation. 0°25 1:70 1°70 O75 — 4°58 344 2°02 6°66 5°73 4°80 7°79 7:90 10°18 8°28 9°45 20°75 9°00 10°48 42°00 9°49 11°10 105°75 10°49 11°46 209°50 10°91 11°67 419°50 LG 11-72 840°50 11°43 11°75 1260°75 11°80 11°77 For curve see fig. 6. It is seen from the data or from the enrves, fig. 6, that except for a potential gradient below 5 volts /em., the theo- retical curve lies above the experimental and approaches saturation faster. Calculations were made for several curves and the above was always found to be the case. In the ionization chamber used (the ordinary Bragg cham- ber), the lines of electrie force would not be strictly parallel to the path of the a particle so that there would be the combined , 246 Wheelock—Nature of Ionization Produced by a Rays. effect of the field resolved along and at right angles to the path of the a particle and less recombination might be expected with small differences of potential between the plates. Current in scale divisions. ——> Volts per em. —— > Fie. 6.—A, Experimental curve. B, Calculated curve. This suggested experiments in which the field would be strictly parallel to the trajectory of the a particle. IV. Zo Test the Effect of Inclination of the Columns. For these experiments the ordinary Bragg chamber, used above, was replaced by an ionization chamber consisting of a spherical brass cap of radins 3° for an upper plate, a spherical cap of wire gauze, radius 2°6™, for the lower plate of the ionization chamber. This with another spherical gauze cap, radius 2°2™, formed a second ionization chamber which pre- vented any stray ions from getting into the ionization chamber proper. The caps were placed 4" apart. The radio-active source was placed at the center of the spheres of which the caps were a part and only a small pencil of rays was used. The curves obtained with the spherical chamber, in which the field was always parallel to the path of the a particle, differ very little from those obtained with the Bragg ehamber ; however they do show slightly more recombination at low voltages, which would be expected. The experimental curve was found to lie below the calculated curve except when an intense electric field was applied. a Wheelock—Nature of Lonization Produced bya Rays. 247 The explanation of the discrepancy between the experimental curve and that given by the equation is not, therefore, the lack of parallelism between the field and the columns. This discrepancy may be due to the fact that in the theory above given, it was assumed that uniform distribution of the ions existed in the columns themselves, which is probably not the case. It would be expected that the density of ions would be greater along the axis of the column and would fall off with the distance according to some law, which, if known, would give a theoretical curve, that might more nearly and perhaps exactly fit the experimental curve. On the other hand, it is quite possible that “ initial recombi- nation ” (in the sense used by Bragg) may account for part of the lack of saturation, and that the final explanation may require both the “initial recombination” and “ columnar ioni- zation” hypotheses. V. Comparison of the curves obtained when the ions are produced at different parts of the range of the a particle. Since the velocity of the a particle increases as the distance from the source decreases, it is probable that the ejected electron would be sent farther away from its parent molecule when the ionizing source is near the chamber than when it is farther away; that is, the greater the velocity of the ionizing a particle, the greater the velocity of the ejected electron. If this be true, it would be expected, according to Brage’s initial recombination hypothesis, that the amount of recombi- nation would be greater when the ions are produced in the part of the range where the veiocity of the a particle is less. According to the hypothesis of columnar ionization, recom- bination would be greatest in the part of the range where the greatest ionization per column is obtained. The following data were obtained with the source at differ- ent distances from the ionization chamber : Parallel Field. 8-5em 9-Gem 1°9em (SSS Se SS aN ooo Sarr} (nm. == r\ Volts/em. Current ¢ lack Current % lack Current 4% lack 5 4°95 35°9 WOT 7 33°9 11°35 30°2 10 5°37 30°5 13°67 29°25 12°35 24°1 20 5°87 24°2 15°10 21°8 13°15 19:2 40 6°32 18°6 15°95 17°4 13°95 14:3 100 6°77 12°4 17°45 9°7 15:0 78 200 TN53 Dd 18°35 5°0 15°45 50 400 755 273 19°15 1:9 16°0 1:7 800 7-70 0°6 19°32 0:0 16°27 0:0 1200 175 0°0 For curves see fig. 7. 248 Wheelock—Nature of Ionization Produced by a Rays. Per cent lack of saturation OE ES ED SS SS Volts/em. Dist, 3°5°™ -Q-6em 1-gem 5 35°9 33°9 30°2 10 30:5 29:2 24+] 20 24:9 21'8 19°2 100 12°4 9°7 78 "§ 7 Current in scale divisions. — 20 @640 80 120 160 200 Volts per cm. ——> Fic. 7.—A, Source at 3°5°™. B, Source at 2°6°™. C, Source at 1:9°™. It will be noticed that with the polonium 3°5° from the middle of the ionization chamber, that is, nearly out of range, the percentage lack of saturation is greatest; at 1:9 it is least, and at 2°6°" an intermediate value is obtained. Assuming Brage’s initial recombination hypothesis, this can be explained as follows: The electrons emitted in the act of ionization would be sent farther away from the parent mole- cules when the source is 1:9°" from the ionization chamber than when the distance is either 2°6™ or 3°5°". The electrons would thus have a greater chance of getting out of the sphere of influence of the remaining positive ions, with the ionizing source at 1:9 from the chamber, than in either of the other cases. Wheelock—Nature of Ionization Produced by a Rays. 249 On the hypothesis of ionization in columns, it would be expected, since the density of ionization is oreater when the polonium is 2°6™ fron the chamber, that recombination would be greater. Experiment shows oveater recombination with the ionizing source at 2°6°" than at 1-9°", but less recombination than when it is at 3:5°. However, ‘when the source is 35 from the ionization chamber, some of the a particles (those sent off at angles of from 23: 2° to 26°6° with the ver tical) do not enter the chamber at all, and most of the ions in the cham- ber are formed by the a particles which are sent off, making very small angles with the vertical. The columns thus made would be very little broken up by the component of the elec- tric force at right angles to the path of a particles, since this component would be small. When the source is 2°6°" or 19°" from the middle of the chamber all of the a particles cross the ionization chamber, and the perpendicular component of the electric force might have an appreciable effect upon the recombination of ions, since the columns would be more or less broken up.* Data obtained with the perpendicular field. ——— 320" —-_, —— 2:6" ——_, —— 273m ——_, Volts/em. Current 4 lack Grou % lack Current % lack 2 8°75 55°3 11°98 59°0 11-1 58°9 4 11°19 42°8 15°95 45°4 15°23 43°7 10 1471 28°5 20°76 29°3 19°65 27°3 20 16°05 18°0 23°8 18°5 22°43 1771 40 17°87 87 26°4 9°6 24°6 9°05 80 18°6 4°96 27°85 4°6 25°93 4-1 120 19°1 2°4 28°65 1:9 26°6 ey 200 19°5 0°36 29°08 0-41 26°95 0°37 1000 19°57 0-0 29°2 0°0 27°05 0:0 For curves see fig. 8. Mean value of % lack of saturation from several curves. Volts/em Dist. 3°2°™ Dist. 26° Dist. 2°3°™ 2 55°6 596 58:3 4 43°3 45°9 44°0 10 28°0 30°0 27°9 40 9-1 10°3 88 80 4°8 51 4°0 By comparing the lack of saturation at the distances given in the above table, it will be seen that more recombination * A better test would have been possible if a particles of longer range than those from polonium had been used, but the thorium I had was too weak and Ra. C decays too rapidly for saturation measurements, which take considerable time. Am, Jour. Sct.—Fourts SErigs, Vou. XXX, No. 178.—Octozmr, 1910. 17 250 Wheelock—Nature of Ionization Produced by a Rays. takes place when the source is 2°6°™ from the chamber than in either of the other cases. This is as would be expected on the hypothesis of ionization in columns. At 2°6°™ the density of ions in the columns is greatest, and therefore greater recombination would take place. With the source at 2°3°" from the chamber the ionization is a little less than at 2°6°™ ; that is, the density of ions in the columns is slightly less and the percentage lack of saturation is corre- spondingly smaller. With the source at 3°2°" the current is about two-thirds that obtained with the source at 2°6™ or 2:3, wo ioe) == ri) RSG wo i=) Current in scale divisions Volts per cm. — > Fie. 8.-—A, source at 3:2°™ ; B, source at 2°6™ ; C, source at 2°3°™. This is due to the fact that some of the a particles just barely enter the chamber because of being shot off at relatively large angles with the vertical. On the other hand, the initial recombination hypothesis of Bragg fails to account for the differences in the experimen- tal curves obtained at different parts of the range, when the electric field is applied at right angles to the path of the a particle. The velocity of the a particle is greatest with the source at 2:3, least with the source at 3°2°", and has an intermediate value at 2:6. The per cent of the ions recombining should therefore be least at 2°3°", greatest at 3°2°™, and have an inter- mediate value at 2°6™, which is not the case. Wheelock—Nature of Ionization Produced by a Rays. 251 Again, the effect of initial recombination, if it exists, should be the same whether the field is applied along the path of the a particle or at right angles to it. Experiment shows that the saturation current is obtained with a potential gradient of about 200 volts/em. between the plates of the ionization chamber, while from 1200 to 1500 volts/em. are necessary for saturation with the parallel field. The results of the experiments with the ionization produced at different parts of the range of the a particle seem to show that neither initial recombination, nor the hypothesis of ioni- zation in columns along the path of the a particle, completely accounts for the lack of saturation obtained by experiment. Initial recombination fails when the field is at right angles to the path, while columnar ionization does not entirely account for the recombination obtained with the parallel field. Here again it is seen that both hypotheses may be needed to completely explain the lack of saturation experimentally found. VI. Comparison of Curves obtained at different Pressures. Bragg and Kleeman* found that for a gas ionized by a rays, saturation was obtained at a lower potential gradient when the pressure of the gas was decreased. This is as would be expected if initial recombination takes place. At higher pres- sures the ejected electron might not get out of the sphere of influence of the parent molecule before it is stopped by encoun- tering another molecule ; but as the pressure diminishes the mean free path of the electron is increased, and the ejected electron is then able to get farther away from the positive ion and hence initial recombination would occur less frequently. According to the hypothesis of columnar ionization, as the pressure is diminished the density of ionization in the coltmme would be diminished and the amount of recombination would be less. Thus it is seen that either hypothesis might explain the results obtained by experiment. Data obtained at different pressures : Parallel Field. Source 4°3°" from the middle of the chamber. Pressure Volts /em. Current % lack sat. mm. mercury 5 10°4 19°1 10 10°9 N52) 20 11°45 10°9 : 40 11°83 4-9 A oad 100 12°5 24 200 W275) ; 0°8 400 WD Gi 0°6 800 12°85 0:0 * Bragg and Kleeman, Phil. Mag., xi, 1906. 252 Wheelockh—Nature of Ionization Produced by a Rays. Pressure Volts / em. Current % lack sat. 5 707 92 10 ON 7°4 2 20 7°24 Tpit iw t ahr 40 7°6 25 100 7°76 (4 200 ean 0:0 5 3°97 5°5 10 3°99 5:0 C 224 20 4°06 3°4 100 4-11 21 400 4°20 00 Current in seale divisions, 10 =—.20 40 60 80 100 Volts per cm. = Fic. 9.—A, Pressure of 544:7™™ He. B, Pressure of 354:0™™ Hg. C, Pressure of 224:0™" He. Source 9° from the middle of the chamber. 5 5°34 5°7 10 5°5 2°8 D 224° 20 5°53 2°3 100 5°66 0°0 400 5°66 0'0 Wheelock— Nature of Ionization Produced by a Rays. 253 Pressure Distance % lack saturation mm. from at different mereury chamber voltages 5 20 100 —a——o—o—oo oe oo A 544°7 4°3 19°1 10°9 il B 354°0 4:3 9x2 (ol 0'4 C 224°0 4°3 5°5 3°4 Dai D 224°0 9:0 5°7 2°3 0:0 * The large value is probably due to an experimental error. 4:3°™ at 544:7mm pressure corresponds to 3°08" at 760™™ pressure. 4:3 “ 354-0 © «20 “¢ 760 as 4:3 “ce 994°0 ce “ec - ce 1°27 “é 760 “ce 9-0 ce 994°0 ce oe ce 2°65 oe 760 “ec In cases A, B, and C, the percentage lack of saturation decreases as the pressure is diminished, which would be expected on either hypothesis. In addition to the direct effect of diminishing the pressure there is an indirect effect due to the change in range of the a particle-producing ions. Since the range varies inversely as the pressure, diminishing the pressure and keeping the radio- active source ata fixed distance (4°3°") from the chamber is equivalent to bringing the source nearer the chamber. This indirect effect is small, however, compared with the effect of decreasing the number of molecules of gas in the chamber. It is of interest to see how the curve represented by the N A equation, Q; = egs log ( + =) , which was based upon the hypothesis of columnar ionization and a uniform distribu- tion of ions within the columns, compares with the curves experimentally obtained at reduced pressures. To make this comparison the values of gs were found, which would make the equation fit the experimental curve (pressure 761™™ mercury) at different potential gradients applied. OFA Values of gs = es ma were then calculated for pres- sures of 354™™ and 224™™ of mercury respectively, taking into account the variation of the mobility (#) of the ion, also.the vari- ation of a, the coefficient of recombination, with ‘the pressure. The mobility varies inversely as the pressure® for the range of pressure used. The variation of a with the pressure was obtained by plotting Langevin’s values of ¢ = given by J. J. a 4ne(k,+k,)’ Thomson+ and interpolating for the pressures used. * Alois I’, Kovarik, Physical Review, April, 1910. + Conduction of Electricity through Gases, by J. J. Thomson (second edition), p. 73. 254 Wheelock—Nature of Ionization Produced by a Rays. The results obtained are shown in the following table: Pressure 354™™, Experimental Calculated ° ia == ae sett a Volts /em, Current % lack Current % lack 5 7:07 9°2 7°24 6'1 10 a2 7:4 7:38 4:9 20 7:24 il 7°46 S ek2 40 76 2°5 751: 2°6 100 7°76 04 760 1°4 200 779 0°0 yal 00 Pressure 224™™, 5 5°34 Ol 5°45 3°2 , 10 5°5 2°8 557 1:06 20 5°53 2) 5°57 1:06 100 566 0:0 BGS be een) By comparing the calculated with the experimental results, it is seen that the calculated curves approach saturation more quickly than the experimental curves. In calculating the above curves it was assumed that the radius of the columns was not appreciably affected by the dimi- nution of pressure. If the radius of the column should vary inversely as the pressure, calculation shows that for 5 volts/em. the lack of saturation reduces to about 1 per cent. Although the above equation does not fit the experimental curve at atmospheric pressure, it seems allowable to use it to test the effect of changing the pressure, as has been done above. The fact that the calculated curves for reduced pressures ap- proach saturation more quickly than the experimental curves seems to be another reason for concluding that the effect of general recombination of the ions within the columns does not wholly account for the lack of saturation experimentally obtained, but that initial recombination in the Bragg sense has an appreciable effect. Summary of Results, (1) For a gas ionized by a rays the ions are formed in col- umns along the trajectory of the a particle. These columns are not broken up by a field applied along the axes of the columns and the positive and negative ions have to pass each other in going to the plates of the ionization chamber, while a field at right angles to the columns produces a separation of the posi- tive and negative ions by breaking each column up into two. (2) With the parallel field, the ionization is proportional to the intensity of the source, even when far from saturation. Wheelock—Nature of Ionization Produced by a Rays. 255 (8) The equation obtained by assuming columnar ionization with the ions uniformly distributed within the columns, does not represent the curve experimentally obtained with the par- allel field. The experimental curve lies below the calculated curve, except for small potential gradients, when the ordinary Brage chamber is used. (4) The lack of agreement between the experimental and calculated results is not due to an inclination of some of the columns in the ionization chamber. (5) The lack of saturation obtained at different parts of the range, when the field is applied parallel to the path of the ionizing @ particle, is not completely accounted for by initial recombination ; neither does columnar ionization completely explain the results obtained with the perpendicular field. (6) The saturation value of the current is obtained more easily as the pressure of the gas is diminished, This would be expected on either hypothesis. However, the results obtained appear to indicate that the lack of saturation is not all due to the effect of general recombination of the ions within the columns. (7) Undoubtedly a considerable part of the anomalous behav- iour of the ions produced by a rays (in respect to saturation, etc.) is due to the columnar arrangement of the ions; it is pos- sible that this would be sufficient to account for all the facts if the distribution of the ions within the columns were known. On the other hand, it appears probable that certain outstanding discrepancies may be due to initial recombination. In conclusion, I wish to express my gratitude to Professor H. A. Bumstead, at whose suggestion these experiments were undertaken, for his many valuable suggestions and kindly interest in the work. 256 Branner— Geology of the Serra do Mulato. Art. XXV.—The Geology of the Serra do Mulato, State of Bahia, Brazil ;* by J. C. Branner. Tue city of Joazeiro stands on the banks of the Rio Sao Francisco at the northern end of the Bahia and S. Francisco railway, 574 kilometers from the city of Bahia. The region in Fie. 1. SKE TCH-MAP: of Tthe'region obout The Fatts of Rio Saditre By WE Williams. Basa Se as Se N — “am elleira Len \ ’ eae i Tofiera ’ iN ' is uwco ’ ' ‘ in 1 N a Sobr ro-clo: ‘aes 4. £ - ag SO Caxoeira s 7 Cural Velho oF Approximate Seale cz to: Ki lomefors the vicinity of Joazeiro is remarkably flat, with here and there a * By permission of Prof. O. A. Derby, Director of the Servigo Geologico do Brasil. Branner— Geology of the Serra do Mulato. 257 distant isolated peak or mountain cluster rising above the other- wise even horizon line made by the low forest growth. The most prominent to be seen from Joazeiro is the Serra do Mulato, which lies about fifty-one kilometers to the southwest. The other peaks or ranges visible from Joazeiro have the rounded or irregular outlines that Brazilian geologists are accustomed to see in mountains of granite or other crystalline rocks, while the top of the Serra do Mulato is flat and the sides are precipitous, suggesting hard, horizontal beds at the top resting upon more yielding ones. Although the Serra do Mulato is only thirty-two kilometers south of the Rio Sao Francisco at the village of Tatuhy, it was never visited by a geologist so far as can be learned, until Sept. 1907, when the writer made a trip to its summit in company with Dr. Alfredo de Carvalho, a Brazilian engineer of Per- nambuco. The geology of the mountain is quite simple on the whole, but taken in connection with what was subsequently learned of the region to the south and southwest, it has helped greatly to clear up our conceptions of the geology of a large area in the interior of Bahia regarding which there has long been much doubt and uncertainty. The region between Joazeiro and the Serra do Mulato is quite flat, and, with the exception of a few small glades and a few cultivated fields, is covered with the short scrubby catinga forests characteristic of the semi-arid portions of the interior of Bahia. Near the Rio Sao Francisco there are some wide alluvial belts, but for the most part, although the surface is flat, the rocks are either granites, or gneisses, or they are lime- stones of recent freshwater origin, spread in a thin layer over an old planed down granite surface. These limestones are characteristic of the high-flood plains of the Rio 8. Francisco, and will be described in a later paper. The road from Joazeiro to the Serra do Mulato crosses into Salitre at fazenda Gamelleira, forty kilometers from Joazeiro and thirty-eight from where the Salitre enters Rio S. Fran- cisco. The rocks exposed at that place are slippery ‘green taleose slates standing nearly on end and traversed by many small quartz veins. On the southwest side of the river these slates strike S. 50° W. magnetic; at the fazenda Gamelleira residence the strike of the slates is 8S. 15° W. magnetie. About thirty meters west of Rio Salitre at Gamelleira cross- ing a dike of dark greenish diabase traverses the slates.* This * Dr. A. F. Rogers has examined specimens of this rock and kindly fur- nishes the following note in regard to it : The specimen is a dark-colored basic igneous rock and is referred to a diabase. As seen with a hand lens, it consists of two principal constituents, 258 Branner—Geology of the Serra do Mulato. dike is about 12 meters wide, but is not traceable any farther toward the north; it extends southwestward up Rio Salitre, however, following the strike of the slates, and widening some- what in that direction. It was followed only for a distance of 200 meters or so. The following section shows the general geology as it appears along the road from Joazeiro to the fazenda Gamelleira. Fire. 2. we aioe Gamelleira Sw No ; 7S X% - THorroSacabelé Fie. 2. Generalized northeast-southwest section, showing the geology between Joazeiro and Rio Salitre. j To the right or north of the road, as the Serra do Mulato is approached, is a long, low and narrow range of hills called the Serra da Batateira. With considerable difficulty one can break and cut his way through the catinga forest and cactus to this range. At its southern end it rises only about twenty-five or thirty meters above the level of the plain. * It is composed of very compact quartzites, the beds are clearly defined and stand nearly on end, the dip being 70° east, magnetic. This ridge extends north and northeast some twenty kilometers nearly to the Rio Sao Francisco. The flat plain about the base of this ridge is strewn with fragments of this same quartz- ite. About three kilometers to the south is another sharp hill which was not visited, but which appears from a distance to be of the same geologic structure as the Serra da Batateira. In the flat ground between the two ridges the soil has the peculiar snuff-color characteristic of the limestone soils here- about, and the occasional loose Jumps of limestone show that there is here a thin sheet of recent lime-rock, though it is mostly decomposed. Two kilometers west of the Serra da Batateira gneissoid granites are exposed on the plain, and sim- ilar rocks crop out along the trail to the ranch house of the fazenda Itumirim, which is about two kilometers north of the base of the Serra do Mulato. elongate light-colored crystals set in a black matrix. The texture is that ofa coarse-grained diabase. The principal minerals seen in the thin sections are: (1) hornblende, pris- matic crystals with the characteristic pleochroism ; (2) ilmenite altered to leucoxene ; (3) epidote, light-colored irregular mineral with high relief ; (4) zoisite, recognized by high relief and Berlin blue interference colors ; (5) sec- ondary quartz in clear grains. Besides these there are elongate much altered erystals which probably represent feldspars. The rock is an altered diabase. with scarcely any of the original minerals present, A. F. Rogers. Stanford University, Feb. 9, 1909. Branner—G@eology of the Serra do Mulato. 259 Although the fazenda Itumirim is some thirty kilometers south of the Rio Sao Fr ancisco, the plain that borders the river extends to the south of the ranch house and ends abruptly against the base of the Serra do Mulato. Hereabout this plain is not alluvial, but is a flat floor of granites and old erystalline rocks eut down apparently by the ancient river itself. So flat is this plain that it is but rarely that a more resisting point rises three or four meters above its general level. In the Fie. 3. Fic. 3. Section across the south end of Serra da Batateira, showing the nearly vertical quartzites. vicinity of the fazenda Itumirim the rocks exposed in place are all banded or sheeted granitoid gneisses. The sheeting dips eastward at an angle of 80°, and the texture of the rocks is remarkably even. Over the surface of these rocks are strewn loose fragments of quartz, most of them sub-angular and some- what worn by water. Within two hundred meters of the base of the Serra is a boss-like outcrop of compact and very hard granite that rises two or three meters above the general level of the plain. It has exfoliated somewhat from exposure to the sun, but here and there over this boss, and especially about its base, are well-preserved remnants of waterworn surfaces. These worn surfaces are not pits or depressions such as are often made by aborigines in grinding food, but they are uneven, rounded, smoothed, and polished like the worn hard rock in the bed of the stream. As these bosses stand in the open plain and out of reach of any possible local wearing, it seems clear that they were worn by the Sao Francisco river itself at a time when its flood waters covered a much larger area than they do at pres- ent. The altitude of this plain at the base of the Serra, as determined by aneroid readings carried from the railway station at Joazeiro, is about 400 meters above sea level, and 28 meters above the station at Joazeiro. Starting up the side of the Serra do Mulato on its north face, the first rocks found in place are some dark-colored erystalline schists. Examined under the microscope, these rocks are found to be composed chiefly of hornblende and epidote. From this point up to the base of the bare cliffs that encircle the north escarpment of the mountain there are no trails, and 260 Branner—Geology of the Serra do Mulato. the slopes are covered with a dense growth of catinga forest and cactus difficult to penetrate even under the most favorable circumstances, On the mountain slope at an altitude of 450 meters the ground in certain localities is strewn with enormous quantities of large, loose, somewhat waterworn bowlders. These bowl- ders are mostly of the sandstones and quartzites that form the resisting ledge that caps the summit of the mountain. This belt of bowlders suggests the possibility of an ancient water Fie. 4, Se em Ara Fie. 4. Serra do Mulato seen from fazenda Itumerim. The flat summit is of Tombador quartzites ; the slopes and plain in the foreground are of crystalline rocks. level. It is here mentioned because at about the same altitude similar bowlder zones have been found at other places in the valley of the Rio Sao Francisco. At 580 meters is an exposure of soapstone or tale that forms a belt running along the north- eastern side of the Serra do Mulato. At 640 meters fragments of dark hornblende schists are strewn over the surface of the mountain slope. At 700 meters the rocks are compact black eruptives resembling diabase. At 740 meters is the base of the vertical escarpment made by the massive quartzites that form the flat top of the mountain. In order to pass the wall made by these quartzites and reach the summit of the mountain it was necessary to skirt along the east base for about two kilometers. Nowhere in this dis- tance was the actual contact between the quartzites and the underlying crystalline rocks seen; it is evident therefore that the contact is lower down the mountain slope and is concealed by talus and soil. The necessity for skirting the base of the bluffs afforded an excellent opportunity for examining the rocks and looking for fossils. The quartzites are mostly fine-grained, and nearly all of them show false bedding with remarkable clearness. In the talus slopes below were seen abundant angular blocks of conglomerate, which must necessarily have come from some Branner—Geology of the Serra do Mulato. 261 part of this series of sediments. The bluff, however, is more than a hundred meters high, and, being inaccessible, could only be ascended at one point on the east side, and no conglomerates were seen at that place. Careful search was made for fossils, but the materials are most unpromising. Ata few places there were found some dark angular fragments that suggested plant remains, but if they are such, they are quite unrecognizable. One thin (20 centimeters) bed was found which from its resem- blance to a stratum of mud seemed to hold forth some promise. It was so altered, however, that it was quite schistose. The age of these sedimentary beds cannot therefore be deter- mined at present either from fossils found in them or by refer- ence to any rocks immediately above or below them. The altitude of the top of the mountain above sea-level is 865 meters ; the thickness of the horizontal quartzite beds that cap the summit is something more than 125 meters ; the height of the mountain top above the old flood plain at its base is 465 meters. Fic. 5. Serra do Boqueirao and Serra da Cruz seen from the top of Serra do Mulato. The flat summits are Tombador quartzites. From the top of the Serra one has a good view of the two mountains that lie to the east. These are the Serra do Boque- irao lying next to the Serra do Mulato, and the Serra da Cruz still further to the east. Seen from here, the geologic structure of these two mountains and their relations to the Serra do Mulato are plain and simple. The horizontal quartzites that cap the Serra do Mulato can be followed with the eye along their outcrop to these neighboring mountains, which are capped by this same series of sediments. The Serra do Boqueirao is somewhat lower than the Serra do Mulato, of which it is simply aspur. The valley that separates these two points is a low breached anticline. The Serra do Boqueirao is a synclinal ridge, while between this and the Serra da Cruz is another anticlinal valley. The folds forming these valleys and ridges are gently and clearly defined, and all three of these mountains 262 Branner— Geology of the Serra do Mulato. are simply the conspicuous spurs of an elevated region lying to the south. From one position on the plain to the northeast as one looks back toward this group of mountains their structural relations to each other can be readily seen. The accompanying profile was sketched from that point. A later trip made across the region south and west of this gue of mountains, and trips made by assistants along the Rio Sao Francisco, show that the quartzite beds that cap the Serra do Mulato in a similar way form the flat summits of the Serra do Encaibro just east of Sentosé, and of the Serra do Tomba- dor south of Remanso. In other words, the great group of mountains sometimes spoken of as the Serras do Sao Fran- Fic. 6. ) Sete da Crux Sak fens saiGaate thes, Doauslytor Fic. 6. Diagrammatic section showing the structural relations of the Serra da Cruz, Serra do Boqueir&o, and Serra do Mulato. The crests are of Tombador quartzites; the slopes and plain are of old crystalline rocks, cisco have these quartzites at the base of a great sedimentary series that is developed in the diamond regions of the interior of Bahia. It remains to call attention to the relations of the Serra da Batateira to the Serra do Mulato and the other mountains in the latter cluster. That particular range is mentioned here because it represents a type of geologic structure common at many places in the state of Bahia. It seems clear that the Serra da Batateira belongs to a series of very old sediments that have been closely folded and faulted. Whether these sediments are older or newer than the crystalline rocks next to them is not certainly known at present, but the writer is of the opinion that most of the granites are older. The structure, in so far as it was made out in two trips across the region, is shown by the accompanying section. (See fig. 3. In the region south of Joazeiro and east and south of Villa Nova are similar narrow, sharp, quartzite ridges with their beds standing nearly on end. These ridges generally have the gran- ites and gneisses on both sides of them. This leads one to con- clude that they are the last remnants of a very old series of sed- iments let down into the older granites by faults, perhaps as suggested in the accompanying section. (Fig. 7.) The limestones in the section are receut, possibly Tertiary, fresh-water deposits surrounding the ridge, ‘and have been cut out, or were never deposited, along the stream courses. The Branner—Geology of the Serra do Mulato. 263 evidence of the age of these limestones is conclusive, but can- not be presented here. Conclusions.—The excursion to the Serra do Mulato made it possible to determine the following facts regarding the geology of the region south and southwest of Joazeiro: 1. The low flat region forming most of the high flood-plain of the Rio §. Francisco is made up of two series of rocks :—I, an older series of crystalline schists, other metamorphies, and eruptives; and II, a series of highly metamor- phosed quartzites and schists or shales. 2. Faults have let the old quartz- ites down into the crystalline rocks here and there, and the upturned edges of these beds form the white Fic. 7. Section showing the walled mountains and hills that ea aeons of the ridges are scattered far and wide over the Ba ica ate Me old base-leveled plain. The Serra da Batateira belongs to this type. (See fig. 3.) 3. The flat-topped mountains so common to the west and southwest of Joazeiro, such as the Serra da Cruz, Serra do Mulato, Serra do Eneaibro, and the Serra do Tombador south of Remanso, are formed by approximately horizontal beds of Paleozoic quartzites which rest directly upon the old crystalline series. 4. This series of quartzites was later traced up the Rio Sao Francisco, southward across Rio Salitre at the falls, and farther south to the region about Jacobina. It usually forms a bold escarpment. 5. On account of this series of quartzites forming the Tom- bador range west of the city of Jacobina, it has been named the Tombador series. 6. No recognizable fossils have thus far been found in these Tombador quartzites. They are called Paleozoic on account of stratigraphic relations found in the region to the southwest. 7. Limestones cover the higher portions of the elevated flood- plain of the Rio Sao Francisco. 8. ‘These limestones are of fresh-water origin and of Tertiary and later age. Fia. 7. Stanford University, California. 264 L. L. Smith—An Australian Meteorite. Arr. XXVI.—An Australian Meteorite; by L. LayBournr Smira. A metrortve of particular interest has lately been discovered at Murnpeowie in South Australia. It has been acquired by the Council of the School of Mines at Adelaide for exhibition in the mineral and petrological museum of that, institution. The new meteorite is a siderite, and is the fourth find of that class to be credited to the central Australian state. The list now comprises the “ Yardea,” 74 lbs.; the “ Rhine Villa,” 74 Ibs. (described in the 8. A. School of Mines Report 1900) ; the “ Arltunga,” 40 Ibs. (not yet described); and ‘the “ Murn- peowie,” 2520 lbs. The discovery was made by some boundary fence repairers working on the Beltana Pastoral Company’s Murnpeowie run, at a spot 29° 35’ latitude and 139° 54’ longitude, being about 16 miles N.E. by E. of Mt. Hopeless. The country at the place is flat and devoid of stones. The men thought the meteorite to be an isolated rock, and used to stand on it when scanning the plain in search of their donkeys. One day one of the men struck the stone with a hammer, and was astonished at the bell-like sound which it emitted. With much difficulty they were enabled with chisel and crow-bar to fracture off a small piece, which they forwarded to the School of Mines at Adelaide, which institution has a department where assays of minerals found on the Crown Lands of the State may be made and results supplied to applicants free of charge. On being informed that they had discovered a meteorite, they wrote to me offering to sell their find, with the result mentioned above. The work of transporting the meteorite to Farina, the near- est point to the railway, was undertaken by two men with a wagon drawn by 26 donkeys. The journey to and from the site of the find, a distance of 278 miles, occupied 27 days. The ground was dug away and the wagon lowered until its floor was level with the surface, and the meteorite then turned over —the donkeys pulling on chains. A careful search was made for further pieces but without success. In the vicinity of the find was a hole which I am of opinion was made by the falling raeteorite. This hole was roughly elliptical in shape, with its major axis almost due east and west. It measured 16 ft. 6 in. in length, its greatest width 12 ft., and it was 4 ft. deep. The meteorite was lying a distance of 70 yards from the eastern end of the hole and in the direction of the longer axis. The earth had been thrown out into two ridges extending radially for 15 ft. on either side of the hole. Between the meteorite L. L. Smith—An Australian Meteorite. 265 and the hole were two smaller indentations. It appears, there- fore, that the meteorite travelled from a little north of west, and, having torn up the ground on striking, ricochetted, and came to rest practically on the surface of the ground. It was lying breast uppermost with the heavier end nearest the hole and raised some inches. From a preliminary examination of the meteorite, I am of opin- ion that it is an “oriented meteorite,” the breast being shown in the photograph (fig. 1). The greatest height is 35 inches, width 47 inches, thickness at the right hand corner 19 inches, left hand corner 9 inches. It tapers off toward the top, where the thickness is 8 inches. The front shows some convexity, whilst the greater part of the back is distinctly concave. The piezoglyphic depressions are particularly well developed. On the front they are comparatively small, the cusped groups measuring 3 to 5 inches in diameter, and some half an inch in depth. Many of the markings are deeper in proportion, and resemble the imprints of an animal’s paw in some soft material. On the back of the meteorite the grouped depressions measure from 5 to 10 inches across. The ridge outlining the meteorite is sharp in parts, and shows distinctly the effects of fusion from front to back. Drift markings or striations are only noticeable on the front, and occur as more or less horizontal lmes—more pronounced on the right side, where they turn in a downward Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH S=ries, VoL. XXX, No. 178.—Ocrtosmr, 1910. 18 266 L. L. Smith—An Australian Meteorite. direction. The meteorite is covered with a varnish-like coating, reddish brown in color, and on the back where it has been lying on the ground there is also a rongher black oxide inerustation. There are several distinct cracks, caused, no doubt, by sudden heating on entering the atmosphere. The metal is tough, but may be cut with a hack-saw. An etched face indicates a fine brecciated structure, the particles varying Fic. 2 in size, but not exceeding 5°" in diameter in the sections so far polished. The grains are probably kamacite, and are sur- rounded by fine fissures filled with troilite. They are charac- terized by brilliant, depressed Neumann lines. The chemical composition has not yet been determined, but is now being undertaken and a careful micro-metallographical examination will also be made. I am making enquiries with a view to finding the probable date of the fall. It appears hardly likely that this took place previous to the erection of the vermin- proof fencing some five years ago. Australian bushmen are very observant, and this isolated stone would not have been overlooked in a position less than half a mile from where the fencers were working. The holes also would fill with sand in afew years. It is probable, therefore, that the Murnpeowie meteorite is a recent arrival. S. A. School of Mines Museum, March 4, 1910. Dale—Cambrian Conglomerate of Ripton in Vermont. 267 Art. XXVII—TZhe Cambrian Conglomerate of Ripton in Vermont; by T. Netson Datr.* Hironcock and Hagert represented a strip of ‘ talcose conglomerate”? as beginning a little south of the village of Ripton in Addison Co. and widening northwards in the town- ship of Lincoln, attaining its greatest width, 6 1/2 miles, in Chittenden Co., and extending to the Canada line. In Ripton it appears as bordered on the east by the granites and gneisses which form the axis of the Green Mountain range and on the west by the quartzite and schist which underlie the marble and dolomite of the Vermont Valley. imestone - @ = Oulcrop of coarse conglomerale. Miles: 1 F = Cambrian fossils. Numbers = Feel above sea-level Dolomite at base -€= Lower.Cambrian * re-Cambrian = of Stockbridge = quartzite «schist Fgnersses etc ————| In 1903 the writer, in working on the areal geology of the Brandon sheet for the Fort Ticonderoga Folio of the U.S. * Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geol. Survey. + Report on the Geology of Vermont, 1861, vol..11, map, pl. 1. See also vol, I, p. 388, 2d-4th paragraphs and page 346, 2d paragraph. 268 Dale— Cambrian Conglomerate of Ripton in Vermont. Geol. Survey, came upon a coarse conglomerate of this forma- tion, continued his study of it in 1904, and revisited some of its outcrops with Mr. Arthur Keith im 1908. A preliminary geologic map of the northwest corner of the Brandon sheet with a half mile strip east of it is shown in fig. 1. The trend of the frontal part of the Green Mountain range is indicated by the altitudes taken from the contour map. The pre- Cambrian gneisses are not differentiated nor are the members of the Cambrian series. Dikes of diabase altered to amphibo- lite cut the gneisses but are not shown on the map. The age determination of the Cambrian was confirmed by the writer’s discovery in 1903 in an outjutting mass of quartz- ite on the east shore of Lake Dunmore (point marked F on map) of pteropods determined by Dr. C. D. Walcott as Zyolithes of type communis and of spines of Olenellus. - In 1890 Dr. Walcott* mentioned his finding an Ostracod with a marked resemblance to Vothozoe in a quartzite bowlder on Sunset Hill on the east side of Lake Dunmore, and his having preyi- ously found the same fossil in situ in the quartzite east of Bennington associated with Olenellus and [Hyolithes impar. The quartzite of the west flank of the Green Mountain range appears to be interbedded with schist and this conglom- erate forms the base of the formation. The conglomerate was observed at the points indicated on the map, but its most interesting outcrops are that about 1/2 mile E.N.E. of the top of Mount Moosalamoo and also that near the Chandler house, 1 1/4 mile N.E. of Ripton village. The cement of the conglomerate is highly metamorphic, generally a muscovite- quartz schist with more or less magnetite. More than half of the pebbles are blue quartz and the rest are gneiss. At the locality near Mount Moosalainoo the conglomerate lies close to the pre-Cambrian gneiss and has a N. 15° W. strike, a 50° to 80° E. dip, and a minimum thickness of 58 ft. Most of the pebbles range from 3 to 6 inches in diameter but the largest ones measure 10 X 8 in., 14 x 12 X 6 in., 20 KX 91/2 in., and 23x16 x7 in. This last is shown in fig. 2. At Chandler’s the conglomerate strikes N. 67° E. and dips 90°. Here a pebble of blue quartz measures 76 X 57 X 30 in. and over. Its major axis strikes N. 30° E. It might easily be mistaken fora vein. See fig. 3. Bowlders of the conglomerate have been carried southward by the ice sheet into the towns of Goshen and Salisbury. One near the Dutton brook schoolhouse, 4 1/4 miles south of the Ripton-Goshen line, contains pebbles to 8 X 6 in. Another bowlder, 2010 ft., in Sucker brook about 11/4 mile S. 10° W. from the top of Mount Moosalamoo, consists of micaceous quartzite containing three beds of conglomerate to a foot thick, *U.S. Geol. Sury., Tenth Ann. Rept., Part I, p. 268. Dale—Cambrian Conglomerate of Ripton in Vermont. 269 the larger pebbles of which measure 12 to 15 inches across. No glacial strize were made out on any of the pebbles. A number of pebbles from these various localities were studied microscopically and fall into these groups: Blue quartz ; biotite granite (medium-coarse); biotite- muscovite granite (fine); biotite granite or biotitic quartz monzonite (fine) ; mus- Fie. 2. Fic. 2. Beach pebbles of pre-Cambrian gneiss and blue quartz weathered out of Lower Cambrian metamorphosed conglomerate on the east spur of Mount Moosalamoo, 1/2 mile E.N.E. of top, in Ripton, Vt. Sledge 30 inches long. Largest pebble 28 x 16 x 7 inches (gneiss). covite granite or muscovitic quartz monzonite (fine) ; muscovite granite-gneiss (fine); aplite-eneiss, pyritiferous (fine); quartz- ite, two small pebbles from locality near Mount Moosalamoo.* Both quartzite and igneous rock pebbles contain rhombs and irregular plates of a ferruginous carbonate passing into limon- ite, which are also characteristic of the pre-Cambrian gneisses about Ripton. As to the origin of these pebbles: With the exception of the quartzite and the aplite-eneiss all these rocks have already been found in situ in the pre-Cambrian area shown in fig. 1. The blue quartz is identical with that of a mass cut by the * Determination of aplite by E. S. Larsen, Jr., of U. S. Geol. Survey, that of quartzite confirmed by him. 270 =Dale—Cambrian Conglomerate of Ripton in Vermont. Middlebury River 1/2 mile west of Ripton village, which, judging from its relation to other outcrops on the hillside south, probably measures about 500 ft. from east to west and 1500 ft. from north to south, tapering out at the north. Some parts of this blue quartz are schistose, but a thin section of that shows no feldspar but a matrix of sericite carrying large particles of quartz containing a few biotite scales. If the sericite is altered HIG: 3. Fic. 3. Beach pebbie of blue quartz of pre-Cambrian origin in schist and conglomerate of Lower Cambrian age near Chandler house in Ripton, Vt. Size 76x57x30 inches. Sledge and bag rest on conglomerate, Jn distance central range of Green Mountains. feldspar, then we have to do with a very acidic granite-gneiss, but most of the blue quartz rock is probably of pegmatitic origin. Fine-grained quartz monzonite crops out at points 1 1/4 miles west and 1 3/4 miles N.E. of Ripton village. Conclusion: The generally rounded or discoid form and the unstriated surfaces of these pebbles from the Cambrian con- glomerate point to their having been formed on a beach, and their magnitude points to their local origin, which is corrobo- rated by the occurrence of identical oneisses, quartz monzonite and blue quartz in the underlying or adjacent pre-Cambrian. The quartzite pebbles show the existence of Algonkian sedi- mentary rocks on the Green Mountain range. These large beach pebbles thus take us back to the time of the Cambrian sea as it advanced over the very slowly subsiding pre-Cambrian land-mass of central Vermont. Pittsfield, Mass., June 21, 1910. Moses—Tests upon the Synthetic Sapphires of Vernewil. 271 Arr. XX VIII.—Some Tests upon the Synthetic Sapphires of Verneuil; by Aurrep J. Moses. Vernevrt describes briefly* synthetic sapphires of “ beau- tiful color” made in his oxyhydrogen furnace by adding to the alumina “14 per cent. of magnetic oxide of iron and $ per cent of titanic oxide.” The resulting ovoids or cone-shaped masses are said on authority of Wyrouboff to be “unique erystals, uniaxial, negative, weakly doubly retracting and with, consequently, the optical properties of the natural sapphire.” An examination of material sent by L. Heller & Son con- sisting of one dozen of the cut stones and one of the uncut cone- shaped masses yielded some exact figures which are here stated. Three analyses were made by my assistant, Dr. M. A. Lamme. No. 1—Transparent fragments of the uncut cone, not includ- ing either the blackish scoria-like material at the apex or the thin brownish layer at the base. No. 2—Two small cut stones, one deep blue, one pale blue in color. No. 3—One deep blue cut stone. 1 2 3 Weight Weight Weight 04070 em. 0°3990 em. 0°2966 om. INS Redon seas ee dace 99°84 99°85 99°83 LENS iG Veda ona eens ere trace trace trace RIO fag cee ety O11 0°12 0°13 SIO Ws eee wk eee ce none none none 99°95 99797 99°96 The material was crushed in a diamond (steel) mortar, through a 100-mesh sereen and all particles of steel removed by the repeated use of a strong magnet. It was then fused with KHSO,. The alumina obtained was re-fused for a colori- metric determination of TiO,,. There are few recorded analyses of true sapphire and I believe none showing either chromium or titanium. The coloring matter suggested by these analyses is iron. For instance : Indiat Ceylont Ceylont AU Oe teeter ae we? 97°51 99°33 99°26 Nec Oe eer mcee sma te 195 0°92 0°97 Poh arse Sec re Recerca 0°80 Sea * Comptes Rendus, Jan. 17, 1910. + J. Lawrence Smith, this Journal (2). xi, 54, 1851. ¢ Karl Pfeil, Centralblatt f. Min., 1902, p. 145. 272 Moses—Tests upon the Synthetic Sapphires of Verneuit. The following physical and erystallographic characters were determined by me: Hardness 9, that is less than that of carborundum, greater than that of chrysoberyl and not noticeably different from that of the natural sapphire. In grinding it was very little affected by emery. Specific gravity as determined upon one polished fragment of the cone and upon two of the cut stones. @one= | Awa, nr ee ee 3:°988 Cubstone: 3.40 os eee eee Ot Cut:stones 52 eee ee 3°977 Natural sapphire is stated by Bauer (Edelsteinkunde, p. 319) : to have the specitic gravity of 4:08. Fie. 1. Parting. Although the finely crushed fragments of the cone examined under the microscope showed in general only irregular to conchoidal fracture, some of the particles showed. a development of sets of parallel-plane separations at angles Moses—Tests upon the Synthetic Sapphires of Vernewil. 273 near 90°. These are shown in the accompanying cut with a magnification of 225 diameters and strongly suggest the planes of separation parallel] 1011 described by Baner* in true sapphire for which the angle is 93° 59’, Double Refraction and Indices of Lefraction.—Sections were made from the uneut cone and polished and the “ tables” of four of the larger cut stones were used directly. For each surface the direction yielding the largest and smallest indices was determined by trial. The instrument used was the latest form Abbé erystal refractometer, the liquid a solution of sulphur in methylene iodide with n = 1-784, and the temper- ature 20° C. The sodium flame was used. (8) € Surface parallel cone axis ----.-.--- 1:7678 1°7600 Surface perpendicular cone axis - ---- 1°7684 1°7600 Outmstone tables 2) see eee 1°7676 1°7580 is sf det i i By sreeen Tests hu eeegamae Oar ON/co 1°7598 BG ‘s ea Bee NN Benet ens 1°7683 1°7592 es & SAN Nes rie et ame re, oat GOA: 1°7598 We may, therefore, take as the most probable values for syn- thetic sapphire the averages o = 1°7680 e = 1°7594 and w-e = ‘0086 For natural sapphires the following results with sodium light are recorded : @ € @-E Sapphire from Ceylon (Brauns) ---. -- 17693 17610 -0083 Sapphire from Burmah (Melezer) ---- 1°7692 1:7609 -:0383 Pleochroism.—V ery noticeable with the deeper blue stones, @ indigo blue as in true sapphire, e pale blue but without the greenish and yellowish tints often noticed in the true sapphires. Interference Figure and Optic Aais.—In finely crushed material a negative apparently uniaxial interference figure was obtained on several different grains. Two surfaces were then polished on the conical mass approxi- mately at right angles to each other, the direction in each determined which yielded the smallest extraordinary index and a section about 2™" thick was made as nearly as- possible parallel to the plane of these two directions, such a section being approximately perpendicular to the optic axis of the cone. The section yielded a distinct, many ringed, but eccentric interference fignre optically negative. A thinner section ground until the figure was nearly central showed anomalies, being apparently true uniaxial in one portion but * Zeitschr. d. Geol. Ges., xxvi, 192, 1874. 274 Moses Tests upon the Synthetic Sapphires of Verneutt. definitely biaxial in others with the orientation of the axial plane varying. Similar optical behavior is recorded for some crystals of true sapphire. The optie axis was not coincident with the cone axis but was at abont 40° to it. While, strictly speaking, the crystalline system is not deter- mined, the recorded tests show that the cone-shaped mass is an anhedral erystal with all determinable Cay etals closely resembling those of natural sapphire. bo I OX Berry — Cretaceous Lycopodium. Art. XXIX.—A Cretaceous Lycopodium; by Epwarp W. Brrry.* Fossri remains of club mosses are exceedingly rare especially in beds of Mesozoic age and such as have been described have nearly all been based upon fragments of foliage not at all con- elusive in character, since such fragments may, and usually are, found to be referable to some conifer when additional or more coniplete material subsequently becomes available. A number of forms have been described from the Paleozoic which show some of the fructification characters and which ally these ancient forms with the modern Lycopodiums. These are usually referred to the genus Lycopodites of Brongniart. In post-Paleozoic rocks, however, not a single specimen showing the character of the "fructification, and consequently refer able with cer tainty to Lycopodium, has been discover ed, at least to the writer’s knowledge. Hence the following species is of considerable interest. The remains are in the form of crushed impressions preserved in a clay lens in the Upper Cretaceous sands near Middendorf, in Chesterfield County, South Carolina. These beds are of early Upper Cretaceous age and contain an abundant flora which stamp them as about the same age as the Magothy formation of the more northern Atlantic Coastal Plain, or according to European standards, probably corresponding with the Turonian. These lycopodiaceous remains consist of fruiting spikes or fragments ot spikes to the number of 17 specimens, and while they leave much to be desired in the way of preservation, enough is discernable to stamp them as closely allied to the existing species of Lycopodium. These spikes are not badly erushed as is shown by fig. 1, which is a photograph of one of the largest ones found. They are made up of a central stout axis, bearing numerous rows of close set but poorly imbricated bracts, each bract apparently subtending a large spheroidal sporangium., The spikes show considerable differences in size, the shorter and smaller ones being less crowded and somewhat lax in appearance. The largest one collected is 5™ in length by 5°™ in diameter and is nearly complete. The average dimensions are, however, somewhat less than this. The ‘bracts have a narrow acute apex, a broad laminar somewhat thickened portion, with a truncate or slightly cordate or retuse base and a short peduncle. The margin is entire. Fig. 3 is a drawing of one of these scales as it occurs slightly twisted and flattened out in the clays. Fig. 4 is a diagrammatical drawing of a bract showing the position of the sporangium. Figs. 5 and 6 are diagrammatical sketches of the two modes of appearance of * Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. 276 Berry— Cretaceous Lycopodium. the bracts and their sporangia in lateral view, the bract being apparently curved upward in fig. 5 while in fig. 6 it is thickened thoughout the laminar portion and turns sharply upward imme- diately beyond the sporangium. The latter is believed to be the normal form, the other being probably due to the method of preservation. The method of attachment of the sporangia cannot be made out; they are in the axils of the bracts, but whether attached to the axis or to the dorsal face of the bract as the drawings would indicate cannot be determined. It is Fic. 1.—Lycopodium cretacewm sp. nov. 1—Photograph of a large specimen, natural size. 2—Drawing of small specimen, x5. - 3—A single bract, x10. a 5, 6—Somewhat diagrammatical drawings of bracts and their sporangia, x . probable that the arrangement is the same as in the modern species, but there is a possibility that they were attached to the bract and this possibility is worth mentioning because of the wide interval between the sporangium and the axis in some of the Paleozoic Lycopodiales. There is nothing to indicate that these sporangia were not reniform in shape as in the modern Lycopodium instead of spheroidal as they appear in the fossils; the character of the base of the bracts would tend to show that they were reniform. No remains of foliage which can be correlated with these fruiting spikes has been found in association with them or in beds of homotaxial age else where in South Carolina, so that the vegetative character of the species remains unknown. The species may be called Lycopodium cretacewm. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. McAdie—New Units in Aero-physics. 277 Arr. XXX.—WNew Units in Acro-physics; by ALEXANDER McAopre. Pressure. Srnce the time of Torricelli and Pascal, measures of atmos- pherie pressure have been in linear units; i.e., the height of a column of water or mereury in vacuo. The barometer, in English-speaking countries, is read in inches and decimal parts thereof ; and in countries where the metric system prevails, in centimeters or millimeters. For example, a standard atmos- phere is generally defined as the pressure of a vertical column of pure mercury whose height is 29°92 inches or 760 millime- ters, at the temperature of melting ice, in latitude 45°, under normal gravity and at sea level. Evidently then, if one wishes to know the ratio of certain changes in atmospheric pressure occurring from day to day and from hour to hour, variations which are of prime importance to the meteorologist, he must S . refer the change to some normal or assumed standard height. For example, a fall or a rise of -75 of an inch would be en or, if metric values are used, a mm. Again, in expressing lines of equal pressure, as on the daily weather maps, we draw for differences of one-tenth of an inch; or, if the 2" gradient is used, ‘078 of an inch. The method of reduction is cumber- some; and it is doubtful if the average reader of the synoptic charts obtains any clear conception of the actual meaning of pressure variations. The entire process of representing pres- sure conditions would be much simplified if variations could be given in percentages or permillages of a standard atmosphere. Such an arrangement was suggested by the writer in a paper published in the Monthly Weather Review in August, 1908. Dr. W. Koppen* of the Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg, in March, 1909, modified the proposal, suggesting instead of the sea-level pressure, the new base, the pressure represented by the value one million dynes. In other words, instead of using the pressure indicated by 760™™ (29°92 inches), which in force units would be 1,013,303 dynes (obtained by multiplying 1033°291 grams per square centimeter by normal acceleration of gravity 980-65), use a megadyne, corresponding to a pres- sure of 750°1™™ (29°532 inches). This quantity is called a smalt atmosphere (with Bjerknes and Sandstrém) or a Bar. *See also Koppen’s Memoir before the Aerological Congress at Monaco, April, 1909. 278 McAdie—New Units in Aero-physics. Abbreviations corresponding to others in the metrie system would be b, db, eb, mb. The new pressure base is found at a height of 106™™ (848 feet) above sea level, a level that is very convenient for many reasons, Which cannot be gone into here. The following short table may be found helpful in connec- tion with the new system : To convert Pressure into Megadynes (C. G. 8S. Units). 23 inches== “779.med, |“) inch == -0083 (00h eee 0 USAC BN at 21/06) 05 |, tee OT 02 | Hi ate ae —sninlstsl Ven Mem teal sents seer il) ‘08° = 001 26 SAS RG ee ee ace eee 04 | Di SEM eS SOARS A oe eee ser 05 | A mae (Ae Sh OC eR eek ey 100210 “06 + = 002 20 Gi Gyti—y MOBO ete ae | ecient OS ‘07 J BO!) | MALONE eee 08 31 = 1050) 2 | 8 = 080 oo; = 008 Thus at Denver, elevation 5,291 feet, the mean barometer reading is 24°708 inches. In the new unit this would be 834 med. or 834,000 dynes. At New York, elevation 314 Weel, the mean pressure is 29-695 inches, or 1,004,000 dynes. Between the two stations, then, one readily perceives there is a gradient of 170,000 dynes, or in round numbers 17 per cent. It will also be noted that the new system permits the widest possible range and is entirely suitable for the needs of the investigator at high levels, such for example as in the work done during the past two years with ballon sondes, free bal- loons and kites. Dr. W. N. Shaw, Director of the Meteoro- logical Office, in a recent paper * on the ‘ Investigations of the Upper Air” uses the new unit (see page 280) and “rightly says : “The reason for adopting this unit is that in the examination of the results of the upper air, the actual number of inches or millimeters in the pressure at any level is of little importance, compared with the fraction of the atmosphere that is above or below the level.” It may not be generally known that recent observations have brought out the fact that our atmosphere is practically in two sections, a lower or troposphere and an upper or stratosphere. Below 11 kilometers the atmosphere is in a disturbed condition, convectional currents are well marked, and cyclonic circulations prevail. The decrease of temperature is nearly adiabatic, although at times there are strongly marked inversions. In the stratosphere there is a slight rise in temperature with iso- * The Free Atmosphere in the Region of the British Isles. M.O. 202, 1909, containing Report by W. N. Davis. See also Report by Gold and Harwood, B. A. A. S. meeting at Winnepeg, 1909. McAdie—New Units in Aero-physics. 279 thermal conditions up to 27 kilometers. Tiesserenc de Bort* has shown that “the stratosphere is lowest in the cyclone and highest in the anti-cyclone, and its level sinks from the equa- tor to the poles. The stratosplieve is a region of interlaced currents and small vertical movements.” The term ¢sothermal has been applied to the region above 11 kilometers to distinguish it from the lower levels or tropo- sphere in which “the vertical variation of temperature is about 6° C. per thousand meters.”+ The names advective and convective have also been suggested as indicating the modes of transfer of the air in the two great divisions of the atmosphere. The work now in progress on the exploration of the upper air and the prevalent interest in aviation open a new era in aeroloey. The promise of the times is a more definite knowl edge ot pressures and temperatures at all levels. It is, there- fore, of some importance that our present bewildering systems of notation should give way to one international nomenclature. Our present cumbersome and inadequate units should be replaced by others capable of conversion into absolute units and suitable for’ universal needs. We think the new unit, whereby atinospherie pressure is recorded in dynes, meets the requirements. Temperature. Since the time of Galileo temperature has been measured by the expansion of mercury in a glass tube. The unequal expansion is divided into degrees and values are based upon the position of two fiducial points. Without going into the evolution of present thermometric scales, it may be noted that Galileo had a scale of 3860 degrees, the lowest point based upon some freezing mixture and the highest representing the warm- est day of summer. Fahrenheit had several scales. In the one finally adopted the zero is based on the temperature of the coldest day of the year 1709 in northern Europe. Réaumur used melting ice and boiling water, dividing the distance into eighty degrees. Celsius, using the same points, divided the distance into one hundred degrees, with the zero at the boiling point. This seale is often referred to as identical with the Centigrade scale, but this is a mistake. Linnzens modified Celsius’ scale, making the zero indicate the temperature of melting ice and one hundred degrees that of boiling water. This is the widely used Centigrade scale. Concerning the Fahrenheit scale it may be noted that it has practically lost place in scientific usage to-day. Furthermore, in all our ther- mometric scales the so called fixed points are not truly fixed. * Report of Aerological Congress at Monaco, 1909. Rotch in Science, vol, xxx, No. 763, p. 193-199, August, 1909. + Gold and Harwood, B. A. A. S., 1909, p. 32. 280 McAdie—New Units in Aero-physies. These need further definition, and it may be well to emphasize somewhat how both fiducial points wander with change in pressure. We find, for example, on the summit of Mount A hitney * that the boiling point on an average summer day is "°C. (L86-4ee8.): Likewise the ZeV'0, that of melting ice cae It is raised by the decrease of pressure. Indeed, throughout the western half of our country and especially in mountain sections the thermometer scale is shortened at both ends. A degree of temperature then is not a constant quan- tity if the fiducial points are not definitely known. fF urther- more even at sea level there are differences of pressure due to passing atmospherie¢ disturbances, and the change is sometimes sufficiently great to cause a variation of several degrees in the boiling and the melting points. But a new thermometer scale is much needed for another reason, and that is to avoid minus signs. Over a large portion of the earth during several months of the year temperatures are expressed by means of a negative sign. In the upper air, temperatures of from —50° C, to —70° C. are not infrequent. To avoid this use of a negative sign it is proposed to record air temperatures hereafter on a scale, the zero of which shall be the absolute or natural zero, 273° below the zero of the Centigrade scale. The change is easily made, and any temperature on the Centigrade scale is readily given its new value by adding 273 degrees. In practice the first figure, 2, can be dropped as the degrees, 200 A. to 299 A., cover temper atures from —73° C. to 26° C. Thus we have practically obtained the Kelvin or Absolute scale and the temperature is read as it would be given by a constant volume gas thermometer. T equals ¢ + 273°10° C. WM 8 i a, AURORE IM, It is a scale that is largely independent of the properties of the material used. Dr. Shaw sayst that “the use of the absolute as distinguished from the Centigrade scale is becom- ing increasingly common in scientific publications, not only in regard to subjects connected with very low temperature, such as the liquefaction of gases; but in other work also, on account of its direct application in formule connected with thermal radiation, thermodynamics and the gaseous laws, with all of which the investigation of the upper air is closely concerned.” * A small observatory has just been built by the Smithsonian Institution at this point, which is the highest point in the United States, excluding Alaska, 14,502 feet. See paper ‘‘ Mountain Sites for Observatories,’’ Pub. Astronomical Society of Pacific, vol. xxi, No. 124, Feb. 1909, in which the writer gives data for Mt. Shasta and Mt. Rainier. + British Meteorological Office, Pub. 202, pages 5 and 6. McAdie—New Units in Aero-physies. 281 Wind. It seems desirable to abandon the use of compass points in designating wind direction and to use hereafter degrees, starting from true north as the zero point. The new system eliminates the possibility of confusion of the terms east and west and also saves time in trigonometrical work and con:- a The air in motion, or wind, will be regarded as owing in to the center. For example, the wind previously recorded as northeast, because of blowing from that direction, will now be recorded as 45°. Velocities are to be recorded in meters per second. Humidity. As at present recorded, the moisture of the air is expressed in terms of relative humidity. This is at best a ratio and means different amounts of water vapor present with different temperatures. The absolute humidity, or weight of vapor in grams; is sometimes given. Likewise the vapor pressure. It would seem best to abandon the relative humidity and here- after give the weight of water vapor in grams per thousand cubic meters of space. There should also be some means of representing the pressure of saturated aqueous vapor at the given temperature. Miscellaneous. There should also be suitable units for recording amounts of solar energy absorbed and radiated; also popular units for hours of sunshine and percentages of the possible. Precipita- tion should be recorded in millimeters and snow in its water equivalent. Cloud heights and cloud velocities should be given in the metric system. A few of the new units and symbols employed follow: F, enue pressure in units of force, base 1,000,000 dynes b one megadyne, or dar db “ decibar eb)" centibar mb “ millibar Beas Pee at 106 meters, equals 750°1™™ (29°532 inches) Bonates “ sea level, © ~- 760-0) “*~(29-92inches) Woe weight «“ B. « 1019°8 grams per sq. cm. Ae ae ‘ “ sea level, “« 1030 grams per sq. cm. H “height of homogeneous atmosphere AOOVeu Es ac. 7... equals 788,504°™ At « 273 C. plus ¢, R “gas constant for air, eo 8a 2.050: Am. Jour. poracaaunas SERIES, VOL. XXX, No. 178.—Ocrtossr, 1910. 282 McAdie—New Units in Aero-physics. C, equals specific heat of air, equals 9,804,000 “ “ ; ‘OF BE Sia “« 6,971,750 “ C, “cc . 9 Ga 1°4062486 A “heat equivalent of work “ —:0000002889 1 : , ri *« mechanical equivalent of heat 42,683°7 H, “* height of convective surface he *« temperature at H, P “specific weight of air ........ "00129305 1 a i “« & ~water vapor :00080427 Nore (added August 10, 1910). Through the courtesy of Professor Charles F. Marvin and Mr. C. F. Talman, Librarian of the Weather Bureau, the following references have been found, proposing the use of . C. G. S. units in measuring atmospheric pressure : B. A. A. S. 1888 meeting, page 28. A committee of the British Association proposed the use of the Barad, pressure of one megadyne per square centimeter. Monthly Weather Review, vol. xxvi, 1898, page 314, Cleve- land Abbe discusses measurement of pressure in standard units of force. : C. E. Guillaume proposed to International Congress of Physicists in 1900, use of megadyne under the name Barye; and this was favorably reported by a committee of the Congress. (Travaux, Congr. Int. Phys., Paris, 1900, t. iv, pp. 61-62.) ; Sandstrém and Helland-Hansen in their report on Marine Investigation, dated 1902, used the megadyne and the unit of atmospheric pressure and also for hydrostatic pressure. Bjerknes and Sandstrém, in 1906, used the unit bar as mentioned by Képpen, Quar. Journ. Roy. Met. Soc., April, 1909. During the present year Koppen, Shaw, Gold, Harwood, Dines and others used the bar. en ee _—_—_ f C ,Pos Pe danr. 48 a is avrwndy arew paoe 7 : y Phillips—Gageite, New Mineral from Franklin, N. J. 283 bf > Art. XX XI.—Gageite, a New Mineral from Franklin, New Jersey ; by ALexanperR H. Puixiirs. Arrention has been drawn to the probable existence of another new mineral from this locality by Prof. Penfield in his description of leucopheenicite,* but as very little of the same material came to the surface from the mine until the fall of 1909, nothing further was ever done in the matter. For the last six months Mr. R. B. Gage of Trenton, N. J., for whom the mineral now described is named, has been collecting mate- rial for an analysis. Through the aid of Col. W. A. Roebling of Trenton, who was willing to sacrifice his best specimen, Od of a gram of well-crystallized material were obtained, and used by Mr. Gage with the results here given : Ratio. SION Sas rae 2 24°71 “412 1:49 MnO eee a5.) 50°19 Om) ENO) Np see 8°76 "107 } 1:109 4:00 MOT a a 11°91 295 J GO) Shes Seren p4caal| "246 i) 100-00 Letting R stand for the metallic oxides, the ratio of Si0,: RO : H,0 is as 1:49: 4: -9, yielding the formula (RO), (SiO,), ‘2H,.0. Just how the water is related to the oxides, there was not enough material to determine, as in fact the water in the analysis is determined by difference. A large amount of the burden of error will therefore lie in that portion of the anal- ysis ; it is certain, however, that there is considerable water in the molecule. From the empirical formula, gageite would seem to be closely related to leucophcenicite, if not one of the probable series mentioned by Prof. Penfield. Before the blowpipe the clear crystals assume at once a light bronze color, which darkens on further heating to a deep bronze, or nearly black, but they do not fuse. In the closed tube it yields water with the same change of color. The crystals dissolve at once in warm dilute nitric acid; upon heating this solution after the addition of a little silver nitrate and a small erystal of ammonium persulphate a very distinct permanganate color is obtained ; a single small crystal] will yield this test. All the specimens of gageite thus far obtained are from the Parker Shaft. It is well crystallized, the erystals are clear and colorless, with a high vitreous luster, delicate, acicular and hair- like, often radiated and grouped in bundles extending out from _ * This Journal, viii, 351, 1899. 284 = Phillips—Gageite, New Mineral from Franklin, NV. J. the walls of small cavities, not unlike the habit of millerite. It may occur as a matt of interlocking crystals, or fan-shaped groups. Under the microscope the paee angles seem to be well developed, and several of the larger crystals are termi- nated by a pyramid. While no measurements of the angles have as yet been attempted, it is hoped that the crystalline ‘ele- ments and the important forms may be established in the near future from the material at hand. The specimens thus far found have been associated with crys- talline zincite, green willemite, calcite, while leucophcenicite has always been present, serving as a support for the gageite erystals. The same combination of agencies which produced leucopheenicite has also produced gageite, but as the ultimate product of crystallization, <2——— Princeton, N. J., June 6, 1910. 2 <— Chemistry and Physics. 285 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. Carbon Monosulphide.—This compound, which is analogous to carbon monoxide, and which would be expected to be a gas, was described by Sidot in 1872 as a remarkably stable red powder produced by the action of light upon carbon disulphide. Srr James Dewar and H. O. Jonzs have now, for the first time, made the compound by the use of a chemical double decomposi- tion, using for the purpose nickel carbonyl and thiophosgene. These react in the presence of a solvent, such as dry ether, car- bon tetrachloride or chloroform, apparently according to the equation Ni(CO), + CSCI, = NiCl, +400 +C8, or rather according to a multiple of this equation, since the product is evidently a polymer (CS),, because it is a solid rather than a gas. The product thus obtained agrees with Sidot’s product in some respects, but it differs from it in some ways. It is a brown powder having a specific gravity of 1°6, but after compression into a solid block it gave the value 1°83. It is prac- tically insoluble in alcohol, ether, benzene, and petroleum ether ; it is slightly soluble in carbon disulphide, ethylene dibromide, nitrobenzene, naphthalene and phenol, giving deeply colored, reddish brown solutions. It is not soluble in dilute sulphuric acid, but in the concentrated acid it dissolves, forming a brown- ish purple solution, the color of which is only slowly destroyed at the boiling point of the acid. Upon dilution with water the solution in sulphuric acid gives a precipitate of the unaltered compound. It dissolves in concentrated nitric acid at ordinary temperature and the color of the solution is only destroyed by long heating. It dissolves in aqueous or alcoholic solutions of ammonia, ammonium sulphide, caustic potash and potassium sul- phide, giving deep brown solutions from which acids precipitate it apparently unchanged. When the solid was heated in a high vacuum practically no change took place below 360° C. ; at a red heat carbon disulphide was given off, but even after long heating at this temperature the residue, consisting largely of carbon, still contained a considerable amount of sulphur. On heating the carbon monosulphide in a current of dry hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide was produced and the residue was almost free from sul- phur. In a subsequent communication the same authors have described the preparation of what appears to be carbon monosulphide by the action of the silent electric discharge upon carbon disulphide vapor at the temperature of liquid air. At this low temperature a very low boiling, unpolymerized carbon monosulphide seems to 286 Scientific Intelligence. be produced, and this possesses the remarkable property of spon- taneously polymerizing at a slightly higher temperature with explosive violence and forming a brown powder.— Chem. News, cil, 49 and 61. H. L. W. 2. The Action of Carbon-Tetrachloride upon heated Anhy- drides, Oxides, and several Minerals.—This method of simul- taneously reducing oxides and forming chlorides has been the subject of many investigations for more than twenty years. CamBoutiveEs, however, has recently studied the process syste- matically, using a large number of oxides. The substances were placed in a boat within a tube of Bohemian glass, heated by means of a combustion-furnace, and vapor of carbon tetrachlor- ide was passed through the tube. The temperature at which the reaction commenced was found by the use of a Le Chatelier thermo-electric couple placed within the tube near the boat. Care was taken to use as far as possible substances of the same degree of pulverization, but it was impossible to obtain the same porosity in all cases. For instance, the alumina prepared by the ignition of ammonium alum was readily attacked, while natural corundum was acted upon slowly and incompletely. It was found that the temperatures of reaction are usually low, varying from 215° C. (with niobic anhydride) to 580°C. (with chromic oxide). The product in almost all cases is a chloride, for among the thirty oxides that were attacked only the oxides of niobium and thorium gave oxychloride, which in both cases was mixed with chloride. The process is well suited not only for the formation, but for the practical preparation of many anhy- drous chlorides, especially those of the rare earth metals, chro- mium, nickel, vanadium, titanium, zirconium, beryllium, cadmium and cobalt. Two oxides, silica and boracic anhydride, were found to be unattacked by the operation under consideration, but certain silicates are attacked to a degree apparently inversely proportional to their richness in silica, and the hydrous silicates are com- pletely transformed into chlorides. Hence a mixture of clay and sand may be analyzed in this way, since the silicate of alumina forms the volatile chlorides of silicon and aluminium, and the sand is left bebind.— Bulletin, LV, vii, 616. H, L. W. 3. A New Method for Separating Tin and Antimony.—In connection with an investigation in which a number of acid fluo- rides were prepared, Fiscuer and TmiELE have observed that antimonic and stannic acid fluorides are different in their behav- ior with hydrogen sulphide. A solution containing tin and anti- mony is first oxidized, so that the metals are in the stannic and antimonic conditions; then the sulphides are precipitated with hydrogen sulphide and dissolved in hydrofluoric acid. In this solution hydrogen sulphide precipitates reddish brown antimonic sulphide, leaving the tin in solution. By evaporating this solu- tion in a platinum dish with sulphuric acid until the hydrofluoric acid has been expelled, and taking up the residue with water, Geology and Natural History. 287 a solution is obtained from which the tin may be precipitated with hydrogen sulphide. It does not appear that the method has been tested by quantitative experiments, but the results are interesting in indicating the possible interference of hydrofluoric acid in analytical operations where tin is present.—Zeitschr. anorgan. Chem., Ixvii, 315. H. L. W. 4. Manufacture of Ethyl Alcohol from Sawdust.—It is stated that ethyl aleohol—-not methyl, or wood alcohol—is being made from sawdust on a large scale in France, and that the process will soon be put into operation in the United States and Canada. The process was invented by Dr. ALEXANDER CrassEN.of Aachen, Germany, and consists in heating the sawdust under pressure with water and sulphurous acid, thus converting the cellulose into fermentable sugar. The sulphurous acid is then drawn off, a certain amount of acetic acid formed at the same time is distilled off and saved, and the liquor separated from the residue is neu- tralized, fermented, and distilled. It is claimed that the insoluble residue of the process may be used as food for stock, and that 30 gallons of alcohol may be made from a ton of sawdust.— Chem. News., cii, 41. H. L. W. II. Grorogy ano Natura History. 1. The California Earthquake of April 18,1906. Report of the State Harthquake Investigation Commission. Volume II. The Mechanics of the EKarthyuake ; by Harry Frerpine Rep. Pp. viii, 192; with 2 plates and 62 figures. Washington, D.C., 1910. Published by the Carnegie Institution.—This second vol- ume of the report of the California Earthquake is of great scien- tific interest.* It consists of a first part on the phenomena of the megaseismic region, a second part on the instrumental records of the earthquake, and an appendix on the theory of the seismo- graph. The purpose of the review will be to give a summary of some of the conclusions of general interest contained in the first two parts. In discussing the permanent crustal displacements resulting from the earthquake, it is noted that the shifting at the San Andreas fault line amounted to about 6 meters, the southwestern side moving northwest. The geodetic surveys carried on from 1874-1892 and in 1906-1907 showed that the Farallon Islands, 37 kilometers southwest of the fault, had moved northward 1:8 meters. The movement of the latter Reid does not regard as accomplished at the time of the shock, but as going forward gradually and accompanying the accumulation of the stresses which were finally relieved at the time of fracture. That is, two- thirds of the stress which caused the rupture had already accumu- lated 25 years ago, and 50 years ago, as shown by the surveys of *See G. K. Gilbert, this Journal, xxvii, 48. 288 Scientific Intelligence. 1851-1865, the elastic strain, which caused the rupture in 1906, had already accumulated to nearly half its final amount. It seems not improbable, therefore, that the strain was accumulating for one hundred years. The distribution of the distortion of the rock resulting from the earthquake shows that the previous strain was highly ¢ concen- trated within a few kilometers of the fault line. The strain per unit area must rise to a certain value before fracture results. If the strain had extended over a wider zone, a greater displace- ment would have occurred at the time of fracture. Since, how- ever, the throw of six meters is a large one for an earthquake, it seems conclusive that in fault movements in general the preceding strain between the adjacent crust blocks is confined to a relatively narrow zone. Reid next considers the possibility of the prediction of earth- quakes by measuring the growing strains in a fault zone. For this purpose a line of piers should be built, say a kilometer apart, at right angles to the direction of the fault line. Starting from a time when the zone is comparatively free from strain, as is to a large extent true in the San Andreas rift at the present time, geo- detic measurements at intervals of some years would determine the amount of growing distortion in this line at right angles to the fault. When the surface becomes strained through an angle of about 1/2000 we should expect a strong shock to relieve this strain. It seems probable that a very long period will elapse before another important earthquake occurs along that part of the San Andreas rift which broke in 1906 ; for we have seen that the strains causing the slip were probably accumulating for one hundred years. It is quite possible, however, for strong earth- quakes to occur on neighboring faults after short intervals. The ruptures of the Haywards fault in 1868 and of the San Andreas fault in 1906 are fair examples, though the interval is rather long. The Haywards fault passes through Berkeley, and is 30 kilometers northeast of the San Andreas fault. The second part of this volume deals with the instrumental records of the earthquake. On account of the great energy of this earthquake it was recorded by seismographs in all parts of the world, and these seismograms supply a large amount of data. The first topic considered is that of the increasing duration of the disturbance as the distance of the station from the origin is greater. The major reason for this is that the longitudinal waves travel faster through the earth than do the transverse waves, but Reid suggests in addition the analogy of a clap of thunder, which although a sudden crash at its point of origin is heard ata dis- tance as a prolonged reverberation. Reflections of the elastic waves from the many surfaces in the outer zone of the crust serve to prolong and mix the vibrations, but with each reflection a partial transformation of the wave motions is produced, a wave motion of a single character being reflected as partly longitudinal, partly transverse vibrations. Consequently the waves become Geology and Natural Mistory. 289 mixed in nature as wellas in duration. Such mixing is, however, doubtless a phenomenon attending the passage of the waves through the outer shell of the crust only, so that clear distinc- tions between the first and second preliminary tremors and the main waves are not lost. Plotting of the times of beginning of the first and second preliminary tremors and of the principal part indicate clearly that the first two are transmitted through the earth, the latter around the earth. As the times of transmission through the earth are dependent upon the changes in the nature of the centrosphere dependent upon depth the preliminary tre- mors are of great interest. Unfortunately at distances greater than 100° for the first preliminary tremors and 125° for the second preliminary tremors, the observations of the phases be- come extremely doubtful. This further emphasizes the impor- tance of installing instruments recording the vertical component of motion, and instruments with high magnifying powers, not less than 100. Following Wiechert’s method, the curves representing the normals to the wave fronts and the velocities at various depths are computed from the data of the seismograms. As shown in fig. 28 of the report, the velocity of the longitudinal waves increased rapidly with depth, but with decreasing rapidity, from 7-2k™ ner sec. at the surface to 12°5™ per sec. at 2170*™ from the surface, ‘66 of the radius from the center. Below that depth the velocity is nearly constant. The velocity of the transverse waves -is 4'8*™ per sec. at the surface and increases almost lin- early with depth, reaching a velocity of about 7°5*™ per sec. at half the distance to the center of the earth. The absence of good records from distances beyond 125° prevents a knowledge of the velocities at greater depths. Within the limits regarding which information is given, Reid remarks that there is no indi- cation of a sudden change in the velocity of either wave such as we should expect if there were any sudden changes in the nature of the earth’s interior. In discussing the surface waves the most important point is to determine the time when they begin. This is chosen by Reid where the irregular movements due to the second preliminary tremors give place to regular waves with a long period (30 to 50 seconds). The velocity of transmission is uniform along the great arcs of the earth and the seismograms of the San Francisco earthquake give 88 minutes as the time to reach the antipodes. No yariations in velocity along different paths are to be detected greater than the errors of observation. ‘Thus the velocity under the Pacific ocean to Japan is the same as under North America and the Atlantic ocean to Europe. On comparing these results with those of Milne in 1902 and Oldham in 1900 it is seen that the preliminary tremors are for the greater part of the curve about 2 minutes earlier, apparently from lack of accuracy in the earlier observations. Determina- tions of velocities given by different great earthquakes are shown 290 Scientific Intelligence. to be of great supplemental valne, since the best seismographs give records which are in consequence at different distances from the origin. In regard to periods and amplitudes: many periods are present during the first and second preliminary tremors and the instru- ments single out and make prominent those which are near the period of “the instrument. The periods of the first tremors are mostly limited to a quarter of a minute, of the second tremors mostly between a quarter and a half of a minute... The ampli- tudes of the first tremors range about one-tenth those of the sec- ond. They are measured on the average by tenths and hundredths of a millimeter respectively at distances between 20° and 100° from the origin. The periods of vibration of the regular waves were in general not very far from 30 seconds. In the megaseismic region the amplitudes were 50™™ or more; at distances of 30° to 50° they have diminished to about 5™™, and we must go as far as 100° or so to find amplitudes less than 1™™, We see, therefore, that the great world-shaking earthquakes cause movements of the earth at great distances which are by no means inconsiderable, and the only reason why they are not felt is that the period, and, therefore, the movement is too slow to make them evident to our senses. In conclusion, Reid points out the importance of damped instruments, of a high magnifying power and an open time scale. It is from instruments possessing these qualities that future increases in this branch of knowledge are to be expected. The third part, on the theory of the seismograph, although of great importance is of more particular interest to specialists in earthquake phenomena. J. B, 2. West Virginia Geological Survey. County Reports and Maps. Pleasants, Wood, and Ritchie Counties; by G. P. Grims- LEY. Pp. xiv, 352, with 21 plates, 16 figures, and 3 maps in atlas. Also, Map of West Virginia (as a separate publication), scale 7 miles to the inch, showing coal, oil, gas, and limestone areas, by I. C. Wuire. Morgantown, West Virginia, 1910.—This report by Professor Grimsley gives very complete information regard- ing the three counties named and is of practical as well as scientific value. The chief resources of the region lie in its soils derived from the Permian shales and sandstones and in the abundant accumulations of petroleum. J. B. 3. Supplementary Investigation in 1909 of the Figure of the , Earth and Lsostasy ; by Joun F. Hayrorp, Inspector of Geo- detic Work, and Chief, Computing Division, Coast and Geodetic Survey. Pp. 80, 5 maps in pocket. Washington, 1910.—The noteworthy contribution by this author on “ the Figure of the Earth and Isostasy” has been reviewed in the number of this Journal for February, 1910. The first paper embraced the results of observations up to 1906. In this supplement, the results are contirmed and made more accurate, embracing observations up to 1909 and including some improvements in method. The number of astronomical determinations employed in the first Geology and Natural History. 291 computation was 507, in the second it was 765, including those of the first. The final values of the equatorial radius of the earth compared to previous determinations are as follows: Clam LSGG). freuen eee 6,378°206 meters C. and G. Survey, 1906 - ---- 6,378°2884+34 C. and G. Survey, 1909 -...- 6,378°389+18 The values for the depth at which isostatic compensation becomes complete are eight per cent greater than in the determinations from the first paper. Some discussion and several charts are also given of areas of excessive and deficient density in the United States. The geologic importance of the geodetic study of these local departures from isostatic equilibrium is obvious, but the work has as yet hardly advanced to sufficient completeness to enable comprehensive conclusions on this subject to be drawn. J. B 4, The Gold Hill Mining District of North Carolina; by F.B. Laney. Bull. No. 21, North Carolina Geol. and Keon. Surv. Pp. 119, 23 plates, 5 figs.—The Gold Hill Mining District lies in the south-central portion of the state in Rowan, Cabarrus and Stanley counties. The principal surface features are a long, low- lying, flat-topped ridge, the Gold Hill Ridge and a series of hills, the Beaver Hills. The rocks of the district are about equally divided between the sedimentary and igneous groups. The sedi- mentary series, consisting of slates, tuffs and breccias, interca- lated with which are minor flows of rhyolite and andesite, makes up its southeastern portion. The igneous rocks, which lie in the northwestern half, consist chiefly of a much metamorphosed basic effusive rock, called a greenstone, into which diorite and granite have been intruded. These two rock series are separated from each other by a great fault, the Gold Hill fault, which extends across the district in a northeast direction. This fault is marked by a zone of highly crushed and schistose rocks, much minor and local faulting and numerous closely spaced joints. There is much folding of the sedimentary rocks, particularly near their contact with the igneous area. The ore-bearing veins are developed in the zone of minor fault- ing to the east of the Gold Hill fault. They appear for the most part to follow the trend of the fault, but are often found follow- ing the strike of the schistosity. They are of two types, one of which is marked by an extensive silicification of the wall rock and is largely gold-bearing with only small amounts of copper. The other presents a minimum of silicification and consists of a zone of narrow rifts in the slate parallel with the schistosity. This series carries chiefly copper with only small amounts of gold. The ores are chiefly auriferous pyrite and chalcopyrite. In general the pyrite is the older mineral, and after deposition was more or less shattered by further movements. This shattering was followed on the one hand by the deposition of chalcopyrite and more pyrite, and on the other by the introduction of pyrite and gold, 292 Scientific Intelligence. the auriferous pyrite. It is believed that the two series of veins represent two distinct periods of mineralization or possibly two sources for the ore-bearing solutions, Ww. E. F. 5. University of Illinois Bulletin. Vol. 7, No. 2. Septem- ber 13, 1909. Chemical and Biological Survey of the Waters of Illinois : Report for year ending December 31, 1908. Epwarp Barrow, Director. Pp. 204. Water Survey Series, No. 7. Urbana, Illinois.—This bulletin is of much local importance, containing as it does an examination of many thousand samples of water from different sources. It is noted that up to the close of 1908 the State Water Survey received 18,700 samples of water for examination. Not only the results of analyses them- selves are given, but also several chapters dealing with general topics, as the determination of nitrates in drinking water, the methods of water analysis, etc. } 6. The New Bureau of Mines of the United States Geological Survey.—The Bureau of Mines, recently established as a part of the U.S. Geological Survey, began its work with the first of July. This Bureau will have charge of the investigation of mine accidents and fuels, together with the personnel and equipment of these investigations; it also embraces the fully-equipped test- ing station at Pittsburg. The related investigations of the struc- tural materials will be carried on by the Bureau of Standards. An appropriation of $210,000 has been made by Congress for the investigations of mine accidents, and $100,000 for the analysis and testing of the various fuels; the total appropriations for the Bureau of Mines, including salaries, rent, etc., amount to $502,200. It is stated that “the work of the Bureau of Mines for the first year will be a continuation and expansion of the work carried on by the Technologic Branch of the Geological Survey. The law in itself provides for a variety of other problems that properly belong to the Bureau of Mines and which should eventually be undertaken, such as methods of mining and metallurgical pro- cesses, but these activities will be deferred for the most part until Congress gives additional authorization in the shape of adequate appropriations. The spirit of the debates in Congress, both on the Bureau of Mines legislation and on the appropriation items, emphasized the desire to regard the mine accidents investigations as urgent, and this wili be the feature of the work.” The mine accidents investigations, begun by the Geological Survey in 1908, have already accomplished important results. Since 1908 “investigations of explosives, coal, gas, dust, elec- tricity, and other possible causes of mine explosions have been con- tinually under way. The mining engineering field force of the Geological Survey has already made decided progress in the study of underground mining conditions and methods. Practically all of the coal mines in which mine explosions have occurred during the last two years have been carefully examined, the gases, coke and dust have been analyzed at the laboratory at Pittsburg and every effort has been made to determine the explosibility of vari- Geology and Natural History 293 ous mixtures of gas and air in the presence of shots of different types of explosives. Considerable progress has also been made in the investigation of explosives used in coal mining, and the conditions under which they may be used with least risk. Man- ufacturers have submitted many explosives for test at the station, and a considerable portion of them passed and have been classi- fied among the permissible explosives. The investigations and educational work in connection with the use of artificial breath- ing and other types of mine rescue equipment, the so-called oxygen helmets, have not only been useful in developing a more satisfactory use of such equipment in the examination of mine explosions, but also better methods for using this equipment in mine rescue work.” The publications of the Survey relating to mine and fuel inves- tigations, those prepared by the Technologic Branch, will in the future be distributed by the Bureau of Mines, but the publica- tions relating to structural materials will continue to be dis- tributed by the Geological Survey. The last of the bulletins of the Technologic Branch to be published by the Survey relates to the Explosibility of Coal Dust, and was prepared by G. S. Rice, with chapters by J. C. Frazer, Axel Larsen, Frank Haas, and Carl Scholz. The titles are given of a series of bulletins to be issued by the Bureau of Mines in the near future. 7. The Evolution and Function of Living Purposive Matter ; by N. C. Macnamara. Pp. xi, 298. New York, 1910 (D. Appleton & Company: The International Scientific Series).— The book consists of two distinct parts, the first 187 pages containing a discussion of the evidence leading to the conclusion that the psychic nervous substance of the brain of the higher animals has been derived by a process of evolution from matter in the simpler organisms possessing only instinctive functions. An attempt is made to trace this gradual development of the purposive elements of the protoplasm in the most lowly forms of life to the specialized substance of the cerebrum of the human being. The nature of protoplasm and its relation to the heredi- tary qualities of the individual are discussed at length. In the second portion there is given a remarkable illustration of the importance of heredity in determining individual character. This is shown by the history of the Celtic people, who lived in a nearly constant environment for 1200 years from the time of their settlement in Ireland about the year 450. The destinies of the individuals and of the race are shown to have been correlated with the inheritance of personal characteristics through successive generations. W. R. C. 8. Discussion on the Origin of Vertebrates ; by W. H. Gas- KELL, E. W. MacBripg, E. H. Srarziine, E. 8. Goonvricu, H. Gapow, A. Smira Woopwarp, Arraur Drenpy, E. Ray Lan- KEsTER, P. Coatmers MitcHe rt, J. SranteEy Garpiner, T. R. R. Strspine, and D. H. Scotr. Reprinted from the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London, pp. 9-50, 1910.—T wo successive 294 Scientific Intelligence. meetings of the Linnean Society of London, on January 20 and February 3, of the present year, were devoted to the discussion of this topic. Dr. Gaskell first presented his much criticized theory maintaining an origin from an arthropod ancestor. In reply Prof. MacBride stated his objections to Gaskell’s theory and supported the well-known hypothesis of the Balanoglossus- Amphioxus route of development. The further discussion consisted largely of objections to the one theory or the other, but in the main Gaskell’s hypothesis was held to. be founded rather on superficial resemblances than on ancestral relationships. Although the problem was as far from solution at the end of the two meetings as at the beginning, the published discussion affords the best criticism of the theories involved that has yet appeared, the subject having been briefly reviewed from the standpoint of the anatomist, physiologist, embryologist, paleon-_ tologist, and botanist. We Bay 9. The Vegetable Proteins ; by Tuomas B. Osporne. Pp. xxiii, 125. New York and London, 1909 (Longmans, Green & Co.).—In this little volume, which forms one of a series of monographs on biochemistry, edited by R. H. Aders Plimmer and F. G. Hopkins, the author confines himself to a discussion of the general and physical properties of the vegetable proteins. All students of chemistry will welcome this opportunity of securing from the pen of a recognized authority a simple and readable presentation of what has thus far been learned of one of the most difficult branches of the subject. W. RB. C. 10. Zhe Science and Philosophy of the Organism (Gifford Lectures) ; by Hans Drizsce. Volume II. Pp. xvi, 381. London, 1908 (Adam and Charles Black).—In the first volume of this important work on philosophical biology the chief results of analytical biology were discussed in their bearing on morpho- genesis, adaptation, inheritance, systematics, and history. ‘This discussion is concluded in the first 124 pages of the present volume, in which the nature of organic movements is considered. The second section of the work, entitled “The Philosophy of the Organism,” discusses the philosophy of nature in general, the characteristics of entelechy, entelechy and univocal determination, entelechy and causality, entelechy and substance, the direct proof of the autonomy of life based upon introspective analysis of complete givenness, individuality, the problem of universal teleology, and metaphysical conclusions. Ww. R. C. Ill. Miscerranrovus Screntrric [LNTELLIGENCE. 1. British Association for the Advancement of Science.—The annual meeting of the British Association was held at Sheffield during the first week of September; some 1400 members were in attendance. The inaugural address, delivered by the President, Prof. T. G. Bonney, was devoted to an interesting discussion of “Some aspects of the glacial history of Western Europe.” ‘The Miscellaneous Intelligence. 295 meeting of next year will be held at Portsmouth with Sir William Ramsay as president, and Dundee has been appointed as the place of meeting in 1912. In 1914 the Association will meet in Australia, 2. Carnegie Institution of Washington.—Recent publications of the Carnegie Institution are noted in the following list (con- tinued from p. 94). No. 53. Egyptological Researches. Vol. II. Results of a Journey in 1906; by W. Max Mtrzer. Pp. v, 188, 47 plates. No. 109. Meduse of the World; by Atrrep GoLpsBorouGH Mayer. Vol. IL The Hydromeduse. Pp. 230, xv; 29 plates, 119 figures. Vol. II. The Hydromeduse. Pp. 231-498, xv; figures 120-327, plates 30-55. Vol. II]. The Scyphomeduse. Pp. iv, 499-735 ; figures 328-428, plates 56-76. No. 122. Determinate Evolution in the Color Pattern of the Lady-Beetles; by Roswett H. Jounson. Pp. iv, 104, 92 figures. No. 124. List of Documents in Spanish Archives relating to the History of the United States, which have been printed or of which transcripts are preserved in American Libraries; by James ALEXANDER ROBERTSON. Pp. xv, 368. No. 126. The Metabolism and Energy Transformations of Healthy Man During Rest; by Francis G. Brnepicr and Tuorne M. Carpenter. Pp. vill, 255. No. 129. The Conditions of Parasitism in Plants; by D. T. MacDovueat and W. A. Cannon. Pp. ili, 60, 2 figures, 10 lates. i 3. Les Theories Modernes du Soliel ; par J. Boster, Astronome a VObservatoire de Meudon. Pp. 382. Paris (Encyclopédie Scientifique, Octave Doin). —This volume deserves notice not merely for its individual excellence, great as that is, but still more because of its place in the series of volumes constituting the Encyclopédie Scientifique, which has already been noticed in this Journal in connection with another volume in the same subdivi- sion of this great enterprise. This is a handy volume Encyclopedia in numbers of pocket size aggregating eventually some 1000 volumes classified in 40 divisions or libraries, each library in charge of a specialist and comprising 20 to 30 volumes. The number under review is the third of the set of 27 belong- ing to the library of Astronomy and Celestial Physics and is compiled by Bosler, astronomer of the observatory of Meudon, among the foremost of observatories in solar research since pho- tography and the spectroscope have been available to unveil solar mysteries. The work is as judicious and authoritative as its source would lead us to expect, and is written with the clearness and precision for which French scientists are preéminent. The subdivision of this encyclopedia into 1000 volumes is with a view to continual revision as the progress of science requires, nowhere more necessary than in the science of solar physics, con- structed as it is from the residuum of numberless evanescent guesses. W. B. 296 Scientific Intelligence. 4. Celestial Hjectamenta ; by Henry Wixpx, D.Sc., D.C.L., F.R.S. Pp. 34 with 4 plates, (The first Halley Lecture at the University of Oxford.)—The lecture consists mainly of a number of novel propositions, for the most part stated without adducing proofs other than references to lectures or pamphlets of the author bearing on them. Most noticeable of these are the fol- lowing : Simplification of the theory advanced by Halley that terrestrial magnetism is due to rotation of the earth’s interior (presumably plastic) relative to the surface, with a differential (synodic?) period of 960 years (Halley, 700 years). That periodic comets are planetary “ejectamenta” (i. e. vol- canic products of the plastic period). The “Capture Theory” is ignored, and the reality of hyperbolic orbits denied. That the “red spot” of Jupiter is a volcano, whose “ ejecta- menta ” produce the Jovian belts in the form of fine dust like that ejected by Krakatoa. That Bode’s Law and a kindred but more accurate one, not here stated, discovered by the author and based on Mercury’s heliocentric distance as the unit, are examples of a “law of binary progression” to which the series of atomic weights also con- forms. The author asserts that this “law of binary progression ”’ is one of the fundamental laws of nature, and that it admits of only a teleological explanation, and is an evidence stronger than any other known to science of a causal intelligence guiding the universe. The deviation of Neptune from the place required by Bode’s Law is explained as due to its perturbations by the inner planets, which perturbations, it is asserted, are cumulative rather than com- pensating, and will, therefore, eventually precipitate the planet upon Uranus. This, it is needless to point out, destroys the gravitational stability of the solar system and charges Laplace and Lagrange with folly. We agree with the lecturer that “it is not a little remarkable that the effect . . . never presented itself to writers on celestial mechanics who have elaborated the doctrine of the absolute stability of the solar system.” _—_w. B. 5. Elementary Dynamics for Students of Engineering ; by Ervin 8. Ferry, Professor of Physics in Purdue University. Pp. 182. New York, 1910 (The Macmillan Company).—An excellent text-book for all college students preparatory to Physics as well as for those in Engineering, whether in connection with the Calculus or not. The methods are rigid without unnecessary refinement, the applications are numerous, fresh and pertinent, and the underlying principles of the science are presented dis- tinctly by themselves and in a manner to show that they are not, as they are often made to appear to beginners, abstractions but generalizations from experience. w. B. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ROURT HN SERIEE S| —_++9—____ Art. XX XII.— Pleistocene Glaciation and the Coral Reef Problem ; by Rreinatp A. Daty. Introduction.—During the last thirty years, most of the active students of atolls and barrier reefs have tended to oppose the Darwin-Dana hypothesis of extensive and _pro- longed crustal subsidence in the Pacific and Indian ocean basins. The borings at Funafuti do not seem to have proved the hypothesis even in the case of this one atoll. In Hinde’s detailed description of the cores we read that, from the top down to the 150-foot level their material is chiefly coral. Of the remainder of the boring, 663 feet are noted as principally composed of detrital and foraminiferal matter ; 279 feet carry small masses of coral, but the relative proportion of coral rock, as opposed to detrital and foraminiferal matter (here also abundant), is not stated ; while only 22 feet, in all, of the core below the 150-foot level is deseribed as originally solid coral rock.* These figures and, yet more clearly, the thoroughly particularized text of the ‘report, suggest that the 1,114-foot boring penetrated—first, a true reef extending little deeper than the bathymetric limit of reef-building corais; and then, a much thicker talus deposit containing blocks of massive coral. At several of the deeper levels the corals found are stated to have been “‘ probably in the position of growth,” but no discussion of this principal conclusion is contained in the report. Though most of the material constituting a typical reef is not solid coral rock, the percentage of non-detrital coral rock in the Funafuti main boring appears to be much too low to prove the Darwin- Dana hypothesis. On the other hand, Semper, Murray, Alexander Agassiz, and others bave long contended that coral reefs have been formed * See Section xi of report on ‘‘ The Atoll of Funafuti,” London, 1904. Am. JouR. Scl.—FOuRTH SERIES, VoL. XXX, No. 179.—Novemper, 1910. 298 Daly—Pleistocene Glaciation and Coral Reef Problem. either in areas of elevation or in areas of long-continued crustal repose ; though Agassiz accounts for the depth of certain lagoons and channels through local, very moderate subsidence. In the literature of coral reefs there is no systematic discus- sion of another possibility which must fundamentally affect the theory of coral reefs; namely, a positive movement of sea-level in the coral-reef zone of the earth, independently of crustal subsidence. The writings of Suess have now made this idea very familiar, and few geologists will be disposed to deny the validity of the principle. In the following pages the attempt is made to show that the melting of the Pleistocene glaciers in both northern and southern hemispheres resulted in a slow, relatively small, but theoretically important raising of sea-level throughout the intertropical zone. Most of the plateaus from which annular and barrier reefs rise are credited to Pleistocene marine erosion operating on Tertiary islands, shoals, or conti- nental shores. The corals colonized those plateaus during late Pleistocene time and have since continued the reef growth. The atoll and barrier-reef forms were inevitable consequences of the late Pleistocene drowning. This conception thus seems to supply a missing link in the chain of argument used by Semper, Rein, Murray, Agassiz, and Guppy against the wholesale-subsidence hypothesis. Darwin and Dana depended very largely on the visible forms of coral reefs in constructing their ingenious theory. If it can be shown that these forms were produced by increase of ocean water in the equatorial zone, the hypothesis of enormous crustal deformation beneath the coral archipelagoes is shorn of its strongest argument. In one instance the writer has been successful in the search for earlier statements of the relations between Pleistocene gla- ciation and the forms of coral reefs. After describing evi- dences of the recent drowning of most islands and coasts, Penck writes: ‘ The causes of the general rise of sea-level in the latest geological time might perhaps be connected with those cli- matic changes which the earth underwent in the Glacial period. If, during that time, northern Europe, northern North Amer- ica, and the Antarctic regions were simultaneously glaciated, a considerable mass of water must have been removed from the ocean, and, if the thickness of ice be assumed as 1,000 meters, the sea-level must have been 150 meters below its pres- ent position.” * The context of this passage gives no explana- tion of the flatness and nearly uniform depth of the plateaus on which the visible reefs have been built. Partly for this reason, Penck’s suggestion has not received, in the recent writ- ings on coral reefs, the attention it deserves. In any case, it is * A, Penck, Morphologie der Erdoberflaeche, vol. ii, 1894, p. 660, Daly—Pleistocene Glaciation and Coral Reef Problem, 299 time for renewed emphasis on the vital connection between Pleistocene glaciation and the conditions of Pleistocene inter- tropical seas. Liffect of Pleistocene glaciation on intertropical sea-level. It is becoming increasingly apparent that the southern hemi- sphere was affected by Quaternary glaciation contemporane- ously with the northern hemisphere.* At the time of their maximum extension the ice-sheets, which have since melted away, covered a total area which may be estimated as from five to eight millions of square miles. One will not go far astray in assuming six millions of square miles as the area thus degla- ciated on the earth as a whole. This is one twenty-fourth of the present area of the ocean. The average thickness of the ice cannot yet be determined, but its order of magnitude can be stated. The depth and sur- face gradient of the Labrador ice-cap were suflicient to drive that sheet over the mountains of New England and New York state, and to give the effluent ice-streams crossing the Torngat mountains of northeastern Labrador thicknesses of more than half a mile.t The writer has found the maximum thickness of the Cordilleran ice-cap of North America at the 49th parallel of - latitude—near the southern limit of the cap—to be over 6,000 feet, and the average thickness about 2,500 feet. The ice-cap of northwestern Europe varied between 1,500 feet in thickness at the Harz mountains to “perhaps between 6,000 and 7,000 feet” in thickness over Scandinavia, and “the sheet may have been as much as 4,000 or 5,000 feet thick in the northern part of Britain.” + Penck has estimated that the average thickness of the Pleistocene ice was well over 1,000 meters.§ The removal of enough water to form these great sheets of ice would tend: to lower sea-level all around the globe by the amounts here approximately stated : Estimated average thickness of ice (nptect) wet ee ee ONO. S600) 4.000! 5.000 Corresponding decrease of ocean’s WED ORE (URHEEL) he seers ste ae Deleon Gen 208 Woodward, Hergesell, and others have shown that a second cause for a negative movement of sea-level in the equatorial zone is to be found in the gravitative power of the ice. Using Woodward’s formulas, it may be calculated that, if the ice had an area of 6,000,000 square miles and an average thickness *Cf. H. Hess, Die Gletscher, Braunschweig, 1904, p. 396. +See Bulletin, Museum of Comparative Zoélogy at Harvard College, vol. XXXViil, p. 251, 1902. t Sir Archibald Geikie, Textbook of Geology, vol. ii, p. 1305, 1903. Sates Separatabdruck, Jahrbuch Geog. Gesell. zu Miinchen, vii, p. 30, 1882. 300 Daly—Pleistocene Glaciation and Coral Reef Problem. varying from 3,000 to 5,000 feet, the attraction of the ice would lower the level of the equatorial sea by amounts ranging from five to eight fathoms.* Taking the two effects together, the formation of the ice- sheets (which have since disappeared) would produce a nega- tive movement of sea-level in low latitudes to an amount rang- ing between twenty-five and forty-five fathoms. Assuming 3,600 feet us the average thickness of the ice, the shift of level in the equatorial sea would be about thirty fathoms.+ Con- versely, the deglaciation of the full 6,000,0V0 square miles would raise the level in the equatorial zone by about thirty fathoms. an we connect the later, positive, movement of level with ae forms of existing annular and barrier reefs ? That question suggests another, as to the origin of the broad plateaus on which the reefs have been built. A principal datum for the discussion of this subject must be the range of depths of the water above the plateaus. An approximation to those depths is given in the depths of the atoll lagoons and of the barrier channels. It is clear, however, in spite of Murray’s hypothesis of solution as explanatory of lagoons, that the vast majority of lagoons and barrier channels are slowly filling up; so that the average depth of the plateau is somewhat gr eater than the average depth of the deeper part of lagoon or channel.t In the case of many a small atoll, which, on account of limited size, has been nearly filled with calcareous deposits, the plateau is many fathoms below the deepest hole in the lagoon. The following table (col. 1) gives the maximum depths of water charted in representative atoll lagoons and barrier chan- nels of the Pacific and Indian oceans.§ In some cases the depths are given for great plateaus bearing relatively few reefs. These depths are usually greater than the maximum depths in atoll lagoons and barrier channels, but are of the same order of magnitude. Column 2 shows the estimated average depths of the deeper and generally considerable parts of lagoons or channels. *R. S. Woodward, Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 48, 1888, pp. 41, 70, etc. + Penck’s estimate of 150 meters for this change of level seems too high, even if the volumes of the present Antarctic and Greenland ice-caps be included in the computation. +Cf. W. J. Solias, in ‘‘ The Atoll of Funafuti,” 1904, pp. 6 and 27; and R. Langenbeck, Die Theorieen tiber die Entstehung der Koralleninseln, Leipzig, 1890, p. 50 ff. § Nearly all figures in this table have. been derived from Agassiz’s very convenient reproductions of Admiralty and other charts, to be found in Bul- letins Nos. 28 and 33, and Memoirs Nos. 28 and 29, of the Museum of Com- parative Zoology at Harvard College (1898-1908). Daly—Pleistocene Glaciation and Coral Reef Problem. 301 1 2 3 4 5 dx 3 - a) co) ~~ goo ae FS = 5 ad 5 o 8 wee G82 B22 Bue 289 aeS 288 G68 af8 ges Great Barrier, Australia 10-12° S. Latitude Els archers Lic o2 15 72 =e 2 aA Be aes CC ae a me a7 15 85 ate 2 14-16 eer UR eee aes 34 20 33 ae 2 16-18 Sha ee a AA So 37 20 35 sks 2 18-20 CE AN oes ea 36 22 65 iN 2 20-22 SE i yates aie aa 37 25 100 2 Fiji Group - Viti Levu, N. W. coast, barrier 46 35 30 Je 2 E. i 42 22 15 oe 2 Vanua Levu, S.W. ae 49 30 15 ne 2 ING es fc 46 30 25 ws 2 Wakayay barrier. 22.2. 2-23. 2 BD) 30 4. aes 2 Mibenpihatc: Uses tae ek eck oe 32 20 12 12 3 North Astrolabe Reef, barrier 18 10 3 4 4 Great a 31 20 6 10 3 IN Gaul DAIneM gers aye eee aio = 26 20 4 ah 2 ING inaieaii se eee OCs te et 26 18 3 i) 3 Ringgold islands, atoll ---.--- 52 40 6 30 4 Exploring islands, barrier _-.._ 101* 40 10 25 3 Rewdereemratollt: . geseee ows. = 20 18 6 rai 4 Southern Argo reef, atoll___-- 36 30 5 9 4 Hao, atoll (Paumotu group)-.--.. 31 30 10 30 4 Gambier islands, barrier ------- 38 18 6 7 2 Society Islands Tahiti, E. coast, barrier ..---- dl 20 15 ps 2 ng Naiaropul heey 25225 30 25 1:5 ye 2 Mahlaa woanwlenss sa0= eer ees = 27 20 2 fei 2 Ravaboam est ieee yee ene a 33 20 2 a 2 Murea, Soh wet Fe a 27 20 1:5 a 2 Bora bora eae eee 25 18 2 fe 2 TSI DEN OKs hoes CORGY Seaps tapeeretie lee urate 28 20 15 ae 2 Tonga Group Nomuka group, plateau __---. ca. 48 40 20 25 4 Haapai a ‘S(S! pt.) cas 00 40 16 25 4 Vavau ae BOOP ges Latte ca. 65 55 12 25 4 Vavau island, barrier _______- 50 40 ares i u Funafuti, atoll (Ellice group) --- 30 25 9 14 4 Arhno, atoll (Marshall islands)__ 32 22 10 20 4 Truk islands, barrier (Carolines) 36 30 30 Bi) 4 Maldive Group Thavandiffulu, composite atoll. 34 30 6 12 4 Tiladummati, Ob i 29 20 12 30 4 Miladummadulu, ee oe 32 28 18 54 4 N. Molosmadulu, ‘‘ coe 31 24 Beets oh 2 Middle ‘‘ ee oe 26 20 20 60 4 South Oe ef GPates 36 30 ug Sh s Faditffolu, a ae 32 28 18 24 4 North Male, sf eae 38 33 20 24 4 South Male, ue ciee 37 30 10 20 4 Felidu, ou Sue 40 30 14 28 + Ari, se sees 43 35 15 48 t North Nilandu, oy oe 37 30 14 18 4 South Ge ue ENS 39 30 12 20 4 * At a local, very narrow trough in the lagoon. 302 Daly— Pleistocene Glaciation and Coral Reef Problem. 1 2 3 4 5 sees @ np BHa Do F ai te hg bag EE ;35 Aaot So PSG o8D ass S98 abe G28 ges Mulaku, composite atoll_...-- 42 35 15 25 4 Kolumadulu, ‘‘ hsb.

Ills With the exception of No. (8) the agreement is satisfac- tory. The low result here is doubtless due to the use of an insufficient amount of potassium, as only six times that required by theory was added. The chlorbenzol was twice redistilled and that portion distilling between 131°5° and 131:7° used in the analyses. * Stephanoff’s method calls for twenty-five times the theoretical amount of sodium. 380 0. H. Maryoit—LHalogens in Benzol Derivatives. BromMBenzon, 50°92 per cent Bromine. Weight taken Per cent of grm. bromine found Per cent error (1) ‘3976 51°29 + "87 (2) *392] 51°31 + +39 (3) "3928 51°31 + °39 The results are very concordant but slightly high, probably due to impurity in the brombenzol, as the sample used was a commercial product once redistilled. H®EXACHLORBENZOL, 74°71 per cent Chlorine. Weight taken Per cent of erm. chlorine found Per cent error (1) "1301 NIB) ape) ake! (2) “1190 75°15 + “44 The material used was Kahlbaum’s product once agi lized from hot benzol. p-CHLORANILINE, 27°81 per cent Chlorine. Weight taken Per cent of grm. chlorine found Per cent error (1) “3081 27°93 ap (2) 3456 28°00 +) ekg To test the relative efficiency of sodium and potassium in their capacity as reducing agents, an analysis of chlorbenzol was carried out exactly as above described except that sodium (ten times the theoretical amount) was used in place of potas- sium. Only 84 per cent of the total chlorine was found. It is therefore evident that potassium is very much more effective as a reducer than sodium, and is consequently better adapted for use upon such substances as the halogen substi- tuted benzols, which belong to the most difficultly reducible class of organic halogen compounds. In the experience of the writer it gives, under the conditions outlined above, a com- plete reduction with the minimum expenditure of time and trouble. FB. Loomis—New Genus of Peccaries. 381 Art. XLI.—A New Genus of Peccaries; by ¥. B. Loomis. Since their introduction into North America in the Oligo- cene the peccaries have never been an abundant group, but - have nevertheless held their own and progressed steadily though slowly toward their present structure. During the summer of 1908 the Amherst party found in the “breaks” about two miles southeast of the Raw Hide Buttes in Converse Co., Wyo., and in the sandstones of the Upper Harrison beds, the skull (lacking the brain case) and lower jaws of a peccary which is intermediate in development between Desmathyus of the Rosebud formation and the modern peccary, Tayassu. The specimen is No. 2047 in the Amherst College Museum and includes the muzzle in lower jaws, the dentition being com- plete except that upper incisor 1 and premolar 1 are wanting. The individual is old and the teeth well worn. The new form differs from the earlier genera and Desmathyus in having but 3/3 premolars, and is distinct from the modern type in that the third incisor is still retained; though the incisor series has already begun to assume modern character, in that the first incisor is greatly enlarged. With this form it will be seen in the table on page 384 that the series of peccaries is very nearly a perfect one. Pediohyus ferus gen. et sp. nov. The muzzle is moderately high with a straight or slightly convex upper boundary inclosing an ample olfactory chamber very like that of the modern peccary. The opening of the infraorbital foramen is well back, lying just over the front of the first molar. The alveolus for the upper canine is greatly swollen on the outside into a rough projecting tubercle. In front of this there is a correspondingly deep pit for the recep- tion of the lower canine. The first upper incisor is wanting but the greatly enlarged alveolus shows that it was of the modern type, broad and elon- gated and two to three times the size of the other incisors. Incisor 2 is less than half the size of the first, and has a simple blunt wedge-shaped crown. The third incisor is still smaller but by no means vestigial. Between it and the canine is a gap of some 20", which represents the width of the pit for the lower canine. The upper canine is a powerful tooth but shghtly bent backward, and approximately oval in cross sec- tion. The anterior face is beveled off with wear. It is hard to say what caused the wear as the tooth does not meet the lower canine, but use must have ground the major part of the tooth away. 382 FB. Loomis—New Genus of Peccaries. Fie. 1. Pediohyus ferus. Type specimen } nat. size. There is no upper premolar 1, the interval behind the canine occupying 15™". The second premolar is small with a single primary cusp near the front and a smaller one behind. The third premolar is wider and has two anterior cusps which are higher and stouter than the small ones on the back of the crown. The fourth premolar is distinctly molariform, though distinctly smaller than any molar and having but three distinct cusps, the two anterior and the outer posterior one, the inner posterior cusp being replaced by a low ridge (very like a strong cingulum). All these premolars are much less progressive than the corresponding teeth in the modern Tayassu. The molars have low quadratical crowns and have been so much worn that the details are not now clear. Each seems to have had four primary cusps; and the cingulum as well or bet- ter developed than in the recent genus. The incisors of the lower jaw are simple and normal except that the third one is less reduced than in the recent peccary. The canine is a powerful tooth, which in the type specimen is much worn and beveled on the anterior face. The first pre- molar is wanting, the second being separated from the canine by a diastema of 23™". Judging from the alveolus, the tooth F. B. Loomis—New Genus of Peccaries. 383 was small and simple. The two succeeding premolars are much larger, but in this specimen are too worn to admit careful description. The molars are low crowned, the third being pro- vided with a large heel. Measurements. Length of wppersdeniition:-<-. 2222000. .2 02.2 1. e Tie: War nt OimineiOnem nae tk oe 8 NA OLEDNOMMIRC ISON ome se ee eee ame fey ols 54 Leneth of supper premolar series ...2-2/.'-...2-.----- 35 Henethyomepremolanetieess. sede eee eee enothyor premolar S22. oat Sse isle el A iil Eensthiotapmemolar 422) 222th ae seca lsisc ds aes ee es enethvommobanrseness ies 20250. we he Uh ek el 88 Meno thpOnenlOlat hanes reas heel sae s Coen stew sae. | LD Memo timonmmolanm gen se aes hoe Oe ce ee el | NO Pen cuhvolamolatis sees senate ee oes eae 20 Length of lower premolar series. -.-.-.-----..------- 41 Bencimotslowermolar series..-- 4) 2s 25 i fs 64 The following table shows the relative development of the dentition of the various genera of this Tayassuinae family or Incisors Premolars In. 1 enlarged In. 3 reduced 3 |In. 1 enlarged In. 3 reduced In. 1 enlarged In. 1 enlarged Vestigal or series: Age Dentition Perchcerus ements $i 4 2 |Kqual ; : /Up. Oligocene Bothrolabis | Wares Day $43 3 |Equal (Low. Miocene PESTER lees, Moscow! | oe oe ; (Low. Miocene Pediohyus Up. Harrison ba 5 4 Up. Miocene 2133 Tayassu — Recent 3 I 3 3 \In. 8 lost : ‘Up. Miocene 2138 Platigonus \— Pleistocene | * 1 3 ® | Prosthennops ‘Up. Miocene 3 1% 2% |Reduccd Mylohyus [Pleistocene ore i a3 wanting All simple | | | All simple P. 4 slightly molariform P. 4 molariform P. 3 less ‘‘ P. 9 “ce ce Simple P. 3 and 4 molariform P. 2-4 molariform | No notch for lower | canine. \Skull rather brachi- cephaiic. Notch for lower ca- nine. Skull mesocephalic. Notch for lower ca- nine. Skull mesocephalic. Notch for lower ca- nine. ; Skull mesocephalie. . Shallow notch for lower canine. Skull mesocephalic. \2 or less transverse | erests on upper | premolars and | molars, (Skull mesocephalic. Skull dolicocepha- | lic. Skull dolicocepha- | lic. 384 LF. B. Loomis—New Genus of Peccaries. From the above it will be seen that the various genera of pecearies represent three lines of development, a mesocephalic type begiuning with Perchcerus and ending in Tayassu, a doli- cocephalice type including Prosthennops and Mylohyus, and the aberrant genus of Platigonus. The series is distinctly an American one, appearing first and doubtless by migration from Asia during the lower Oligocene. A couple of species have been doubtfully referred to Hyotherium, and it was probably some primitive member of that genus which on reaching this side soon developed the peculiarities which separate the pecca- ries from the pigs. Life in a more open country might well have started the modifications which are especially along the line of slenderer build and speed. The following diagram may graphically indicate the general relationships of the known genera: Recent Tayassu Pleistocene Mylohyus Platigonus Pliocene heey Platigonus Up. Miocene Prosthennops ; Platigonus Le ie Vi NS ae Mid. Miocene 7 Ba - Z wesS Pediohyus =, - Low. Miocene BN ee Desmathyus Up. Oligocene Bothrolabis Mid. Oligocene Perchoerus Beside these there are a few forms known only by fragmen- tary material, like Chenohyus, Leptocherus, and Nanohyus, which cannot be placed in their relationships until more com- plete material is found. Amherst College. J. 0. Branner—The Serra de Jacobina. 385 Arr. XLII.—TZhe Geology and Topography of the Serra de Jacobina, State of Bahia, Brazil; by Joun C. Branner. Tur Serra de Jacobina, taken as a whole, is the most beauti- ful and most majestic mountain range in Bahia, and one of the finest in all Brazil. The range is known at different places by more than a dozen different names, these names, in accordance with the popular custom in the interior, being taken from the various cities, towns, villages, and estates situated along its base. For the sake of geographic and geologic clearness it seems best to call the range as a whole the Serra de Jacobina, for that is the name by which it is most widely and most appro- priately known in Brazil, though it is called the Serra de Saude in Barao Homem de Mello’s Atlas do Brazil. The local names may well be left for the various high peaks in the range. The profile given by Dr. Allen in Hartt’s Geology and Physical Geography of Brazil, at page 310, gives an erroneous impression of the topography about the city of Jacobina. This impression has been further deepened by the other erroneous idea that there is one great mountain-range—the so-called Serra do Espinhaco of Eschwege—extending across this region.* As a matter of fact there are two very distinct ranges at and near Jacobina, to say nothing of others farther west, while, so far as the Serra do Espinhago is concerned, a field examination of the topography and geology of the region lends little or no support to the theory of the existence of such a range in this part of the state of Bahia. The southern extremity of the Serra de Jacobina is nearly three hundred kilometers on an air-line northwest of the city of Bahia. Itssouthern end is on the north side of Rio Jacuipe, just southeast of the village of Canna Brava, and some thirty- tive kilometers south of the city of Jacobina. From this point it runs nearly due north past Jacobina, Saude, Campo For- moso, Villa Nova, and Jaguarary, and ends just west of the station of Jurema, on the Bahia and Sao Francisco railway—a total distance of 225 kilometers on a line. Though it widens considerably at some places, its average width is only about six or seven kilometers. The altitudes of the highest points in the range have not been measured. The writer has determined the altitudes of a few prominent peaks, but none of the peaks climbed by him was the highest. The highest peak ascended *O. A. Derby. The Serra do Espinhago, Brazil, Jour. Geol., xiv, 347-401. This article reproduces Dr. Allen’s profile and sketch of the Serra do Tom- bador. : 386 J. C. Branner—The Serra de Jacobina. is one called the Serra de Sant’Anna, ten kilometers north of the city of Bomfim. This peak has an altitude of 1100 meters above tide level (three aneroid measurements). There are considerably higher points in the range farther south in the vicinity of Saude, Jacobina, and Canna Brava. Sections across the Serra de Jacobina made at different places differ but little from each other. Everywhere the rocks are conglomerates, quartzites, and talcose shales or schists with steep dips toward the east. Along the western: base of the range these sedimentary beds rest upon granites or old erup- tives, while on the east side also the granites and other erys- talline rocks come close up to its base. The city of Jacobina stands at the western base of the Serra de Jacobina where that range is cut in two by the Rio Itapicurti. Near that city on the west side of the range the granites and old crystalline rocks extend westward from the foothills of the Serra de Jacobina to and up the slope of the Tombador range. It should be clearly understood that the Serra de Jacobina is entirely dis- Bre, it Fie. 1. Section along Rio Itapicurtii at Jacobina where it cuts through the Serra de Jacobina. tinct from the Serra do Tombador, which is a parallel range some thirty kilometers west of Jacobina. The Jacobina range is formed of sedimentary beds, mostly quartzites, alternating with slates or schists, standing nearly on end, and is high, nar- row, rugged and picturesque. The Tombador range is low, of even horizontal crest, made of nearly horizontal sandstones and quartzites that rest upon granites and form a vertical escarp- ment along the east face of the mountain, while on the west they dip gently westward and pass beneath the Salitre valley. The diagram given at page 337 of the article on the Serra do Tombadort+ shows the relations of these two mountain ranges to each other both topographically and geologically. The sections examined across the Serra de Jacobina are here given in more detail. : The city of Jacobina is at the parting between the granite area west of the Serra de Jacobina and the quartzites that form the serra itself. The actual contact between the two kinds of rocks is not exposed on Rio Itapicurt in the town. It . is quite evident, however, that this contact crosses the middle + This Journal, vol. xxx, p. 385. J. OC. Branner—The Serra de Jacobina. 387 of the city just west of the Conceigao church, and close to the city jail. North of the city this parting comes out clearly in the vegetation. The bare quartzites are covered with a stunted growth of bushes, while the vegetation on the granites is more vigorous and abundant, and its color is of a brighter green. Along this west flank of the range toward the north one sees clearly the eastward dip of the sedimentary series forming the serra and the strike which is always parallel with the range itself. Immediately south of the Itapicuré near Jacobina the sandstones and quartzites near the contact are so jointed that one can hardly find a block a foot in diameter. The influence of the rocks on the vegetation is noticeable south of theriver. The ‘‘ monte” or peak with the cross at its ‘summit is just south of the city and 150 meters above it. The north end of this ridge is of green-stained, flinty quartzite con- glomerate. The pebbles of these conglomerates are often as large as hen’s eggs, and the metamorphism is so complete that the outlines of the pebbles are often obscure. A kilometer or so farther south along this same ridge pebbles 15 centimeters long arecommon. The fracturing or jointing of some of these conglomerates and quartzites is remarkable. Over some expo- sures there are three sets of parallel joint-planes intersecting each other with striking regularity at angles of thirty degrees, and_ breaking the beds into small angular blocks. Another striking characteristic of these basal conglomerates is that the well-worn pebbles of which they are composed are themselves made of quartzitic sandstones. In other words, these conglom- erates are not derived from the underlying granitic rocks, but from an older series of sediments. Some sixty-five kilometers farther north the Rio Itapicurt cuts through the range, but this section was not examined by the writer. Something more than a hundred kilometers north of Jaco- bina a good section of the Jacobina range is exposed near the town of Campo Formoso, where it is again cut by a stream, the Rio do Campo Formoso or da Agua Branca. At this place the mountain range as a whole is made up of four paral- lel quartzite ridges dipping eastward at a high angle. The hard beds of the series are quartzites very much like the so- called itacolumites of Minas Geraes, while the yielding beds are talcose schists. The town of Campo Formoso at the moun- tain’s western base stands on granites, and the waters that unite at this place to form Rio do Campo Formoso flow almost exclu- sively from the granite area that forms the rolling country immediately west of the Serrasde Jacobina. The plains that extend eastward and southeastward from the serra’s eastern base are also of granites, mica schists, and other crystalline rocks, with here and there a quartzite ridge rising above the 388 J. C. Branner—The Serra de Jacobina. general level. The mica schists are exposed on the road about two and a half kilometers due south of Monte Tabor. The quartzites and other rocks of the Monte Tabor range, which is the easternmost member of the Jacobina range, all dip toward the southeast at a high angle. About twenty kilometers northeast of Rio Agua Branca another section across the Serra de Jacobina was examined on Fie. 2. NWT gehare Camps Formaso Fic. 2. Section across the Serra de Jacobina along Rio Campo Formoso or Agua Branca. and in the vicinity of the road between Villa Nova and Campo Formoso. The general structure on this road is shown in ile accompanying section (fig. 3). In this section the summit of the Morro da Mina has an elevation of 950 meters a. t. or 403 meters above the railway Fie. 3. Torro da Mino, Fic. 3. Section across the Serra de Jacobina west of Villa Nova. station at Villa Nova. A dip measured on Morro da Mina is 60° S. 40° E. magnetic. The rocks are the usual quartzites more or less decomposed at many places, and red and purple shales interbedded with them. The next section across this range to which attention is called is west from the railway station of Jaguarary and twenty-five kilometers north of Villa Nova. The distance through the range at Jaguarary is about six kilometers on a straight line, and about nine by the trail. The drainage does not cut entirely through the range here as it does at Campo Formoso and Jacobina. The rocks exposed at and about Jaguarary are all granites. These granites are cut by the railway at several places sonth .of the town, and they are well exposed in bosses from thirty to fifty meters across. The serra at this place is made up of four quartzite ridges, the three parallel valleys being cut in talcose schists similar to ~ J. OC. Branner—The Serra de Jacobina. 389 those found in the other sections. The schists are also exposed on the plain between the easternmost quartzite ridge and the town of Jaguarary. Throughout the whole section the rocks dip eastward ; one dip measured in the purplish quartzites of the eastern range was due east at an angle of sixty degrees. West of the range the rocks of the plain are granites and gneisses and these rise more than half way up the western teh, 2. Ww Piabas Fie. 4. Section across the Serra de Jacobina between Jaguarary and Piabas. Length of the section, ten kilometers. slope of the mountain. The actual contact between the sedi- mentary series and the crystalline series was not seen ; those observed nearest the quartzites are soft cream-colored rocks that have the appearance of being composed of decomposed feldspars. Below these are laminated gneisses in an advanced stage of disintegration. At my request Mr. Roderic Crandall made a trip across the serra along the upper portion of the Rio do Pogo Comprido, which cuts across the Jacobina range twenty kilometers north of Jaguarary. Mr. Crandall found the range at that place to be made up of four parallel ridges of quartzite whose beds dip north eighty degrees east at an angle of seventy degrees. Granites form the plains both on the east and the west sides of the serra. The structure is, therefore, the same as that shown in the other section across the range. The examples given are enough to show the remarkably uniform structure throughout of the Jacobina range. They also show at all the points examined the granites, gneisses or other old crystalline rocks on both sides of the range. The relations of the granites on the west side of the range to the sedimentary series seems to be fairly clear: the form, conti- nuity, and position of the parting suggest, if they do not posi- tively prove, that the sedimentary series was laid down upon the granites. On the east side of the range, however, the contact between the granites and the sediments has not cer- tainly been observed, and there is, therefore, more or less doubt about the relations of the sediments of the serra to the erystalline rocks of the plains to the east. Everywhere the four main ridges of the serra are of extremely hard quartzites, while the valleys are cut in soft taleose schists. 390 J. C. Branner—The Serra de Jacobina. The following theories have been entertained in an attempted explanation of the facts thus far gathered in regard to the Serra de Jacobina: I. The theory of a single synclinal fold having the two eastern members turned back so far that the beds have the same dip as the western ones. The relations would then be such as are suggested by the accompanying section. Fic. 5. Theoretical section to show the surface repetition of beds in a synclinal fold. If this were the correct explanation of the structure of the range one should expect to find the ridges & and H to show such similarity in material and sequence of their beds as are commonly found in sedimentary deposits at similar distances from each other. The same would be true of ridges D and / and of the valleys C and G. At Hone would expect to find a double thickness of a single bed or group of beds. To put it differently: starting at “, the axis of the syncline, one should find the same or nearly the same sequence of rocks in passing from #’ to A as he would in passing from £' to J. It cannot be said that the study of any of the sections exam- ined across the range has been sufficiently critical to settle this point beyond question. The facts that appear to bear upon it, however, are mostly unfavorable to the theory of a synclinal fold. These facts are here given very briefly. 1. Along the eastern face of the range is a series of manga- niferous schists or shales that is repeated on its western side at only one place, so far as seen, and that is at and north of the village of Brejao. The distance through the range on this theory, however, is large enough to diminish considerably the importance of this particular fact. 2. So far as is now known, the conglomerates of the western ridge of the range are not repeated in the eastern ridge. Here again the distance through the range may be urged against the probability of the similarity of the beds over so wide a zone. J. OC. Branner—The Serra de Jacobina. 391 II. The second theory is that of the repetition of the same beds by four parallel faults. This theory would require but one series of quartzite beds and an overlying series of schists or slates. Four parallel faults, as suggested in the accompany- ing figure, might yield the general structure of the range. / Fie. 6. Fic. 6. Ideal section across the Serra de Jacobina on the theory of its having been formed by four parallel faults. The chief objection to this theory is the great length of the range and its apparently uniform character throughout. It would be very remarkable to find four faults so evenly spaced for 225 kilometers and following each other in the curves made by the range throughout that entire distance. A second objection is that the manganiferous shales or slates near Villa Nova and Jaguarary are not repeated in the valleys within the range as we should expect if the structure were pro- duced by such a series of faults. Similarly the heavy con- Fie. 7. Fic. 7. Section across the Jacobina range on the theory of a single fault with the downthrow on the west. glomerates at the base of the series at Jacobina are not repeated in the easternmost ridge of the range. 392 J. C. Branner—The Serra de Jacobina. Ill. The third theory is that of a single fault along the eastern face of the range, with the downthrow on the west and the subsequent denudation of the uplifted eastern side. According to this theory, the structure would be something like that shown in the accompanying figure. There seems to be no special objections to this theory unless it be the great depth required for the theoretical single fault. The remarkable fact that the great Serra de Jacobina is cut entirely in two at several places by streams flowing through steep-sided gorges will be discussed in a later chapter on the geography of the State of Bahia. The following questions should be kept in mind by those who may hereafter have opportunities to study the geology of the Jacobina range : I. Are there always four parallel ranges, or is this appear- ance misleading ¢ il. Is the Jacobina range of the same geologic age, and has it the same general history as the smaller quartzite ridges on the plains both east and west of the range, and mentioned i in this Journal, Oct., 1910, p. 263. Foote and Langley—Columbium and Tantalum. 393 Art. XLIIL—On an Indirect Method for Determining Columbium and Tantalum ; by H. W. Foorr and R. W. LANGLEY. Introduction. Tuer determination of tantalum and columbium in mixtures of their oxides has always been one of the difficult operations in analytical chemistry. The method for separating the two metals was devised by Marignac* and consisted in separating by erystallization the difficultly soluble potassium-tantalum fluoride from the more soluble columbium salt. This method, with various minor modifications, is still the one commonly used. The operations involved are tedious and the results are only approximate. Judging by our own experience, the method requires some practice before even approximate results ean be obtained. The reason why the results are inaccurate is first, because the tantalum salt obtained is not quantitatively insoluble, so that tantalum is left in the filtrate with the colum- bium, and second, because of the tendency of columbium to erystallize to a limited extent with the tantalum double fluoride. Two volumetric methods have been proposed, both depend- ing on a preliminary reduction of columbium to a lower oxide and titration with potassium permanganate. By the first of these methodst columbium is reduced by zine in strong hydro- chloric acid solution, and titrated with potassium permanganate which has been standardized by means of a pure columbium salt. In the second method+, columbium in a solution contain- ing succinic acid is reduced by amalgamated zinc. Under fixed conditions, by this method, columbic oxide is reduced to the empiri caloxide Ob,,O,,, and can be titrated with perman- anate. The method of separation proposed by Weiss and Landecker§ will be discussed in the article immediately following this. The low density of columbic oxide (4°552) as compared with the density of tantalic oxide (8°716) suggested that the compo- , sition of any mixture of the two could be deduced from its density, if the density of mixtures of known composition was first determined. The principle has been applied by Penfield and Ford|| to the estimation of the proportions of tantalic and columbie oxides in stibiotantalite, assuming that the density of mixtures of the oxides is a linear function of the composition. * Archiv. des Sci. Phys. et Nat., 1866. + Osborne, this Journal [3], xxx, 329, 1885. } Metzger & Taylor, Zeitschr. anorg. Chem., Ixii, 388, 1909. § Zeitschr. anorg. Chem., lxiv, 65, 1909. || This Journal [4], xxii, 61, 1906. Am. Jour. Sc1.—Fourts Smries, VoL. XXX, No. 180.—Dxrcrmper, 1910. 26 394 Foote and Langley—Indirect Method for The problem consisted in preparing various known mixtures of the two oxides under definite conditions and determining the densities of the mixtures. Methods and Errors. We first investigated the method to be used to determine the density. The mixed oxides as they are obtained in anal- ysis are very fine powders. After some preliminary work the following method for determining density was adopted. The ordinary form of bottle pycnometer of 10° capacity was used. The stopper was carefully ground to fit, using fine carborundum powder. The capacity was redetermined from time to time, but it remained nearly constant. The unweighed material was finely powdered and placed in a small beaker half full sof water. The water was boiled hard for a half hour by passing an electric current through a fine spiral of platinum wire sus- pended in the water, the powder being stirred up a number of times during the operation. The water could not be boiled in a beaker over a flame on account of severe bumping, as the powder settles rapidly. The boiling can be accomplished over a flame, however, if a rough platinum dish is substituted for the beaker and the liquid stirred continually. The contents of the beaker were cooled, most of the water poured off, and the residue washed through a funnel into the: pyenometer with boiled water. Any powder on the neck of the pycnometer was washed down and the pycnometer filled to overflowing. Any powder or air bubbles floating on the top were swept off with a glass rod. Air bubbles did not usually adhere to the sides, but were always looked for and removed with a wire if present. The pycnometer was placed in a tank of water and kept at 20° OC. for twenty minutes. The stopper was then inserted, the top quickly wiped off, and the whole dried and weighed at once. The contents were transferred to a platinum dish, evaporated to dryness, and ignited finally over a blast for five minutes. In transferring the contents of the pyecnometer to the dish it was found that all loss could be avoided if the pycnometer were inverted over the dish and shaken slightly till the powder left the bottom. By then bringing the mouth against the side of the dish the mixture will run out quietly. Two or three rinsings with water are necessary. The pycnom- eter usually contained a trace of oxide sticking to the sides, which might weigh as much as two milligrams. It was there- fore dried at 120° C. and weighed to determine the small amount of oxide. This method gave results which were en- tirely satisfactory for our purpose. The average difference between duplicates in forty determinations of density amounted Determining Columbium and Tantalum. 395 to 0°22 per cent. This result includes several determinations in which the amount of material used was under one gram, which increased the percentage error considerably. When two grams or more of material were used, duplicates seldom disagr eed by more than 0°15 per cent. To illustrate : the den- sities found for a mixture containing 90 per cent tantalic oxide were 8103 and 8°078 when 1°5 grams were used. Upon repeat- ing the experiment with 38°3 grams of material, the densities found were 8-090 and 8-092. We next determined that the mixed oxides became constant in density after heating for an hour over the blast lamp. For this purpose a sample of the mixed oxides from a Branchville columbite was ignited over the blast lamp for an hour in a platinum crucible. The density was determined and the mate- rial then ignited for five-minute periods, a density determi- nation being made after each ignition. The results were; 4-908, 4:908, 4:919, 4-921, 4-923, 4- ‘912. The material was then heated an hour longer and the density redetermined, the results being 4:924 and 4-923. In these and the following determi- nations the ignition was accomplished in 30 em. platinum eruci- bles over a fairly powerful blast lamp. The question whether different preparations of the oxides in the same proportions had the same specific gravity could only be answered by mak- ing a series of such determinations. Complete duplicate series of mixtures were not made on account of lack of material, but the results given in the table, which appears below, show what agreement was obtained in each case. The average difference in density between different preparations of oxides having the same composition was 11 per cent. This appears to be the greatest source of error in the determinations, and shows that the method of preparing the oxides must be fixed as definitely as possible. The detailed method of preparing the mixed oxides in con- dition for specific gravity determination was as follows: About three grams of the oxides were fused in a platinum dish with six times their weight of acid potassium fluoride till the mass was just liquid. The fusion was dissolved in 200° of hot water in a platinum dish, adding a little hydrofluoric acid to obtain a clear solution. The solution was made alkaline with ammo- nia, and after allowing the precipitate to settle, filtered on a rubber funnel and washed well with water containing ammo- nia. The precipitate runs through the paper if pure water is used. The precipitate was redissolved in the platinum dish, using as little dilute hydrofluoric acid and water as possible and evaporated to dryness. ‘Ten cubic centimeters of concen- trated sulphuric acid were added in such a way that the resi- due was completely moistened. The liquid was evaporated 396 Foote and Langley—Indirect Method for over asbestos till all hydrofluoric acid was expelled, stirring if there seemed to be danger of spattering. Whe residue was cooled, 200° of water added, and the solution made alkaline with ammonia, filtered, and the precipitate washed with dilute ammonia. The precipitate was transferred while moist to a 30 gram platinum crucible and ignited over a blast lamp for an hour. “he residue was ground to a fine powder with water and was then ready for the density determination previously described. This method of preparing the oxides may appear longer than necessary, but we adopted it only after preliminary work had made it appear essential. Acid potassium fluoride was used in decomposing the oxides instead of potassium bisulphate because the latter does not render the oxides completely soluble in hydrofluoric acid if they have previously been ignited. This fusion with acid fluoride does not involve any loss of either columbium or tantalum by volatilization. To prove this, 1°3576 gms. of mixed columbice and tantalic oxides were subjected to the process outlined above and 1°3603 gms. were obtained. If the mixed oxides have not been ignited and are completely soluble in hydrofluoric acid, this may be used to dissolve them instead of acid potassium fluoride. The first precipitate with ammonia from hydrofluoric acid solution can not be ignited and used for density determination, as it contains fluorine after being ignited. Washing the precipitate with dilute ammonia will not remove all the fluorides. Results. In preparing the mixtures for density determinations, we were fortunate in obtaining very pure tantalum and columbium oxides. Dr. W. E. Ford supplied a sample of columbie oxide which had been given him by Prof. E. F. Smith. It had been prepared from the chloride and was exceedingly pure. Dr. Ford also supplied some tantalum oxide from Dr. W. R. Whitney of Schenectady, who stated that the material was considerably over 99 per cent pure. Dr. T. B. Osborne fur- nished us with considerable amounts of potassium tantalum and potassium columbium double fluorides which we recrys- tallized and converted into the oxides. The densities were as follows : Columbic oxide (Smith)pegeeens soa 4°552 vs &. - (Osborne) ceesae sos pAtoOs Vantalie 60" .(W bitney) see see 8'716 es ete 2( ORHOLNE) eo sae, fe 8'683 In making the mixtures, it was assumed that Smith’s and Whitney’s oxides were pure and that Osborne’s columbic oxide contained 0°61 per cent tantalic oxide and his tantalic oxide Determining Columbium and Tantalum. 397 0°32 per cent columbic oxide. These values were calculated from the densities. The original intention was to make mix- tures of the oxides at intervals of ten per cent. Irregularity in the curve showing change in density with change in com- position when there was over 60 per cent of tantalic oxide caused us to repeat some of the determinations in this region, as we suspected an error in the work. We were led to the conclusion that in the mixtures containing a moderate excess (65-85 per cent) of tantalic oxide, the densities are not as constant as when other proportions are present. The table and curve given below will make this clearer. All the results which were obtained upon known mixtures are tabulated below with one exception. This result was obviously in error’ as the density was not approximately related to the compo- sition. In most cases, the density of one mixture of any given composition was determined. Where the curve as plotted from the table showed irregularities, duplicate mixtures were made and the results enclosed in brackets in the table. All densities are referred to water at 20°. Composition Specific gravity Average %Ta,05 }©£_<——————_——_+—____—_—_______,__ specific gravity 0 4°555 4°549 4°552 - 5 4°652 4°647 4°650 10 4:744 4°748 4°746 20 4°929 4°929 4°929 30 5°203 5°197 5°200 40 5474 5:474 5474 50 5852-5847 5850 60 6°437 6°431 6°434 65 6°719 6°763 6°730 NOME (70 7189 7170 ; 70 6-958 6992 7008 6-981 t eS 75 7431 7-452 TAAL 80 7629 '7°637 : i 80 7-662 7-687 t 808 85 7885 T-925 7°963 i 8 + sol 799 gl 90 - 8-103 8:078 8°1338 \ | 90 8-090 8092 S038 95 8°245 8°241 8°243 100 8°725 8°684 8°730 8-716 The average of the results in the table are plotted in the figure. The curve has some interest from the standpoint of solid solutions. The fact that the points as plotted do not lie on a 398 Foote and Langley—Indirect Method for straight line indicates that the oxides have formed a solid solntion and not a mechanical mixture. The irregularities in the curve, which can hardly be due entirely to experimental error, suggest that the oxides are not soluble in each other in all proportions, but that tantalum oxide has taken up about 18 per cent of its weight of columbium oxide, and the latter Fie. 1. oO 10 20, GO PAO Gam TEA ENG acon eo nen over twice its weight of tantalum oxide. The intermediate mixtures would then consist of mechanical mixtures of each oxide saturated with the other. In these mixtures the varia- tions in densities of different mixtures of the same composition are greatest. Points on this part of the curve should lie on a straight line if the interpretation of these results as suggested is correct. Analyses of Minerals by Density Method. The analysis of a sample of stibiotantalite from the Brush collection was carried out using the indirect method for deter- mining the relative proportion of tantalum and columbium oxides. The density of the sample was 6°80 and the weight four grams. The method used was as follows: Two one gram samples and a two gram sample were each dissolved in about 20° of hydrofiuoric acid. Some white insoluble material remaining undissolved was filtered off and its weight deducted from that of the sample taken. The resulting weight was taken as that of stibiotantalite used for analysis. The solution containing an excess of hydrofluoric acid was diluted to 300° and hydrogen sulphide passed in until all antimony and bis- muth were precipitated as sulphides. The precipitate was Determining Columbium and Tantalum. 399 filtered, washed with water, and treated several times with yellow ammonium sulphide. The insoluble residue of bismuth sulphide was dissolved in nitric acid, precipitated with ammo- nium carbonate, filtered, washed, ignited and weighed as Bi,O,. The solution of antimony sulphide in ammonium sulphide was precipitated with sulphuric acid, (in the case of the two gram sample one tenth of the solution was used,) filtered in a porcelain Gooch crucible and washed with water. The crucible was supported in a triangle on a sand bath and covered with a 300° flask whose bottom had been removed. A glass tube and thermometer were fitted into the neck of the flask through a rubber stopper. The air in the flask was displaced by a rapid stream of carbon dioxide entering through the neck of the flask and escaping through the sand at the bottom. The temperature was raised to 240° and maintained for two hours, while carbon dioxide was passed in. At the end of this time all free sulphur had been removed from the Sb,8, precipitate, as was shown by the weight remaining con- stant after further treatment. The crucible was allowed to cool in the atmosphere of carbon dioxide, its weight taken, and Sb,S, caleulated into terms of Sb,O,. _ The filtrate from the precipitation with hydrogen sulphide contained columbium and tantalum in solution in hydrofluoric acid. It was evaporated to dryness, moistened with concen- trated sulphuric acid, and heated until all hydrofluoric acid was expelled. Water was added and the solution made alkaline with ammonia, filtered, the precipitate washed, ignited, and weighed. After heating over a blast lamp for an hour the density was determined. In experiments 2 and 3 the hydro- fluoric acid solutions containing tantalum and columbium were united in order to obtain enough material for a reliable deter- mination of density. The results of the analysis are as follows: 1 2 3 Average Sb,O, oe ae ote 40°98 40°98 40°91 40°95 NO Mpee en get acy 0°50 0°69 0°60 Ta,O, eee eS ae 41°53 42°30 42°30 41:92 Cb,O, ele ea as 16°56 15°82 15°82 16°19 99°60 99°72 99°66 Density of mixed oxides of 77191 7-282 7°282 7-236 Ta and Cb Sb,O, + Bi,O, 400 Foote and Langley—Method for Determining, ete. The density method was also applied to the partial analysis of a Branchville columbite and for Gomparison tantalum and columbium were separated and determined by the Marignac method. The specimen contained no titanium. The oxides obtained in the course of analysis were soluble in hydrofluoric acid, so that preliminary fusion with acid fluoride was unneces- sary. The solution was precipitated with ammonia, filtered, redissolved in hydrofluoric acid and evaporated with sulphuric acid, ete., as previously described. The results of the duplicate analysis are given in the following table: Per cent Per cent oxides in oxides in Percent Percent mineral by mineral by Percent , Ta,O;in Ta,O; in density Marignac Ta,0;+ Density oxides by oxides by method method ; Cb,0;in of mixed density Marignae ——-+~-——, ———~—-——, mineral oxides method method Ta,0; Cb:0; TasO, Cb.0; 1. 78°77 4:957 21:0 18°74 16°54 62°23 14°43 63°68 2. 79°04 4:918 20°0 17°21 +=15°81 68°23 13°60 65°75 It will be seen that the results are approximately alike by the two methods, but we believe the results by the density method are more accurate and they are certainly much easier to obtain. The specific gravity of the columbic oxide from one Marig- nac separation was found to be 4:612 corresponding to 96 per cent of columbic oxide and 4 per cent tantalic oxide, showing that some tantalum went with the columbium. It is probable also that some columbium crystallized with the tantalum double fluoride but the amount of tantalic oxide was too small for a density determination. The authors wish to express their thanks to Dr. W. E. Ford and Dr. T. B. Osborne for the tantalum and columbium oxides used in this investigation. Sheffield Chemical Laboratory, New Haven, Connecticut, July, 1910. Foote and Langley—Tantalum and Columbiwm. 401 Arr. XLIV.—WNote on a Recent Method for Separating Tan- talum and Columbium; by H. W. Foorm and R. W. LANGLEY. A new method of separating tantalum from columbium was proposed recently by Weiss and Landecker.* This method consists essentially in fusing the mixed oxides with sodium carbonate containing a little nitrate and treating with hot water. Some tantalum, as sodium tantalate, remains insoluble and is removed by filtering and treated separately. The tan- talun: remaining in solution is precipitated by carbon dioxide. The authors state that if the conditions are properly adjusted, all the tantalum is precipitated, leaving columbium in solution. On the other hand, Roset and Ostwaldt{ state that both are completely precipitated by carbon dioxide from a sodium carbonate solution. We have tried a considerable number of experiments follow- ing the directions given by Weiss and Landecker as closely as possible but varying certain conditions not defined by the authors. We were unable to make any satisfactory separation by this method. On the contrary, in every case nearly all the columbium precipitated with the tantalum. The authors state that a separation depends upon adjusting the amounts of reagents used, the method of fusion, and the concentration of the solution within narrow limits. These conditions, in our experiments, were adjusted to conform as closely as possible with the slightly indefinite directions given by the authors. The quantities of reagents and the concentration of solutions were also varied somewhat to effect a separation if possible. The method—taken from Weiss and Landecker—was as follows. The amounts of reagents used will be given in the table. About 0°3 gm. of a known mixture of tantalic and columbic oxides was fused with sodium carbonate over a blast till effervescence ceased. Sodium nitrate was added and the fusion continued about ten seconds. The fusion was treated with hot water on the steam bath for two hours and the insoluble residue filtered and washed with 5 per cent sodium bicarbonate solution. The filtrate, containing columbium and tantalum, was cooled and car bon dioxide passed in until no further precipitate formed. In the meantime, the insoluble sodium tantalate was boiled with dilute sulphuric acid and hydrogen dioxide to dissolve it. We were never successful in getting complete solution at this point. Sulphurous acid was added and the solution kept warm for two hours to reprecipi- tate the dissolved tantalum. The precipitate was filtered, * Zeitschr. anorg. Chem., lxiv, 65, 1909. + Handbuch analyt. Chem., 6th ea., ii, 339. { Grundlinien anorg. Chem., ed. 1900, 726. 402 Tantalum and Columbium. washed, ignited and weighed. The oxide precipitated with carbon dioxide, which should have been pure tantalic oxide, was filtered and the weight after ignition added to the weight of tantalic oxide already obtained. . The filtrate from the carbon dioxide precipitation was acidi- fied with sulphuric acid, an excess of sulphurous acid added, the solution boiled and allowed to stand. The precipitate which should have contained all the columbium was filtered, washed, ignited and weighed. As a precaution ammonia was added to the filtrate to be sure that no columbium was left in solution. The results of these experiments are tabulated below. They show that we obtained no separation in any case, but that columbium was almost quantitatively precipitated with the tantalum by carbon dioxide. The precipitate must have carried some alkali with it as the amount of tantalum and columbium oxides recovered was always apparently greater than the amount used. The results of the experiments are tabulated below. Vol- Na.CO;| NaNO; | when -|Ta.O;| Cb20;| TasO;| Cb20O;| used | used | CO, 7, |\taken | taken | found| found] for for was OEMS : fusion | fusion |passed| in (gms) | (gms) | (gms) | (gms)| (gms) | (gms) | (ce) about | about 2100 | 0900 | -3025 | none |2gms.| ‘1 gm.| 600 2129 | 0913 | 3219 | 0117 “38 05 200 | 1975 | 0846 | -2903 | -0125] 1:2 05 250 |A precipitate separ- ated on standing over night before passing COs. 4.| 2465 | 0616 | °3167 | 0030 6 05 250 |Precipitate with CO, : separated in 1 hour stopped CO, in 1} hours. Con 2362 | 0591 | 2974 | 0056} 1:2 0: 2580 | 0645 | 3193 | 0167} 1°8 | -05 250 2546 | 0637 | 3220 | 0087] 1°8 05 250 |Fused mass when treated with water contained many crystalline plates. Set 8. | -2728 | 0682 | -3425 | -0037 01 9. | -2838 | -0710 | °3654 | trace O01 250 |Precipitate with car- bon dioxide became erystalline on boil- ing. The results have convinced us that the method in its present form is unreliable but it is possible that other conditions can be found which will permit a separation. If this could be done the method would be exceedingly valuable. Sheffield Chemical Laboratory, New Haven, Connecticut. Ruedemann—Paleozoie Platform of North America. 408 Art. XLV.—On the Symmetric Arrangement in the Ele- — ments of the Paleozoic Platform of North America ;* by Roupoir RurpEMann. We wish to present certain facts indicating that the strue- tural development of eastern North America has taken place in such a fashion that a notable symmetric arrangement of its elements has resulted. _ This arrangement becomes especially distinct when the large area of Paleozoic rocks extending from the Canadian protaxis. southward is considered by itself. This area, which is roughly bounded on the west by a line connecting the head of Lake Superior with the Ozarks and on the east by a line inclosing the Adirondacks and Appalachia, we may for convenience term the Paleozoic platform of North America. It corre- sponds in its relation to the Canadian shield with that of the “ Russian platform” of the European geologists to the Baltic shield. A glance at the geologic map of North America will show that this platform is a direct southward continuation of the Canadian shield or protaxis and bounded by southward converging lines that are direct continuations of the boundaries of that shield,t as described by Suess and Willis. In the west the platform, like the Canadian shield, is separated from the Rocky mountain area by the north-south transcontinental depression that extends from the Gulf of Mexico to the mouth of the Mackenzie river and is occupied by Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks. In comparing the sketch map (fig. 1) with the diagram (fig. 2) in which separate shading brings out the elevated and depressed regions, it is seen that on either side of the Cana- dian shield or protaxis [A], there stand out, like cornerstones, two separate Precambrian areas, the Isle Wisconsin [D,] and the Isle Adirondack [E,] in quite symmetric positions. Each has its extension connecting it with the protaxis in symmetric position, that of the Isle Wisconsin being directed northeast (partly submerged by Lake Superior), that of the Isle Adiron- dack northwest. From each of these extensions there runs outward, along the margin of the shield, a deep depression, the Lake Superior basin [D,] and the St. Lawrence basin [E, ]. The latter is less distinct through the disturbing influence of *Condensed from N. Y. State Museum Bulletin 140, pp. 141-149, 1910. + The Mesozoic and Cenozoic embayment of the Mississippi Valley is, in this discussion, left out of consideration, because of younger age ; likewise the belt of Carboniferous rocks to the west and southwest of the Ozarks, that forms the outer slope of the western arm of the platform, roughly cor- responding to the area of. metamorphic rocks on the opposite slope of the other arm, and properly belonging to the transcontinental depression. 404 Ruedemann—Symmetric Arrangement in the A iN WN Ge WA ' Ne ( i ai : fi Bs Minin Seen bated een Mh oF pe Ae \ I i Pe elescpeer teak EAC Nees ae - : | ad BS | 5 | 3 ; ! \ | eee | } | Re a { i iho, ras in Oa SU) Coad ca BARA] IRS iW 7 Tl P-C Al M-P C-O S P-C, Precambrian. Al, Algonkian. C-O, Cambro-Ordovician. P, Pennsylvanian. D M P M-P, Metamorphosed Paleozoic. S, Silurian, D, Devonian. M, Mississippian. Fic. 1. GroLtocicaL SkretcH Map oF THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. MN, southern boundary of Canadian shield, A. D2 and He, the symmetric Isles Wisconsin and Adirondack. D, and E,, the adjoining marginal depres- sions of the shield. D.-Dsz, guide line of western arm of platform ; E2-Hs, E;, Isle Appalachia. B,-Ba, B,, Cincinnati geanticline. Bz, Michi- B; and By, symmetric subbasins. that of the eastern arm. Dz, Isle Ozark. guide line of axis of eastern basin. gan basin. Elements of the Paleozoic Platform of North America. 405 the Appalachian folding and probably much obscured by extensive overthrusting from the southeast along ‘ Logan’s line.” The effect of Appalachian folding by crushing in one side of the symmetric structure here set forth, will be discussed more fully in another chapter (see p. 408). From each of these cornerstones there extends southward, like an arm, a broad belt of Precambrian and early Paleozoic rocks, nearly the full length of the continent. The western arm can be traced by the great southward extension of the Pre- earboniferous rocks of Isle Wisconsin to near the neighborhood of Burlington, the Siluro-Devonian inlier along the Mississippi above its junction with the Missouri and the large Precam- brian-Cambro-Silurian inlier or uplift of the Ozarks in Mis- souri and Arkansas* [D,]. Its “‘Leitlinie” is shown in the thick broken line marked D, through D,. The eastern arm [E,-E,] has been badly overridden, broken up and forced inward by the tangential pressure that has produced the Appa- lachian folds. It is, nevertheless, still easily recognized in the belt of Precambrian and Precarboniferous rocks, extending south and southwestward from New York as far as Alabama. The two arms have later been somewhat disturbed and obscured, especially the western one, by the breaking down of certain portions south of Isle Wisconsin, where the Carbonifer- ous has transgressed it, and the eastern one by the submergence of portions southeast of the Adirondacks and by extensive folding. In their original position the two arms may be con- ceived as approaching each other somewhat in the south, although not nearly so much as they do now, in consequence of the forcing inward of the eastern arm, for if the consider- able shortening of the eastern basin indicated by the Appa- lachian folds is taken into account and the basin spread out to its original width, the eastern arm would probably take a posi- tion fully corresponding to that of the western. These two arms bound a large basin, the ‘“ Paleozoic eastern basin,” now occupied by the basin of Ohio and the Great Lakes. In the middle of this an elongated low eleva- tion formed, now indicated by the Cincinnati and Nashville Poupolitts: The axial position of this uplift (see line B,-B,, fig. 1) sug- gests that it may partake of the nature of the “ geanticlinal median”+ that according to Haugt forms along the median *The Ouachita mountains in Arkansas probably represent, according to Dr. Ulrich’s description [in Preliminary List of Papers, Geol. Soc. Am., 21 Meet. 1908, p. 21] and as already indicated by their strike, a different element and will, for this reason, be left out of the discussion for the present. + Dana clearly recognized this uplift as a geanticline. tHaug, Emile, Bull. Soc. Géol. Fr. (8), xxviii, 617, 1900; and Traité de Géologie I, 164, 1907. 406 Ruedemann—Symmetric Arrangement in the line of a geosyncline preparatory to more extensive folding. The southern portion’ of the uplift which, according to its normal position to the basin and the Precambrian arms, should Fie. 2. SO ae hin ee “Sy aS ‘ ke . \ \ j os \ i Rs EE uti ae ue IWS a R. A ims Nh Sys i ® a | Aah: i hee. hu eke Ms | \ vd oe WW (| war Ly a rN oaase A PT RL y Diet wl =| | ' ZI News ; \ i = A \ * t Ss i} Wess | // 1 5, \ iS Ts an i 1 | ’ te Dee \ i \\ | (ea ‘ Jy it 1 — i gw 6 eT le OF SIUIASSY OB Se : \ } ‘| as, ; Fs. 1 | NK == 5 cere avhene® aS \ ae eee fae) sender meee MM eee \ be Uy \ pee a | = pase eileen mentors dy overt 4 a gore te \ y | ah la: { i } { ‘eo i cane i : = eee ! i 2 3 pies - Fig. 2. Diagram to show events on southern slope of+* North America still without interference of Atlantic pressure. Lettering as on figure 1. Arrows indicate main outlets of basin B. extend due south, has been affected by the Appalachian fold- ing and twisted into a southwest direction. As a result of the Elements of the Paleozoic Platform of North America. 407 warping of the axis of the basin, two separate symmetric basins have been formed,* one, the Eastern Interior, and the other, the East Central basin. On account of the approach of the Precambrian arms in the south, these basins do not extend north and south, but extend symmetrically to northwest and northeast. The Ohio river from the Pennsylvania to the West Virginia line flows along the axis of the eastern basin. The northern portion of the Paleozoic platform that lies to the north of the Cincinnati geanticline assumed the aspect of a separate subcircular basin, typically indicated by the Michi- gan coal field and the locations of Lake Michigan and Lake Huron. It also lies symmetric to the whole arrangement and with the Cincinnati uplift it is on the line of symmetry, It is possible that this Michigan basin, instead of being an inde- pendent depression, originated from the same warping force as the Cincinnati uplift, being the result of a longitudinal oscillation of the axis of the same geanticline, comparable to those more intensive longitudinal oscillations of the axes, which have been observed in some of the Alpine folds (see Haug, Traité, p. 211). The Canadian geologists, however, have claimed to find the influence of the Cincinnati uplift extending from the west end of Lake Erie farther north to Lake Huron. In this case it would seem that the Atlantic pressure had affected the entire extent of the uplift [see p. 408] giving it a direction subparallel to the Appalachian folds, and the Michigan basin would have to be considered as inde- pendent of the Cincinnati uplift, a view distinctly not sup- ported by the general distribution of the formations around the basin. The development of these symmetric structures may have taken place as shown in figures 1 and 2. In figure 1 the Canadian shield A and its Paleozoic platform are separated by the line M-N. First, then, an extensive depression affected the middle portion of the platform producing the Paleozoic eastern basin, fig. 2, B,, B,, and leaving two long embracing arms standing, the western one D,_, and the eastern one E..,. The following changes took place in the two arms and in the inclosed basin. The arms were broken up, with the result that on either side two principal isles, Isle Wisconsin [D,] and Isle Ozark [D,], Isle Adirondack [E,] and Isle Appalachia [ E,] were formed. These isles are distinctly paired. On either side between the Canadian shield and the first isle a depression formed, the Lake Superior basin [D,] and the St. Lawrence * Dana [Areas of Continental Progress in North America, etc. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., i, 41, 1890], recognizing the importance of the regions of shallow seas represented by the Cincinnati uplift and the Precambrian region of Missouri as regards rock-making, has distinguished these basins by the terms here used. 408 Ruedemann—Symmetric Arrangement in the basin [E,], and other depressions between the first and second isles. In the Paleozoic eastern basin a broad low anticline, the Cincinnati-Nashville parma [B,], arose*; exactly in the axial line of the depression and in continuation of this line of eleva- tion the northern part of the basin sank down into an axial basin, the Michigan subbasin [B,]. On either side of the parma, between the latter and the Precambrian arms, two basins, the East Central [B,] and the Eastern Interior basin [B,], were formed, in such an arrangement that they converge southward and are exactly symmetrical to the axial line of the eastern basin. ; The stress from the sub-Atlantic pressure, the cause of the Appalachian folding and overthrusting crushed or crumbled this symmetric structure from the southeast, its influence being felt in the whole eastern portion of the area. Its effect is seen by a comparison of figures land 2. Following Claypole’s earlier estimates, Willis (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., xviii, 404, 1907) remarks that “it is a moderate statement to say that during the Appalachian revolution that portion of the continent southeast of the Cumberland Plateau rim moved northwest- ward at least 50 miles.” On account of its oblique direction to the north-south axis of the Paleozoic eastern basin, the stress reaches deepest into the latter in the south, where it has clearly turned the Nash- ville portion of the Cincinnati-Nashville parma aside. It further lengthened the Eastern Interior basin, and extended it into southeastern New York, or considerably farther north than the opposite East Central basin. Moreover, it may have produced secondary depressions east of the Michigan basin, which have finally found expression in Lakes Erie and Ontario. The principal facts suggesting the latter view are the general parallelism of these lake basins with that portion of the Appalachian folds southeast of them+ whence the push came. It should, however, in this connection be taken into account that it can have been but the last stages of Appa- lachian folding that produced the gentle down-warping of these basins, since the outwardly convex strike of the earlier Paleozoic formations (best. seen at the west end of Lake Ontario) shows that this was an elevated region until at least Devonian time. It is, therefore, quite possible that these depressions are the counterparts of the late (early Tertiary) * Suess has termed such broad warpings ‘‘ parmas.”’ +By drawing a straight line connecting the folds from the Tennessee- Virginia line to the Pennsylvania-New Jersey line, one obtains a line that indicates the general direction of this portion of the folds, and that line is parallel to the two lake basins. Elements of the Paleozoic Platform of North America. 409 domelike warpings in western Pennsylvania* and southern New York, to which their longitudinal direction clearly corre- sponds. the joining of the Appalachian folds that die out in south- ern New York by a new north-south system of folds in eastern New York, brings the folded region close against the Adiron- dack isle and produces another depressed “Vorland,” the Champlain basin. The Ottawa-Montreal basin that corre- sponds in its position and also in its form, in surrounding the noréh side of the Adirondack isle, to the Lake Superior basin, - has also been much encroached upon by the westward pressure of the folded region and no doubt to no little amount by extensive overthrust. It will be seen that with the conception here presented of the geologic development of the eastern United States, the Great Lakes fall, by the first impetus to the formation of their basins—omitting the later accessory agencies, as glaciation and pre-glacial drainage-lines—into three groups, viz: (a) Lake Superior, originating from the breaking down of one of the arms of the Canadian shield.t (b) Lake Michigan and Lake Huron. Their location and form correspond to the Michigan basin, where they roughly follow the Devonian belts. (c) Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, either depressions origi- nating from the action of the Atlantic tangential pressure, or counterparts of later warpings in the upper Ohio basin and western New York. We have thus far left out of consideration the Appalachian basin or “geosyncline” which occupies a narrow strip on the west side of Appalachia and is continued northward through New York and Vermont into Canada. It has later become the site of the Appalachian folds. Ulrich and Schuchertt have clearly shown that this basin became early subdivided by longitudinal and transverse barriers into a number of smaller basins. In their directions these barriers foreshadow the later, more intensive Appalachian folding, and are early indications of the influence of the pressure acting from the Atlantic basin upon and through Appalachia. It is certain that the Appala- chian basin itself which became the site of the intense folding resulted from the Atlantic pressure upon Appalachia, due to suboceanic spread. It is therefore a foreign element, so to say, in the geologic history of the Paleozoic platfor nm, which, how- ever, has strongly obscured the original symmetr y of the lat- ter. While all changes here noted on the plattorm are of *See Campbell, M. R., Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., xiv, 277, 1903. + The Lake Superior basin clearly antedates all the others, at least with its western arm, which rests in Algonkian rocks that indicate a very early depression in the Canadian shield. } N. Y. State Mus. Bull., lii, 633, 1901. AM. fours Sse crate SERIES, VoL, XXX, No. 180.—DzEcremBer, 1910. 7 410 | Ruedemann—Symmetric Arrangement in the epeirogenic character, the Appalachian folds are an orogenic feature, While in general the isles have emerged in Paleozoic times and the basins have been submerged, there have been contin- uous changes in the amount of emergence and submergence. This fact becomes especially manifest through Professor Schuchert’s paleogeographie maps,* and it is probable that these subsidences and elevations took place in rhythmic pulsations. With all these continuous changes, however, the sum total of the elevations of Isle Wisconsin, Isle Adirondack, Ozarkia and Appalachia has been greater than that of the depressions, and they represent, therefore, positive elements of the continent in the sense used by Willis,t while the depressions are negative elements in which, however, in some zones, as in the Cincin- nati uplift, the algebraic sum of the unconformities and sédi- ments may approach zero. The most conspicuous negative element is the Appalachian basin with its immense sedimenta- tion. The symmetry of arrangement of the platform is likewise but a surplus of symmetric features in the general structure over many asymmetric details in the different stages through which the platform has passed. This again is well shown by the charts of Professor Schuchert. It will be seen that at times the Nashville uplift was joined to Appalachia, and the Eastern Interior basin moved northward, while the East Cen- tral basin was divided by a secondary peninsula (Kankakee) and Ozarkia joined to a vast western tract. But at the same time the two arms of the platform with their northern isles Wisconsin and Adirondack (as peninsulas) and the southern land bodies of Ozarkia and Appalachia remained distinct ele- ments, and likewise the Mediterranean-like basin remained defined in its general outline. The main outlets from the Paleozoic sea (see fig. 2) passed eastward between Isle Adirondack and Appalachia and westward between Isle Wisconsin and the Ozark uplift and southward between Ozarkia and Appalachia. The Wisconsin and Adirondack isles have apparently been frequently attached to the protaxis. This becomes especially manifest in the case of the Adirondack isle, where the Beekmantown, Pamelia, Chazy, Lowville and probably also Black River formations do not cross the connecting Frontenac axis. The St. Lawrence depression, however, frequently became an important highway of migration (as in Beekmantown, Onondaga and Hamilton times) through its southward connection, by different straits, at different times with depressions between the Isle Adirondack and Appalachia (see p. e. Schuchert’s map of Onondaga time). * Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., xx, 427-606, 1910. + Willis, Bailey, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., xviii, 389, 1907. Elements of the Paleozoic Platform of North America. 411 There are facts available that indicate approximately the time when the symmetric arrangement of the Paleozoic plat- form took place. As we have noted before, Algonkian sedi- mentation took place around Lake Superior (see fig. 1), but aside from this somewhat independent depression, the whole platform was, according to Walcott’s investigation,* above sea level until Upper Cambrian time, with the exception of the Appalachian geosyncline. The relation of the Upper Cam- brian deposits to the Isles Wisconsin and Adirondack wonid indicate that in this period the separation of the Paleozoic eastern basin and of the inclosing arms took place and proba- bly also the beginning of the breaking up of the arms. The Isles Wisconsin and Adirondack, Ozarkia and Appalachia have remained above the sea since the end of the Lower Silurian. In Upper Silurian time the Cincinnati parma had become a prominent feature, although the Cincinnati and Nashville parts of the same were again separated repeatedly, as in Ham- ilton and Mississippian times, by the submergence of the mid- dle part. In Carboniferous (Mississippian and Pennsylvanian) times all the subdivisions of the platform distinguished above were fully developed. Since then the platform has remained land, with the exception of the Mesozoic Mississippi embay- ment. Summary. The writer endeavors to point out: 1. That the Paleozoic platform of North America extending south from the Canadian shield forms, together with the lat- ter, a structural element of the continent, that is similar in out- line to the latter. 2. That the Paleozoic platform exhibits a symmetric arrange- ment of its parts. This symmetric arrangement consists in the presence of a median basin (Paleozoic eastern basin) that is flanked on both sides by broad elevations, extending south- ward from the Isles Wisconsin and Adirondack which possess symmetric positions with reference to the Canadian shield. Ozarkia and Appalachia, the two remaining portions of eleva- tions, hold like symmetric positions. 3. The axial line of the Paleozoic eastern basin is occupied by the Cincinnati-Nashville parma and the Michigan subbasin. The former divides the Paleozoic eastern basin into two simi- lar and symmetric basins, the Eastern Interior and East Cen- tral basins. 4. The disturbing factor has been the Atlantic pressure, which pushed the eastern arm in and produced the Appala- chian basin folds, its effect reaching as far as the Nashville uplift. *See Walcott, U. S. Geol. Survey Bull., Ixxxi, pl. 2, 3, 1891. 412 Scientific Intelligence. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. Cnermistry anp Purysics. 1. The Behavior of Metallic Copper towards Gases-—StevErRts and Krumpuaar have made an elaborate study of the solubility of seyeral common gases in solid and liquid metallic copper. The behavior of oxygen is well known; it dissolves in molten copper in the form of cuprous oxide, and upon solidification it is not given off, even in an atmosphere free from oxygen. Nitrogen, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are not absorbed either by the solid or molten metal. Hydrogen is absorbed by solid copper at elevated temperatures. The diffusion of this gas through a thin copper tube was observed at 650° C, and it was found that the rapidity of diffusion and the solubility increases with the temperature. Above the melting point of copper the solubility of hydrogen in the metal becomes greater, and it increases again with the temperature, at least as far as 1500° C., the temperature to which the measurements were carried. At constant tempera- ture the solubility of hydrogen in the molten copper varies according to the square root of the pressure. Solid copper absorbs no sulphur dioxide, but the liquid metal dissolves it abundantly. This solubility, at constant pressure, increases with the temperature from the melting point to 1500° C., becom- ing more than twice as great at the latter temperature. The solubility of sulphur dioxide, like that of hydrogen, in molten copper, varies according to the square root of the pressure. The agreement of hydrogen and sulphur dioxide in regard to their pressure solubility appears to contradict a theory advanced by van’t Hoff to the effect that this peculiar pressure relation is due to a change from the molecular (H,) to the atomic form upon solution, for the SO,, with three atoms in it, should not show the same relation. The increase in solubility of these gases with the temperature shows that their dissolving must take place with the absorption of heat, and this behavior seems to be general with solutions of gases in metals, although it has been observed very rarely in the solutions of gases in water. — Zeitschr. physikal. Ohem., \xxiv, 277. H. L. W. 2. The Diffusion of Crude Petroleum through Fuller’s Earth.—The fact that natural oils have been changed in compo- sition by percolation through porous strata in the earth is now well recognized, since various experiments have shown that such fractionation may be carried out by artificial means. Gri~pin and Bransky have recently described an extensive series of experi- ments with natural products and mixtures, using tubes packed with fuller’s earth, and have confirmed this view of an important cause of the variations in composition of natural oils. They reach Ohemistry and Physics. 413 the following conclusions in regard to diffusion upward through fuller’s earth: 1. With a solution of benzine and paraffin oil, the benzine tends to collect in the lower part, and the paraftin oil in the upper part. 2. When crude petroleum is used, the oil that is displaced by water from the earth of the upper part has a lower specific gravity than that obtained in the same way from the lower part. 3. As the fractionation proceeds the range of specific gravity in succeeding fractions becomes smaller, indicating a tendency towards the production of mixtures which will diffuse without change. 4. In the fractionation of petroleum the lighter portions toward the top become gradually freer from unsaturated hydrocarbons and sulphur compounds. 5. Fuller’s earth tends to retain the unsaturated hydrocarbons and the sulphur compounds, thus exercising a selective action upon the oil.— Amer. Chem. Jour., xliv, 251. H. L. W. 3. Vacuum-tight Seals between Iron and Glass.—It has been found by H. J. 8. Sanp that an iron wire sealed into glass may be made vacuum-tight by passing over the protruding wire, while the glass is still hot, a small piece of heated steel tubing and pushing this into the soft glass for a distance of a few milli- meters. After cooling, the outer end of the tube is soldered to the wire. The explanation is given that the tube by its contrac- tion compresses the glass within it and thus forms an effective seal. Tubes into which iron wires 1™™ diameter have been sealed in this manner have been exhausted to a cathode-ray vacuum and have maintained this for four months, up to the time of publication. It is not yet certain that the seals will have a practical importance in replacing platinum in the case of rapid wholesale manufacture. The author points out that, as far as he is aware, previous proposals to replace platinum for this purpose by iron-nickel alloys or thin, flat strips of copper have met with little success. It is to be hoped that the method under consrd- eration or some other satisfactory process will soon be devised for the saving of platinum.— Chem. News, cii, 166. H. L, W. 4. The Structure of Meteoric Alloys.—W. GuERTLER has discussed the structure of the iron-nickel meteorites from the point of view of modern metallography. Frankel and Tiemann have previously reached the conclusion that the meteoric structure is metastable, since upon heating to 800° C. the material then behaves like artificial alloys, and shows no evidence of again attaining the well-known meteoric structure. Guertler’s conclu- sion, which appears to be well sustained by his arguments, is, in: short, that the meteoric structure is a stable one requiring an exceedingly long time for its formation. He believes that the temperature at which the change takes place is comparatively low and consequently very slow, and that there is no need to assume a metastable condition in the natural alloy.—Zeitschr. physikal. Chem., \xxiv, 428. H. L. W. 5. Liquefaction of Helium.—H. Kameruineu Ounss describes his method of liquefying helium and states its properties. The 414 Scientific Intelligence. point of ebullition of liquid helium is 4°3 absolute degrees. When this value is corrected for proper transference of helium to the absolute scale, the point of ebullition will probably be 4:5. The pressure at the triple point is less than 1°™ of mercury. According to corresponding states, the temperature corresponding to the pressure of 1°" is in the neighborhood of 3 absolute degrees and, nevertheless, the liquid is still perfectly mobile. Liquid helium has a ver y low density, 9°15, which leads to a provisional value of & of 0:0007. This gives for the critical pressure an approximate value of 2 or 3 atmospheres. At the point of normal ebullition the ratio of the densiby, of the vapor to that of the liquid is in the neighborhood of =4;. This indicates a critical tempera- ture har dly higher than 5 absolute degrees, and a critical pressure a little ‘ereater than 2-3 atmospheres. The provisional value of the coefticient of pressure @ is 0:00005, the smallest value of a relative to different bodies, and lower than that of hydrogen, which for a long time was considered 0.— Communications from the Physical Labor atory of Leyden, No. 108. J. 0 6. Photoelectric Fatigue.—Dr. H. Srantny ALLEN reviews the theories in regard to this fatigue and thus summarizes them :— (1) A chemical change, such as oxidation of the surface. (2) A physical change of the metal itself, as, for example, roughening of the surface. (3) An electrical change in the formation of an electrical double layer (Lenard). (4) A disintegration of the metal due to the expulsion of elec- trons by light (Ramsay and Spencer). (5) A change in the surface film of gas or in the gas occluded in the metal (Hallwacks). Dr. Allen concludes from his own experiments that we must look to the gaseous films on the surface of the metals for the explanation of the chief effects of photoelectric fatigue.—Phil. Mag., Oct. 1910, 564-573. J.T. 7. A New Radiant Emission from the Spark.—Professor R. W. Woop shields the light of a spark from the eye by placing the spark behind a vertical strip of metal. No illumination is seen by the eye, but a photographic plate shows an actinic effect in the air surrounding the spark. . The emission is absorbed by oxygen, and may be analogous to “Entladungsstrahlen. ie eg Mag., Oct. 1910, 707-712. ai 8. Sterilization by Ultra- Violet Rays.—At first sight it aan seem that ultra-violet rays would be absorbed to so great an extent by liquids that bacilli could not be reached at any depth. A millimeter thickness of water absorbs completely waves below 1800. M. Bitton DacuErrge, however, has discovered that the ultra-violet rays exert remarkable sterilizing effect on water. It seems possible that it may be a surface effect which is transmitted from bacilli to bacilli, for the light certainly has little penetrating power. ‘The sterilizing action appears to be confined to clear water ; impurities, suspended particles and colloids arrest Chemistry and Physics. 415 it. M. Billon Daguerre places a mercury vapor lamp in a tube through which the water circulates—La Revue Hlectrique, May 15. Tey te 9. International Congress of Radiology and Electricity.— The second International Congress of Radiology and Electricity was held at Brussels, September 13-15 inclusive, 1910, the first con- gress having been held at Liege in 1905. The attendance reached nearly five hundred, and a very considerable proportion of the active workers in radio-activity and electronics were present at the various meetings. The formal ceremonies opened with a reception at the Bourse on the evening of the 12th, and the work of the Congress began on the following morning at a meeting held in one of the buildings on the grounds of the Exposition, where the presidential address was delivered by Professor de Heen, and various matters connected with the organization of the congress were arranged. On the afternoon of that day the members reassembled at the University and engaged in an interesting discussion in regard to standards and nomenclature. Attention was called by Professor Rutherford to the present importance of adopting a uniform standard for radio-active sub- stances, and he pointed out that during the past year the standard specimens of radium salts employed in the leading laboratories of different countries had been compared under his direction and had been found to exhibit a marked lack of agreement. He was, therefore, convinced that for the successful development of the quantitative study of radio-active magnitudes the adoption of a uniform radium standard which could be accepted by all was highly desirable. Mme. Curie also spoke approvingly in regard to this proposal, which was heartily supported by all present at the meeting, and it was finally voted that a committee, the mem- bers to be appointed by Professor Rutherford and Mme. Curie, should be formed, and that this committee should consider the special needs and determine the conditions under which a suitable standard should be prepared and preserved. The matter of nomenclature was also briefly considered and it was generally agreed that at present there was nothing to be gained by the adoption of a more systematic nomenclature, as has been suggested by some, the present system being quite as satisfactory in all re- spects as any other which had been as yet proposed. The meeting then listened to an account by Mme. Curie of her recent inter- esting experiments of isolation of metallic radium. A number of other papers were also presented. On the following days the congress met in different sections for the reading of papers, of which a large number were presented on different subjects relat- ing to radiology and electricity. These will be published later in the transactions of the Congress. Among the many pleasant features of the meeting were the reception at the town hall by the Municipality, and the admirable performance to which members were invited at the Thédtre Royal de la Monnaie. At the last meeting a committee, with members from different countries, was 416 Scientific Intelligence. appointed to have charge of the next congress, which there is reason for believing may be held within the next year or two. The committee appointed to have charge of the standards con- sisted of Mme. Curie and M. Debierne for France, Professors Rutherford and Soddy for Great Britain, Professor Geitel and Dr. Hahn for Germany, Professors St. Meyer and von Schweid- ler for Austria, Professor Boltwood for the United States and Professor Eve for Canada. The Standards committee reported at the last meeting of the Congress, and its recommendations were adopted. T hey were substantially as follows : 1. Mme. Curie has kindly agreed for the purposes of the standard to prepare a quantity of the purest obtainable anhydrous radium chloride containing about 20 milligrams of radium (element). 2. When the committee have reimbursed Mme. Curie for the cost of the Radium Standard, this will come under the control of the committee and will be used only for the measurement and comparison of secondary standards by means of the y-rays. The original standard is to be suitably preserved and deposited in Paris. 3. Through the committee, and at their discretion, national scientific laboratories and bureaus of standards willing to pay the costs are to be provided with certified secondary standards. 4. By such methods as, after due consideration, meet with the approval of the committee, smaller subsidiary standards are to be prepared for distribution. 5. As radium emanation is now so generally used in scientific investigations, the committee consider the adoption of a unit for the measurement of the amounts of radium emanation desirable. The committee recommend that the name “Curie” be given to the quantity or mass of emanation in equilibrium with one gram of radium (element). The milli-curie would thus be the amount of emanation in equilibrium with one milligram of radium. 6. The question of proposing special names for units of meas- urement of minute quantities of radium and its emanation is under consideration, but no definite conclusions have as yet been reached. 7. As some members of the committee are not present at the Brussels Congress, and as it has not been possible to obtain imformation as to their views on these questions, the recommen- dations here made are not necessarily final. The committee reserves the power to modify them if on further consideration this appears to be desirable. The preparation of a standard of pure radium salt is now assured. The advantages of having such a standard with which material used for various scientific investigations in different parts of the world can be compared is apparent, and it will also be extremely useful to have a definite standard, on the basis of which quantities of radium salts to be sold or purchased can Geology and Natural History. 417 be measured. In the past great difficulties have been encountered in conducting commercial transactions involving radium salts, as, lacking any definite and accepted standard of quality, some dealers have been in the habit of selling as pure radium salts material of distinctly inferior quality. As the value of radium salts sold in the United States up to the present is probably considerably in excess of five hundred thousand dollars, the importance of having a definite and reliable check on the purity and strength of these preparations is most essential. The plan of the committee, known as the International Radium Standards committee, is to obtain the funds to cover the cost of the primary standard either through the governments or the scien- tific societies of the countries represented on the committee, or possibly through the codperation of the International Bureau of Standards at Paris, where it is planned to ultimately deposit the Primary Standard. ‘The committee sincerely desire the codperation and assistance of all interested in the matter of the preparation of the present standard and communications in regard to this matter should be addressed to the Secretary of the Committee, Prof. Stefan Meyer, Institut fur Radiumforschung, Waisenhausgasse 3, Vienna IX, Austria. B. B. Bottwoop. Il. Gronogy ann Naturau History. 1. Publications of the United States Geological Survey ; Guorce Otis Smitu, Director.—Recent publications of the U. S. Geological Survey are noted in the following list (continued from vol. xxix, p. 363): Forio, No. 171. Engineer Mountain Folio: Colorado; by Wuirman Cross and Atten D. Hotz. Pp. 13, with 3 colored maps and 15 figures. Buxietins.—No. 381. Contributions to Economic Geology, 1908. Part 1I—Mineral Fuels. Marius R. Campse tz, geologist in charge. Pp. 559, with 24 plates and 15 figures. No. 419. Analyses of Rocks and Minerals from the Labora- tory of the United States Geological Survey, 1880-1908 ; tabu- lated by F. W. Clarke, chief chemist. Pp. 323. No, 425. The Explosibility of Coal Dust, by Grorcs S. Ric, with chapters by J. C. W. Frazer, Axet Larsen, Frank Haas, and Cart Scuorz. Pp. 186, with 14 plates and 28 figures. No. 426. Granites of the Southeastern Atlantic States, by Tuomas Lronarp Watson. Pp. 282, with 27 plates and 20 figures. No. 427. Manganese Deposits of the United States, with Sec- tions on Foreign Deposits, Chemistry, and Uses; by Epmunp Croi, Harper. Pp. 298, with 2 plates and 33 figures. No. 429. Oil and Gas in Louisiana, wlth a brief Summary of their Occurrence in adjacent States ; by G. D. Harris. Pp. 192, with 22 plates and 21 fignres. 418 Scientific Intelligence. No. 430. Contributions to Economic Geology (Short Papers and Preliminary Reports), 1909. Several advance chapters have been issued, viz., A, on Gold and Silver; C, Lead and Zine; D, Rare Metals ; F. Structural Materials ; G, Mineral Paints; H, Phosphate ; J, Miscellaneous Nonmetallic Products ; I, Saliness. No. 432. Some Ore Deposits in Maine and the Milan Mine, New Hampshire; by Wittiam H. Emmons. Pp. 62, with 3 plates and 28 figures. No. 434. Results of Spirit Leveling in Delaware, District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia, 1896 to 1909, inclusive. R. B. Marsuatt, chief geographer. Work done in codperation with the State of Maryland during the entire period, and with the State of Virginia in part of 1908. Pp. 74. No. 435. A Reconnaissance of Parts of New Mexico and Northern Arizona ; by N. H. Darron. Pp. 88, with 17 plates and 8 figures. No. 437. Results of Spirit Leveling in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, 1896 to 1909, inclusive. R. B. Marswmatt, chief geographer. Work done in codperation with the State of Maine, during 1899, inclusive. Pp. 59. No. 442-A. The Mining Industry in 1909, and Alaska Coal and its Utilization; by Atrrep H. Brooks. Advance chapter, pp. 1-84. OS 444, Bibliography of North American Geology for 1909, with Subject Index; by Jonn M. Nicktes. Pp. 174. W arTerR Suppty Papers.—No. 237. The quality of the Surface Waters of California ; by Watton vAN WINKLE and FREDERICK M. Eaton. Pp. 142 with one plate. No. 240. Geology and Water Resources of the San Luis Valley, Colorado; by C. E. Srmpentruar, Pp. 128, with 13 plates and 15 figures. Nos. 246, 247, 249, 250, 251. Surface Water Supply of the United States 1907-8. Prepared under the Direction of M. O. Lricutron.—No. 246. Part VI. Missouri River Basin; by Ros- ERT FotLansBee and J. E. Stewart. Pp. 31], with 13 plates and 2 figures.—No. 247. Part VII. Lower Mississippi Basin ; by W. B. Freeman, W. A. Lamp, and R. H. BotstEer. Pp. 124, with 2 plates and 2 figures.— No. 249. Part IX. Colorado River Basin ; by W. B. Freeman and R. H. Botsrrer. Pp. 206, with 10 plates.—No. 250. Part X. The Great Basin ; by E. C. La Rue and F, F. Hensnaw. Pp. 151, with 7 plates and one figure. —No. 251. Part XI. California; by W. B. Crapp and W. F. Martin. Pp. 363, with 7 plates and one figure. No. 253. Water Power of the Cascade Range. Part I. Southern Washington ; by Joun C. Stevens. Prepared in codp- eration with the State of Washington. Pp. 94, with 21 plates and 3 figures. No. 255. Underground Waters for Farm Use; by Myron L. Furirr. Pp. 58, with 17 plates and 27 figures. No. 260. Preliminary Report of the Ground Water of Estan- cia Valley, New Mexico; by Oscar E. MeinzEer. Pp. 33. Geology and Natural History. 419 9. Federal Bureau of Mines ; Josnrrn A. Hoimes, Director. Bulletin I. The Volatile Matter of Coal; by Horace C. Porrur and F. K. Ovirz. Pp. 56, with 20 tables and 9 figures. —This is the first independent publication of the newly established Federal Bureau of Mines (see v. xxx, p. 292). The work here detailed is now centered in the experiment station at Pittsburg, Penn., and had its beginning in investigations carried on at the coal-testing plant erected at St. Louis in 1904 in connection with the Louis- ana Purchase Exposition. The authors state that ‘‘‘The investiga- ion has already shown that the volatile content of different coals differs greatly in character. The volatile matter of the younger coals found in the West includes a large proportion of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and water, and a correspondingly small proportion of hydrocarbons and tarry vapors. The older bituminous coals of the Appalachian region yield volatile matter containing large amounts of tarry vapors and hydrocarbons, difficult to burn completely without considerable excess of air and a high temperature. Coal of the western type, moreover, gives up its vol- atile matter more easily at moderate and low temperatures than that of the other type. The volatile matter produced at medium and low temperatures is rich in higher hydrocarbons of the methane type, such as ethane and propane, which contain a larger portion of carbon than is present in methane.” The results are shown to have important economic applications of interest to engineers and mechanics in a variety of fields. Copies of the bulletin may be obtained by applying to the Director of the Bureau of Mines at Washington. 3. Cambrian Geology and Paleontology No. 6— Olenellus and other Genera of the Mesonacide ; by Cuarius D. W atcorr (Smithsonian Miscel. Coll.), 53, 1910, pp. 231-422, pls. 23-44.— Our knowledge of the large and diagnostic Lower Cambrian trilobites is here greatly extended and made easily comprehensible through an abundance of most excellent illustrations. Of these trilobites there are in America and Europe 33 (16 new) species distributed in the following genera : Nevadia new (1), Mesonacis (2 European, 1 American), Elliptocephala (1), Callavia (5 European, 2 American), Holmia (2 European, 1? American), Wanneria new (3), Pedeumias new (1), Olenellus (3 European, 9 American), Peachella new (1), Olenellotdes (1 European). All of the genera (with one exception) common to America and Europe are of the Atlantic realm. The exception is Holmia rowet of the Cordilleran region, but it will very likely be shown to belong to another genus related to Holmia. The stem genus and the oldest of the family is Nevadia, giving rise in one line to Callavia, Holmia, Wanneria, and in the Middle Cambrian to Paradoxides. Another evoluted into the remaining genera mentioned above, a branch that is not only the most specialized but also has the most characteristic genera of the family and of the Lower Cambrian. The evolution of this stock as worked out by Walcott demonstrates that the telson of 420 Scientific Intelligence. Olenellis is not homologous with the pygidium of most trilobites but that it is a specialized post-thoracic one at least 11 segments anterior to the pygidium in the most primitive genus of the family, namely Wevadia. In other words, when the specialized Olenellus is compared with the more primitive Vevadia it is seen that the former has not only lost its pygidium but at least 13 other post-thoraciec segments, and that the telson of Olenellus is probably homologous with either one of the 15th to 17th post- cephalic segments of Vevadia, back of which in this genus there are still 11 other segments and the true pygidium. How these post-thoracic segments are lost and how the telson is developed out of a spine in the different genera is fully described and illus- trated by the author. This unmistakable evolution probably also indicates that the telson of Limulus is not homologous with the pygidium of trilobites, but that it is as well a specialized thoracic segment, and one equivalent to a thoracic segment considerably in advance of the pygidium of its trilobite ancestors. ; It is now also made more apparent that the head of the Meso- nacide is highly specialized in that the compound eyes have traveled from the ventral to the dorsal side in the earliest onto- genetic stages, for they have the relative position of maturity so early as in the paraprotaspis stage. Further, the free cheeks are firmly united with the glabella, do not separate along the facial suture as in most trilobites, and in this again recall the similar condition in Limulus. Genera like Olenellus are, therefore, highly specialized trilobites and are decidedly removed from the primitive types of which Atops and Conocoryphe are examples. For the first time the eye cavities in the Mesonacide have been discovered and are here illustrated. They are very much like those in Limulus. As is well known, the author is assembling Cambrian fossils from all parts of the world and in the work here reviewed we get a glimpse of the grandeur of the Smithsonian collections. When his studies are completed we will not only have a detailed knowl- edge of the oldest fossil faunas of the world but as well a firm base upon which to build our phylogenies of the trilobites, phyllo- pods and brachiopods. C. S. 4, Die Bellerophonkalke von Oberkrain und ihre Brachio- podenfauna ; by F. Kossmar and C. Drener, Jahrb. k. k. geolog. Reichs., 1910, pp. 277-310, pls. 14-15.—The Bellerophon lime- stone and dolomite of the eastern Alpine region are at the top of the Paleozoic section and in close connection with the Triassic. They are underlain by red and white sandstone and conglomerate that in turn rest upon the black slates of the Carboniferous. These littoral deposits evidently represent a new sea invasion and are correlated by Kossmat with the Grodener and Verrucano, the normal aspect of the southern Alpine Permian sandstone. Above the Bellerophon horizon there repose disconformably the sandy- micaceous Werfener beds of the Triassic characterized by Pseudomonotis aurita, P. ovata and P. venetiana. Geology and Natural History. 421 This Permian limestone is often abundantly fossiliferous, but the diagenetic changes of these strata appear to have destroyed much of its life. On weathering the limestone is seen to be almost made up of Diplopora (calcareous alge), what appear to be Stenopora (bryozoa), and foraminifera, but the Fusulinide are wholly absent. There are many other larger fossils, but these are rarely to be obtained in identifiable condition. Ofthese the most abundant species is Productus cf. indicus. Diener identifies among others eight species of productoids, Richthofenia aff. lawrenciana, Comelicania hauert (the guide brachiopod of the Bellerophon limestone), Hemiptychina cf. inflata, and Notothyris mediterranea. ‘The aspect of this fauna is, therefore, decidedly that of the Productus limestone of India and belongs in the Tethys faunal realm. It is stated by Diener that the most abundant fossils are forms of Productus near P. striatus, P. semireticulatus, and P. inflatus, types that remind one very much more of the Pennsylvanian than the Permian. These are, however, the unprogressive forms and have not the stratigraphic value of the new brachiopod developments, such as Richthofenia, Hemiptychina and Noto- thyris. It is this contradictory associated evidence that has led Tschernyschew to regard the Productus limestone of India (which is of Permian age) as equivalent to the Upper Carboni- ferous of Russia, and which the reviewer opposed in this Journal for July and August, 1906. Diener states definitely that the Bellerophon limestone and the Productus limestone are younger than the Upper Carboni- ferous. He adds: “The fauna of Schonbrunn and Schaschar (Upper Krain) teaches us that the anthracolitic brachiopods can- not be used [interprovincially] for detailed stratigraphic differen- tiation, even when the species are based upon trivial character- istics, although they may be so used in circumscribed areas as guide fossils in identical kinds of strata” (307). Further, that the Bellerophon limestone cannot be regarded as a transitional fauna to the Triassic. It is still rich in Paleozoic brachiopods, the corals and nautilioids: are decidedly Paleozoic, while the few ammonites are of types occurring in the Permian and Lower Triassic of India. The bivalves are those of the Zechstein. The gastropods are somewhat more progressive in that the Triassic genera Marmolatella, Platychilina, Hologyra, and Trachyspira appear here for the first time, but in general the class is still Paleozoic. Therefore, the Bellerophon limestone is still Permian and has its clearest analogue in the Productus limestone of India. Diener recommends that Waagen’s term “Anthracolithic Epoch” be used for the combined Upper Carboniferous and Permian faunas because of the difficulties often locally encoun- tered in separating these biota. Permo-Carbon cannot be so used as it 1s now applied to the Artinskian series. Gis 5. The Phylogeny of the Felide ; by Witt1am D. Marrurw. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. xxviii, pp. 289-316 and 15 422 Scientific Intelligence. text-figures.—In this brief paper Dr. Matthew has added one more to his series of excellent and lucid phylogenies. He divides the Felid into two phyla, the earliest known examples of which are Oligocene, as no Eocene carnivora are known from which the Oligocene sabre-tooths can be derived. The distinctions of the phyla are clearly indicated in limb, ver- tebre, ribs, but especially in the skull and dentition, the phylum leading to the modern genus Felis having sub-equal canines above and below and powerful biting jaws by means of which the neck of the prey can be crunched. The other phylum culminates in the huge sabre-tooth Smélodon, with relatively feeble lower canines but with immense, curved, dagger-like upper teeth used for ripping open the neck of the huge contemporaneous pachy- derms the vertebrae of which could not be crushed by the jaws. The abundance of sabre-tooth types in early times is correlated with that of the pachyderms, including the elephants, rhinoce- roses, ete., while with their replacement by a swifter, thin- skinned, ungulate fauna the sabre-tooths gave way to the better adapted felines. Dr. Matthew denies the contention that over- specialization of the canine due to “momentum of evolution ” was the final cause of the extinction of this interesting race, though Smilodon has often been used as evidence of the truth of this somewhat doubtful factor of descent. R, 8. L. 6. An Account of the Beaked Whales of the family Ziphiide in the collection of the United States National Museum, with remarks on some specimens in other American Museums ; by Freperick W. Tru, Smithsonian Institution, U. 8S. National Museum Bulletin 73, pp. 1-89 and 42 plates—The beaked whales which form the subject of this memoir are among the rarest of cetaceans with the exception of the bottle-nosed mem- bers of the genus Hyperoddon, the three genera Mesoplodon, Ziphius and Berardius being represented by about 100 known individuals more than half of which belong to the first-named genus. Berardius, the rarest, is known from about fourteen specimens altogether. Doctor True records but nineteen speci- mens of all the genera put together upon the east and west coasts of the United States. These specimens are represented by skele- tons or skulls sometimes supplemented by photographs and casts and upon such material the main body of the work is based. On pages 76-77 is a list of the genera and species of existing ziphoid whales with their habitats. The illustrations are excellently reproduced half-tones, while the text gives a very clear and ade- quate knowledge of these strange cetaceans. R. S. L. 7. Report on the Resurvey of the Maryland-Pennsylvania Boundary part of the Mason and Dixon Line by the Mason and Dixon Line Resurvey Commission, O. H. Tirrmann, Wm. Buttock Crark, Isaac B. Brown. Pp. 412, with 72 plates and 8 figures, 1908. Published by the Maryland Geological Survey as Vol. VII, Witit1am Buttock Criark, State Geologist, Balti- more, 1908 (Johns Hopkins Press).—This resurvey was carried Geology and Natural History. 423 out by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey ‘at the request of the states of Maryland and Pennsylvania. he pur- pose was to accurately reéstablish and mark the old line. ‘The results show the high accuracy for the period of the work of the original survey from 1763 to 1768. A history by E. B. Marrurws of the various surveys of this line is also included. Ju Be 8. Maryland Geological Survey, volume viii, 1908, Wittram Buttock CuiarK, State Geologist. Pp. 486, with 26 plates and 27 figures. Baltimore, 1909 (The Johns Hopkins Press).—This volume contains an assemblage of papers. The first part deals with the highways, by WaLrer Winson Crospy; the second part with the Maryland mineral industries, by Witt1am Buttock Crark and Epwarp B. Marrurws ; the third part is on the lime- stones of Marylaud with special reference to their use in the manufacture of lime and cement, by Epwarp B. Marruews and Joun 8S. Grasty. The combination of scientitic character and practical value which mark these papers indicates how valuable to a state a Geological Survey may be and still without duplicat- ing the work of the national organization. TREES 9. Report of the Conservation Commission of Maryland for 1908-1909, Bernarp N. Baker, Wm. Buttock Crark, Epwarp Hirscu, Commission. Pp. 204, with 13 plates and 13 figures. Baltimore, Dec. 31, 1909.—This report is the outcome on the part of Maryland of the Conference of Governors called by President Roosevelt at the White House on May 13-15, i908. It contains chapters on mineral resources, agricultural soil resources, forest resources, reclamation of swamps, water resources, fisheries, oyster supply, game preservation, scenery, public health, good roads, recommendations. A perusal of these chapters calls atten- tion especially to the present wasteful neglect of forests and public health. The value of the commission, if it succeeds in educating the public to the enactment and enforcement of needed state laws, will be almost incalculable. Tn TE 10. A Preliminary Report on the Geology of the Monarch Mining District, Chaffee County, Colorado; by R. D. Craw- ForD. Pp. 78, with 11 plates and 3 figures. Bulletin I, Colorado State Geological Survey, Boulder, Col., 1910.—This report gives the geology of a region about five miles square situated on the east slope of the Sawatch Range. Ore was first discovered in 1878 and since that time the district has passed through various stages of prosperity, its fortunes at present being on the increase. The report is, therefore, of timely appearance. The district embraces an area of pre-Cambrian granite, partly enclosing an area of Paleozoic limestones underlaid by some quartzite. Across this older and deformed structure have broken massive intrusives of post-Devonian age. ‘The mines are reported on in detail and the ores are classified under five types. J. B. 1l. Geology of the Grayback Mining District, Costilla County, Colorado ; by Horace B. Parron, Cuartes E. Surra, G. Monracux Butier, and Arruur J. Hoskin. Pp. 111, with 494 Scientific Intelligence. 11 plates, Bulletin IT, Colorado State Geological Survey, Boulder, Col., 1910.—This bulletin is the result of six weeks’ work in the field by students and teachers under the direction of the Depart- ment of Geology of the Colorado School of Mines during the summer of 1909. The tract surveyed embraces about thirty square miles lying due east of Blanca Peak, the highest peak of the Sangre de Cristo Range. Pre-Cambrian gneiss and mica schist on the west are flanked by Carboniferous sandstones and limestones. The latter are intruded by masses of diorite, mon- zonite porphyry, and felsite ; certain large areas being so cut up by dikes that their separate mapping was impossible. An overprint pattern was, therefore, used to designate such areas. J. B. 12. Erdbeben. Hine Hinfiithrung in die Erdbebenkunde ; von Witrram Hersert Hosss. Erweiterte Ausgabe in deutscher Ubersetzung, von Professor Dr. Jutius Ruska. Pp. xxxii, 274, with 30 plates and 124 figures. Leipzig, 1910 (Quelle and Meyer). —It is pleasant to record that the work by Professor Hobbs on earthquakes has met with so favorable a reception that a German translation has been made. Studies of the most recent earth- quakes, especially that of Messina, are included, and a chapter on the methods of building construction adapted to earthquake regions has been added. The volume considers the evolution of the science of seismology, the origin of earthquakes, the broad relations of earthquake regions on the earth, the detailed phe- nomena of earthquakes, local and distant effects, and methods of earthquake study, in the field and office. In the introduction Professor Hobbs calls attention to the rapid growth of the subject and its divergence into two distinct fields, that of the geophysi- cist, to be pursued by mathematical and physical methods, and that of the geologist, requiring field studies. J.B, 13. Les Variations Périodiques des Glaciers rédigé par Dr. Ep. Brickner et E. Murer. Fourteenth report, 1908. Com- mission Internationale des Glaciers. Extrait des Annales de Glaciologie, iv., pp- 161-176, 1910. Berlin, 1910 (Fréres Born- traeger).—As noted in the introductory paragraph, it is evident that during 1908 the retreat of glaciers was a general phenom- enon. The marked growth of a group of Norway glaciers had diminished slightly in 1908. These and certain Swiss glaciers offer the only noteworthy exceptions in the table. The commis- sion by this report continues to lay the basis for a future exact study of glacial variations and from them of climatic variations in various parts of the world. Such an accumulation of data for the use of the next and future generations is one of the most far- sighted movements of present science. J. B. 14. Etudes Glaciologiques, Tirol Autrichien, Massif des Grandes Rousses. Service d'études des Grandes Forces Hydrau- liques (Région des Alpes) Ministére de Agriculture 1909. I— Forages Glaciaires a Grande Profondewr par MM. Fuiusin et Bernarp. II1—Ztudes Glaciares, Geographiques et Botaniques dans le Massif des Grandes Rousses par MM. G. Fuusry, C. Geology and Natural History. 425 Jacos et J. Orrner. Pp. vi, 112, plates iv+ix, maps ili.—In the preface attention is called to the great importance of com- plete investigation of the water resources of every region in order that the factors may be understood which control the run-off throughout the year. In the Alps not only do the lakes act as storage reservoirs but the glaciers also. The latter discharge their stores especially during the summer and also more abundantly during warm cycles of years, at the present time the glaciers being in general retreat. They thus act as storage reservoirs in ways different from lakes though equally important. Investigations upon glaciers have, however, been hindered by the lack of knowledge regarding their depth, the third dimension which is so readily ascertained for measuring the cross-section and run-off of rivers and lakes. The first part of the present work gives the details of the methods devised and successfully used for boring to the bottom of glaciers and thus determining their cross-section. The second part gives detailed studies and maps of the massif of the Grandes Rousses and its glaciers, the region where these methods were pursued. There is thus given here a very complete investigation of a group of glaciers considered as reservoirs of water stored in the solid form, a unique hydrologic investigation whose methods will doubtless be extended to other regions. J. B. 15. Bettrdge zur Geologie der Samoainsein; von I. FriEp- LAnpER. Abh. k. Bayer. Akad. Wiss., II KI., xxiv, Abt. III, pp. 509-541. Based on visits to all the main islands of the Samoa group, the writer gives a general sketch of their geological charac- ter and considerable detail regarding the most striking features of each. Since the islands are purely volcanic, it mostly concerns the arrangement and relative! age of the new and old craters, lava masses and tuffs. The writer has visited also Hawaii and Fiji and, agreeing with Woolnough that the latter consists of vol- canics piled on the remnants of a continental platform, he sug- _ gests that the volcanic masses forming the other two, if we consider them to rise wholly from the ocean floor, are of enor- mous dimensions, entirely beyond anything known on the land. In Hawaii, taking into account the small volcanic islands and coral reefs, the ridge stretches some 1500 miles with a maximum height of 30,000 feet. In Samoa the ridge is 300 miles long and 20,000 feet high. This suggests that these, like Fiji, are built on a submerged continental platform. Two maps and a number of excellent plates of photographs accompany the article. Un Vin 1 16. Artificial Lava Flow and its Spherulitic Crystallization.— Under this title in the August number of this Journal of the current year (p. 97), the writer described an accidental flow of glass, and the spherulites which formed in it. In the article it was stated that the conditions obtaining, and the relative positions of the specimens described, were unknown. Since then the writer has received a letter from Mr. R. L. Frink of Columbus, Ohio, a Am. JOUR. porees OUnte SERIES, VOL. XXX, No: 180.—Drcremser, 1910. 8 426 Scientific Intelligence. technical engineer who has made a special study of the glass industry. Mr. Frink believes that it was an error to attribute the specimen figured in A of the plate to simple flowage. He sends a specimen which closely resembles it and says that these can be produced at will in the flattening ovens by laying sheets of glass one upon the other and submitting them to the action of heat for varying periods of time, and the longer the time the more opaque the mass will become. The latter statement refers to the greater number of minute spherulites. The specimen shows that the glass plates have been softened to a viscous condition, from the bent and wavy layers they present, and are completely welded. The plane of each two contiguous surfaces is marked by a white film composed of innumerable minute, white spherulites separated by clear green glass. In explanation of this it has been suggested to the writer that the film of air between the plates may have helped in the process. This seems quite possible, for as the glass softened, the gas may have ren- dered this layer less viscous, by entering into the molten solution, to the degree where crystallization could take place, while the intermediate layers were too viscous to permit of this. With respect to the specimen of Kane glass figured, it may be then, as Mr. Frink suggests, that it was not formed by actual flowage. A possible explanation for it may be that it represents successive droppings of portions of melted glass from the broken furnace upon one another, which flattened down, and along whose flat- tened surfaces the films of spherulites developed. It appears too thick and irregular to have been made purposely, as suggested by Mr. Frink. In regard to the formation of spherulites in glass Mr. Frink says that he thinks that the difference in specific gravity between them and the glass is too slight to condition their arrangement, and that this is chiefly due to the viscosity, temperature, and flow of the glass. Sometimes they are at, or near, the surface ; sometimes 12 or 18 inches below it there will be a stratum con- taining innumerable numbers of them. In general, the deeper ones are of larger dimensions. He regards them as being formed at the line of “mean flow,” which may perhaps indicate one where the conditions are right for crystallization, being neither too hot on the one hand, nor too stiff and viscous on the other. L. V. PIRSSON, 17. Economic Geology ; by Hrrnricn Rigs. 3d edition. Pp. 589, 237 figs., 56 pls. New York (The Macmillan Company).— This work, originally published in 1905, has already gone through two editions and firmly established itself as a text-book of its subject. The book, in the present edition, has been revised and considerably amplified in scope and size. While its general arrangement remains the same, much more space has been devoted to the detailed description of the individual mineral districts. The number of the text illustrations has been increased nearly three times, while the number of the plates has been more than doubled. Ww. E. F, Geology and Natural History. 42/7 18. Zhe Ore Deposits of New Mexico ; by WaupErmar Linp- GREN, Louis C. Graton and Cuar.tEs H. Gorpon. U. 8. Geol. Sur., Professional Paper No. 68,1910. Pp. 349, 33 figs., 22 pls.— The mining districts of New Mexico form a belt extending from the north central part of the state to the southwest corner. Silver or gold, or both, are present in nearly all of the districts and as a rule are accompanied by copper, lead and zinc. A great number of types of ore deposits are represented in New Mexico. Among them. are copper and iron ores in sedimentary beds ; fissure veins ; mineralized shear zones ; lenticular bodies ; replacement deposits; contact metamorphic deposits ; placers. The pre-Cambrian schists contain disseminated ore in shear zones and veins of copper and zinc sulphides with some gold but little silver; the Paleozoic limestones carry irregular copper, lead and zine deposits ; the intrusive porphyries and granites contain fissure veins with gold and silver; finally, the rhyolite and ande- site inclose fissure veins rich in gold and silver. The major part ot the deposits occur in or near the many, ‘usually small, areas of intrusive rocks—mostly monzonites—which extend across the state. The study of the ore deposits of the state has resulted in the establishment of various periods for their formation with distinct charaeteristics for each period. Thus the pre-Cambrian deposits are mainly lenticular veins, shear zones and “fahlbands” in schists which carry chiefly gold and copper. In late Cretaceous or early Tertiary time widespread intrusion took place along what is now the mining belt. After these intrusions most of the metal deposits were formed ; they consist of contact-metamorphic deposits, veins, shear zones ‘and silver-lead replacements in lime- stone. In the latter part of the Tertiary period lava flows occurred in certain sections and at several places fissure systems in these rocks were filled with gold and silver ores. The age of the copper deposits in sandstone has not been fully established. Their formation probably commenced after the general uplift in the early Tertiary, when atmospheric waters began to penetrate the Red Beds, from which the deposits are believed to have con- centrated their copper ores. Ww. EL F. 19. Meteor Crater in Northern Central Arizona ; by D. M. BarrRincER. Pp. 24, with 21 plates and maps (privately printed). —The Meteor Crater in Arizona, or Coon Butte as it was earlier called, is unquestionably one of the most remarkable spots on the earth and the problems that it presents have never been faced elsewhere. It has been described by numerous writers since attention was first called to it by A. E. Foote in 1891.* A very full and satisfactory accountt of the locality and the associated meteoric material with a discussion of the origin of the crater was given by G. P. Merrill two years since in volume |] of the Quarterly Issue of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Contributions for January, *See this Journal (8), xlii, 413, 1891. + Ibid (4), xxv, 265, 1908. 428 Scientific Intelligence. 1908 (pp. 461-498, plates lxi-Ixxv). The present paper, the title of which is given above, was read by Mr. Barringer at the Princeton meeting of the National Academy of Sciences a year ago ; it embraces the results of his own extensive explorations, and the conclusions drawn from them. The thoroughness with which the study of the locality has been carried on will be understood from the fact that no less than twenty-eight holes have been drilled in the central portion of the crater, some of them being carried to a depth of 1000 feet and more, below the level of the original lain. The chief features of Meteor Crater, briefly characterized, are as follows: A crater-like depression a little more than three- quarters of a mile in diameter, with an average depth from the rim to the more or less level floor of about 570 feet. The walls, in part nearly perpendicular, are composed of limestone and underlying sandstone strata, which are tilted up and dip away from the center at varying angles. These strata, it is estimated, have been vertically lifted more than 100 feet from their original position, involving an uplift of perhaps some 20 to 30 million tons of rock. Further than this, many million tons of rock have been ejected from the crater. This includes great masses of solid limestone, from fifty to several hundred pounds in weight; the larger fragments lie near the crater’s rim, the smaller ones extend to a distance of from one to one and one-half miles, ‘The ejected rock material also includes the sandstone much of it in the form of “silica” or rock flour; this last makes up perhaps some 15 or 20 per cent of the entire material thrown out of the crater. Within the crater there are also enormous quantities of the sand- stone which has been reduced to a fine pulverulent condition, while other portions are metamorphosed, a part showing a strongly marked slaty structure, and part, having undergone a kind of aqueo-igneous fusion, having a light, spongy consistency, with more or less opalescent quartz. All of these phenomena, of the extent and magnitude of which it is difficult to form a conception, have been apparently accom- plished without volcanic agency,* and are to be referred, as recent investigators agree, to the impact of an enormous meteoric mass of almost incredible size, such as we have no parallel for elsewhere on the earth. The writer concludes that “the crater was made, not by asingle giant meteorite, but rather by a compact cluster or swarm of many thousand of shale ball meteor- ites and also possibly other iron meteorites traveling together as the head or part of the head of a small comet.” Many thousands of specimens of meteoric iron have been found in the neighborhood of the crater, up to over 1000 pounds in weight ; some of the smaller ones have been found at a distance of * Since the above statements were put into type, a paper on this locality by, J. M. Davison has been published in Science (Nov. 18, p. 724). He returns to the idea of volcanic action, early suggested, and, speaking of the pulverulent sandstone, he remarks: ‘“‘It rather suggests long-continued deposition of this powder, with occasional pieces of rock, by geyser action and a final explosion or series of explosions that closed the drama,” Geology and Natural History. 429 five and one-half miles from the crater. It was the discovery of these iron masses in 1891 that first attracted attention to this locality ; they have been usually named from the neighboring Canyon Diablo. As is well known this meteoric iron has some important characters which need not be recalled here. In addition to the iron, a unique feature of the locality are the “shale balls,” of which great quantities have been discovered ; the largest of these weighs something over forty pounds. These are generally rounded or globular disintegrating masses of meteoric iron and nickel oxide, many of them containing solid nickel-iron centers. They have more or less of a shaly structure. The iron of these balls contains chlorine in small amount, which is practically absent in the Canyon Diablo siderites and to this their disintegration is attributed. The shale balls, except when imbedded in the silica, oxidize to a hard compact iron shale, though often leaving an iron nucleus. The meteoric mate- rial exists not only on and near the surface but has also been brought up by the drills, often in the form of small specks of nickel-iron oxide, even from a depth of 680 feet below the floor of the crater, that is about 1200 feet below the original plain level. It is, doubtless, disappointing that thus far the drills have failed to find the main mass of the projectile which did such a a tremendous work ; nor has it been located by experiments with the dipping needle. We must, however, accept the decision of the author, who says: ‘“‘We are thus compelled to conclude that the mass which made the crater, and which, as has been sug- gested above, may have been the metallic head of a small comet, lies in the bottom of it somewhere ; for if it was a compact cluster of iron meteorites which made the crater—there is cer- tainly a great deal of evidence in favor of this theory and none against it—it would seem from the evidence most unlikely that any considerable portion was expelled after the cluster had pene- ‘trated some 1100 to 1200 feet of limestone and sandstone strata. When the metallic mass is found, it would seem probable that it will be found to have partially oxidized, much after the manner of the buried shale balls, in which event it would still possess great commercial value. As yet we do not know where it is in the large area covered by the crater, but I personally think it probable that, in the form of a vast number of shale balls and perhaps Canyon Diablo siderites lying more or less closely together, most of it will be found far over in the southern or southeastern portion of the crater, where no prospecting by the drill has been done, and that some of it, if not the larger part of it, will be found underneath the perpendicular cliffs which form the southern wall.” Mr. Barringer’s memoir, of which only a brief account has been given, closes with a bibliography of the subject, and is accom- panied by a large number of fine plates, giving views of the crater from different points, the masses of limestone rock thrown out from it, and also many illustrations of the altered sandstone, the shale balls and iron in their various forms. 430 Seientifie Intelligence. III. Muisceiranerovs Screntiric InreriigENor. 1. The National Academy of Sciences,—The autumn meeting of the National Academy was held at St. Louis on Nov. 8 to 10. The following is a list of papers read : GrorceE C. Comstock : Some problems of stellar motion. Epwin B. Frost: Preliminary note on the Sun’s velocity with respect to stars of spectral type A. Forest R. Mounton : On the origin of binary stars. JouHN M. CouttEeR: The Cycadophytes. WILLIAM TRELEASE: A monograph of Agave in the West Indies. REGINALD R. Gates: The mode of chromosome reduction. vee M. Davis: The Front Range of the Rocky Mountains in Colo- rado. GxrorcE T. Moore: Mutualism, parasitism and symbiosis. Joun U. Ner: Sugar chemistry from the new chemico-physical stand- point,—or the behavior of the sugars toward enzymes, alkalies and oxydiz- ing agents. Wiuiiam A. Noyxs and LutHer Kniecut: Molecular rearrangements in the camphor series : isocamphoric acid. Ira Remsen: A molecular rearrangement leading to the formation of anidines. On Tuesday evening a lecture was delivered by Prof. T. C. Chamberlin on China. 2. Maryland Weather Service, Wm. Buttock CrarK, Direc- tor, Vol. Ill; Zhe Plant Life of Maryland ; by Forrust Sureve, M. A. Curysirer, Freperick H. BLropecurr and F. W. Brstry. Pp. 533, with 39 plates and 15 figures. Baltimore, 1910 (Johns Hopkins Press).—Of the two volumes previously issued in the Maryland Weather Series, the first discussed the physiography and the meteorology of the State, and the second contained a study of the climate and weather of Baltimore and its vicinity. The present volume has a somewhat wider range, dealing with the plant life of the State, particularly as regards its distribution, not only as affected by climate and the physiography of the three prominent zones, but also determined by the nature of the soil. In 1904 a botanical survey of the State was under- taken by Dr. Forrest Shreve, and the important results of the work done by him and his associates are now presented to the public. The close association of the Geological Survey with the Weather Service, both being under the directorship of Professor Clark, has been a fortunate arrangement for the state, both as regards economy of management and the thorough codperation of the investigations. ; 3. International Institute of Vuleanology at Naples.—At the recent Geological Congress held in Stockholm, a proposal was made by Dr. Iumanuet FrrepLanpER for the establishment of an International Institute of Vulcanology at Naples. This plan was accepted by the Congress and a circular has recently been issued giving details and calling for contributions to this impor- tant cause. The Institute, when established and fully equipped, Miscellaneous Intelligence. 431 will, for the first time, provide for continuous and systematic observations of all volcanic phenomena, both physical and chemical. How important results may be looked for from this enterprise may be fairly estimated from the value of what has already been done by the small and meagerly supported observa- tory on Vesuvius. It is proposed to raise before January, 1912, a building fund of 1,500,000 lire, while promises of annual con- tributions aggregating 50,000 lire are also needed. Dr. Fried- lender leads the list of contributions with the sum of 100,000]. for the fund and 10,000 1. as an annual contribution for ten years; it is to be hoped that his appeal may have generous support. His address is Villa Hertha, Vomero, Naples. 4, Studies in Spiritism; by Amy E. Tanner. With an introduction by G. Srantey Harz. Pp. xxxix, 408. New York, 1910 (D. Appleton & Co.).—This is a thoroughly sane and fair-minded presentation. of a subject in which great interest is felt, and about which there is a wide divergence of opinion. The statements of the author and her observations based upon repeated sittings with Mrs. Piper will appeal all the more strongly, at least to those who tend to be sceptical in regard to matters connected with telepathy and spiritism, in that she entered upon her work not “with any spirit of antagonism, but rather in a spirit of doubt that inclined towards belief.” The conclusion to which her investigations have led her are expressed as follows : “I was inclined to think that I should finish the work a believer at least in telepathy. So far is this from being the case that the more I have read and seen of such experiences, the more amazing has it come to seem that two theories like tele- pathy and spirit communication, which are unsupported by any valid evidence, should have obtained credence to-day ; and the more incomprehensible has it come to be that men should be will- ing to stake their professional reputations upon the inaccuracies and rubbish that pass for ‘scientific’ facts in these matters . . .” The volume was undertaken at the suggestion of Dr. G. Stanley Hall and has been prepared under his supefvision ; the introduc- tion is from his hand. Psychism ; by Mr. Hume. Pp. 157. London and Felling-on-Tyne (The Walter Scott Publishing Co.). OBITUARY. Witiiam Henry Brewer, Professor emeritus of Agriculture in the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University, died at New Haven on November 2 at the age of eighty-two years. In the references, heavy=faced type is used for the numbers of the volumes. Note.—The names of minerals are inserted under the head of MINERALS ; all obituary notices are referred to under OBITUARY. Under the heads BoTANy and BoTAN. Works, CHEMISTRY and CHEM. Works, GEOLOGY, Rocks, ZOoLoGy, the references to the topics in these departments are grouped together ; in many cases the same references appear also elsewhere. Initial capitals are in general used for the titles of books noticed. A Abbe, C., obituary notice of S. P. Langley, 21, 321. Abbe, E., memorial to, 21, 338. Abraham, H., Ions, Electrons and Corpuscules, 21, 466. Absorption and phosphorescence, Brininghaus, 29, 180. Abstammungslehre, Steinmann, 27, 341. Academy of Sciences, National, meeting at Baltimore, 1908, 26, 588; Boston, 1906, 22, 548; New York, 1907, 24, 507; Princeton, 1900, 28, 563; St. Louis, 30, 430; Washington, 1906, 21, 406; 1907, 23, 395; 1908, 25, 458; 1900, 27, 418; 29, 463. — Memoirs, No. 4, Vol. X, 22, 93. Actinium, Boltwood, 22, 537; 25, 201. Adams, C. F., Physics, 27, 339. Adams, F. D., elastic constants of rocks, 22, 95; flow of marble, 29, 465. Adams, J. M., spectrum and ab- sorption of Rontgen rays, 23, QI; transmission of Rontgen rays, 23, 375. Adirondacks, geology of iron ores of, Newland and Kemp, 26, 238. — ice-movement in Southwest- ern, Miller, 27, 280. Aero-physics, units in, McAdie, 30, 277. Africa, alkaline rocks of eastern Arsandaux, 23, 230. ? — Blood-sucking Flies, Austin, 29, 92. — diamonds in German South- western, 27, 480. — Flora of, Thonner, 27, 344. — See South Africa. Agassiz, A., Albatross Expedition to Eastern Pacific, 21, 257; 24, 450; teeth in Echinonéus, Van Phels, 28, 400. — obituary notice, 561. Air, conductivity of, in intense electric fields, Ewell, 22, 368. — periodicity of ionization, Wood and Campbell, 23, 224. — liquid, vacuum vessels Dewar, 25, 2506. Alabama, Pleistocene flora, Berry, 29, 387. — underground water resources, Smith, 24, 84. Alaska, coal resources, 23, 314. — Copper River region, geology, Mendenhall, 21, 82. — Geography and Geology, Brooks and Abbe, 22, 187. — geological section at Cape Thompson, Kindle, 28, 520. — Mesozoic section in, Stanton and Martin, 21, 181. — Pliocene climate Dall, 23, 457. Verrill, 29, for, Collier, at Nome, 438 GENERAL INDEX. [2 Alaska, Yakutat, coastal plain of, Blackwelder, 27, 450. Albatross Expedition to the East- ern Pacific, Agassiz, 21, 257; 24, 450. d’Albe, 148. Albert shales, New Brunswick, Lambe, 28, 165. Algebra, Milne, 27, 272. — Graphic, Schultze, 25, 534. — Higher, Bocher, 25, 266. Allegheny Observatory, see Ob-| servatory. Allen, E. T., polymorphic forms | of calcium metasilicate, 21, 80; formation of minerals of com- position MgSiOs, 22, 385; role of water in tremolite, etc., 26, 101; diopside, calcium and magnesium metasilicates, 27, 1; analysis of metals used in ther- mometry, 29, I5I. Allen’s Commercial Organic Analyses, Leffmann and Davis, 29, 263; Davis and Sadtler, 30, 348. Alpen, im Eiszeitalter, Penck and | Brickner, 25, 84; 27, 341. ; Alpha-rays, absorption of, Levin, 22, 8; ionization by, Wheelock, 30, 233; properties of, Ruther- | ford, 21, 172; range of, Duane, 26, 465; retardation, Taylor, 26, | 169; 28, 357. Alps, Schmidt’s sections, 25, 155. | — See also Alpen. Aluminium cell as a condenser, Modzelewski, 27, 338. Amaduzzi, ionization and electric conductivity, 23, 463. ue gee formation, 22, 403, Nader on: J. W., Refrigeration, | 25, 524. Andes, Central, physiography of, | - Bowman, 28, 197, 373. Andrews, C. W., Tertiary Verte- brata of the Faytim, Egypt, 52) 465. Andrews, E. C., corrasion by | gravity ee came 30, 86. Andrews, L. W., determination | of arsenic, 27, 316. Animal Romances, Renshaw, 27, 103. Animals, Life of, Ingersoll, 22, I9l. Two New Worlds, 25,) | Anode rays, Gehrcke and Reich- | enheim, 25, 522, Antarctic Expedition, National, 26, 588; 27, 271; 29, 108. Anticosti Island, peat beds of, Twenhofel, 30, 65. Antlitz der Erde, Suess, 29, 260. Arc, electric, between metallic electrodes, Cady and Arnold, 24, 383; Cady and Vinal, 28, 80; Cady, 28, 230. — spectra, Duffield, 25, 147. Archeology, American, Univ. of California publications, 25, 533. Argon, see CHEMISTRY. Arizona, Coon Butte (meteor crater or Canyon Diablo), Bar- ringer, 30, 427; Barringer ‘and Tilghman, 21, 402; J. W. Mal- let, 21, 347; Farrington, 22, 303; Fairchild, 25, 156; Merrill, 25, 205. — copper deposits, Lindgren, 21, 332. — Grand Canyon geology, Rob- inson, 24, 109; Noble, 29, 360, | 497. — minerals of, Blake, 28, 82. Arkansas, diamonds of, 24, 275. — Pleistocene bone deposit, 27, 93. Arldt, T., Entwicklung der Kon- tinente, 26, 512. Arnold, H. D., electric are be- tween metallic electrodes, 24, 383. Arnold, R., rocks from the Olym- | pic Mts., Washington, 28, 9. |Arrhenius, S., Immuno-Chemis- | ee, ARs i _Artbildung, Probleme der, Plate, 25 e53iL | Ashley. R. H., dithionic acid and the dithionates, 22, 250. |Ashman, G. C., radium emana- tion, 26, 119; preparation of urano-uranic oxide, 26, 521; radio-activity of thorium, 27, 65. | Association, American, meeting at | Baltimore, 1909, 27, 100; Bos- | ton, 1909, 28, 566; Chicago, | 1907, 24, 507; Hanover, 1908, | 26, 100; Ithaca, 1906, 22, 92; | New Orleans, 1906, 21, 188; New York City, 1907, 23, 76. |— British, meeting at Dublin, | 1908, 26, 404; Semeld 1910, 3] 30, 204; Winnipeg, 1909, 412; York, 1906, 22, 352. Astronomer’s Wife, Hall, 27, 403. 28, Astronomical observatory, see Observatory. — papers, Lehigh University, Ogburn, 24, 283. Astronomy, Introduction to, Moulton, 22, 191; Laboratory, Wilson, 22, 191; Spherical, Ball, 27, 270; Newcomb, 22, I91. Astrophysical Observatory, 162, 431. Atlantic preglacial deposits, Bow- man, 22, 313. Atmosphere, circulation, Bigelow, 29, 277. — ionization of ocean, Eve, 23, 224. — nucleation, Barus, 21, 400. Atmospheric electricity, observa- tions in, Dike, 27, 197. — radio-activity, Dadourian, 335. Atomic Clarke, 30, 80. ISTRY. 25; 25; weights, recalculation, See also CHEM- Auer burner,spectrum of, Rubens, 20, 172: Austen, E. E., Blood-sucking Flies, British, 22, 476; African, 29, 92. Australia, vey, PORTS. — meteorite from, Smith, 30, 264. Austrian Society of Engineers, prizes, 28, 88. Avogadro, Works of, 28, 87. —and Dalton, Chemical potheses, Meldrum, 22, 7o. Western, geol. sur- Hy- B Babbitt, J. B., Physical History of the Earth, 27, 91. Bacon, N. T., phenomena Crookes’ tubes, 22, 310. Bacterial Infections of Digestive Tract, Herter, 24, 91. Bacteriology, Dairy, Russell and Hastings, 29, 200. Baker, R. H., 1907, 21, 245. Ball, R., Astronomy, 27, 270. Ball, Sh H., pre-Cambrian rocks of Georgetown, Col., 21, 371. in see GEOLOGICAL RE- | solar eclipse of | VOLUMES XXI-XXX. | Bancroft, J. A., 439 Ballore, F. de M. de, les Tremble- ments de @erre, 21, 331; la Science Séismologique, 25, 262. gedrite in Canada, | __ 25, 509. pean. Sir Joseph, Maiden, 28, 500. Barker, H. C., thermoelectromo- tive forces of potassium and sodium, 24, 159. Barrell, J. B., geology of Maryse ville mining district, Montana, 24, 85; Mauch Chunk shale, 25, 353- Barton, E. H., Text-book of Sound, 28, 77. Barus, C., nucleation of the at- mosphere, 21, 400. -— drop of pressure in fog cham- ber, 22, 81, 339; nuclei and ions in dust-free air, 22, 136; stand- ardizing the coronas of cloudy condensation, 22, 342. Changes of colloidal nuclea- tion, 23, 202; vapor nucleation in the lapse of time, 23, 342; decay of ions in fog chamber, 23, 460. — method for observation of coronas, 24, 277, 370; cycles of coronas, 24, 300; decay of nuclei, 24, 419; volcanic activity, 24, 483. — axial colors of steam jet and coronas, 25, 224; behavior of nuclei of pure water, 25, 400. — standardization of the fog chamber, 26, 87; Thomson’s constant, 26, 324. — coronas with mercury light, 27, 73; absence of polarization in artificial fogs, 27, 402. — use of the grating in ferometry, 30, I6T. inter- ‘Bascom, F., anhydrite twin from Aussee, 24, 487. Bateson, W., Mendel’s Principles of Heredity, 27, 491; 28, 84. Bather, F. A., Botryocrinus, 22, 468. Bauer, L. A., Magnetic Tables and Charts of the U. S., 27, 263. - Bauschinger, Bahnbestimmung der Himmelskorper, 21, 478. Bayliss, W. B., Nature of Enzyme Action, 27, 100. Becker, G. F., current theories of slaty cleavage, 24, I ; 440 Bedell, F., Direct and Alternating Current Testing, 29, 83. Beede, J. W., Upper Permian of Oklahoma, etc., 24, 86; correla- tion of Guadalupian and Kansas sections, 30, 131. Belgium, caves in, Prinz, 30, Ot. Belknap Mountains, petrography, | 22, | Pirsson and Washington, 439, 493- Benton, J. R., strength and elas- ticity of spider thread, 24, 75. Bergen, Norway, glaciation, etc., | Kolderup, 26, 583. Bergen, J. Y., Botany, 23, 155. Bering Sea ice flows, diatoma- ceous dust on, Kindle, 28, 175. Bermuda Islands, Bibliography of literature, Cole, 25, 159. — Cahow from, Mowbray, 25, 361; decapod crustacea, Verrill, 25, 534; fishes, parasites of, | Linton, 25, 159. — Geology and zoology, Verrill, 24, 179, 180. Berry, E. W., Prorosmarus alleni| from Virginia, 21, 444; mid- Cretaceous species of Torreya, 25, 382; Cretaceous Bauhinia from Alabama, 29, 256; Pleisto- | cene flora of Alabama, 29, 387; Cretaceous Lycopodium, 275. 5 : | Beyer, F. B., filtering crucible in electrolytic analysis, 25, 2490; electrolytic estimation of lead and manganese, 27, 59. Bigelow, F. H., meteorological elements and solar radiation of the United States, 25, 413; gen- eral circulation of the earth’s atmosphere, 29, 277; inversion | of temperature amplitudes, 30, -— International Congress of It5. Binn, Valley of, Desbuissons, 29, | 195. Biology, Elements, Hunter, 24, 448. — of the Nineteenth Century, Braeunig, 25, 362. Bi-quartz wedge plate, Wright, 26, 301. Birds, interlocking of feathers in flight, Trowbridge, 21, 145. — of Chicago, Woodruff, 24, 92. — origin of, Pycraft, 22, 547. See also ZOOLOGY. Birkeland, K., Norwegian Aurora Polaris Expedition, 29, 272. 39, | GENERAL INDEX. [4 | Bishop, A. L., Physical and Com- mercial Geography, 30, 158. | Bitumens, solid, Peckham, 29, 450. Black Hills, Dakota, geology and water resources, Darton, 209, | 267. Blackwelder, E., Research in China, 24, 501; 25, 349; Yakutat coastal plain of Alaska, 27, 450. Blair, A. A., Chemical Analysis of Iron, 26, 511. Blake, P., tourmaline of Crown Point, N. Y., 25, 123; Minerals of Arizona, 28, 82. — obituary notice of, 30, 95. | Blodgett, M. E., stratigraphy of Mt. Taylor region, N. M.,, 25, este | Body, and Defences, Jewett, 30, | 93. | Boggild, Greenland minerals, 23, 320; sea-floor deposits of Green- | land, 23, 304. Boiling points, see Metals. Bolometer, vacuum, Warburg, Leithauser and Johansen, 24, 500. | Boltwood, B. B., radio-activity of salts of radium, 21, 409; radio- activity of thorium minerals and salts, 21, 415. — radium and uranium in radio- | active minerals, 22, 1; produc- tion of radium by actinium, 22, 537- |— disintegration products of ura- nium, 23, 77. — radio-activity of thorium salts, 24, 93; new radio-active ele- ment, 24, 370. | — radio-activity of uranium min- erals, 25, 260; ionium, 25, 365; life of radium, 25, 493. Radiology and Electricity, 30, | AIS. | Bornstein, R., Wetterkunde, 22, Bde Colling Grae | Bose, J. C., Plant response as a means of investigation, 21, 476; 22, 188; Electro-Physiology, 25, 525. Bosler, J., Theories of the Sun, 30, 205. |Boston, Cretaceous clays of, Clapp, 23, 183. — Society of Natural History, Guide to Invertebrate Collec- tion, Sheldon, 21, 336, 475. | 5] Bosworth, R. S., determination of silver as chromate, 27, 241; iodometric estimation of silver, 27, 302; 28, 287; crystals of sil- ver sulphate and dichromate, 29, 203. Botanical ae Cuba, 27, 94. BOTANY AND BOT. WORKS. Agriculture of the Dutch East ‘Indies, 27 Oe: Algenflora der Danziger Biicht, Lakowitz, 26, 168. Algue Oxfordienne, Ligniér, 23, 240. Aneimites, seeds of, White, 23, Harvard, in 237. Anemonella thalictroides, Holm, 24, 243. epee ccuns) origin, Arber, 25, 350. Araucariee, Seward and Ford, 23, 236. Autogamie bei Protisten, Hart- mann, 28, 506. Blitenpflanzen Afrikas, Thon- ner, 27, 344. Botanist on the Amazon and Andes, Spruce and Wallace, 27, 266. Botany, Gray’s New Manual, Robinson and Fernald, 26, | 518. — Laboratory, Clute, 29, 272. — Mechanical Problems, Sch- wendener and MHoltermann, 27, 345. — Paleozoic, Scott, 23, 235. — Principles, Bergenand Davis, 23, 155. — Textbook, Campbell, 24, 91; Kremer, 26, 586; Strasburger, Noll, Schenck and Karsten, 26, 168 Brillenkaimane von Brasilien, Siebenrock, 23, 240. Ceanothus Americanus, Holm, 22, 523. Chlorophyll, crystallized, Will- statter and Benz, 25, 520. — on planets, 27, 487. Clathropteris meniscoides, Na- thorst, 23, 230. Clearing and mounting agent, 27, 96. Cycadacee, structure, Worsdell, 25, 358. Cycadofilices, White, 23, 237. VOLUMES XXI-XXxX. 441 BOTANY AND BOT. WORKS. Cyperacee, studies in, Holm, NOM eos aay de2 Not Desmidiacez, British, West, 21, 477. Dicotyledons, Anatomy, So- lereder, 26, 585. Dictyophyllum and Camptop- teris, Nathorst, 23, 238. Flora, Forest, of New South Wales, Maiden, 27, 191, 418. — fossile de l’Argonne, Fliche, 25, 359. — Origin of a Land, Bower, 26, 167. — See GEOLOGY. Florule Portlandienne, Fliche and Zeiller, 23, 236. Flower Pollination, Knuth and Davis, 27, 96. Fungi, of N. America, Index, Vol. 1, pt. 1, Farlow, 21, 87. Gingko-like forms, Nathorst, 25, 360. Ti oie Gray Herbarium, publications, 28, 85. Heather in Townsend, Mass., 22, 190. Isopyrum biternatum, Holm, 25, 133. Lepidostrobus foliaceus, Scott, 23, 240. Lignite of Vermont, Tertiary, Perkins, 23, 237. Mesozoic age, flowering plants of, Scott, 25, 354. Microsporangia of Pterido- spermez, Kidston, 23, 238. Paleobotanische Mitteilungen, Nathorst, 25, 356. Paleobotany of Long Island, Hollick, 23, 236. Pflanzen, der Lichtgenuss der, Wiesner, 25, 363. 5 Pflanzen-anatomie, - Physio- logische, Haberlandt, 29, 195. Pflanzen-Chromatophoren, Senn, 26, 587. Pflanzenfabel in der Weltlitera- tur, Wimnsche, 21, 477. Pilze, Chemie der hoheren, Zellner, 25, 364. Pinus, cone growth, Wieland, 25, 103. Plant Anatomy, Stevens, 25, 303, pia — Chemistry, studies in, and literary Papers, Michael, 24, 90. 442 GENERAL INDEX, i BOTANY AND BOT. WORKS. | Bowles, O., pyromorphite from Plant remains in the Scottish peat mosses, Lewis, 25, 358. — response as a means of physi- ological investigation, Bose, | 21, 476; 22, 188. — Study, Meier, 27, 345. — flowering, of the mesozoic age, Scott, 25, 354. — Fossil, Seward, 30, 356. Plants, Fungous Diseases of, Dugegar, 30, 92. — influence of. climate on structure, Holtermann, 23, 400. pe — manganese as fertilizer, 21, 248. Pteridosperms and angio- sperms, Oliver, 25, 356. Rhizopoda, British freshwater, Cash and Hopkinson, 21, 475. Seed, The, a chapter in Evolu- tion, Oliver, 23, 235. Sigillaria elegans, Kidston, 23, 240. Sinnesorgane im Pflanzenreich, Haberlandt, 23, 154. Sporophyl, morphogeny, Hal- lier, 25, 355. i i Stauropteris oldhamia, germi- nating spores, Scott, 23, 239. Stellaria, North American spe- cies, Holm, 25, 315. Sutclifha insignis, Scott, 23, 237. Taxoidez, Robertson, 25, 360. Technical Products, Micro- | | | scopy, Hanausek and Win- ton, 25, 87. Torreya, mid-Cretaceous spe-| cies, Berry, 25, 382. Trees, Ward, 27, 401. Trias und Jurapflanzen von der Insel Kotelny, Nathorst, 25, 300. ? : Shae | Tubicaulis sutcliffi, Stopes, 23, - 240. Végétaux fossiles, Zeiller, 25, 357; Marty, 25, 358; de Nor- mandie, Lignier, 25, 360. British Columbia, 28, 40. Bowman, I., Atlantic preglacial deposits, 22, 313; physiography of the Central Andes, 28, 197, 373: Bradley, W. M., precipitates on asbestos, 2I, 453; composition of warwickite, 27, 179; analysis of neptunite, California, 28, 15; labradorite, 30, 151. Braintree Cambrian, Shimer, 24, 176. Branner, J. C., Bibliography of Clays and the Ceramic Arts, 22, 545. — geology of the Serra do Mu- lato, Brazil, 30, 256; Tombador escarpment in Bahia, Brazil, 30, 335; geology of the Serra de Jacobina, Brazil, 30, 385. Brazil, facetted pebbles of, Lis- boa, 23, 9, 150. — Geological survey, Derby, 23, 308. — manganese Derby, 255-23) — papers on geology of, Bran- ner, 30, 256, 335, 385. — Shaler expedition, 26, 404. Breeding, Davenport, 25, 362. Breger, C. L., on Eodevonaria, 22, 534. Brigham, W. T., Hawaiian Vol- canoes, 29, 363. British Guiana, Gold Fields of, Harrison, 27, 400. — New Guinea, geological feat- ures, Maitland, 21, 404. British Museum catalogues, Bry- ozoa, Gregory,. 29, 195; Glos- sopteris flora, Arber, 21, 474; Homoptera, Distant, 22, 476; Hymenoptera, Morley, 30, 94; Lepidoptera Phalene, Hamp- son, 23, 321; 27, 492; 28, 507; 30, 04; Madreporian corals, Ber- nard, 21, 474; 23, 321; Orthop- tera, Kirby, 23, 321; 30, 93. deposits, Zamites and pterophyllum, Ar-|— — History of the Collections, ber, 25, 360. Zoocécidies des d'Europe, Houard, 28, 506. Plantes Brégger, W. C., minerals 23, 321. of Southern Norway, 24, 282. Bourne, A. N. and E. G., Cham-| Brooklyn Institute, Science bul- plain’s Voyages, 22, 550. Bower, F. O., Origin of a Land Flora, 26, 167. Bowlders, fractured, in conglom- | Brooks, W. erate, Campbell, 22, 231. | letins, 21, 480; 23, 76, 308; 25, 533; 28, 87, 565; 30, 94; mono- graph, 27, 420. R., The Oyster, 21, 88. 7] Brown, E. W., effect of magnetic and other forces on the motion of the moon, 29, 520. Brown, J., interaction of hydro- chloric acid and potassium per- manganate, 21, 41. Brown, T. C., development of Streptelasma rectum, 23, 277. Browning, E., separation of magnesium, 23, 293; detection of ferrocyanides, etc., 23, 448; estimation of cerium, 26, 83; Rarer Elements, 27, 262; esti- mation of thallium, 27, 370; precipitation of tellurium di- oxide, 28, 112; complexity of tellurium, 28, 347; separation of cerium, 29, 45; estimation of vanadium as silver vanadate, 30, 220. Briickner, E., die Alpen im Eis- zeitalter, 25, 84; 27, 341. Buchanan, J. Y., determination of specific gravity of soluble salts, 21, 25. Buffalo quadrangle, geologic map, Luther, 22, 347. Building stones, of North Caro- lina, Watson and Laney, 23, 70. Bumstead, H. A., heating effects of Rontgen rays in different metals, 21, 1; scientific papers of J. Willard Gibbs, 23, 144; heating effect of Réntgen rays in lead and ZINC, 25, 200; Lorentz-FitzGerald hypothesis, 26, 493. Burbank, J. E., apparent varia- tions of the vertical, 30, 323. Bureau of Mines, 30, 292, 410. Burma, lower Paleozoic fossils, Reed, 25, 262. Buschman, J. O. F., das Salz, etc., 28, 83. Bush, K. J., tubicolous annelids, 23, 52, 131; notes on the family Pyramidellide, 27, 475. Butler, B. S., pyrogenetic epidote, 28, 27. Butler, G. M., Handbook of Min- erals, 26, 167. Di tA: Cady, W. G., electric are between metallic electrodes, 24, 383; 28, 89, 230. VOLUMES XXI-— DO 443 Calcium metasilicate, polymor- phic forms, Allen and White, Pity (Oo Oi, a, California earthquake of 1906, 22, 82; 27, 48; 30, 287. — exploration of Samwel Cave, Furlong, 22, 235. — Miocene foraminifera, 2I, 253. — Pectens of, Arnold, 22, 188. — Santa Clara Valley, geology, Crandall, 24, 33. Cambrian, see GEOLOGY. Cambridge Natural History, Har- mer and Shipley, 29, 92. Camel, fossil, Nebraska, Loomis, 29, 297. Cameron, A. T., Radiochemistry, 30, 82. Campbell, D. H., Textbook of Botany, 24, 91. Campbell, M. R., fractured bowl- ders in conglomerate, 22, 231. Canada balsam, refractive index, Schaller, 29, 324. — Dept. of Mines, 30, 357. geol. sures see GEOLOGI- CAL REP ; Canada’s Rui Northland, Chambers, 26, 520. Canadian elaciers, Scherzer, 25, 261. Canal rays, Paschen, J. J. Thom- son, etc., 24, 441; Doppler effect in, Stark and Stenberg, 27, 405; mechanical working, Swinton, 25, 348; phosphorescence by, Trowbridge, 25, 41; spectral intensity, Stark and Stenberg, 27, 84. ; ) Canfield, F. A., mineralogical notes, 23, 20; mosesite, new mineral from Texas, 30, 202. Canyon Diablo, see Arizona. — Grand, see Grand. Cape Colony, plains in, Schwarz, Bagg, 24, 185. Cape of Good Hope, geol. map, 23, 465; 25, 83; 26, 08. — — geol. survey, see GEO- LOGICAL REPORTS. Carnegie Foundation, annual re- ports, first, 23, 244; second, 25, 164; third, 27, 346; fourth, 29, 274; Bulletin, No. 4, 30, 94. — Institution of Washington, publications, 21, 480; 22, 94, 352; 23, 75, 243; 24, 87, 382; 26, 90, 444 519; 27, 347; 28, 564; 29, 368; 39, 95, 205. ae Institution Year Book, No. 4, 1905, 21, 258; No. 5, 23, 156; No. 6, 95; 1625" INO 7, a7, 267; No. 8, 29, 274. Carney, F., wave-cut terraces in Keuka Valley, 23, 325; form of outwash drift, 23, 336; glacial overflow channels in New York, a5, 217. Catalonia, volcanoes and rocks, Washington, 24, 217; Calderon, Cazurro and Fernandez-Na- varro, 24, 282. Cathode rays, ionization by, Her- Weg, 21, 327. — — magnetic effect, 25, 258. — — relation to exciting Ront- gen rays, Bestelmeyer, 23, 384. — — secondary, Kleeman, 24, 499. Cave, Samwel, long, 22, 235. — vertebrates, 270. — work on, von Knebel, 21, 473. Caves in Belgium, Prinz, 30, 91. Klupathy, exploration, Fur- Eigenmann, 29, Cement resources of Virginia, Bassler, 30, 157. Centroepigenesis, Rignano, 23, 468. Ceylon, minerals of, Coomara- swamy, 21, 186; Parsons, 28, 81. Chamberlin, T. C., Geology, 21, 400; tidal phenomena, 28, 188 Chambers, G. F., Story of the Comets, 28,565; Halley’s Comet, 30, 154. Champlain and Hudson Valleys, water levels, Woodworth, 22, 86. Champlain’s Voyages, translated EA Geandey 549. Chase, F. L., parallax investiga- tion of 162 stars, 22, 471. CHEMICAL WORKS Analyse Volumétrique, Duparc and Basadonna, 29, 458. Analysis, Qualitative, Duparc and Monnier, 25,80; McGreg- ory, 28, 554; Morgan, 23, 62; See 28, 554; Tower, 27, Clowes and Gilman, 25, — Quantitative, Coleman, 29, 80; 450. GENERAL INDEX, N. Bourne, 22, | [8 CHEMICAL WORKS. Chemical Abstracts, 23, 223. Chemie, Lehrbuch der Allge- meinen, Ostwald, 22, 460. eden ine Hober, 23, 158. Chemische Physiologie, Beit- rage, Hofmeister, 22, 540. Chemistry, Analytical, Ches- neau, translated by Lincoln and Carnahan, 29, 458; Tread- ‘well and Hall, 30, 348. — Conversations on, Ostwald, 21, 248. — Elementary modern, Ost- wald and Morse, 28, 405. — Essentials, Williams, 30, 347. — Exercises in, McPherson and Henderson, 23, 384. — History, Armitage, 23, 62; Bauer, 25, 81; Ladenburg, 23, 306; Von Meyer, 23, 62 — Industrial, Thorp, 23, 460. — Inorganic, A. Smith, 22, 345. — Metallurgical, Stansbie, 23; 383. — Organic, Cohen, 25, 146; Noyes, 25, 80; 30, 348; Stew- art, 27, 337. ; — Outlines, Fenton, 28, 554; Kahlenberg, 28, 404. — Physical, Ewell, 28,555; Get- man, on 450; Jones, 24, 440; 29, 2 —_ Binsiolveical Long, 28, 555. — Practical, Martin, 24, 440. — Principles, Ostwald, 28, 405. — Progress for 1904, Annual Report, 21, 80. Elements and Compounds, Affinities of, Martin, 21, 79. — Rarer, Browning, 27, 262. CHEMISTRY. Acetamide, preparation, Phelps, 24, 429. Acetone, Jolles, 22, 79. Acetylene, thermal constants, Mixter, 22, 13. Acidimetry, alkalimetry, stand- ards in, Phelps and Weed, 26, 138, 143. Actinium, activity, Boltwood, 25, 201. Alcohol, ethyl, manufacture from sawdust, Classen, 30, 287. —— preparation of pure, Wink- ler, 22, 458. 9} VOLUMES CHEMISTRY. Alkaline metals, boiling points of, Ruff and Johannsen, 21, 78; hydrides of, Moissan, 21, Alumina, iodometric determina- tion of basic, Moody, 22, 483. — with silica, ete., binary sys- tems of, Shepherd and Ran- kin, 28, 203; optical sea, Wrieht, 28, 315. Aluminium electrodes, gas from, Hirsch and Soddy, 25, 148. Ammonia, action upon ethyl oxalate, Phelps, Weed and Housum, 24, 470. — from the eruption of Vesu- vius, Stoklasa, 22, 540. — liquid, as a solvent, Bronn, ai, 79. — oxidation of, Schmidt and Bocker, 22, 78. Ammonium molybdate, hydroly- sis, Moody, 25, 76. — salts, hydrolysis, Moody, 22, 379: — sulphate, decomposition, De- lépine, 21, 247. Antimony, modifications, Stock and Siebert, 21, 170. — and tin, separation, Czerwek, 22, 460; Fischer and Thiele, 30, 286; Panojotow, 28, 75; Plato, 30, 347. Argon, compound of, Fischer and Iliovici, 27, 82; prepara- tion, Fischer and Ringe, 26, SII. — and helium from malacone, Kitchen and Winterson, 23, IAI. Arsenic, determination, An- drews and Farr, 27, 316; Pal- mer, 29, 399. — separation from copper, Gooch and Phelps, 22, 488. — trisulphide, reduction, Ehren- feld, 25, 70. —and antimony. determination, Heath, 25, 513. Asbestos, precipitates on, Pen- field and Bradley, 21, 453. Atomic weights, new periodic function, Viktor, 27, 186; re- calculation, Clarke, 30, 80; speculations in regard to, Collins, 24, 4096. Barium, determination, in rocks, Langley, 26, 123. XXI-XXX. 445 CHEMISTRY. Barium suboxide, Guntz, 22, 344. Benzoic acid, esterification, Phelps and Osborne, 25, 309. Beryllium, estimation, Parsons and Barnes, 23, 383. — formates, Tantar, 30, 80. — and aluminium, separation, Glassmann, 22, 539. Bismuth, determination, Staeh- ler and Schaffenberg, 21, 171. Boron, determination, Copaux and Boiteau, 27, 404. Bromides of barium and radium, relative volatility, Stock and Heynemann, 29, 70. Bromine fluoride, Lebeau, 172. — free, determination, Perkins, 29, 338. Cadnaieey amalgams, Smith, 29, 264. Cesium CHICO, Fraprie, 21, 309. Calcium as an Absorbent Soddy, 23, 304. — hydride, gaseous in acety- lene, 21, 464; preparation of, Jaubert, 21, 464. — metasilicate, polymorphic aa) Allen and White, 21, 0. — salts, complex, d’Ans, 26, 390. — and magnesium metasili- cates, relations, Allen and White, 27, I Carbon, action of oxygen, etc., upon, Farup, 22, 344. — fusion in the singing arc, La Rosa, 28, 555. — monosulphide, Jones, 30, 285. — oxybromide, von Bartel, 21, 463. — suboxide, Diels and Wolf, 21, 306. — tetrachloride, action of, Cam- boulives, 30, 286. Carbonates, action of, Gutmann, 25, 440. Cerium, determination, Dietrich, 27, 200; Browning and Pal- mer, 26,83; separation, Brown- ing and Roberts, 20, 45. Chlorates, volumetric method for, Knecht, 26, or. Chlorides, potassium-lead, Lorenz and Ruckstuhl, 22, 540. 21, Dewar and 446 GENERAL INDEX, [10 CHEMISTRY. CHEMISTRY. Chlorine, determination, Gooch | and Read, 28, 544. Chromic and vanadic acids, es- | timation, Edgar, 26, 333. Chromium, estimation of, Gooch | and Weed, 26,85; new variety of, Jassonneix, 24, 81; ther- mal constants, Mixter, 26, 131. Cobalt with carbon monoxide, Hirtz and Cowap, 26, 575. — and nickel, heat of forma- tion of oxides of, Mixter, 30, 193. Cobalti-nitrite method, Drushel, 26, 320. Colloidal solutions, formation from metals, Svedberg, 29, 187. Columbium and tantalum, Foote and Langley, 30, 393, 401. Copper, determination, Gooch and Heath, 24, 65. — metallic, behavior toward gases, Sieverts and Krumb- haar, 30, 412. — volumetric method for, Jamieson, 26, 92. — oxalate in analysis, and Ward, 27, 448. Crystallization, explosive, Wes- ton, 27, 82. Cupric chloride, gases evolved by action on steel, Goutal, 27, 485. Cuprous sulphate, Recoura, 28, 74. Cyanogen, synthesis of, Wallis, 21, 464. Dithionic acid, analysis, Ashley, 22, 250. Dye, purple, of the ancients, Friedlander, 29, 262. Esters, esterification, etc., Phelps, Tillotson, Eddy, Pal- mer, Smillie, 26, 243, 253, 257, 264, 267, 275, 281, 2090, 206. — of halogen substituted acids, Drushel and Hill, 30, 72. Ferric chloride in the zinc re- ductor, Randall, 21, 128. Ferrocyanides, Browning and Palmer, 23, 448. Ferrous salts, compounds with nitric oxide, 23, 222. Fluorides, interference with) precipitations of alumina, | Hinrichsen, 24, 79. Gooch Fluorine, estimation iodometri- _ cally, Hileman, 22, 383. Formamide, preparation, Phelps and Deming, 24, 173. Gas mixtures, explosion limits of certain, Teclu, 23, 450. Gold, colorimetric determina- tion, Maxson, 21, 270; dis- tillation, Moissan, 21, 171; solubilityin hydrochloric acid, Awerkiew, 27, 261. Grape sugar, determination, 21, B25. Halogen compounds, combus- tion of, Robinson, 22, 345. Halogens in benzol derivatives, use of metallic potassium, Maryott, 30, 378. — in organic compounds, deter- mination, Chablay, 23, 305; Stepanow, 23, 142; Vaubel and Schauer, 21, 396. Helium, gas containing, Cody and McFarland, 24, 497; Erd- mann, 29, 549. — liquefaction, Ounes, 30, 413. — preparation, Jacquerod and Perrot, 23, 304. — production from radium, Dewar, 26,575; from uranium, Soddy, 27, 262. — and thorium, Strutt, 25, 146. Hydrates in aqueous solution, Jones, 23, 305. Hydriodic acid, rapid prepara- tion, Bodroux, 21, 326. Hydrocarbons, decomposition of gaseous, Kusnetzow, 24, 374. Hydrochloric acid, decomposi- tion, Gooch and Gates, 28, 435. _— — and potassium permanga- nate, interaction, Brown, 21, ie Hydrogen, determination of, Paal and Hartmann, 29, 458. —antimonide, action upon dilute silver solutions, Reckle- ben, 28, 74. — chloride, action of light upon, Coehn and Wassiljewa, 29, 79. — phosphide, Matignon and Trannoy, 27, 337- — silicides, Lebeau, 27, 404. 11] CHEMISTRY. Iodides and free iodine, deter- mination, Bugarsky and Hov- rath, 28, 408. — and iodates, Moody, 22, 370. Todimetry, standards in, 26, 143. Iodine, determination of free, Gooch and Perkins, 28, 33. Tonium, see Ionium. Iron in copper alloys, Gregory, 25, 449. ae: — detection of small quantities, Mouneyrat, 22, 70. — estimation of, Gooch and Newton, 23, 365; Newton, 25, 343. — group, distillation of metals, Moissan, 21, 397. — hydrolysis of salts of, Moody, 22, 76. — rusting of, 21, 78. — and copper, quantitative re- agent, Biltz and Hodtke, 30, 79: — and vanadium, estimation, Edgar, 26, 70. Iron-cyanogen compounds, cause of color, 21, 78. Lanthanum, estimation, Drushel, 24, 197. ead, electrolytic estimation, Gooch and Beyer, 27, 59. — and silver compounds, heat of formation, Colson, 28, 76. Lithium in radio-active miner- als, McCoy, 25, 346. Lutecium, Urbain, 25, 146. Magnesium metasilicate, 22, 385. — separation, Browning and Drushel, 23, 203; Gooch and Eddy, 25, 444. Malonic acid, esterification, Phelps and Tillotson, 26, 243, 2 207. Manganese, electrolytic estima- tion, Gooch and Beyer, 27, 59. — asa fertilizer for plants, Ber- trand, 21, 248. — higher oxides of, Meyer and Rotgers, 25, 257. — magnetic compounds boron, Wadekind, 24, 80. — and cobalt, atomic weight, Baxter and Hines, 23, 383. — and the periodic law, Rey- nolds, 25, 256. Mercuric chloride, double salts, Foote and Levy, 22, 458. with VOLUMES XXI-XXxX. 447 CHEMISTRY. Mercury peroxide, Von Antro- poff, 25, 520. Mesothorium, Hahn, 24, 70. Metals, action on fused caustic soda, LeBlanc and Bergmann, 29, 3061. — and dissolved halogens, velocities of reactions, Van Name and Edgar, 29, 237. Meteoric alloys, structure of, Guertler, 30, 413. Methyl alcohol, detection, Deni- ges, 29, 550. Molybdenum, etc., formation of the oxides, Mixter, 29, 488. — preparation of fused, Biltz and Gartner, 22, 540. Molybdic acid, behavior, Ran- dall, 24, 313. Niobium, Schulze, 25, 452; and tantalum, separation, Warren, 22, 520; see Columbium. Nitric oxide, thermal formation, Fischer and Marx, 22, 344. Nitrogen, oxidization of, War- burg and Leithauser, 22, 462. — properties of liquid, Erd- mann, 22, 78. — trioxide, Baker, 25, 145. — utilization of atmospheric, Frank, 26, 500. Nitrous and nitric acids, deter- mination, Weisenheimer and Heim, 21, 170. Organic substances, mechanical separation, Bordas and Tour- plain, 21, 308. Ozone, see Ozone. Petroleum, crude, diffusion through Fuller’s earth, 30, 412. Phosphorescent elements, Ur- bain, 25, 256. Phosphorus, organic com- pounds, Berthaud, 23, 450. — in phosphor tin, Gemmell and Archbutt, 26, 390. — white, Llewellyn, 25, 257. Percarbonates, Wolffenstein and Peltner, 25, 450. Platinum amalgam, 23V ASOM — esroup, boiling of metals of, Moissan, 21, 325. — wire, substitute for, Kirby, 29, 551. Polonium, see Polonium. Polyiodides of potassium, etc., Foote and Chalker, 26, 92. Moissan, 448 CHEMISTRY. Potassium aluminium sulphate, Gooch and Osborne, 24, 167. — atomic weight, Richards and Staehler, 23, 61. —as thecobalti-nitrite, Drushel, 24, 433. — estimation in animal fluids, Drushel, 26, 555. — ferricyanide in alkaline solu- tions, Palmer, 30, 141; in esti- mation of arsenic, etc., Pal- mer, 29, 390. —percarbonate, Riesenfeld and Reinhold, 29, 188. — salts, radiation, Henriot, 27, 486. Prussian blue, Stanisch, 27, 403. Radium, see Radium. Salts, titration of mercurous, Randall, 23, 137. Selenious acid, volumetric de- termination, Marino, 29, 180. Selenium, electric properties, Ries, 27, 338. Silicon fluoride, alkalimetric es- timation, Hileman, 22, 320. — fluoroform, Ruff and Albert, 21, 247. — and silicon carbide, combus- tion, Mixter, 24, 130. Silver, detection of minute quan- tities, Whitby, 30, 79. — determination as chromate, Gooch and Bosworth, 27, 241. — electro chemical equivalent, Van Dijk, 21, 326. — use in determination of molybdenum, etc., Perkins, 29, 540. — iodometric determination of, Bosworth, 28, 287; Gooch and Bosworth, 27, 302. — nitrogen, etc., atomic weight, Richards and Forbes, 24, 4309. — sulphate and dichromate, crystals, Van Name and Bos- worth, 29, 2093. — vapor, molecular Wartenberg, 21, 463. Sodium alum, Smith, 28, 553. — cesium, etc., detection, Ball, 29, 360. — hypobromite, use of, Pozzi- Escott, 29, 551. — and potassium, liquid alloys, Jaubert, 27, 260. Miller and weight, GENERAL INDEX, [12 CHEMISTRY. Solid substances, vaporization of, Zenghelis, 23, 61. Succinic acid, use of, Phelps and Hubbard, 23, 211; esteri- fication, Phelps and Hubbard, 23, 368. Sulphates, determination, Mit- chell and Smith, 29, 361. Sulphur, determination, Berger, 23, 221; Hintz and Weber, 21, 324. : — vapor-tension, 497. * : 5 Sulphuric acid, purification by freezing, Morancé, 28, 75. Tantalum, atomic weight, Hin- richsen and Sahlbom, 22, 450; see Columbium and Niobium. Tellurium, atomic weight, Baker and Bennett, 25, x46. — complexity of, Browning and Flint, 28, 347; Flint, 30, 200. — separation, Brauner and Kuzma, 24, 373. — dioxide, Browning and Flint, 28, I12. Tellurous and Berg, 21, 248. Thallium, estimation, Browning and Palmer, 27, 379. Thorianite, new element in, Evans, 25, 521. Thorium, see Thorium. Tin, heat of oxidation, Mixter, 27, 220. “Tin infection,” von Hasslinger, 27, 83. He AS Sa Titanium, volumetric estimation of, Newton, 25, 130. z — niobium, etce., separation, Weiss and Landecker, 28, 493. — oxide, heat of formation, Mixter, 27, 393. Gruener, 24, telluric acids, _ — solutions, peroxidized, Mer- win, 28, I19. — tetrachloride, Vigouroux and Arrivant, 23, 382. — trichloride, Knecht and Hib- bert, 25, 80. Trisodium orthophosphate, etc., Mixter, 28, 103. Tungstic and silicic oxides, sep- aration, Defacqz, 27, 186. Uranium, see Uranium, Radio-activity, Radium. — silicide, Defacqz, 27, 186. Urano-uranic oxide, McCoy, 26, Be also 13] CHEMISTRY. Vanadic acid, iodometric esti- mation, Edgar, 27, 174. — reduction, Gooch and Edgar, | 25, 233. — and molybdic acid, determi- nation, Edgar, 25, 332. Vanadium and arsenic acids, estimation, Edgar, 27, 290. — and chromium, estimation, Palmer, 30, I4I. — as silver vanadate, tion, Browning and Palmer, 30, 220. Blackman, 26, 400. Weight, change of, in reactions, Landolt, 27, 185. Ytterbium, constituents, Welsbach, 27, 83. Zine, detection of, and Javillier, 23, 222. — chloride, use of, Phelps, 24, 194. Zirconium, metallic, Weiss and Neumann, 29, 457. — and thorium, oxy-sulphides, | Hauser, 23, 382. Chesneau, M. G,, Chemistry, 29, 458. Chicago, birds of, Woodruff, 24, 92. Chili, copper minerals from Colla- hurasi, Ford, 30, 1 China, Cambrian faunas, Walcott, 22, 188. — Research in, Blackwelder, 24, 501; Willis, Blackwelder and Sargent, 25, 340. Chlorophyll on planets, existence, Umow, 27, 487. Chwolson, O. D., Lehrbuch der Physik, 21, 174. Cirkel, F., asbestos in Canada, 21, 255; mica, 21, 405. Civilization, Physical Basis, Heine- man, 26, 241. Clapp, F. G., Cretaceous clay at Boston, 23, 183. Clark, A. H., origin of crinoidal muscular articulations, 29, 40; pentamerous symmetry of cri- noidea, 29, 353. Clark, H. L., apodous thurians, 26, roo. Clark, W. B., Maryland geologi- cal survey, etc., 30, 423, 430. von Bertrand Analytical holo- estima- | VOLUMES XXI-XXxX. 449 Clarke, F. W., Data of Geochem- istry, 25, 458: Recalculation of Atomic Weights, 30, 80. Clarke, J. M., Devonic history of New York, 26, 03. Clay-Working ‘Industry in the U. S., Ries and Leighton, 28, 563. Clays, Ries, 23, 71. — and Ceramic Arts, raphy, Branner, 22, 545. Cleavage, current "theories slaty, Becker, 24, 1 Bibliog- of Ue __ | Clement, J. K., formation of min- Vapor densities, determination, | erals of composition MgSiOs, 22, 385; water in tremolite, etc., 26, I0I1; new measure- ments with . gas thermometer, 26, 405. Clowes, Chemical Analysis, 29, 80. Clute, W. N., Botany, 29, 272. Coal, production in 1908, Parker, 28, 500. — and coal-mining, geology, Gib- son, 27, OI. — in Wyoming, 21, 473. ‘Coast Survey, United States, mag- netic reports, 23, 243; 27, 263; 28, — report for 1905, 21, 259; 1906, 23, 74; 1907, 25, 459; 1908, 27, 348; 1909, 29, 559. Cockerell, T. D. A., on Tertiary insects, 23, 285; 25, 51, 227, 300; 26,60; 27; 53, 381; 28, 283. — on Tertiary plants, 26, 65, 537; 28, 447; 29, 76. Cohen, J. B., Organic Chemistry, 25, 146. aaa electrolytic, Gundry, 21, 326. Coherers, Eccles, 30, 81. Coker, E. G., elastic constants of rocks, 22,95; the flow of marble, 29, 465. Cole, G. W., Bermuda Bibliog- taphy, 25, 159. Coleman, A. P., Lower Huronian ice age, 23, 187. Coleman, Chemical Analysis, 209, 80. Colloidal solutions, electrically prepared, Burton, 21, 390. Colorado, Artesian waters, Head- den, 27, 305. — Cripple Creek gold deposits, 23, 466. — Florissant fossil insects, 25, 52, 227; 26, 69, 76; 27, 53, 381; 28, 450 126, 283, 533; 29, 47; plants, 26, 65, 537; 28, 447; 29, 76. Colorado, geol. survey, GEOL. REPORTS. — geology of the Grayback min- ing district, 30, 423; mining district, Crawford, 30, 423. see — Georgetown, pre-Cambrian) rocks, (Ball) 21, 1371. —red beds of Cross and Howe, 21, 328. Colors, axial, of steam jet and coronas, Barus, 25, 224. Columbia, meteorites from, Ward, | 23, I. Combustion, see Heat. Comet, Halley’s, Chambers, 30, 154. Comets, Story of, Chambers, 28, 565 JVO- Compressibility of rocks, Adams and Coker, 22, 95. Condenser sparks, energy, dura-_ tion, etc., Heydweiller, 21, 465. Conductivity, see Electric. Conglomerates, desiccation, Ohio, Hyde, 25, 400. Congress, report of Librarian, see Library. Connecticut, Catalogue of Plants and Ferns, 29, 559. in — geological map, Gregory and | Robinson, 23, 302. — geological survey, see GEO- LOGICAL REPORTS. — geology, Rice and Gregory, 23, | 385. “Container,” new form for Muse- | ums, Goodale, 21, 451. Continents, origin, etc., 26, 238, 512. Cook, C. W., datolite from West- | field, Mass., 22, 21; iodyrite from Tonopah and Broken Hill, 27, 210. Cook, H. J., New Proboscidean from Nebraska, 28, 183; Plio- cene fauna from Nebraska, 28, | 500. Cooksey, C. D., corpuscular rays | produced in metals by Rontgen rays, 24, 285. Coon Butte, see Arizona. Copper deposits, Arizona, 21, 332; | Missouri, 21, 180; Nevada, 22, 467. . . . . Coral reef origin and glaciation, Daly, 30, 297. GENERAL INDEX, Monarch | southwestern, | [14 Corals, Madreporian in British Museum, Bernard, 21, 474; of Amboina, Bedot, 25, 158; of Hawaii, Vaughan, 25, 158. — Paleozoic, early stages, Gor- don, 21, 100. /— Rugosa, origin of septa, Duer- _ den and Carruthers, 23, 315; | _ Brown, 23, 277. |Cordoba, la Sierre de, geology, Bodenbender, 22,88 Coronal streamers, Trowbridge, | . 21, 180. Coronas of cloudy condensation, Barus, 22, 342; cycles of, Barus, 24, 300; with mercury light, Barus, 27, 73; observation of, Barus, 24, 277, 376. ! | Crandall, R., Cretaceous of Santa | Clara Valley, California, 24, 33. Crawford, C. M., Physics, 25, 258. Crew, H., Principles of Mechan- | ics, 26, 580; Elements of | _ Physics, 29, 83. 4 Crinoids, muscular articulations, | Clark, 29, 40; pentamerous sym- metry, Clark, 29, 353. | Cripple Creek gold deposits, Lind- | gren and Ransome, 23, 466. | Crookes’ tubes, phenomena Bacon, 22, 310. | Cross, W., red beds of southwest- | ern Colorado, 21, 328. Crystallization, explosive, 27, 82. Crystallography, Wadsworth, 30, in, 0. — Chemical, Groth, 22, 89; 23, 153; 27, 265. — Geometrical, Sommerfeldt, 22, 80. '— Physical, Groth, 21, 185; 24, 381. | Crystals, drawing of, Penfield, 21, _ 206; Reeks and Evans, 26, 584. /— in light parallel to an optic axis, Travis, 29, 427. Cuba, Harvard Botanical Station, 21,475; 27, 94. _— naphtha from, Richardson and Mackenzie, 29, 430. | Culler, J. A., Physics, 28, 557. | Cumberland Gap coal field, Ken- ee Ashley and Glenn, 22, 187. Cumings, E. R., Paleontology, 30, sob: Curie, new unit, 30, 416. Current Testing, Bedell, 29, 83. 15] Cyanide Processes, Wilson, 26, 576. Cycads, historic, Wieland, 25, 93; Mesozoic, 21, 175; structure of, Worsdell, 25, 358. D Dadourian, H. M., radio-activity of thorium, 21, 427; atmos- pheric radio-activity, 25, 335. Dahlgren, W., Animal Histology, 27, 97. ae Dahomey, Mission Scientifique, Hubert, 26, 515. Dale, T. N., Cambrian conglomer- ate of Ripton, Vermont, 30, 267. Dall, W. H., Pliocene climatic conditions at Nome, Alaska, 23, 457. Daly, R. A., abyssal igneous injec- tion and mountain building, 22, 195; limeless ocean of Pre- Cambrian time, 23, 93, 393; mechanics of igneous intrusion, 26, 17; Pleistocene glaciation and the coral reef problem, 30, 207. Dana, E. S., Second Appendix to the System of Mineralogy, 28, 196. Darwin celebration at Cambridge, 25, 460. — and Modern Science, Seward, 28, 505. Davis, B. M., Botany, 23, 155. Davis, W. A., Allen’s Commercial Organic Analyses, 29, 263. Davis, W. M., Physical Geog- raphy, 26, 501. Davison, J. M., analysis of Esta- cado meteorite, 22, 50. Day. A. L., lime-silica series of minerals, formation, 22, 265; new measurements with gas thermometer, 26, 405; nitrogen thermometer from zinc to palla- dium, 29, 93. Declination instrument, new, Hut- chins, 28, 260. DeLury, J. S., cobaltite in north- ern Ontario. 21, 275. Deming, C. D., preparation of | formamide, 24, 173. Derby, O. A., Brazil geol. survey. | 23, 308; manganese deposits of | Brazil, 25, 213. | VOLUMES XXI-XXxX. 451 Dew-ponds, Martin, 24, 500. Diamond pipes in South Africa, Harger, 21, 471. — from Arkansas, 24, 275; from Southwest Africa, 27, 480. Diatomaceous dust on ice floes, Kindle, 28, 175. Dielectrics, anomalies of, Schwei- dler, 25, 147. Dike, P. H., observations in at- mospheric electricity, 27, 197. Diller, J. S., Mesozoic of south- western Oregon, 23, 401; geol- ogy of Taylorsville region, Calif., 27, 412. Dinosaurs, distribution, Lull, 29, 1; musculature of, Lull, 25, 387. See GEOLOGY. Diopside, relation to calcium and magnesium wmetasilicates, Wright and Larsen, 27, I. Discharge, see Electric. Doelter, C., Petrogenesis, 21, 472. Dominica, Avifauna of, Verrill, 21, 337; Hercules bee- tles, A. H. Verrill, 21, 305; 24, 305. Doppler, effect in canal streams, Stark, 23, 63; in positive rays in hydrogen, Royds, 29, 81; Stras- ser, 29, 551. Dresser, J. A., metamorphic rocks of St. Francis Valley, Quebec, 21, 67; rare rock type from Canada, 28, 71. Drew, G. A., Invertebrate Zool- ogy, 24, 382. Drude, Optics, 23, 146. Drushel, W. A., separation of magnesium, 23, 293; volumetric estimation of lanthanum, 24, 197; potassium as the cobalti- nitrite, 24, 433; estimation of potassium, 26, 329, 555; esters of halogen substituted acids, 30, 72. Duane W.., emission of electricity from radium, 26, 1; range of a-rays, 26, 465. Duff, A. W., Physics, 27, 85; 28, 556; Physical Measurements, 27, 488. Duggar, B. M., Fungous Diseases of Plants, 30, 92. Duncan, D., Life of Herbert Spen- cer, 27. 09. Duncan, W. S., Evolution of Mat- ter, 23, 471. Duralumin, a new alloy, 30, 340. 452 GENERAL INDEX. [16 Dynamics, Elementary, Ferry, 26, 500; 30, 206. — of Living Matter, Loeb, 21, 470. E Earth, changes of level of crust, Fisher, 21, 216. — circulation of atmosphere, Bigelow, 29, 207. — figure of, and isostasy, Hay- ford, 22, 185; 29, 193; 30, 200. — magnetism of, 27, 348. — Physical History, Babbitt, 27, Ol. — Work on, Suess, 29, 260. Earthquake Investigation Com- mittee, Japanese, 23, 322; 24, 90; 26, 240. — California, 1906, 22, 82; 27, 48; 30, 287. — Messina, Perret, 27, 321. Earthquakes, de Ballore, 21, 331; 25, 202; origin of mounds, etc., Hobbs, 23, 245. — Work on, Hobbs, 23, 309; 25, 250, 354; 30, 424. rR Eastman, C. R., Dipnoan affinities of Arthrodires, 21, 131; Devo- nian Fishes of the New York formations, 24, 443; Devonian Fishes of lowa, 27, 415. Eclipse, solar, 1907, 21, 245. Economic Geology, Ries, 21, 256; 30, 426. Eddy, E. A., separation of magne- sium, 25, 444; ester formation, etc., 26, 253, 281, 206. Edgar, G., reduction of vanadic acid, 25, 233; vanadic and mo- lybdic acids, 25, 332; estimation of iron and vanadium, 26, 79; of chromic and vanadic acid, 26, 333; iodometric estimation of vanadic acid, 27, 174; estima- tion of vanadic and arsenic acids, 27, 299; velocities of re- actions between metals and dis- solved halogens, 29, 237. Egypt, Faytim, Tertiary Verte- brata, Catalogue, Andrews, 22, 465. Eiszeit und Urgeschichte der Menschen, Pohlig, 24, 381. Ejectamenta, Celestial, Wilde, 30, 206. Elastic constants of rocks, Adams and Coker, 22, 95. Electric (Electrical) arc between metallic electrodes, Cady and Arnold, 24, 383; Cady and Vinal, 28, 89; Cady, 28, 230. — — light, Czudnochowski, 23, 65. — conductivity of air in intense electric fields, Ewell, 22, 368; of flames, Wilson and Gold, a1, 3990; of metals, oxides, etc., Badeker, 23, 46r. . — discharge, magnetic rotation of, Mallik, 26, 576. — discharges in gases, Sieveking, 22, 80; in hydrogen, Kirby, 23, 384; Trowbridge, 29, 341; in strong magnetic fields, 21, 180. — furnace reactions, Hutton and Petavel, 25, 451. — radiation, Paetzold, 21, 250. — rectifier, Wehnelt, 21, 250. — spark, constitution, Royds, 29, 264; energy of, Heydweiller, 21, 465. ' — units, ratio of, Rosa and Dor- sey, 24, 443, 500. — waves, Drude, 23, 64; in wire- less telegraphy, Reinhold-Ri- denberg, 25, 451. — See also Radio-activity, Hlectricity, atmospheric, recent observations in, Dike, 27, 197. — Conduction through Gases and Radio-activity, McClung, 29, 190. — emission from radium, Duane, ZO: — excited by the fall of mercury through gases, Becker, 28, 406. — Experimental, Searle, 26, 580. — positive, Thomson, 29, 81; rays of positive, Thomson, 23, 461. — Sound and Light, Millikan and Mills, 28, 79. Elektrische Kraftiibertragung, Philippi, 21, 81. Elektrizitat, die Strahlen der posi- tiven, Gehrcke, 29, 101. Electro-Analysis, Smith, E. F., 24, 408. Electro-Chemistry, Hopkins, 21, 249; LeBlanc, 23, 383; Van Laar, 25, 525. Electrolytes, influence of mag- netic fields on, Berndt, 24, 442.” Electrolytic coherer, Gundry, 21, 3206. Electromagnetic waves over plane surfaces, Zenneck, 24, 441. — theory of light, Kunz, 30, 313. 17] Electrometer, gold leaf, effect or temperature, Bottomley, 25, 347. Electrometers, quadrant, Schulze, 25, 451. in aie Electron Theory, Fournier d’Albe, 23, 145. Electrons, Lodge, 23, 462; Abra- ham and Longevin, 21, 466. — constitution of, Kaufmann, 21, 308. CAE — emission from metallic oxides, Jentzsch, 26, 512. — initial velocities of, Hull, 28, 251. — moving, Hupka, 29, 180. — negative kinetic energy of, Richardson, 26, 512. — positive, in the sodium atom, Wood, 25, 258. Electro-Physiology, Bose, 25, 525. Elektrotechnik, Heinke, 28, 70. Elements, Rarer, Browning, 27, 262. Elephant, evolution, Lull, 25, 160. Elkin, W. L., parallax investiga- tion of 162 stars, 22, 471. Engineers Manual, Ferris, 28, 560. Enzyme action, Bayliss, 27, 100. Equations, Differential, Campbell, 23, 150. Erblichkeitslehre, Elemente der exakten, Johannsen, 28, 85. Erosion as time-measure, Lev- erett, 27, 340. Eruptions, submarine, near Pan- telleria, Washington, 27, 131. Erythrea, East Africa, petrog- raphy, Manasse, 29, 87. Esperanto, Griffin, 23, 471. Ethnology, Bureau of American, publications, 21, 260; 24, 80, 91; 26, 501; 28, 87. Euler, Works of, 28, 88. Evans, N. N., gedrite, 25, 500. Eve, A. S., radium in minerals, 22, 4; relative activity of radium and thorium, 22, 477. Evolution, Essays on, Poulton, 27, 193. — and Animal Life, Jordan and Kellogg, 24, 440. — of the elephant, Lull, 25, 160; of the horse, Lull, 23, 161. — of Forces, Le Bon, 26, 570. — of Mammals, Hubrecht, 29, 271; of mammalian teeth, Os- born, 25, 264. — of Matter, etc., Duncan, 23, 471. — work on, Steinmann, 27, 341. VOLUMES XXI-—XXX, 453 Ewell, A. W., air conductivity in intense electric fields, 22, 368; Gibbs’ Theory of reflection of light, 24, 412; Physical Measure- ments, 27, 488; 30, 350; Physi- cal Chemistry, 28, 555. |Expansion coefficient, method of determining, Williams, 28, 180. Extinction angles, measurement of, Wright, 26, 340. F Farlow, W. G., Bibliographical Index of North American Fungi, WO, wy Dit, Wy Bie, 75 Farr, H. V., determination of ar- senic, 27, 316. Farrington, O. C., Shelburne and South Bend meteorites, 22, 93; analysis of iron shale from Can- yon Diablo, 22, 303; times of fall of meteorites, 29, 211; new Pennsylvania meteorite, 29, 350. pane see GEOLOGY, ZOOL- Vee Feldspars, determination, Wright, 21, 361; decomposition, 23, 231. See MINERALS. Fenner, C. N., crystallization of a basaltic magma, 29, 217. Fenton, H. J. H., Chemistry, 28, 554. Fernald, M. R., Gray’s Botany, 26, 518. Fernphotographie, Elektrische, Korn, 24, 82. Ferris, C. E., Manual for Engi- neers, 28, 566. Ferry, E. S., Practical Physics, 25, 452; Dynamics, 30, 206. Field Columbian Museum publi- cations, 21, 408; 22, 93; 24, 88; 25, 532; 27, 493. Filter tubes, Penfield and Brad- ley, 21, 453. Filtering crucible, Gooch and Beyer, 25, 240. Finland, igneous rocks of, Hack- man, 21, 85. Fisher, O., changes of level in the earth’s crust, 21, 216. Fizeau on change of azimuth of polarization, 24, 408. Flames, electrical conductivity, Wilson and Gold, 21, 390. Fletcher, L., Study of Rocks, 27, 490. 454 Flies, African, Blood-sucking, Aus- | ten, 29, 92; British, Austen, 22, 470. Fliess, W., Pfennig, 21, 407. Flight of birds, Trowbridge, 21, 145. — origin of, Nopesa, 25, 528. Flint, G. M., gahnite, 26, 584. Flint, W. R., precipitation of tel- | lurium dioxide, 28, 112; com- plexity of tellurium, 28, 347; 30, 200. Flora,see BOTANY, GEOLOGY. Florida geol. survey, see GEO- LOGICAL REPORTS. Florissant fossils, see Colorado, Fog chamber, drop of pressure in, Barus, 22, 81, 330; standardized, Barus, 26, 87; Thomson’s con- stant determined, Barus, 26, 324. Foods, microscopy of vegetable, Winton, 21, 335. Foote, H. W., determination of | columbium and tantalum, 30, 393, 40r. Foote, W. M., Mineral Catalogue, 27, 490. Ford, W. E., stibiotantalite, 22, 61; beryl crystals, 22, 217; chal- copyrite crystals from Japan, 23, 59; stephanite crystals from Arizpe, Mexico, 25, 244; ortho- clase twins, 26, 149; neptunite crystals, California, 27, 235; min- eral notes, 28, 185; Second Ap- pendix to Dana’s Mineralogy, 28, 106; remarkable twins of atacamite, 30, 16; effect of the presence of alkalies in beryl, 30, 128; labradorite, 30, 151. Fossil, see BOTANY, GEOLOGY. Fox Hills sandstone, Stanton, 30, 172 Franklin, B., Bicentennial celebra- tion, 21, 406; 23, 160. Franklin, W. S., Physics, 25, 258; 27, 85; Light and Sound, 29, 82. Franklin Furnace, N. J., minerals of, Palache, 29, 177. Fraprie, F. R., caesium chromates, | 21, 300. Friend, J. N., Theory of Valency, 27, 337. | Furlong, E. L., exploration of Samwel Cave, California, 22, 235- G Gage, A. P., Physics, 25, 250. GENERAL INDEX, [1s Gale, H. G., Gardiner, J. Maldives Physics, 22, 345, 346. S., Fauna, etc., of and Laccadives, 23, 2A Garrett, A. E., Periodic Law, 28, | 554. 'Gas thermometer, see Thermome- ter. Gaseous suspensions, de Broglie, 29, 204. Gases, behavior of metallic cop- per toward, Sieverts and Krum- bhaar, 30, 412. — electric discharge king, 22, 80. |— pressure of light on, Lebedew, 30, SI. _— in rocks, Chamberlin, 27, 199. |— viscosity, Zemplen, 28, 406. | Gaskell, W. H., Origin of Verte- brates, 27, 192. |Gates, F. L., decomposition of hydrochloric acid, 28, 435. Gauss, C. F., complete works, vol. | _ vii, 23, 470. | Gecee iy Data, Clarke, 25, | 458. | Geographical Tables, Albrecht, 27, 493. | Geography, Demangeon, 23, 399. |— Physical, C. T. Wright, 23, 323. — Physical and Commercial, Gregory, Keller and Bishop, 30, 158. Geologic History, Outlines, Willis and Salisbury, 30, 354. Geological Congress, Interna- tional, meeting at Mexico City, 21, 406; 22, 463. — map of Buffalo Luther, 22, 347. — — of Cape of Good Hope, 23, 465; 25, 83; 26, 08. — — of Connecticut, Gregory and Robinson, 23, 302. — — of Illinois, 22, 543. GEOLOGICAL REPORTS AND SURVEYS. Alabama, 24, 84. Brazil, 23, 308. Canada, Annual reports, 21, 404; vols. xiv, Xv, 22, 544; vol. xvi, 26, 239; Index to Reports 1885-1906, 26, 514; publica- tions, 21, 404; 25, 455; 27, 87; 29, 305; 30,357; Summary re- ports, 1905, 1906, 23, 306; 1907, in, Sieve- quadrangle, 19) GEOL. REP. AND SURVEYS. 25, 527; 1908, 28, 80; 1909, 30, 357- Cape of Good Hope, Annual reports, 10th, 1905, 23, 308; 12th, 1907, 26, 582; 13th, 1908, 29, 194; Geol. maps, 23, 465; 25, 83; 26, 98. Colorado, 28, 559; 30, 423. Connecticut, bulletin, no. 6, 23, 385; no. 7, 23, 392; no. 8, 24, 447; NO. 9, 23, 393; no. 14, 29, 560. — biennial reports, second, 23, 303; third, 27, 264. Florida, Annual reports, first, 26, s8I; second, 29, 265. Illinois, bulletins, nos. I, 2, 22, EASe yilO 3), 23,8227) 10.04, 24, ; NO. 5, 25, 353; no. 7, 26, no. 9, 27, 4890; no. 10, 28, 560; no. II, 29, 267; nos. 13, 14, 30, 85; Geol. map, 25, 457; Year book, 1907, 27, 89. India, 24, 181. Indiana, Annual reports, 30th, 22, 544; 31st, 25, 82; 32d, 27, 88; 33d, 28, 550. Iowa, 1905, 23, 393; 1906, 26, 97; | 1907, 27, 339; 1908, 29, 459. Kansas, 29, 268. Maryland, 1005, 21, 331; 1906, | 23, 146; 26, 97; 1907, 24, 180, | 181; 1908, 30, 422, 423. Michigan, 1905, 23, 227; 1906, 25, 354, 456; 1907, 28, 559. Mississippi, 27, 264. | New Jersey, 1905, 22, 544; 1906, | 25, 82, 152; 1907, 26, 514; 1908, 28, 409; Geol. folio, 27, 189. New Zealand, bulletin no. 1, 22, 542; no. 2, 23, 464; no. 3, 25, 83h) no: 4, 25, 520; no. 5, 27, 89; no. 8, 29, 460; 2d Ann. report, 1008, 28, 81. North Carolina, vol. I, 1905, 21, | 253; vol. 2, 1907, 25, 159; bulle- tins 27, 87; 30, 201. North Dakota, Biennial report, fourth, 25, 457; fifth, 29, ro2. | Ohio, bulletins nos. 4 and 5, 22, 543; no. 6, 23, 72. Oklahoma, 27, 339. Pennsylvania, 29, 266. South Australia, 30, 85. United States, 26th annual re- | VOLUMES XXI-—XXX. 455 GEOL. REP. AND SURVEYS. TIONS, 20, OL, 175, 252, 392%) 22s 84, 346. — — 27th annual report, 23, 225; New director, G. O. Smith, 23, 307; lists ‘of publi- cations, 23, 65, 226; 24, 82, 376. — — 28th annual report, 25, 149; lists of publications, 25, 150, 264, 352; 26, 95, 402. — — 20th annual HEPOLt 275 188; lists of publications, 27, 86, 406: 28, 80, 557. — — 30th annual report, 29, 191, lists of publications, 29, 86, 363; 30, 83, 417. Vermont, 1906, 23, 147; 1907-8, 27, 88. Virginia, bulletin no. 1, 21, 255; nos. 2, 3, 22, 87; 29, 267, 557. Western Australia, bulletins, nOSs. 23, 25, 23, 463, 464; no. 24, 24, 84; nos. 27, 28, 30, 25, 5327/5 MO. Ao}, a, WES mos, sin 34, 27, 341; no. 32, 28, 81; no. 35, 29, 87 West GREE 1907, 25, 83; 1908, 26, 581; 1900, 28, 498; 29, 450; publications, 30, 200. Wisconsin, bulletin, no. 14, 21, 470; nO. 15, 24, 83; no. 16, 24, 500; no. 20, 26,582; publica- tions, 26, 98; 27, 480. Geological Society of London, Centenary, 24, 92. Geologie, Handbuch der Region- alen, Steinmann and Wilckens, 29, 558. — Traité, Haug., 25, 261, 520. | Geologische Pitney peal re ee, Reyer, 26, 238. ecoleeists; Handbook, Hayes, 28 561. Geology, Chamberlin and Salis- bury, 21, 400. — Alaska, Brooks and Abbe, 22, 187. 2 |— American, History of, Merrill, 21, 467. — Connecticut, Rice and Gregory, 23, 385. — Economic, Ries, 30, 426. — Willis and Salisbury, 30, 354; of the United States, Ries, 21, 256. port, 21, 250; lists of publica- i — Treatise, de Lapparent, 21, 401. 456 GENERAL INDEX, [20 GEOLOGY. Alpen im Eiszeitalter, Penck and Brickner, 25, 84; 27, 341. Alps, Schmidt's sections, 25, 155. Ammonites, Yorkshire types, Buckman, 30, 157. Ankylosauride, Brown, 25, 528. Antelopes, Tertiary of Nevada, Merriam, 29, 271. Archhelenis and Archinotis, von Ihering, 26, 513. Arkansas Valley, Colorado, geology, Darton, 23, 140. Arthrodires, American, Hussa- kof, 28, 411; Dipnoan affini- ties, Eastman, 21, 131% Arthrophycus and Dedalus of burrow origin, Sarle, 21, 330. Arthropoden, Phylogenie, Hand- lirsch, 22, 340. Auburn-Genoa quadrangles, Luther, 29, 463. Baptanodon, Wyoming, Gil- more, 23, 193. Bauhinia, Cretaceous, new, from Alabama, Berry, 29, 256. Bellerophon limestone, Koss- mat and Diener, 30, 420. Bighorn Mts. geology, Darton, 23, 67. Bird, fossil, from the Wasatch, Loomis, 22, 481. Birds, origin of, Pycraft, 22, 547. Botryocrinus, Bather, 22, 468. Bowlders in conglomerate, frac- | tured, Campbell, 22, 231. Brachauchenius, skull of, Wil- liston, 25, 85. Brachiopod, new Devonian, Greger, 25, 313. Brachiopods from the Missis- sippian, Greger, 29, 7I. Bragdon formation, Hershey, | 21, 58. ‘ Bryozoa, Bassler,21,469; British Museum Catalogue, Gregory, | 29, 195. Bryozoans of Rochester shale, Bassler, 23, 72. Buena Vista, priority in use of name, Prosser, 21, 181. Camarophorelia, Hyde, 26, 514. Cambrian conglomerate, Rip- ton, Vt., Dale, 30, 267. — faunas of China, Walcott, 22, 188; geology of Cordilleran area, Walcott, 27, 414; 30, 419; transition fauna of Braintree, Mass., Shimer, 24, 176. | | GEOLOGY. Camptosaurus, osteology, Gil- _More, 28, 410. Carboniferous, upper, Texas and New Mexico, Richard- SON, 29, 325. — genera of, Ulrich and Bass- ler, 21, 460. — crustacea of Scotland, Peach, 27, 488. — fauna from Nova Zembla, Lee, 28, 562. — Invertebrata, of N.S. Wales, Etheridge and Dun, 23, 140. — and Permian, Russian, Schu- chert, 22, 20, 143. Carnivora and insectivora of the Bridger Basin, Matthew, 28, 500. Cat, skull, ete., of an extinct, Merriam, 28, sor. Cement resources of Virginia, Bassler, 30, 157. Cenozoic Mammal horizons of No. America, Osborn, 29, 88. Cephalopoda of Champlain Basin, Ruedemann, 23, 148. Ceratops, new name for, Lull, 21, 144. Ceratopsia, Hatcher, 26, 08. Cervide, osteology of Ameri- can, Matthew, 27, 93. Chalicotheres, American, Peter- son, 27, 94. Chalk formations of Texas, Gordon, 27, 360. Champsosaurus Cope, osteology of, Brown, 21, 330. Channels, buried, of Hudson river, Kemp, 26, 301. Chazy formation and fauna, Raymond, 22, 348. — Pelmatozoa, Hudson, 23, 467. Clays, Cretaceous, effects of glaciation on, Hawkins, 30, 350. Cleavage, slaty, current theories, Becker, 24, 1. Clymenia in Montana, Ray- mond, 23, 116. Coleoptera, new fossil from Florissant, Wickham, 28, 126; 29, 47. Conglomerates, desiccation, in the coal-measures of Ohio, Hyde, 25, 400. Copper deposits of Arizona, Lindgren, 21, 332. 21] GEOLOGY. Copper deposits of Missouri, Bain and Ulrich, 21, 180. — deposits of Nevada, Lawson, 22, 407. — River region, Alaska, geol- ogy, Mendenhall, 21, 82. Coral, see Coral. — reef problem, Daly, 30, 207. Cretaceous clay at Boston, Clapp, 23, 183. — flora, New York and New England, Hollick, 23, 233. — Paleontology, New Jersey, Weller, 25, 152. — of Montana, Hell Creek beds, Brown, 25, 86. — of Santa Clara region, Cali- fornia, Crandall, 24, 33. Crinoids, origin of muscular articulation, Clark, 29, 40; pentamerous symmetry of, Clark, 29, 353. — of Tennessee, Troost’s, Wood, 28, 561. Crustal warping Pirsson, 30, 25. Cybele, new American, Ray- mond and Narraway, 22, 340. Cycads, historic, Wieland, 25, 03; mesoOzoic, 21, 175. Dakotan series of New Mexico, Keyes, 22, 124. Dendroid egraptolites of Niagaran dolomites, Bassler, 28, 501. in Ontario, Devonian fauna of the Ouray | limestone, Kindle, 29, 194. — faunas of Burma, Reed, 28, | 410. — fishes of lowa, Eastman, 27, | of the New York for- | A415; mations, Eastman, 24, 443. — fossils, Clarke, 23, 467. — history of New York, Clarke, | 26, 93. — middle, of Ohio, Stauffer, 30, 354. — of Central Missouri, Greger, 27, 374. — of eastern America, Coblen- zian invasion, Clarke, 24, 502. Diamond fissures, South Africa, Harger, 21, 471. Diatomaceous dust on the Ber- ing Sea ice, Kindle, 28, 175. Dinosaurs, distribution, 29, I; cranial musculature, the | Lull, | VOLUMES XXI-XXX. 457 GEOLOGY. Lull, 25, 387; Huene, 25, 86. Diplodocus Marsh, Holland, 21, 470. Drift, form of outwash, Carney, 23, 336. Earth, see Earth. Earthquake, see Earthquake. Elephant, evolution, Lull, 169. Encrinurus, Vogdes, 23, 467. Entelodontide, revision of, Peterson, 28, 411. Eocene fossils, Green River, Wyoming, Cockerell, 28, 447. — horses, American, Granger, 25, 528. Eodevonaria, Breger, 22, 534. Erdbebenkunde, eine Einftirh- rung in die, Hobbs, 30, 424. Erde, das Antlitz der, Suess, 29, 260. Erosion, study of, Leverett, 27, work on, von osteology, 25, Essex Co., Mass., geology, etc., Sears, 21, 255. Eurypterus shales, Clarke, 23, 467. Faults, postglacial of eastern New York, Woodworth, 23, 228. Fauna, Guadalupian, Girty, 27, 413; Jurassic of Mazapil, Burckhardt, 23, 316; lower Miocene from So. Dakota, Matthew, 24, 379; marine of Zacatecas, Burckhardt, 23, 316;. of Cardenas, Bose, 23, 318; of Montana, upper De- vonian, Raymond, 23, 116. Felide, phylogeny, Matthew, 30, 421. Finger lakes, ancient, in Ohio, Hubbard, 25, 239. Fish fauna of the Albert shales, Lambe, 28, 165. Fishes, Palzoniscid, from New Brunswick, Lambe, 30, 354. Flora, Cretaceous of New York and New England, Hollick, 23, 233; Cretaceous of Qued- linburg, Richter, 23, 238; 29, 270; Jurassic of Oregon, Knowlton, 30, 33; Mesozoic of the U. S., Knowlton, 21, 175; Rhetic of Persia, Zeiller, 23, 230. 458 GEOLOGY. Florissant fossils, see Colorado. Fossil insects, see Insects. Fossil plants, see also BOT- Fossils from China, Lorenz, 23, 148. — trom Silurian of Tennessee, Foerste, 27, 480. — Paleozoic, Whiteaves, 23, 71. Fox Hills sandstone, Stanton, 30, 172. Fulgur, genesis, Maury, 27, 335. Fusulina, Asiatic, Dyhrenfurth, 29, 194; Yabe, 23, 315. Gastropods, Spitz, 25, 153. Geological section at Cape Thompson, Alaska, Kindle, 28, 520. Georgetown quadrangle, Colo- rado, geology, Spurr, Garrey and Ball, 27, 408. Glacial, Glaciers, Glaciation, see these words. Glossopteris flora, British mu- seum, catalogue, Arber, 21, 474. Gold Hill mining district of North Carolina, 30, 201. Goldfield district, Nevada, geol- ogy and ore deposits, Ran- some, 29, 85. Grand Canyon, Arizona, geol- ogy, Noble, 29, 360, 497; Rob- inson, 24, 400. Graptolites of New York, Rue- demann, 26, 402. Gravity streams, corrasion by, Andrews, 30, 86. Grayback mining district, Colo- rado, geology, 30, 423. Guadalupian fauna, Girty, 27, Ais: — and Kansas sections, corre- lation of, Beede, 30, 131. Guaynopita district, Mexico, geology, Hovey, 24, 503. Hallopus, von Huene and Lull, 25, 113. Heidelberg man, 27, 416. Hell Creek beds of Upper Cre- taceous, Montana, Brown, 25, 86. Hohlenkunde, von Knebel, 21, 473. Horse from the lower Miocene, Loomis, 26, 163. — family, evolution, Lull, 23, 161. GENERAL INDEX. [22 GEOLOGY. Horses, fossil, No. Dakota and Montana, Douglass, 27, 94. re eg in Ontario, Parks, 26, Epona lower Paleozoic, from Girvan, Reed, 29, 194. Ice-age, ice-movement, ice- _ sheet, see these words. Ichthyosauria, Triassic, Mer- riam, 27, OI. Indoceras, Noetling, 22, 340. Insects, see Insects. Isostasy, geodetic evidence of, Hayford, 22, 185; and figure of the Earth, Hayford, 29, 193; 30, 290. Judith River beds, geology, Stanton and Hatcher, 21, 177. Jurassic floraof Oregon, Knowl- ton, 30, 33. — formation of Texas, paleon- tology, Cragin, 21, 170. — fossils from Black Hills, Whitfield and Hovey, 23, 467; from Franz Josef Land, Whit- field, 22, 263; localities of sup- posed, Veatch, 21, 457. — strata of South Dorset, Buckman, 29, 461. Keewatin ice sheet, Montana lobe, Calhoun, 22, 468. Kilauea and Mauna Loa, Brig- ham, 29, 363. Laccoliths of Piatigorsk, V. de Derwies, 21, 184. Lakes, see Lakes. Laramie, application of the term, Veatch, 24, 18; Peale, 28, 45. Lead and zinc deposits of Vir- ginia, Watson, 21, 255; of Wisconsin, Grant, 21, 470; of Kentucky, Ulrich and Tan- gier Smith, 21, 84. Lepadocystis clintonensis, On- tario, Parks, 29, 404. Lower Paleozoic of Illinois, Savage, 25, 431. Lycopodium, Cretaceous, Berry, 30, 275. Lyttoniidae, Noetling, 22, 349. Magnetic iron ores, Adiron- dack, geology, Newland and Kemp, » 26, 238. Mammal horizons, Tertiary, of No. America, Osborn, 24, 504. Mammalian migration, Matthew, 25, 60, 154. 23| ‘VOLUMES XXI-XXX. 459 GEOLOGY. | GEOLOGY. Mammalian molar teeth, lution, H. F. Osborn, 25, 264. Mammals, new fossil, from Egypt, Osborn, 29, 88. — Orders of, Gregory, 30, 88. — Tertiary horizons in America, Osborn, 29, 88. Marysville mining district, Montana, Barrell, 24, 35. Mauch Chunk shale, Barrell, 25, 353. Meso-Silurian deposits of Mary- land, Prouty, 26, 563. Mesozoic Floras of U.S., Ward, 21, 175. —section in Alaska, Stanton and Martin, 21, 181. — of southwestern Oregon, Diller, 23, 401. Miocene drum fish, Smith, 28, 275- — foraminifera of California, Bagg, 21, 253. Lower, fauna from So. Da- kota, Matthew, 24, 379; horse from, Loomis, 26, 163; Rhi- nocerotide from, 26, 51. Mississippian brachiopods, Gre- ger, 29, 71; formations of Rio Grande Valley, N. M., Gordon, 24, 53. Monarch mining district, Colo- rado, geology, Crawford, 30, 423. Mounds, earthquake origin of, Hobbs, 23, 245. Mount Greylock, geological his- tory, Dale, 23, 140. Mt. Taylor region, N. M., Shimer and Blodgett, 25, 53. Mountain building and abyssal igneous injection, Daly, 22, 195. Niagaran limestone in the Chi- cago area, Weller, 24, 445. Ocean, limeless, of Pre-Cam- brian time, Daly, 23, 93, 393. Ohio geological formations, nomenclature, Prosser, 21, 181. Senos geology, Gould, 22, WE — oil and gas fields, Perry and Hutchinson, 28, 560. Olenellus, Walcott, 30, Aro. Oligocene of the Cypress Hills, Canada, Lambe, 28, sor. — lizards, Douglass, 27, 94. Evo- | Olympic Mts., geology, Arnold, 28, 9. Ordovician rocks of Kentucky, upper, Nickles, 22, 348. — and Silurian formations in Illinois, Savage, 28, 500. Ore deposits of New Mexico, Lindgren, et al., 30, 427. Ouray folio, Colorado, Cross, Howe, and Irving, 25, 352. — limestone, Devonian fauna, Kindle, 29, 194. Owl Creek Mts., Wyoming, geology, Darton, 22, 467. Paleobotany, see Flora above, also BOTAN Ac aes eva of North America, Schuchert, 29, 552. Paleolithic man, restoration, Lull, 29, 171. Paleontologia Universalis, 24, 447. Paleontologica, Miscellanea, Fritsch, 24, 502. Paleozoic corals, early stages, Gordon, 21, 100. — formations in Texas, Rich- ardson, 25, 474. — fossils of Burma, Reed, 25, 262. — Insects, see Insects. — platform of North America, Ruedemann, 30, 403. — Lower, of Illinois, Savage, 25, 431; formations in New Mexico, Gordon and Graton, 21, 390; of New Mexico, Lee, 26, 180. eae ee corytophysa, Fuchs, 22, Patuxent folio, sohedee Miller and Bibbins, 25, 352. Peat beds of Anticosti Island, Twenhofel, 30, 65. — in Michigan, Davis, 25, 456. Pebbles, facetted, of Brazil, Lisboa, 23, 9, 150. Peccaries, new genus, Loomis, 30, 381. Pecten lioicus, Dall, 23, 457. Pectens of California, Arnold, 22, 188. Pelycosauria, E. C. Case, 25, 84. Pennsylvanian rocks of Okla- homa, Gould, Ohern and Hutchinson, 30, 157. Permian insects, see Insects. — of India, Koken, 26, 165. 460 GEOLOGY. Permian, Upper, of Oklahoma and Texas, Beede, 24, 86. Petrogenesis, Doelter, 21, 472. Phasmids, von Wattenwyl and Redtenbacher, 23, 308. Physiography of the Central Andes, Bowman, 28, 107, 373. Plains: in Cape Colony, Schwarz, 24, 185. Plants, Fossil, Seward, 30, 356. Pleistocene bone deposit, Ar- kansas, Brown, 27, 93. — deposits of South Carolina, Pugh, 22, 186; of Nantucket, Cushman, 22, 187. — flora, Alabama, 387. — geology of Mooers Quad- rangle, Woodworth, 22, 86. — new ruminants from, Gidley, 21, 470; 28, 412. Plesiosaurs, North Williston, 21, 221. Pliocene climate in Alaska, Dall, 23, 457. — fauna from Nebraska, Mat- thew and Cook, 28, 500. Pre-Cambrian rocks of George- town, Colorado, Ball, 21, 371. Berry, 29, American, — time, limeless ocean of, Daly, 23, 93, 393. ae Preglacial deposits, Atlantic, Bowman, 22, 313. Primates, Wasatch and Wind River, Loomis, 21, 277. Proboscidean from the Ne- braska Miocene, Cook, 28, 183. Procamelus from the Montana Miocene, Gidley, 28, 411. Proceratops, Lull, 21, 144. Prorosmarus alleni from Vir- ginia Miocene, Gregory, 21, 444. Protostega, osteology, Wieland, 21, 460. Protostegide, revision, Wie- land, 27, Iot. Pseudolingula, Mickwitz, 28, 562. Ptilodus, notes on, Gidley, 28, All. Red beds of southwestern Colo- rado, Cross and Howe, 21, 328; of Guadalupian section, Beede, 30, 131. Rhinoceros, fossil, from No. Berry and GENERAL INDEX, [24 GEOLOGY. Dakota and Montana, Doug- lass, 27, 93. Rhinocerotide of Lower Mio- cene, Loomis, 26, 51. Rock floor of New York, con- figuration, Hobbs, 21, 182. Rock-weathering, peculiarities of, Hilgard, 21, 261. Rocks, see ROCKS. Rodents, Wasatch and Wind River, Loomis, 23, 123. Roxbury conglomerate, Mans- field, 23, 67. Rugosa, Duerden and Carru- thers, 23, 315. Samoa, geology, Friedlander, 30, 425. Saugetierontogenese, die, Hu- brecht, 29, 271. Saurian, armored, from the Nio- : brara, Wieland, 27, 250. Schistosity caused by crystalli- zation, Wright, 22, 224. Schoharie Valley, geology, Gra- bau, 23, 148. Serra de Jacobina, Brazil, geol- ogy, Branner, 30, 385. Serra do Mulato, Brazil, geol- ogy, Branner, 30, 256. Silurian fauna, in Western America, Kindle, 25, 125. — fossils, Dennessee, etc., Foerste, 27, 480. — section at Arisaig, Nova Scotia, Twenhofel, 28, 143. Starfishes, Lower Devonic, of Germany, Schondorf, 29, 105. Stegosaurus, armor, Lull, 29, 201; restoration, Lull, 30, 361. Stenomylus, genus, Loomis, 29, 297. Stone Implements of South Africa, Johnson, 23, 465. Strenuella strenua, Shimer, 23, 199, 319. Streptelasma rectum, Hall, Brown, 23, 277. Stromatoporoids, Parks, 24, 86; 26, 240; 30, 355. Strophomenacea, Yakovlew, 25, 457- Syringothyris, 223. Taylorsville region, California, - geology, Diller, 27, 412. Teleoceras from the Miocene of Nebraska, Olcott, 28, 403. Schuchert, 30, 25] GEOLOGY. Teratornis, a new Avian genus, .Miller, 28, 501. Terraces, aggraded, of the Rio Grande, Keyes, 24, 467; in Ohio, Hubbard, 25, 108; wave- cut in Keuka Valley, Carney, 23, 325: 2 Tertiary formations of the John Day region, Merriam, 24, 377. — insects, see Insects. _ —mammal horizons of No. America, Osborn, 24, 504. — peneplain in Arizona and New Mexico, Robinson, 24, 100. — plants, Cockerell, see Colo- rado. — Vertebrata, of Fayum, Egypt, Catalogue, Andrews, 22, 465. Tetraceratops from Texas, Mat- thew, 27, 93. Tidal and other problems, Chamberlin, Moulton, et al., 28, 188. Time measures, weathering and erosion as, Leverett, 27, 349. Titanotheres from the Eocene and Oligocene, Osborn, 29, 90. Tombador escarpment in Bahia, Brazil, Branner, 30, 335. Tonopah Mining District, Ne- vada, geology, Spurr, 21, 83. Tooth-cusp development, Gid- ley, 22, 546. Trias, stratigraphy of the West- ern American, Smith, 24, 446. Triassic cephalopod genera of America, Hyatt and Smith, 21, 253. : — reptile Hallopus, von Huene +. aincl ILjetlll, BR wins. Tribes Hill formation, Raymond, 30, 344. Trilobites in the Chicago area, Weller, 24, 445; East-Baltic, Schmidt, 23, 315; 24, 445. Trochilisken, Karpinsky, 23, 314. age, Turtles, Fossil, Hay, 26, 516; | Wieland, 27, 101. — from the Upper Harrison beds, Loomis, 28, 17. Unconformities, significance of certain, Keyes, 21, 206. Unionide, from Montana Lara- mie clays, Whitfield, 24, 446. Vertebrates, Carboniferous, of VOLUMES XXI-—XXX. 461 GEOLOGY. the U. S. National Museum, Moodie, 29, 88. — fossil, in the Amer. Museum Natural History, Catalogue, Hussakof, 27, 92. Volcanic activity, Barus, 24, 483. Volcanoes, see Volcanoes. Volutilithes petrosus, Smith, 22, 263. pease deposits, Loomis, 23, 350. Wyoming, Big Horn basin, geology, Fisher, 24, 503. Yakutat coastal plain of Alaska, Blackwelder, 27, 450. Zonal Belt Hypothesis, Wheeler, 27, 205. Geometry, Lyman, 26, 590. Geophysical research, Gibbs, 21, 461. Georgetown quadrangle, Colo- rado, geology, Ball, 21, 371; Spurr, Garrey and Ball, 27, 408. Gesteine, Physiographie der mas- oes Rosenbusch, 23, 394; 26, 563. Getman, F. H., Physical Chemis- try, 25, 450. Gibbs’ geometrical theory of re- flection of light, Ewell, 24, 412. Gibbs, J. W., geophysical research, 21, AOI. Scientific Papers, Bumstead and Van Name, 23, 144. Gibbs, Wolcott, obituary notice, Jackson, 27, 253. Gidley, J. W., tooth-cusp develop- ment, 22, 546. Gilbert, G. K., California earth- quake of 1906, 27, 48. | Gilman, A. F., Chemical Analysis, 25, 450. 92 Gilmore, C. W., Baptanodon, from | Wyoming, 23, 193. |Girty, Guadalupian fauna, 27, 413. | Glacial bowlders in Blaini forma- tion, India, Holland, 27, 413. |— history of Nantucket, Wilson, 23, 67. — motion, theory, Willcox, 23, 231. — overflow channels in New York, Carney, 25, 217. | — period in non-glaciated regions, Huntington, 25, 353. |— studies of the Austrian Tyrol, | Flusin and Bernard, 30, 424. 462 Glacial waters in New York, Fair- child, 27, 340. Glaciation, at Bergen, Norway, 26, 583. — effects on Cretaceous clays, Hawkins, 30, 350. — of Orford and Sutton Mts., Quebec, Wilson, 21, 106. — Permian, in India, 26, 165. — Pleistocene, and the coral reef problem, Daly, 30, 207. — of the Uinta and Wasatch Mts., Atwood, 27, 340. Glaciers, Canadian, Scherzer, 25, 261 — periodic variations, Reid and Muret, 23, 68; Briickner and Muret, 26, 98; 28, 560; 30, 424. — See ice-age, ice-sheet. Glaciology, new journal of, 22, 93. Glass, elastic constants, Adams and Coker, 22, 117. — reflection at polarizing angle, Rayleigh, 26, 512. — and iron, vacuum-tight seals between, Sand, 30, 413. Gleichen, A., Praktische Optik, 22, 541. Gletscherkunde, 22, 93. Globuskarte, Sipman, 25, 268. Gockel, A., die Luftelektrizitat, 28, Zeitschrift ftir, 77: Gold deposits, Cripple Creek, Lindgren and Ransome, 23, 466. Goldschmidt, V., anhydrite twin from Aussee, 24, 487; goethite, 20, 235. i Goniometer lamp, new, Wright, 27, 194. ¥ Gooch, F. A., separation of ar- senic from copper, 22, 488. — estimation of iron, 23, 365. — determination of copper, 24, 65; potassium aluminium sul- phate, 24, 167. — reduction of vanadic acid, 25, 233; filtering crucible in elec- trolytic analysis, 25, 249; separa- tion of magnesium, 25, 444. — estimation of chromium, 26, pe) — electrolytic estimation of lead and manganese, 27, 59; deter- mination of silver as chromate, 27, 241; iodometric estimation of silver, 27, 302; copper oxa- late in analysis, 27, 448. Gooch, F. A., determination of GENERAL INDEX, [26 free iodine, 28, 33; decomposi- tion of hydrochloric acid, 28, 435; determination of chlorine, 28, 544. Goodale, G. L., new form of “Container” for Museums, 21, 451; plaster-plaques for mu- seums, 22, 90. Goodspeed, A. W., Physics, 25, 250. Gordon, C. E., early stages in Paleozoic corals, 21, 100. Gordon, C. H., lower Paleozoic formations in N. Mexico, 21, 390; Mississippian formations of Rio Grande valley, New Mexico, 24, 58; chalk forma- tions of northeast Texas, 27, 360. Gordon College, Khartoum, re- port of laboratories, 23, 155; 29, Ol. Graham, R. P. D., pseudomorphs after laumontite and corundum, 22, 47; optical properties of hastingsite, 28, 540. Grand Canyon geology, Robin- son, 24, 109; Noble, 29, 360, 497. Grating, use in interferometry, Barus, 30, 161. Graton, L. C., formations in 390. ; Gravitation, hypothesis of, dis- cussed, Bumstead, 26, 493. Gray Herbarium, Harvard Uni- versity, publications, 28, 85. Greenland, minerals of, Boggild, lower Paleozoic N. Mexico, 21, 23, 320. — rocks of northwest, Belowsky, 21, 184. : é — sea-floor deposits, Boggild, 23, 394. ; Greger, D. K., new Devonian _ brachiopod, 25, 313; Devonian of central Missouri, 27, 374; rare brachiopods from the Mississip- pian, 29, 71. Gregory, H. E., geology of Con- necticut, 23, 385; geol. map of Connecticut, 23, 392; Bibliog- raphy of Connecticut Geology, 24, 447; Physical and Commer- cial Geography, 30, 158. Gregory, W. K., Prorosmarus alleni from Virginia, 21, 444; Orders of Mammals, 30, 88. _ Griggs, R. F., divided lakes in western Minnesota, 27, 388. 27] VOLUMES Groth, P., Physical Crystallog- raphy, 21, 185; 24, 381; Chemi- cal Crystallography, 22, 89; 23, 153; 27, 265. Guadalupian Fauna, 27, 413; Beede, 30, 131. Guiana, British, ale fields, Har- rison, 27, 400. — Dutch, geology, Beekman, 27, Girty, 410. Guild, F. W., eruptive rocks in Mexico, 22, 159; molybdite from Arizona, 23, 455. H Haber, F., Thermodynamics, 26, 92. Hale, G. E., Stellar Evolution, 26, 577: Halley’s Chambers, 30, 154. Hallock, W., Evolution of Weights and Measures, 22, 346. Hanausek, T. F., Microscopy of Technical Products, 25, 87. Hancock, E. L., Mechanics, 28, 78. Handlirsch, A., revision of Paleo- zoic Insects, 21, 468; Fossile Inseckten, 22, 349; 23, 311; 24, 447; 25, 264; 26, 584; 27, 263. Hardness of minerals, Kip, 24, 23; Parsons, 29, 162. Harker, A., Natural History of Igneous Rocks, 28, 503. Harvard Botanical Station, Cuba, BEATS. 27048 — Observatory, see Observatory. Hatch, F. H., Petrology, 27, 410. Hatcher, J. B., geology of Judith River beds, 21, 177; Ceratopsia, 26, 08. Haug, E., Géologie, 25, 261, 520. Hauswaldt, H., Interference phe- nomena, 27, 490. Hawaii, report of surveyor, Rail Hawaiian and lunar craters, Pick- ering, 23, 228. — volcanoes, Brigham, 29, 363. Hawkins, A. C., effects of glacia- tion on Cretaceous clays, 30, 350. Hay, O. H., Fossil Turtles of North America, 26, 516. Hayes, C. W., Handbook for Field Geologists, 28, 561. comet, 23, XXI-XXX, 463 Hayford, J. F., geodetic evidence of isostasy, 22, 185; figure of the earth and isostasy, 29, 193; 30, 2090. Headden, W. P., phosphorescent calcites, 21, 301; brown artesian waters of Costilla Co., Colo., 27, 305. Heat of combination of acidic oxides with sodium oxide, Mix- ter, 26, 125; 27, 220, 303; 28, 103; \29, 488; 30, 193. — of combustion Mixter, 22, 13; 24, 130. — of formation of metallic ox- ides, Mixter, 30, 193. — of oxidation of chromium, Mix- ter, 26, 125; of tin, 27, 232; of molybdenum, etc., 29, 488; of tin, 27, 232; of titanium, 27, 393. Heath, F. H., determination of copper, 24, 65; of arsenic and antimony, 25, 513. Heating effects of R6ntgen rays in different metals, Bumstead, 21, I; 25, 200. Heineman, T. W., Physical Basis of Civilization, 26, 241. Helium, see CHEMISTRY. ehatecy W.E., Chemistry, 23, 304. Heredity, Mendel’s_ Principles, Punnett, 24, 508; Bateson, 27, 4Q1; 28, 84. — work on, Johannsen, 28, 85. Hershey, O. H., Western Klamath stratigraphy, 21, 58. Herter, C. A., Bacterial Infections of the Digestive Tract, 24, OI. Hertz’s photoelectric effect, Bloch, 29, 189. Hidden, W. E., yttrocrasite, 22, of acetylene, of silicon, etc., 515. Hilgard, E. W., peculiarities of rock-weathering, 21, 261; work. on soils, noticed, 22, 468. Hileman, A., alkalimetric estima- tion of silicon fluoride, 22, 320; estimation of fluorine iodo- metrically, 22, 383. Hill, J. W., esters of halogen sub- stituted acids, 30, 72. Hillebrand, W. F., new mercury mineral from Texas, 21, 85; vanadium sulphide patronite, etc., from Peru, 24, 141; Texas mercury minerals, 24, 250; plumbojarosite, 30, 191; mose- 464 site, new mineral from Texas, 30, 202. Himalaya Mts. and Tibet, Bur- rard and Hayden, 27, 180. Hintze, C., Mineralogie, 21, 257; 23, 72; 25, 265; 27, 265; 30, 80. Hoadley, G. A., Physics, 27, 339. Hobbs, W. H., configuration of rock floor of New York, 21, 182; features formed at the time of earthquakes, 23, 245; seismic geology, 23, 309; Theory of Earthquakes, 25, 250, 354; 30, 424. Hober, R., Physikalische Chemie, 23, 158. Hofmeister, F., Beitrage zur chemischen Physiologie, 21, 337; 22, 540; 24, 01; 25, 81; 26, 520. Holland, T. H., Mineral sources of India, 28, 196. Holm, T., Ceanothus Americanus, 22, 523; studies in the Cyper- acee, XXV, 23, 422; Ane- monella thalictroides, 24, 243; Isopyrum biternatum, 25, 133; | of | North American _ species stellaria, 25, 315; studies in the Cyperacee, XX VI, 26, 478. Holmes, S. J., Biology of Frog, 22, 190. Holtermann, Climate and Plant Structure, 23, 460. Homo Heidelbergensis, Schoeten- sack, 27, 416. pela ae a C. G., Soil Fertility, 30, 158. Hopkins, N. M., Electro-Chemis- try, 21, 240. Horse, evolution of, Lull, 23, 16r. | — new Miocene, Loomis, 26, 163; Douglass, 27, 9 — skeleton of Arab, Osborn, 24, [SOL cover sElunpriniaG olemianeree 380. Houard, C., Plantes d’Europe, 28, 506. Hough, T., Human Mechanism, 22, 549; Physiology, 24, 448. Housum, C. R., action of dry am- monia, 24, 479. Howard, K. §., Estacado meteor- ite, 21, 186; 22, 55; Elm Creek aérolite, 23, 370. Howe, E., red beds of southwest- ern Colorado, 21, 328; geology of the Isthmus of Panama, 26, 212. GENERAL INDEX, | Howell, Re-| les Zoocécidies des [28 E. E., Williamstown, Ky., meteorite, 25, 49; Ains- worth meteorite, 25, 105. Hubbard, G. D., terraces in south- eastern Ohio, 25, 108; ancient finger lakes in Ohio, 25, 230. Hubbard, J. L., use of succinic acid, 23, 211; esterification of succinic acid, 23, 368. Hubert, H., Dahomey Mission, 26, 515. Hudson river, buried channels, Kemp, 26, 301. Huene, F. R, von, Triassic reptile, Hallopus, 25, 113. Hull, A. W., initial velocities of the electrons, 28, 251. Human Body and Health, Davi- son, 29, 92. Hunt, W. F., sulphur and celestite in Michigan, 21, 237. Hunter, G. W.., Biology, 24, 448. Huntington, E., glacial period in non- glaciated. regions, 25, 353. Hutchins, C. C., new declination instrument, 28, 260; new method of measuring light efficiency, 28, 520. Hyde, J. E., desiccation conglom- erates, 25, 400. | Hydrolysis of salts of iron, etc., Moody, 22, 76; of ammonium salts, Moody, 22, 379. Hygiene, Personal, Woodhull, 22, 04. Hyperbolic Functions, Becker and Van Orstrand, 29, 190. Hypsometry, Hayford and Pike, 28, 87 I _Ice-age, Alps in, Penck and Briick- ner,.25, 84; 27, 341. 187. — Permian, India, Koken, 26, 165. Ice-flood hypothesis, Andrews, 30, 86. Ice-movement and _ erosion Adirondacks, Miller, 27, 280. Ice-sheet, Montana lobe of Kee- watin, Calhoun, 22, 468. — Wisconsin, recession of, Car- ney, 23, 324; 25, 217. Idaho, geology and ore deposits, Ransome and Calkins, 27, 90. Iddings. J. P., Rock Minerals, 23, 152; Igneous Rocks, 28, 502. in 29] Igneous injection and mountain building, Daly, 22, 195. — intrusion, mechanics of, Daly, 26, 17. } — Rocks, Harker, 28,503; Iddings, 28, 502. — See ROCKS. Thering, H. von, Archhelenis and Archinotis, 26, 513. Illinois Geol. Survey, see GEO- LOG. REPORTS. — lower Paleozoic Siro elie, Savage, 25, 431. — Ordovician and Silurian for- mations, Savage, 28, 500. — University, bulletins, 23, 3990; 30, 202. Immuno-Chemistry, Arrhenius, . 25, 81. India, Board of Scientific Advice, report, 24, 508. — commercial Watt, 27, 417. — geology, Vredenburg, 25, 264. — geological survey, 24, 181. J ‘Mineral Resources, Holland, 28, 106. — Permian in, Koken, 26, 165. Indiana Geol. Survey, see GEO- LOGICAL REPORTS. Indians, Handbook of American, Hodge, 24, 91. Influence Machines, Schaffers, 28, products, 79. Ingersoll, E., Life of Animals, 22, IOI. Insects, Work on Fossil, Hand- lirsch, 21, 468; 22, 340; 23, 311; 24, 447; 25, 264; 26, 584; 27, 263. — Permian, Sellards, 22, 249; 23, BAS sez 7enls — Tertiary, Cockerell, 23, 285; 25, 51,227, 309; 26, 69; 27, 53, 381; 28, 283; Rohwer, 28, 533; Wick- ham, 26, 76; 28, 126; 29, 47. — See Zoology. Interference figures under the microscope, Wright, 225 19; 20, 536. — phenomena, Hauswaldt, 27, 490. Interferometry, use of grating in, Barus, 30, 161. Intrusion, igneous, mechanics of, Daly, 22, 195; 26, 17. Invertebrates, Guide to, Boston Society Natural History, Shel- | don, 21, 336, 475. — See GEOLOGY. Ion, new Journal, 27, 08. VOLUMES XXI-XXX, 465 Ionium, new radio-active element, Boltwood, 24, 370; 25, 280, 365; Marckwald and Keetmann, 25, 347. Ionization of air, effect of dust and smoke on, Eve, 29, 552; periodicity of, Wood and Camp- bell, 23, 224. — and electric convection, Ama- duzzi, 23, 463. — of gases, Rausch, 27, 187. — of the ocean atmosphere, Eve, 23, 224. — produced by alpha rays, Wheelock, 30, 233. Tonized Air, effect of magnetic field, Blanc, 25, 348. Ions, decay in the fog chamber, Barus, 23, 460; in dust- free air, Barus, 22, 136. — Electrons and Corpuscules, Abraham and Langevin, 21, 466. — in air, recombination of, Bragg and Kleeman, 21, 390. Iowa, Devonian fishes, Eastman, 27, 415. — geol. survey, see GEOLOGI- CAL REPORTS. Iron, cementation by charcoal, Guillet and Griffiths, 28, 400. — Chem. Analysis, Blair, 26, SII. — shale from Canyon Diablo me- teorite, Farrington, 22, 303. — See Meteorite. Islay, geology, Wilkinson, Teall and Peach, 24, 503. Isostasy, Hayford on, 22, 185; 29 193; 30, 290. ’ J Jackson, C. L., obituary notice of Wolcott Gibbs, 27, 253. Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, etc., 24, 92. Japan, chalcopyrite crystals, Ford, 23, 50. — Imperial Agricultural Station, 22, 94. Japanese Earthquake Investiga- tion Committee, 23, 322; 24, 90; 26, 240. Jenney, W. P., ereat meteor of 1894, 28, 431. Johannsen, A., Key for Rock- forming Minerals, 25, 5090; Rock- forming Minerals, 27, 490; petrographic microscope im- provements, 29, 435. Nevada 466 Johns Hopkins circular, No. 2, 29, 302. Johnson, B. L., geology of Iron Mine Hill, R. I., 25, 1. Johnson, J. P., stone implements of So. Africa, 23, 465. Jointing, dodecahedral, Lahee, 209, J., Radio-activity and Geol- ogy, 29, 83. Jones, A. T., Practical Physics, 25, 452. Jones, H. C., Electrical Nature of Matter, 21, 465; Physical Chem- istry, 24, 440; 29, 264; absorp- tion spectra of solutions, 28, 78. Jordan, D. S., Evolution and Ani- mal Life, 24, 440. Jupiter, surface of, 25, 267. Jutland, moraines, Ussing, 25, 84. | K Kahlenberg, L., Chemistry, 28, 494. Kansas, University, bulletin, 29, 560. — geological survey, 29, 268. Kayser, Handbuch der Spectro- Scopie, 25, 522; 30, 340. Keller, A. G., Physical and Com- | mercial Geography, 30, 158. Keller, O., die antike Tierwelt, 30, 88. Kellogg, V. L., Evolution and Animal Life, 24, 440. Kelly, H. A., Zoology, 22, 476. Kemp, J. F., buried channels of | Hudson river, 26, 301. Kentucky, lead, zinc and fluor- spar deposits, Ulrich and Tan- gier Smith, 21, 84. — upper Ordovician rocks, Nickles, 22, 348. i Kepner, W. A., Animal Histol- Ogy, 27, 97. Keuka Valley, wave-cut terraces, Carney, 23, 325. Keyes, C. R., significance of cer- tain tnconformities, 21, 206; Dakotan series of New Mexico, 22, 124; aggraded terraces of the Rio Grande, 24, 467. Khartoum, Wellcome Research Laboratories, 23, 155; 29, OI. Kindle, E. M., Silurian fauna in Western America, 25, 125; di- atomaceous dust on the Bering GENERAL INDEX, [30 Sea ice, 28, 175; section at Cape Thompson, Alaska, 28, 520. | Kip, H. Z., determination of the hardness of minerals, 24, 23. eric stratigraphy, Hershey, 21, 58. 'Knebel, W. von, Héhlenkunde, 20, 473. Knight, C. W., pseudo-leucite, Yukon, T., 21, 286; re-forma- tion of soda-leucite, 21, 294. | Knopf, A., new boron minerals, 25, 323. Knowlton, F. H., Jurassic flora of Oregon, 30, 33. Knuth, P., Bliiten-biologie, 27, 06. |Kohler, P. O., Entstehung der Kontinente, 26, 238. ' Ronen E., Indian Permian, 26, 165. Kontinente, Entstehung, Kohler, | 26, 238; Entwicklung, Arldt, 26, Hig alsyizen Korea, Journeys in, Koto, 28, 504. |Korn, A., Elektrische Fernphoto- | _graphie, 24, 82. | Kraemer, H., Botany, 26, 586. | Kraft, Reyer, 27, 272; 29, 560. Kraus, E. H., sulphur and celes- tite in Michigan, 21, 237; dato- lite from Westfield, Mass., 22, 21; 10dyrite from Tonopah and lwo Brokenwhill 277270! |Krystallographie, Chemische, | Groth, 22, 89; 23, 153; 27, 265. |— Physikalische, Groth, 21, 185; | Somerfeldt, 24, 381. Kunz, G. F., production of Pre- cious Stones in 1904, 21, 187; forms of Arkansas diamonds, 24, 275. |Kunz, J., electromagnetic emis- sion theory of light, 30, 313. L Lacroix, A., Mt. Pelée after its eruptions, 26, 400; Minéralogie de la France, 30, 92; les Roches alcalines de Tahiti, 30, 360. Ladenburg, A., History of Chem- istry, 23, 300. Lagunari, Ricerche, 25, 89; 26, 520. Lahee, F. H., dodecahedral joint- ing, 29, 169. Lakes, Alpine Swiss, Bourcart, 22, 468. 31] VOLUMES Lakes, divided in western Min- nesota, Griggs, 27, 388. — finger, in Ohio, Hubbard, 25, 230. Lamb, A. B., Thermodynamics, 26, 02. Lambe, L. M., fish fauna of the Albert shales, 28, 165. Lampard, H., celestite in Canada, 21, 188. Lane, A. C., Shepard on under- ground waters of Missouri, 25, 52. Laeevith P., Ions, Electrons and Corpuscules, 21, 466. Langley, R. W., barium in rocks, 26, 123; determination of colum- bium and tantalum, 30, 393, 401. Langley, Samuel Pierpont, obitu- ary notice, Abbe, 21, 321. Lapparant, A. de, Géologie, 21, 4Ot. Laramie, use of term, Veatch, 24, 18; Peale, 28, 45. Larmar, J.. Memoir and Corre- spondence of Sir G. G. Stokes, 24, SI. Larsen, E. S., optical study of diopside, etc., 27, 28; quartz as a geologic thermometer, 27, 421; relation between the refractive index and density of crystal- lized silicates, 28, 263. Latreille, life of, Nussac, 23, 460. Lawson, copper deposits of Ne- vada, 22, 467. ; Lawton, E. E., bands in the spec- trum of nitrogen, 24, IOI. Le Bon, G., Evolution of Forces, | 26, 579. , Lee, W. T., lower Paleozoic rocks of New Mexico, 26, 180. Leffmann, H., Allen’s Commer- cial Organic Analyses, 29, 263. Lehigh University, Astronomical papers, Ogburn, 24, 283. Leidy, Joseph, Memorial, 21, 338. Leighton, H., Clay-Working In- dustry, 28, 563. Lenher, V., marignacite Wisconsin, 23, 287. Leverett, F., weathering and ero- sion as time measures, 27, 340. Levin, M., absorption of a-rays from polonium, 22, 8. Lewis, J. V., Palisade diabase of New Jersey, 26, 155. Library of Congress, 23, 158; 25, 364; 27, 260; 29, 275. from FORUDOOe, 467 Lichtbogen als Wechselstromer- zeuger, Wagner, 30, 350. Life and Matter, Lodge, 21, 338. Light, absorption of, Miller and Houstoun, 23, 62. — deviation by prisms, Uhler, 27, 223. — efficiency, method of measur- ing, Hutchins, 28, 520. — electromagnetic emission the- ory, Kunz, 30, 313. — Gibbs’ geometrical theory of reflection of, Ewell, 24, 412. — for microscope, Wright, 27, 98, 195. — ozone and ultra-violet, Bahr, 30, 348. — sterilization, by ultra-violet, Daguerre, 30, 414. — and Sound, Franklin and Mac- nutt, 29, 82. Lightning discharges, after glow from, Walter, 21, 173. Lime-silica series of Day and Shepherd, Allen and White, 27, 1. Lindgren, W., copper deposits of Arizona, 21, 332; Cripple Creek, 23, 466. Linnaeus, 200th anniversary of birth, 23, 3906; Correspondence of, Fries, 29, 200; Memorials of, 24, 508; works, Suringar, 26, 168. Linville, H. R., Zoology, 22, 476. Lisboa, M. A. R., facetted pebbles of Brazil, 23, 9. Living matter, Dynamics, Loeb, 21, 479. Lodge, O., Life and Matter, 21, 338; Electrons, 23, 462. Loeb, J., Dynamics of Living Matter, 21, 470. Long, J. H., Physiological Chem- istry, 28, 555. | Loomis, F. B., Wasatch and Wind River primates, 21, 277; fossil bird from the Wasatch, 22, 481; Wasatch and Wind River rodents, 23, 123; origin of Wasatch deposits, 23, 356; lower Miocene Rhinocerotide, 26, 51; new horse from, 26, 163; turtles from the Upper Harrison beds, 28, 17; genus Stenomylus, 29, 297 new genus of peccaries, 30, 381. Lorentz-FitzGerald hypothesis, Bumstead, 26, 4093. Losungen, Feste, Bruni, 27, 262. minerals, 22 20513 468 GENERAI Lotka, A. J., Mode of growth of material aggregates, 24, 190, 375. ; Loughlin, G. F., granites and} metamorphic sediments in Rhode Island, 29, 447. Low, A. P., Cruise of the Nep- tune, 23, 307. Lowell, P., Evolution of Worlds, 29, 100. Luftelektrizitat, Gockel, 28, 77. Lull, R. S., new name for the genus Ceratops, 21, 144; evolu- tion of the horse family, 23, 161; Triassic reptile Hallopus, 25, 113; evolution of the ele- phant, 25, 169; Ceratopsian Dinosaurs, 25, 387; Ceratopsia, 26, 98; Dinosaurian- distribu- tion, 29, 1; restoration of Paleo- lithic man, 29, 171; armor of Stegosaurus, 29, 201; Stego- saurus ungulatus Marsh, restor- ation, 30, 261. Lunar and Hawaiian physical fea- tures, Pickering, 23, 228. M MacKenzie, K.G., natural naphtha from Cuba, 29, 4309. MacNutt, B., Physics, 25, 258; Light and Sound, 29, 82. Magma, crystallization, Fenner, 29, 217. Magmatic stoping, etc., Daly, 26, 17. Magnesium metasilicates, Allen and White, 27, I. Magnetic compounds of manga- nese and boron, 24, 80. — disturbances and the genesis of petroleum, Becker, 28, 400. — field and coronal streamers, J. Trowbridge, 21, 180. — fields on the resistance electrolytes, Berndt, 24, 442. — forces, effect on moon’s mo- tion, Brown, 29, 520. — permeabilities, etc., Peirce, 27, 273: — pole, South, 26, 580. — properties of Norway _ iron, Peirce, 28, 1; of steel, Peirce, | 27,1275. — relations of powdered Trenkle, 21, 465. — rotation, Meyer, 29, 82. — tables for United States, 1905, Bauer, 27, 263. of |. iron, | . INDEX, [3 |Magnetism, Earth’s, | facts, 27, 348. — permanent, of copper, and Ross, 27, 263. — terrestial, Birkeland, 29, 272. |Magnetization by rapidly oscil- {artis currents, Madelung, 21, 8o. Magneto- und Voigt, 26, 570. Maldives and Laccadives, fauna, etc., Gardiner, 23, 24, Mallet, J. W., meteorite from Coon Butte, Arizona, 21, 347. Mammalian migrations, Europe and No. America, Matthew, 25, 60, 154. Man in the Light of Evolution, Tyler, 27, 4109. — Heisei heeey Schoetensack, 27, 416. — restoration of Paleolithic, Lull, 29, 171. Mann, G., Chemistry of the Pro- teids, 21, 407. Manometer, Amagat, Koch and Wagner, 29, 180. Mansfield, G. R., Roxbury con- glomerate, 23, 67. Manila, Bureau of Science, 322. | Maps, geological, see Geological. | Marble, Elastic constants, Adams | and Coker, 22, 112; flow of, 29, 465. Marignac, J.-C. Galissard, com- principal Gray Electro-Optik, 23, | plete works, Ador, 23, 460. | Marins, les Dépots, Collet, 26, 242. Mars, temperature, Lowell, 23, 471. — et ses Canaux, Lowell-Moyen, | 28, 565. | Martin, G., Affinities of Elements and Compounds, 21, 79; Practi- cal Chemistry, 24, 440. Martinique and St. Vincent, vol- canic eruptions, Anderson and Flett, 27, 89; Mt. Pélée, La- croix, 26, 400. | Maryland Conservation Commis- sion, 30, 423. Geol. Survey, see GEOLOGI- CAL REPORTS. — Meso-Silurian deposits, Prouty, 26, 563. |— Pennsylvania boundary, resur- vey, 30, 422. '— Weather service, 26, 100; 30, | 430. 33 | VOLUMES Maryott, C. H., halogens in ben- zol derivatives, 30, 378. Massie, W. W., Wireless Teleg- raphy, 27, 400. Materia Radiante, La, Righi, 28, 77: Material agereeates, mode of growth, Lotka, 24, 190, 375. Matter, composition of, Mulder, 27, 201. — Evolution of Living Purpo- sive, Macnamara, 30, 203. — Corpuscular Theory, Thom- son, 26, 578. — Electrical nature of, Jones, 21, 465. Matthew, W. D., Lower Miocene fauna from So. Dakota, 24, 379; mammalian migrations, 25, 60, 154; Carnivora and insectivora of the Bridger Basin, 28, 500; Pliocene fauna from Nebraska, 28, 500. Maury, C. J., genesis of Fulgur, 27, 335. Mawson, D., Geology of the New Hebrides, 21, 403. Maxson, R.N., colorimetric deter- mination of gold, 21, 270. Mayow, Medico-physical Works, 25, 533. Mazama, 21, 260. McAdie, A., units in aero-phys- ics, 30, 277. McClung, R. K., conduction of electricity through glass, etc., 29, 190. McCoy, H. N., radio-activity of thorium compounds, 21, preparation of urano-uranic ox- ide, 26, 521. McGregory,J.F., Chemical Analy- Sis, 28, 554. McIntosh, W. C., British Anne- lids, 25, 530. ee NErEOM W., Chemistry, 23, 384. Mechanics, Crew, 26, 580; Frank- lin and MacNutt, 25, 166; Han- cock, 28, 78; Merrill, 21, 260. Meier, W. H. D., Plant Study, 27, 345. Melting point determination, White, 28, 453; methods at high temperatures, White, 28, 474; Sosman, 30, I. — of metals, see Metals. XXI-XXX. 4335 469 | Melting point of platinum, Sos- man, 30, 3. Mendelism, Punnett, 24, 508. Mendel’s Principles of Heredity, Bateson, 27, 401; 28, 84. , Mendenhall, W. C., geology of Copper River region, Alaska, 21, 82. Mercalli, G., Active Volcanoes of the Earth, 24, 282. Merriam, J. C., Tertiary forma- tions of the John Day region, 24, 377; Triassic Ichthyosauria, 27, Ol. Merrill, G. P., new meteorite, Scott Co., Kansas, 21, 356; His- tory of American Geology, 21, 467; Rocks and Rock-weather- ing, 23, 150; meteorite from Selma, Alabama, 23, 244; Me- teor Crater of Arizona, 25, 265; composition of stony meteor- ites, 27, 460. Merwin, H. E., alamosite from Mexico, 27, 399; peroxidized titanium solutions, 28, 119; con- nellite and chalcophyllite, Ari- zona, 28, 537. Messina earthquake, 321. Metallography, Goerens, 25, 524; Elements of, Rurer, Mathew- “son, 28, 554. Metals, boiling Perret, 27, points, Green- wood, 28, 553; Krafft, 27, 336; Moissan, 21, 325; Ruff and Johannsen, 21, 78. — internal temperature gradient, Serviss, 24, 451. — melting points, Day and Clem- ent, 26, 461; Day and Sosman, 29, 141; Greenwood, 28, 553; Sosman, 30, T. Meteor crater, see Arizona. Meteorite, iron, Ainsworth, Ne- braska, Howell, 25, 105. | — — Australian, Smith, 30, 264. — — Canyon Diablo, iron shale from, Farrington, 22, 303. == — Quinn Canyon, Nevada, Jenney, 28, 431. — — Rodeo, Mexico, Farrington, 21, 86. — — Shrewsbury, ton, 29, 350. — — Williamstown, Kentucky, Howell, 25, 40. ; — pallasite, of South Bend, Far- rington, 22, 93. Pa., Farring- 470 Meteorite stone, Coon Arizona, Mallet, 21, 347. — — Georgia, Merrill, 29, 368. — — Elm Creek, Kansas, How- ard, 23,370); — — the Estacado, Howard, 21, 186; 22, 55; analysis, Davison, 22, 50. — — Hendersonville, N. C., Mer- rill, 23, 393. — — Modoc, Scott Co., Kansas, Merrill, 21, 356. — — Selma, Alabama, Merrill, 23, 244. — — Shelburne, Ontario, Borg- str6m, 21, 86; Farrington, 22, 93. Meteorites, 30, 413. — Amer. Museum, Foyer collec- tion, New York, 25, 266. — Collection of Berlin Univer- sity, Klein, 22, 9o. — Canyon Diablo, Meteor Crater, or Coon Butte, see Arizona. — from Columbia, H. A. Ward, 23, I. — formation of, 22, 431. — in the Museum of Nat. His- tory, Paris, Meunier, 28, 84. — Rochester collection, Howard, 29, 368. — times of fall, Farrington, 29, 201. Meteorological elements of United Butte, alloys in, Guertler, States and solar radiation, Bige- | low, 25, 413. — investigations, Bigelow, 29, 277; 20) 105; Metric system, Perkin, 25, 364. Mexico, eruptive rocks, Guild, 22, 159. — Tenth International Geologi- cal Congress, 22, 463. Michael, H. A., Studies in Plant |. Chemistry, etc., 24, 90. Michelson’s ether research, Kohl, ZTE SS i Aree biological survey, 29, 268. — geol. survey, see GEOLOGI- CAL REPORTS. — peat in, Davis, 25, 456. — sulphur and celestite in, Kraus and Hunt, 21, 237. — water supplies, 23, 323. _Micrology, Animal, Guyer, 23, 156. Microscope, artificial daylight for use with, Wright, 27, 98, 195. GENERAL INDEX, | Mineralogia Groenlandica, [34 Microscope, interference figures under the, Wright, 22, 10. petrographic, improvements, Johannsen, 29, 435. |— — new, Wright, 29, 407; new ocular for use with, Wright, 29, 415. — polarization, Weinschenk, 22, 80. Microscopical Technique, Rawitz, 25, 88. Miers, H. A., phenocrysts in igne- ous rocks, 21, 182. Miller, W. G., cobalt-nickel arsen- ides of Temiskaming, 21, 256. Miller, W. J., ice-movement and erosion in Adirondacks, 27, 280. Millikan, R. A., Physics, 22, 345, 346; Electricity, etc., 28, 79., Mills, J., Electricity, etc., 28, 70. Milne, W. J., Algebra, 27, 272. Mineral Catalogue, Foote, 27, 490. — Characters, Richards, 23, 232. — Collections, Prendler, 27, 343. — Resources of India, Holland, 28, 196; of the United States, 1906, 25, 264; of Virginia, Wat- son, 28, 82. — survey of Ceylon, report, Par- sons, 28, 81. tables, Penfield, 24, 448; Schroeder van der Kolk, 22, go. Bog- gild, 23, 320. Mineralogie, Hintze, 21, 257; 23, 72; 25, 205; 27, 265; 30, 80. Mineralogy, Second Appendix to Dana’s System, Dana and Ford, 28, 106. etc., Elements, Parsons, 28, 583. — of France, Gonnard, 22, 90; Lacroix, 30, 92. — of Japan, 21, 405. — Optical, N. H. and A. N. Win- chell, 27, 412. Minerals of Arizona, Blake, 28, 82. — of composition MegSiO;, for- Moses and mation, Allen, Wright and Clement, 22, 385; Allen and White, 27, I. — determination of hardness, Kip, 24, 23; Parsons, 29, 162. — of Greenland, Boggild, 23, 320. — Handbook of, Butler, 26, 167. — Key for Rock-forming, Johann- sen, 25, 590. — lime-silica series, formation, Day and Shepherd, optical study, Wright, 22, 265. 9 29 | Minerals of Lyon Whitlock, 23, 232. — measurement of the optic axial angle of, Wright, 24, 317. — mercury, from Texas, Hille- brand and Schaller, 24, 250; 29, 307... — radium, etc., in, 22, I, 4. Radio-active. — reproduction, Tchiruwinsky, 23, 395. — Rock-forming, Johannsen, 27, 90. — of Southern Norway, Brogger, 24, 282. — Tables of, Penfield, 24, 448. MINERALS. Alaite, Central Asia, 30, 360. Alamosite, Mexico, 27, 390. Albite, 24, 255. Actinolite, 23, 32. Amphibole, composition, 23, 23; formation, 22, 403, 435; from Linosa, 26, 187. Anhy- drite, Kansas, 29, 260; twin crystals, 24, 487. Anophorite, Baden, 30, 90. Anorthite, soda, 29, 64. Antlerite, 30, 31r. Argentite, Colorado, 25, VIS aegis ars See 507. Argyrodite, Bolivia, 23, 20. Arizonite, Arizona, 28, 353. Arsenopyrite, New Jer- sey, 29, 177. Asbestos, Can- ada, 21, 255. Astrophyllite, Massachusetts, 29, 215. Ata- camite, twin crystals, Chili, 30, 16. Barbierite, 30, 358. Barite, Maryland, 21, 3609. Bellite, Tasmania, 22, 460. Bemen- tite, New Jersey, 29, 182. Benitoite, California, 24, 448; crystal form, 27, 398. Beryl crystals, 22, 217; presence of alkalies in, 30, 128; water in, 26, 115. Bismite, 29, 173. Bityite, Madagascar, 30, 90. Blédite, Chile, 26, 347. Bra- voite, Peru, 24,151. Brochan- tite, Chili, 30, 24. Brugnatel- lite, 30, 90. Calamine crystals, Organ Mts., N. M., 28, 185. Calcite crys- tals, Kelly’s Island, Lake Erie,, 28, 186; 24, 426; phosphorescent, 21, 301. Calomel, Texas, 24, 273. Canfieldite, Bolivia, 23, 21. Carlosite, California, 24, 448. Carnegieite, 29, 52. Carno- VOLUMES XXI—-XXxX. New Jersey, | 471 MINERALS. tite, radio-activity, Celestite, Canada, 21, 188; Kansas, 29, 261; Michigan, 21, 237. Chalcophyllite, Ari- zona, 28, 537. Chalcopyrite crystals, Japan, 23, 59. Chal- mersite, Brazil, 24, 255. Chi- astolite, So. Australia, 24, 183. Chlorite, 24, 255. Chlorman- ganokalite, 22, 470. Chloro- phane, phosphorescence, 23, 142. Cinnabarcrystals, China, 25, 280. 26, 517. Cobaltite, Northern Ontario, 21, 275. Connellite, Arizona, 28, 537. Copper, crystallized, Arizona, 23, 232. Corundum, N. Carolina, 21, 253; pseudomorph after, from Perth, Ontario, 22,52. Covel- lite, Colorado, 29, 358. Cuspi- dine, New Jersey, 29, 185. Dahllite, 30, 309. Datolite, New Jersey, 28, 187; 29, 185; West- field, Mass., 22, 21. Deloren- zite, Italy, 28, 83. Diamond, transformation into graphite, 29, 302. Diamonds in Africa, 27, 489; Arkansas, 24, 275; in Kimberlite, 25, 87. Diop- side, 27, I; water in, 26, 115. Dolomite, Kansas, 29, 261. Doughtyite, Colorado, 22, 470. Edenite, 23, 38. Eglestonite, Mexacs 24,0027 CE naneites Colorado, 29, 358. Enstatite, formation, 22, 397. Epidote, pyrogenetic, Butler, 28, 27. Evansite, Idaho and Alabama, 24, 155. : Feldspar from Linosa, 29, 52; decomposition, 23, 231; deter- mination of, 21, 361. Fluorite, Kentucky, 21, 84; New Jer- sey, 29, 177; studies in, 21, “405. Fosterite, formation and optical constants, 22, 390. Franklinite, New Jersey, 29, 180. Friedelite, New Jersey, 29, 183. Gadolinite, Australia, 23, 464. Gageite, Franklin, N. J., 30, 283. Gahnite, Mass., 26, 584; New Jersey, 29, 179. Gedrite, Canada, 25, 509. Gehlenite, Mexico, 26, 545> Georgiade- site, Italy, 28, 83. Giorgiosite, 22, 469. Glaucochroite, New Jersey, 29, 181. Goethite, 472 GENERAL INDEX, MINERALS. . _ |MINERALS. Nova Scotia, 29, 235. Gold} Nasonite, New Jersey, 29, 180. nuggets from New Guinea, Natrochalcite, new, Chile, 26, 24, 505. Gold and_ silver, | 345. Nepouite, New Cale- production in 1906, 25, 156. donia, 24, 182. Neptunite Goldtfieldite, Nevada, 29, 85. crystals, Calif., 27, 235; 28, 15. Gorceixite, Brazil, 24, 182. | Northupite, 22, 450. Gypsum, Kansas, 29, 261. Halite, Kansas, 29, 261. Hal- lerite, 30, 90. Harttite, Bra- zil, 24, 182. Hastingsite, Ontario, 28, 540. Hellandite, Norway, 24, 182. Hematite, 24, 255; artificial crystals, 24, 485. Heterolite, New Jersey, Hillebrandite, Mex- ico, 26, 551. Hollandite, 27, 344. Hornblende, 23, 30. Hortonolite, 25, 35. Hudson- ite, 23, 45. Hulsite, Alaska, 25, 325; New Jersey, 29, 543. Humite, New Jersey, 29, 185. Hyalosiderite, IR. I., 25; 10. Hydrogiobertite, new occur- rence, 30, 180. Ilvaite, California, 26, 14. [o- dyrite, Nevada, 27, 210; New South Wales, 27, 212. Irving- ite, Wisconsin, 23, 451. Jadeite, Upper Burma, 27, 343. Joaquinite, 30, 90. Kaersutite, Linosa and Green- 29, 190. land, 26, 187. Kertschenite, 22, 470. Kleinite, Texas, 22, 469; 24, 261. Krohnkite, Chile, 26, 342. Kupfferite, formation, 22, 406; water in, 2050010. Labradorite, Mexico, 30, 151. Leucite, Knight, 21, 286, 294. Leucopheenicite, New Jersey, 29, 185. Ludwigite, Montana, 30, 140. Malacone, argon and helium from, 23, 141. Manganosite, New Jersey, 29, 178. Man- ganotantalite, Maine, 24, 154. Marignacite, Wisconsin, 23, 207. Mercury mineral, new Terlingua, Texas, 21, 85; native, Texas, 24, 274. Mey- macite, 25, 305. Mica, Can- ada, 21, 405. Minguetite, France, 30, 359. Molybdite, Arizona, 23, 455; Colorado, 25, 74; composition, 23, 297. Montroydite, Texas, 24, 260. Moravite, Moravia, 22, 470. Mosesite, Texas, new, 30, 202. Olivine in serpentine of Ches- ter, Mass. © 24) Zor. ) Opal pseudomorphs, New South Wales, 21, 254. Orthoclase, pseudomorph, Quebec, 22, 47; twins, 26, 140. Otavite, Africa, 22, 470. Paigeite, Alaska, 25, 330; 543. Parahopeite, 28, 84. Paravivianite, 22, 470. ,Pa- tronite, Peru, 24, 141. Phéna- cite, Gloucester, Mass., 24, 252. Plancheite, french Con- go, 30, 91. Platinum, 23, 310. Plumbojarosite, Utah, 30, ror. Podolite, 30, 309. Powellite, Nevada, 25, 72; Texas, 25, 71. Pseudo-leucite, Yukon T., 21, 286. Pseudo-wollastonite, 21, 89; 22, 290. Purpurite, So. Dakota, 24, 152. Pyrite, 24, 29, 254; Kansas, 29, 261; Utah, 27, 407. Pyromorphite, Brit- ish Columbia, 28, 40. Py- roxene, composition, New Jersey, 29, 180; formation and properties, 22, 301; 27, I Quartz; formation, 22,275; from Kansas, 29, 261; as geologic thermometer, 27, 421. Quis- queite, Peru, 24, 141. Rinneite, 28, 84. Ris6rite, Nor- way, 30, 91. MRosasite, Sar- dinia, 30, 91. Rubies, Upper Burma, 27, 344. Ruther- fordine, East Africa, 24, 181. Samsonite, 30, 91. Sapphires, synthetic, 30, 271. Siderite, 24, 253; Maryland, 21, 364. Silicomagnesiofluorite, Fin- land, 22, 469. Silver, Canada, 21, 256. Smaltite, Canada, 21, 256. Soda-leucite, re-forma- tion, 2I, 204. Spandite, 24, 181. Sphalerite, 24, 254. Spurrite, Mexico, 26, 547. Stellerite, 30, 359. Stelzner- ite, 30, 311. Stephanite, Mex- ico, 25, 244. Stibiotantalite, California, 22, 61. Stilpno- chloran, Moravia, 22, 470. Sulphur, Michigan, 21, 237. ‘ 37] MINERALS. Taramellite, Italy, 28, 83. Tar- buttite, 28, 84. Terlinguaite, Texas, 24, 270. Thorianite, 21, 187; 25, 521. Tremolite, 23, 31; water in, 26, tor. Tri- dymite, formation, etc., 22, 275. Tourmaline, Elba, 24, 157; New © York, 25,123. Tungstite, 25, 305. Turanite, Central Asia, 30, 360. Tychite, 22, 450. | Uraninite, radio-active products, 23, 77; 25, 280. See Radio- active. Vashegyite, Hungary, 30, ol. Vesuvianite, New Jersey, 29, 184. Villiaumite, 25, 347. Warwickite, composition, 27, 179. Willemite, New Jersey, 23, 20; 29, 182. Wiltshireite, Switzerland, 30, 350. Woh- lerite, 23, 270. Wollastonite, 21, 89; formation, 22, 275. Yttrocrasite, Texas, 22, 515. Zincite, New Jersey, 29, 178. Zinnwaldite, Alaska, 24, 158. Zoisite crystals, Chester, Mass., 24, 240. Mines, Federal Bureau, 30, 202, AIO. — Department of, 357- Mining Congress, American, 25, 89; 28, 87. Minnesota, divided lakes, Griggs, 27, 388. Mississippi geol. survey, 27, 264. Missouri, copper deposits, Bain and Ulrich, 21, 160. — Devonian, Greger, 27, 374. — geol. Bureau, publications, 21, 181. — Pike County, ley, 26, 514. — Shepard on underground waters, Lane, 25, 452. Mixter, W. G., thermal constants of acetylene, 22, 13; combus- tion of silicon and silicon car- bide, 24, 130; heat of combina- tion of acidic oxides, 26, 125; heat of oxidation of tin, 27, 220; heat of formation of titanium oxide, 27, 303; heat of forma- tion of trisodium orthophos- phate, etc., 28, 103; heat of for- mation of molybdenum oxides, etc., 29, 488; heat of formation Canada, geology, Row- | 30, VOLUMES XXI-XXX. 473 of oxides of cobalt and nickel, etc., 30, 193. Molecular attraction, electric ori- gin, Sutherland, 27, 487. Montana, geology of Marysville district, 24, 85. Monteregian Hills, Canada, rare rock type, Dresser, 28, 71. Moody, S. E., hydrolysis of salts of iron, etc., 22, 176; of salts of ammonium, 22, 379; iodometric determination of basic alumina, 22, 483; hydrolysis of ammo- nium molybdate, 25, 77. Moon, effect of magnetic other forces on motion Brown, 29, 520. — features of, Pickering, 23, 228. Moral Instruction in Schools, Sadler, 26, 591. Morgan, T. H., Zoology, 23, 241. Morgan, W.C., Qualitative Analy- sis, 23, 62. Morse, H. W., Chemistry, 28, 495. Moses, A. J., Mineralogy, 28, 563; synthetic sapphires, 30, 271. Moulton, F. R., Astronomy, 22, 191; tidal and other problems, 28, 188. Mt. Pelée after its Eruptions, La- croix, 26, 400. Mount Stephen rocks and fossils, Walcott, 27, 414. Mount Weather Observatory, bulletin, 25, 155, 532; 27, 270, 402. Mountain building and igneous injections, Daly, 22, 195. Mowbray, L., the cahow in Ber- muda, 25, 361. Mumper, W. N., Physics, 25, 250. Munroe, Chas. E., artificial hema- tite crystals, 24, 485. and of, N Nantucket, elacial history, Wil- son, 23, 67. — Pleistocene deposits, Cush- man, 22, 187. Naphtha, natural, from Cuba, Richardson and Mackenzie, 29, 439. By ok National Museum, publications, 21, 260; report June 10904, 21, 479. ; Natural History Essays, Ren- shaw, 25, 160. AYA Nature Study, Cummings, 30, 93. Nebraska, Pliocene fauna, Cook, 28, 500. — Proboscidian, Cook, 28, 183. — Teleoceras from the Miocene of, Olcott, 28, 403. Neptune, cruise of, Low, 23, 307. Nevada, geology of Tonopah mining district, Spurr, 21, 83. — geology and ore deposits, Ran- | some, 29, 85; Spurr, 23, 466. Nervous System, Integrative Ac- tion, Sherrington, 23, 73. Newcomb, S., Spherical Astron- omy, 22, 191; fluctuations in the Sun’s radiation, 26, 93. — obituary notice, 28, 196, 290. New Guinea, British, geology, Maitland, 21, 404. New Hampshire, geology of, Pirsson and Washington, 439, 493. . ew Haven, Conn., Lighthouse granite, Ward, 28, 131. New Hebrides, Geology, son, 2I, 403. 22, Maw- New Jersey, Cretaceous paleon- | tology, Weller, 25, 152. Geol. Survey, see GEO- LOGICAL REPORTS. ° — — Palisade diabase, Lewis, 26, 155. Newman, H., Physics, 25, 259. New Mexico, Dakotan series, Keyes, 22, 124. — — lower Paleozoic formations, Gordon and Graton, 21, 390; Lee, 26, 180. — — Mississippian formations, Gordon, 24, 58. — — Mt. Taylor region geology, Shimer and Blodgett, 25, 53. — — ore deposits, Lindgren, et al., 30, 427. Newton, H. D., estimation of iron, 23, 365; volumetric esti- mation of titanium, 25, 130; es- timation of iron by potassium permanganate, 25, 343. New York, configuration of rock floor of, Hobbs, 21, 182. — — Devonian history, 26, 93. — — glacial waters Fairchild, 27, 340. — — State Museum, publications, 21, 87, 181; 22, 348; 26, 403. New Zealand Geol. Survey, see GEOLOGICAL REPORTS. GENERAL INDEX, Clarke, | in central, | [38 New Zealand, geology of the Coromandel region, 25, 526; of Parapara subdivision, 25, 83. Niagara Falls, recession, Gilbert and Hall, 23, 226; work on, Spencer, 25, 455. Nichols, E. L., Physics, 27, 85. Nitrogen, properties of liquid, | Erdmann, 22, 78. — spectrum, Lawton, 24, 1o1. — thermometer, 23, 43; do. from | zine to palladium, Day and Sos- man, 29, 93; analysis of metals, Allen, 29, 93. Nobel Prize in 1903, 22, 351; 1904, 24, 508; 1905, 25, 165; 1906, 28, 507. Noble, L. F., geology of the Grand Canyon, Arizona, 20, 369, 497. |Noetling, F., die Entwickelung von Indoceras, 22, 340; tiber die Familie Lyttoniide, 22, 340. North America, Paleogeography _ of, Schuchert, 29, 552. — — Paleozoic platform, Ruede- mann, 30, 403. North Carolina, Building Stones, Watson and Laney, 23, 70. — — fishes, Smith, 25, 159. — — geol. survey, see GEO- LOGICAL REPORTS. — — Gold Hill mining district, 30, 201. — — Volcanic rocks of Davidson Co., Pogue, 28, 218. North Dakota geol. survey, 25, | 4573. 29, 192. Norway, Crustacea, Sars, 21, 337. | Norwegian Aurora Polaris Expe- dition, Birkeland, 29, 272. Noyes, W. A., Organic Chemis- try, 25, 80; 30, 348. Nucleation of the atmosphere, Barus, 21, 400; colloidal, Barus, 23, 202; vapor, in the lapse of time, Barus, 23. 342. Nuclei, decay of ionized, Barus, 24, 419; and ions in dust-free air, Barus, 22, 136; of pure | water, behavior, Barus, 25, 400. oO OBITUARY. | Abegg, R., 29, 566. Agassiz, A., 29, 464, 561. Angstrom, K. J., 29, 506. Anthony, W. A., 26, 39] OBITUARY. 100. Atwater, W. A., 24, 382. Austin, P. T., 25, 168. Ayr- ton, W. E., 27, 100. Barker) 9G) F:, 30)! 96; 4 225: Barnes, C. R., 29, 464. Beale, L. S., 21, 408. Bechamp, J. A., 26, too. Becquerel, A. H., 26, 404. Berthelot, P. E. M., 23, 324. Bertrand, M., 23, 324. Bidwell, S., 29,. 276. Blake, W. P., 30, 95. Boltz- mann, L., 22, -476. Bracken- busch, L., 22, 194. Brewer, W. H., 30, 431. Brooks, W. K., 26, 501. Buller, Sir W. L., 22, 352. Chalmers, R., 26, 100. Curie, P., 21, 408. Delgado, J. F. N., 26, 404. Dohrn, A., 28, 508. Drude, P., 22, 352. Dwight, W. B., 22, 352. Fletcher, H., 28, 508. Foster, Sir M., 23, 244. Fraipont, J., 29, 566. Frazer, P., 27, 420. Galle, J. G., 30, 160. Gibbs, W., 27, 100, 253. Gordon, R. H., 30, 96. Hague, J. D., 26, 242. Hall, A., 25, 90. Hansky, A., 26, 404. Harrington, B. J., 25, o1 Heilprin, A., 24, 184, 284. Hough, G. W., 27, 196. Hug- gins, Sir Wm., 29, 560. Janssen, P. J. C., 25, 168. John- son, S. W., 28, 202, 405. Kelvin, Lord, 25, 92. Landolt, H., 29, 566. Langley, VOLUMES XXI-XXX. 475 ., 22, O4. Seeley, H. R., 27, 272. Shaler, N. S., 21, 408, 480. Sokolov, N., 23, 324. Todd, H. D., 23, 324. Underwood, L. M., 25, 92. Von Bezold, W., 23, 324. Von der Osten Sacken, Baron C. R., 22, 194. Ward, H. A., 22, 194. White, C. A., 30, 160. Whiteaves, J. F., 28, 508. Whitfield, R. P., 29, 464, 565. Young, C. A., 25, 166. Observations Méridiennes, quet, 28, 506. Observatory, Allegheny, publica- tions, 25, 165, 460; 26, 90; 27, 270, 420; 28, 565; 29, 368, 560; 30, 95. rt — Astrophysical, publications, 25, Bou- 162, 431. — Harvard, publications, 23, 75, 323; 24, 509; 25, 460; 26, 90; 27, 260, 240; 28, 565; 29, 276. — Mt. Weather, 25, 155, 532; 27, 492. _ — United States Naval, 21, 260; 22, 475. — Washburn, 323; 27, 270. publications, 23, .|— Yale, Transactions, 22, 471. Ocean, limeless, of Pre-Cambrian time, Daly, 23, 93, 393. |Oceanography of the Pacific, Flint, 27, 333. Occlusion of oxygen, Szivessy, S» Bolzr,, 321) apparent A: 26, 100. Luedecke, O., 30,' 431. Lister, A., 26, 404. Loewy, M., 24, 450. Loper, S. W., 29, 464. Mascart, E. aN 203 1 404- Mendeléef, D. I., 23, 244. Mickwitz, A. von, 30, 096. Mobius, K. A., 26, 100. Mois- san, H., 23, 324. Newcomb, S., 28, 106, 200. Nikitin, M. S., 29, 276. Peirce, J. M., 21, 408. Penfield, S. L.. 22, 264, 353. Penhal- low, D. P., 30, 431. Philippi, E., 29, 566. Rees, J. K., 23, 324. Rhees, W. Je; 23; S24. 30,96. Russell, I. C., 21, 481. Safford, J. M., 24, 284. Schell- Robinson, F. C.,! 24, 442. Ohio, ancient finger lakes, Hub- bard, 25, 239; desiccation con- glomerates, Hyde, 25, 400; high level terraces, Hubbard, 25, 108. — Geol. Survey, see GEOLOGI- CAL REPORTS. cso ae geology of, Gould, 22, Ves — geol. survey, 27, 330. — oil and gas production, 28, 560. Olcott, T. F., Teleoceras from the Miocene of Nebraska, 28, 403. Ontario, crustal warping in, Pirs- son, 30, 25. Optic axial angle of minerals, measurement, Wright, 24, 317. Optics, Drude, 23, 146; Meteoro- logical, Pernter, 22, 81; 29, 362; Physical, Wood, 22, 193; Prac- tical, Gleichen, 22, 541. 476 Orangia, Geological notes, John- son, 29, 558. Orbits of celestial bodies, deter- mination, Bauschinger, 21, 478. Ordway, J. M., waterglass, 24, 473. Oregon, Jurassic flora of, Knowl- ton, 30, 33. — Mesozoic of southwestern, Dil- ler, 23, 401. Organbildende Substanzen, Rabl, 23, 468. Organism, Science and Philos- ophy, Driesch, 30, 204. Osann, A., Chemische Petrog- raphie, 21, 183. pee H,, Economic Zoology, 27, 97. Osborn, H. F, skeleton of Arab horse, 24, 380; Tertiary mam- mal horizons’ of America, 24, 504; Evolution of Mammalian Molar Teeth, 25, 264. Osborne, R. W., potassium alu- minium sulphate, 24, 167; es- terification of benzoic acid, 25, 39- Osborne, T. B., Vegetable Pro- teins, 30, 204. Oscillatory discharge of a polar- ized cell, Kriger, 23, 63. Ostwald, W., Conversations on Chemistry, part ii, 21, 248; All- gemeine Chemie, 22, 460; Chem- istry, 28, 405. Ostwald’s Klassiker der exakten | Wissenschaften, 21,-188; 23, 399; 25, 80, 534; 26, 590; 28, | 507; 29, 464. Oyster, Brooks, 21, 88. Ozone, action on metallic silver, Manchot and Kampschulte, 24, | 373; formation from oxygen, Warburg and Leithauser, 22, 462; gas, Ladenburg, 23, I41; generator of Siemens, Ewell, 22, 368. 1p) Pacific, Albatross Expedition: to, Agassiz, 21, 257; 24, 450. — oceanography, Flint, 21, 333. Palache, C., mineralogical notes, 24, 249; occurrence of olivine, 24, 491; krohnkite, natrochal- cite, etc., from Chile, 26, 342; benitoite, 27, 398; alamosite from Mexico, 27, 399; connell- ite and chalcophyllite, Arizona, GENERAL INDEX, [40 28, 537; mineralogy of Franklin Furnace, N. J., 29, 177. Paleobotany, see BOTANY. Paleolithic man, Lull, 29, 171. Paleontologia Universalis, 315; 29, 462. Paleogeography of North Amer- ica, Schuchert, 29, 552. Paléontologie, Annales de, Vol. I, pts. I and II, 21, 320. | Paleontology, Cumings, 30, 355; Steinmann, 26, 240. — See GEOLOGY. Palmer, C., arizonite, ferric meta- titanate, 28, 353. Palmer, H. E., detection of ferro- cyanides, etc., 23, 448; estima- tion of cerium, 26, 83; ‘ester formation, 26, 290; estimation of thallium, 27, 379; potassium ferricyanide in the estimation of arsenic, etc., 29, 390; potas- sium ferricyanide in alkaline solutions, 30, 141; estimation of vanadium as silver vanadate, 30, 220. Panama, aie) Parasitology, 27, 194. Parks, W. A., Lepadocystis clin- tonensis, Ontario, 29, 404. |Parsons, A. L., sclerometer, 29, 162; goethite, 29, 235. meons) C. L., Mineralogy, 28, 503. Peale, A. C., application of the term Laramie, 28, 45. Peat, in Michigan, Davis, 25, 456. Peckham, S. F., Solid Bitumens, 29, 459. | Peirce, B. O., permeabilities and reluctivities for steel, 27, 273; magnetic properties of Norway iron, 28, I. Penck, A., die Alpen im Eiszeit- alter, 25, 84; 27, 341. Penfield, S. L., drawing of crys- tals, 21, 206; precipitates on asbestos, 21, 453; stibiotanta- lite, 22, 61; chemical composi- tion of ‘amphibole, 23, 235, Tables of Minerals, 24, 448. 23, geology of, Howe, 26, — obituary notice, Pirsson, 22, 353: ; Pennsylvania geol. survey, 29, 266. Periodic Law. Garrett, 28, 554. Perkins, C. C., determination of free iodine, 28, 33; determina- 41] VOLUMES tion of free bromine, etc., 29, 338; silver in the determination of molybdenum, etc., 29, 540. Perkins, H. A., rectification effect in a vacuum tube, 25, 485. Perkins, P. B., molecular weight of radium emanation, 25, 461. Pernter, J. M., Meteorologische Optik, 22, 81; 29, 362. Perret, .. Messina earth- quake, 27, 321; Vesuvius, 28, 413. Peterait. A. H., crystallized native copper, 23, 232: cinnabar crys- tals from China, 26, 517. Petrography, see ROCKS. Petroleum, genesis, Becker, 28, 499. Petrology, Hatch, 27, 410. Phelps, I. K., use of succinic acid, 23, 211; esterification of suc- cinic acid, 23, 368; preparation of formamide, 24, 173; action of dry ammonia, 24, 479; standards in alkalimetry and acidimetry, etc., 26, 138, 143; esters and esterification, 26, 243, 253, 257, | 264, 267, 275, 281, 290, 206. — and M.A., use of zinc chloride, 24, 194; preparation of aceta- mide, 24, 420; benzoic acid, 25, 39. Phelps, M. A., separation of ar- senic from copper, 22, 488. Philippi, W., Elektrische Kraft- | ubertragung, 21, 81. Philippine Islands, Bureau of Sci- ence, Freer, 23, 322; Weather| Bureau, Algué, 23, 7 | — Journal of Science, 21, 336, 408. Phillips, A. H., gageite, Franklin, N. J., 30, 283. Phosphorescence by canal rays, Trowbridge, 25, 141. — power of positive rays to pro- duce, Kunz, 24, 490. Photoelectric fatigue, Allen, 30, Al4. Photographic Exposure Record, 23, 471. — plates, light impressions, Eyk- man and Trivelli, 23, 143. Photometric measurements, Tufts, 22, 531. Photometry, Liebenthal, 25, 258. Phrenology, Spurzheim and ElI- der, 28, 88. esterification of| XXI-XXX. 477 Physical Geography, Davis, 26, 591. — Laboratory, British National, Report for 1909, 30, 82. — measurements, Duff and Ewell, 27, 488; 30, 350; Sabine, 21, 467. — Phenomena, Modern Theory of, Righi, 21, 328; 23, 463. Physics, Culler, 28, 557. — First Course in, Millikan and Gale, 22, 345. — Elementary, Newman, 25, 250. | —.Elements, Crew, 29, 83; Hoad- ley, 27, 339; Nichols and Frank- lin, 27, 85. — General, Crew, 26, 241. — Laboratory, Millikan and Gale, 22, 340. — New, Poincaré, 26, 580. — Practical, Franklin, Crawford and MacNutt, 25, 258: Ferry and Jones, 25, 452. — Principles, Gage and Good- speed, 25, 250. for Schools, Adams, 27, 339. — Text-Book, Duff, 27, 85; 28, 550; Mumper, 25, 250. |— Theoretical, Planck, 30, 82. Physik, Lehrbuch, Chwolson, 2 174. Physiologie, Allgemeine, Ver- worn, 27, 419. '— Beitrage zur chemischen, Hof- | meister, 21, 337; 24, 91; 25, 81; 26, 520. Physiology, Hough and Sedg- | wick, 24, 448. Pickering, Vivo daly © iheinene = glial Hawaiian features, 23, 228. Pilcomayo River, Lange, 23, 397. | Pirsson, L. V., obituary notice of Spee Penfield, 22, 353; petrog- raphy of Belknap Mountains, 22, 439, 493; geology of Red Hill, Ne Hil 23) 257, 436) Rocks and Rock Minerals, 26, 403; astro- phyllite in the granite at Quincy, Mass., 29, 215; crustal warping in Ontario, 30, 25; arti- ficial lava-flow and spherulitic crystallization, 30, 97, 425. Plants of Connecticut, 29, 550. — fossil, Seward, 30, 356; see GEOLOGY. — Tertiary, see Colorado. Plaster-plaques for museums, Goodale, 22, 90. Plate, L., Probleme der Artbild- ung, 25, 531. , os) A7§ Platinum, melting point, see Metals. — occurrence in U. S., 23, 310. — specific heat, White, 28, 334. Platinum-rhodium thermoelement, Sosman, 30, I. Plimmer, R. H. A., Chemical Con- | stitution of Proteins, 27, 271. Pogue, J. E., Jr., mineral notes, 28, 187; of No. Carolina, 28, 218. Poincaré, L., New Physics, 26, 580. Polarisationsmikroskop, Wein- schenk, 22, 80. Polariscope, Rolfe, 21, 174. Polarization, absence in artificial fogs, Barus, 27, 402. — Fizeau’s research- on the change of azimuth, 24, 408. Polonium, alpha-rays from, ab- sorption of, Levine, 22, 8; re-| tardation, Taylor, 26, 160. — radio-activity, Boltwood, 285; Curie, 21, 326. Positive rays, see Rays. Potential in dark cathode space, Westphal, 27, 84. Poulton, E. B., Essays on Evolu- | tion, 27, 193. Pratt, H. S., Vertebrate Geology, | 22, 190. Prescott, C., ilvaite, Cal., 26, 14. Pressure, measurement of high, 30, 8I. Prisms, deviation of rays Uhler, 27, 223. Prosser, C. S., use of name Buena Vista for a geol. terrain, 21, 181. Proteids, Chemistry of, Mann, 21, 407. Proteins, Chemical Constitution, Plimmer, 27, 271. — Vegetable. Osborne, 30, 204. Prouty, W. T., Meso-Silurian de- posits of Maryland, 26, 563. Psycho-Biologie, Henry, 28, 88. Punnett, R. C., Mendelism, 508. by, Q Quartz as geologic thermometer, Wright and Larsen, 27, 421. — formation of, Day and Shep- herd, 22, 275. — See MINERALS. Quebec. metamorphic rocks of St. | Francis Valley, Dresser 21, 67. GENERAL INDEX. ancient volcanic rocks | 25, 24, | [42 | Quebec, glaciation of Orford and Sutton Mts., Wilson, 2z1, 196. Queensland, volcanic rocks, Jen- sen, 23, 70. R Rabl, Organbildende Substanzen, 23, 468. | Radiant emission from the spark, new, Wood, 30, 414. | | | _ Radiation from .ordinary ma- | terials, Campbell, 21, 240. |— Investigations, Coblentz, 27, | 3) 188. | Radio-active element, new, Bolt- | wood, 24, 370; 25, 365. /— elements, chemistry, Strém- | holm and Svedberg, 27, 404; | disintegration products, Bolt- wood, 23, 77. |— Ions, etc., Righi, 23, 463. — matter in earth and air, Blanc, 23, 385. — minerals, lithium in, McCoy, | 25, 346; radium in, Rutherford | and Boltwood, 22, 1; Eve, 22, | 4; Gleditsch, 29, 79. —— Transformations, Rutherford, | _ 23, 64. Radio-activity, Becker, Ruther- ford, Levin, 22, 460; Marck- wald, 26, 400; Raffety, 27, 406. '— and Geology, Joly, 29, 83. '— alpha-rays, Taylor, 26, 160; Duane, 26, 465; Wheelock, 30, AR. ; — atmospheric, ae Ota '— of lead, McLennan, 25, 147. |— of polonium, Curie, 21, 326. — of potassium salts, Henriot | and Vavon, 28, 409. '_— of radium salts, Boltwood, 21, | 409. — standard of, Duane, 26, 521; | the Curie, 30, 416. — of thorium, Ashman, 27, 65; Dadourian, 21, 427; of thorium minerals and salts, Boltwood, 21, 415; 24,93. | /— of uranium minerals, Bolt- wood, 25, 260. velocity of a-particles, retarda- tion of, Rutherford, 21, 390. '— see Radium. | Radiochemistry, Cameron, 30, 82. | Radiology and electricity, Inter- national Congress, 29, 92; 30, | 415. Dadourian, 25, es 43] Radiometer for Dewar, 25, 258. — for observing smadl pressures, Dessar, 27, 405. Radium, absorption of the y-rays by lead, Taomikoski, 28, 76. —a-particle from, Rutherford and Geiger, 27, 262. — alpha-rays from, Rutherford, 21, Duane, 26, 464; retardation, Taylor, 28, 357; ionization by, Wheelock, 30, 233. — atomic weight, Jones, 21, 397; Curie, 24, 439; Thorpe, 26, or. — chemical action of penetrating rays, Kernbaum, 28, 408. — condensation, Rutherford, 27, 487; in presence of water vapor, Curie, 25, 145. low pressures, properties, 172; range, — crystal photography, Walter, 21, 466. — emanation, Ashman, 26, 110; Curie and Gleditsch, 26, 500; Curie, 26, 510; Rutherford, 27, 185, 336. — — action upon the elements of the carbon group, Ramsay and Usher, 29, 80. — — in the atmosphere, Eve, 25, 147; 26, 577. — — electric bierne, 28, 494. — emission of electricity from, Duane, 26, I. — heat evolved by, von Schweid- ler and Hess, 27, 83. — helium from, 27, 262. — life of, Boltwood, 25, 403. — liquid and solid, Gray and Ramsay, 27, 485. — metallic, Curie, 30, 340; and Debierne, 30, 347. — molecular weight, Perkins, 25, 4OT. — in the earth, Strutt, 25, 346; in tufa deposits, Schlundt, 26, 575. — origin, Hahn, 25, 79; Ruther- ford, 25, 147. — practical application, and Tilley, 29, 188. — production of, 29, 189; produc- tion by actinium, Boltwood, 22, 537- — standard, 30, 416. — radio-activity of the salts of, Boltwood, 21, 400. — and thorium, relative activity, Eve, 22, 477. discharges, Curie Baxter VOLUMES XXI-XXX. De- | 479 Radium and uranium in radio- active minerals, Rutherford and Boltwood, 22, 1; Eve, 22, 4; Gleditsch, 29, 79. Benes C. W., Radio-activity, 27, 406. Raindrops, influence of thunder on size of, Laine, 29, 190. Randall, D. L., ferric chloride in the zine reductor, 21, 128; titra- tion of mercurous salts, 23, 137; behavior of molybdic acid, 24, 313. Rankin, G. R., binary systems of alumina with silica, etc., 28, 293. Ransome, F. L., Cripple Creek gold deposits, 23, 466; apatitic minette from Washington, 26, 337; bismite, 29, 173. Raymond, P. E., Chazy formation and fauna, 22, 348; Upper De- vonian fauna with Clymenia, 23, 116; age of the Tribes Hill for- mation, 30, 344. Rays, alpha, anode, canal, cathode, see Alpha-rays, etc. — of high penetrability, Wulf, 27, 405. — maenetic, etc., Righi, 28, 77. — positive, Thomson, 26, 576; Wien, 27, 84; 28, 555. — — Doppler effect in, Trow- bridge, 27, 245. | — — excitement by ultra-violet light, Dember, 28, 406. — — power to produce phosphor- escence, Kunz, 24, 490. — Rontgen, see ROontgen-rays. Read, H. L., determination of chlorine, 28, 544. Read, T. T., re-formation of soda- leucite, 21, 204. Reflection, positive changed to negative through pressure, Lummer and Sorge, 29, 264. Refraktionstafeln, de Ball, 22, 82. Refrigeration, Anderson, 25, 524. Reid, H. F., California earthquake of 1906, 30, 287. Relay, telephone, J. Trowbridge, 21, 339; Jensen and Sieveking, ai, 173. Renshaw, G., Animal Romances, 27, 193. Reyer, E., Geologische pienfragen, 26, 238; Okonomische, etc., 27, 272; 560. Prinzi- Kraft, 29, 480 GENERAL INDEX. [44 Rhode Island, geology of Iron Mine Hill, Johnson and War- ren, 25, I. — granites, etce., Loughlin, 29, | 447. Rice, W. N., Geology of Connec- | ticut, 23, 385. Richards, R. W., Mineral Charac- ters, 23, 232. Richardson, C., natural naphtha from Cuba, 29, 430. Richardson, G. B., Paleozoic for- | mations in Trans-Pecos Texas, | 25, 474; stratigraphy of the upper Carboniferous in Texas) and New Mexico, 29, 325. Ries, H., Economic Geology, 21, | 256; 30, 426; Clays, 23, 71; Clay- Working Industry, 28, 563. Righi, A., Modern Theory of) Physical Phenomena, 21, 328; Radio-activity, etc., 23, 463; La | Materia Radiante, 28, 77. Rignano, E., Centroepigenesis, 23, | 468. | Rio Grande, aggraded terraces, | Keyes, 24, 467. — Mississippian of, Gordon, 24, | Road Preservation, Judson, 26, | 80. Ronettes E. J., separation of cerium, 29, 45. . Robinson, B. L., Gray’s Botany, 26, 518. Robinson, H. H., geol. map of) Connecticut, 23, 392; Tertiary peneplain of Plateau district, of Arizona, etc., 24, 100. Rochester quadrangle, geologic) map, Hartnagel, 25, 154. | Rock Minerals, Iddings, 23, 152. Rocks, Chemical Analysis, Wash- | ington, 30, 89. — and Rock Minerals, Pirsson, 26, 403. — and Rock-weathering, Merrill, | 23, 149. | — Study of, Fletcher, 27, 490. — Work on, Iddings, 28, 502; Rosenbusch, 23, 394; 26, 583. | ROCKS. Alkaline rocks of eastern Af- rica, Arsandaux, 23, 230. Analyses of igneous rocks, Osann, 21, 183. Ancient volcanic rocks of North Carolina, Pogue, 28, 218. ROCKS, Aplite, Belknap Mts. N. H., Pirsson and Washington, 22, 439. Barium in rocks, Langley, 26, 123: : Basaltic magma, crystallization, Fenner, 29, 217. Camptonite, Pirsson and Wash- ington, 22, 408. Cancrinite-syenite from Kuola- jarvi, Sundell, 21, 254. Composition of rocks and me- teorites compared, Merrill, 27, 400. Cumberlandite, UR Mey 2a 2) Diabase dike in Potsdam sand- stone, Virginia, Watson, 23, — of New Jersey, Lewis, 26, 055: Dodecahedral jointing, Lahee, 29, 169. Dutch Guiana, petrography, Beekman, 27, 410. Elastic constants of rocks, Adams and Coker, 22, 95. Eruptive rocks in Mexico, Guild, 22, 150. Essexite, Belknap Mts., N. H., Pirsson and Washington, 22, 5. Flow of rocks (marble), Adams and Coker, 29, 465. Gabbro, altered, at Cumberland, R. I., Warren, 26, 460. Gases in rocks, Chamberlin, 27, 190. Gneiss, Gunstock, 22, 505. Granite, crystallization in, Mackie, 29, 366. — Lighthouse, near New Haven, Conn., Ward, 28, 131. — at Quincy, Mass., astrophyl- lite in, Pirsson, 29, 215. — and eneiss of Finland, Sed- erholm, 25, 157. Granites and metamorphic sedi- ments in Rhode Island, Loughlin, 29, 447. Igneous intrusion, theory of, Dalyar26 7. — rocks of Finland and Kola peninsula, Hackman, 21, 85. — — Natural History, Harker, 28, 503. Kodurite, 24, 181. Laterites, origin, Maclaren, 23, 220. 45 | VOLUMES ROCKS. Lava-flow, artificial, Pirsson, 30, 97, 427. Lujavrite, new, Lapland, 29, 367. Metamorphic rocks of St. Fran- cis Valley, Quebec, Dresser, 21, 67. Minette, apatitic, Ransome, 26, 337: Mount Yamaska, Quebec, pe- trography, Young, 23, 69. Pegmatite, Massachusetts, Warren, 28, 440. Peridotites of N. Carolina, Pratt and Lewis, 21, 253. Petrography of Erythrea, East Africa, Manasse, 29, 87; of northwest Greenland, Below- sky, 21, 184; of Red Hill, N. H., Pirsson and Washing- ton, 23, 257, 433; of the Urals, Duparc, 29, 272. Phenocrysts in igneous rocks, Miers, 21, 182. Plutonic rocks, classification, Elatelie 2704.0 Te Pre-Cambrian rocks, George- town, Colorado, Ball, 21, 371. Rocks from the Olympic Mts., Washington, Arnold, 28, 9. — of Tahiti, Lacroix, 30, 360. Scapolite rocks Spurr, 25, 154. Schistosity by crystallization, | Wright, 22, 224. Schists, crystalline, mann, 23, 150. Silicate and carbonate rocks, | analysis, Hillebrand, 30, 84,, 88 Spessartite, Belknap Mts.,| N. H., Pirsson and Washing- ton, 22, 453. Spherulitic crystallization, Pirs- | Son, 30, 97, 427. Syenite, Belknap Mts., N. H., Pirsson and Washington, 22, | 439. — of Plauenscher Grund, Wash- ington, 22, 120. Unakite, Virginia, Watson, 22, | 248. Volcanic rocks, Washington, 23, 68; of No. Carolina, J. E. Pogue, Jr., 28, 218; of Queensland, Jensen, 23, 70. Volcanoes, Catalan, and their rocks, Washington, 24, 217; of America, | Gruben- | central Italy, | HOD OO 481 ROCKS. Calderon, Cazurro and Fer- nandez-Navarro, 24, 282. Weathering of rocks, Hilgard, 21, 261; Merrill, 23, 140. Yamaskite, Young, 23, 70; re- lated rock, from the Monte- regian Hills, Canada, 28, 71. |Rogers, A. F., pyrite crystals from Utah, 27, 467; anhydrite, | etc., from Kansas, 29, 258. Rohwer, S. A., fossil insects from | Colorado, 28, 533. | Rolfe, G. W., Polariscope, 21, 174. | Roman comagmatic region, Wash- ington, 23, 68. Rontgen radiators, secondary, Barkla, Crowther, 24, 400. ° — rays, absorption, Seitz, 26, 577. — — diffraction, Walter and Pohl, 25, 451. — — energy of, Carter, 23, 143. — — heating effects in metals, Bumstead, 21, 1; 25, 200. — — in instantaneous photog- raphy, Dessauer, 29, 82. — — ionization by, Herweg, 21, 327. — — polarization, Herweg, 28, 76. — — production of corpuscular rays by, Cooksey, 24, 285. — — refraction, Walter and Pohl, 28, 76. /— — spectrum and absorption, Adams, 23, 9. — transmission, 375: — — tubes for use in magnetic field, Trowbridge, 25, 143. — — velocity, Marx, 22, 461; 27, 187. | — — wave-leneth, Van der Waals, 23, 384. Rosenbusch, H., Festschrift, 22, 545; Physiographie der massi- gen Gesteine, 23, 394; 26, 583. ‘Ross, W. H., radio-activity of tho- | tium compounds, 21, 433. Royal Society, London, publica- tions, 22, 192. |Ruedemann, R., graptolites of New York, 26, 402; Paleozoic | platform of North America, 30, | 403. | Rurer, R., Elements of Metallo- | graphy, 28, 554. / Russell, I. C., obituary notice of, (een oii: = Adams, 23, 482 Russia, Piatigorsk, laccoliths of, V. de Derwies, 21, 184. Russian Carboniferous and Per- mian, Schuchert, 22, 209, 143. Rutherford, E., properties of a-rays from radium, 21, 172; retardation of velocity of a par- ticles, 21, 3909; radium and ura- nium in radio-active minerals, 22, 1; Radio-active Transforma- tions, 23, 64. S) Sabine, W. C., Physical Measure- ments, 21, 467. Sadler, M. E., Moral Instruction in Schools, 26, 501. St. Louis district, water resources, Bowman and Reeds, 25, 353. Salet, P., Spectroscopie Astrono- mique, 28, 556. Salisbury, R. D., Geology, 21, 400; Outlines of Geologic History, 30, 354. Salt, occurrence, etc., Buschman, 23, 153; 28, 83. Salts, specific gravity of soluble, Buchanan, 21, 25. Samoa, geology, Friedlander, 30, 425. Samwel Cave, California, explora- tion, Furlong, 22, 235. San Domingo Solenodon, Verrill, 24, 55. Sands, black, of Pacific slope, Day and Richards, 23, 310. San Francisco Earthquake, 22, 82; 27, AS; 30, 207. Sargent, R. H., Research in China, 25, 340. Sarle, on Arthrophycus and De- | dalus, 21, 330. Savage, T. E., lower-Paleozoic stratigraphy in Illinois, 25, 431; Ordovician and Silurian forma- tions in Illinois, 28, 500. Schaffers, V., Influence Machines, | 28, 70. Schaller, W. T., siderite and barite from Maryland, 21, 364. — composition of molybdic ocher, 23, 207, — mineralogical notes, 24, 152; mercury minerals from Texas, 24, 250. — powellite and molybdite, 25, 7%; new boron niinerals, 25, 323. GENERAL INDEX, [46 Schaller, W. T., bismite, 29, 173; refractive index of Canada balsam, 29, 324; composition of hulsite and paigeite, 29, 543. — ludwigite from Montana, 30, 146; mosesite, new mineral from Texas, 30, 202; identity of podolite with dahllite, 30, 300; identity of stelznerite with ant- lerite, 30, 311; barbierite, 30, 358. SCHSTAEE, Canadian glaciers, 25, 261. Schistosity by | Wright, 22, 224. |Schmidt’s Alpine sections, 25, 155. _Schuchert, C., Russian Carboni- ferous and Permian, 22, 20, 143; Paleogeography of North Amer- ica, 29, 552; on Syringothyris, 30, 223. : | Schultze, A., Graphic Algebra, 25, crystallization, 534. | Schwarz, E. H. L., plains in Cape | Colony, 24, 185. Schwingungserzeugung, Problem | der, Barkhausen, 24, 283. | Scienza, Rivista di, 27, 100. (Sclerometer, new, Parsons, 29, elo2: : | Scotland, geologic structure of | Highlands, 25, 155. | Searle, G. F. C., Experimental | _ Electricity, 26, 580. | Sears, J. H., geology, etc., of | Essex Co., Mass., 21, 255. |Sederholm, J. J., Finland granite | and gneiss, 25, 157. | Sedgwick, W. T., Human Mechan- | ism, 22, 549; Physiology, 24, 448. |Seidell, A., Solubilities of Inor- | ganic and Organic Substances, | 24, 440. Seismic Geology, Hobbs, 23, 300. — See Earthquakes. | Seismological Committee, Ameri- can Association, 23, 150. | Seismology, de Ballore, 25, 262. Selenium, electric properties, Ries, 27, 338. Sellards, E. H., Permian insects, 22, 240; 23, 345; 27, 151. : Sellers, J. F., Chemical Analysis, 28, 554. Senn, G., Pflanzen-Chromato- phoren, 26, 587. Serviss, S. B., internal tempera- ture gradient of metals, 24, 451. 47] VOLUMES XXI—XXX. 483 Seward, A. C., Darwin and Mod- ern Science, 28, 505; Fossil Plants, 30, 356. Shaft governors, Trinks and Housum, 22, 82. Shaler, N. S., Autobiography, 29, 90. } — obituary notice, 21, 408, 480. Shepherd, E. S., lime-silica series | of mineral formation, 22, 265; binary systems of alumina with silica, etc., 28, 203. Sherrington, C. §&., Action of Nervous System, 23, 73: Shimer, H. W., Strenuella strenua, 23, 199, 319; Cambrian transi- | tion fauna of Braintree, Mass., | 24, 170; Stanign ep hy of the Mt. Taylor region, N. M., 25, 53. Silicates, constitution of, TPecier| mak, 22, 88. — relation of refractive index) and density, Larsen, 28, 263. Silliman Memorial Lectures, | Rutherford, 23, 64; Sherring- ton, 23, 73. Slaty cleavage, Becker, 24, 1 Smillie, R., ester formation, 26, | 200. Smith, A., Inorganic Chemistry, | 22, 345. Smith, B., Miocene drum fish, 28, | 275. Smith, E. F., Electro-Analysis, 24, | 408. Smith, L. L., Australian meteorite, 30, 264. Smith, M. F., parallax investiga- tion of 162 stars, 22, 471. Smithsonian Institution, publica-| tions, 24, 506; 30, 160; report of Board of Regents, for year ending June 10905, 23, 74, 242; 1906, 24, 506; 1907, 27, 196; 1908, 29, 197; report of Secretary for year ending June 1905, 21, 250; 1906, 23, 242; 1907, 25, 160; 1908, 27, 196; 1909, 29, 196. ——C. D. Walcott appointed Secretary, 23, 160. — Astrophysical Observatory, 25, 162, 431. Sodium vapor, rotation spectra of, Wood, 23, 64. Soil Fertility, Hopkins, 30, 158. Soils, Bureau of, 1904 Report, 22, 550. Integrative | Soils, formation of, Hilgard, 21, 261; 22, 468. Solar, see Sun. Solereder, H., Anatomy of Dico- tyledons, 26, 585. ganic Substances, Seidell, 24, 440. Solutions, absorption spectra, Jones and Anderson, 28, 78. 'Sosman, R. B., nitrogen ther- mometer from zinc to palla- dium, 29, 93; platinum-rhodium thermoelement, 30, I. Sound in fluids, Dorsing, 25, 348. |/— perception of direction, Ray- | leigh, 23, 223; Bowkler, 25, 348. — Text-book, Barton, 28, 77. | re velocity of, 25, 348, 451. | South Africa, Passarge, 25, 155. — diamond fissures, Harger, 21, | 471; Stone implements, John- | son, 23, 465. |South Australia, geol. survey of | the Northern Territory, 30, 85. South Carolina, Pleistocene de- | posits, Pugh, 22, 186. | Spark potentials, Toepler, 21, 240. |— spectra, Berndt, 27, 187. i— See Electric. | Specific gravity of soluble salts, determination of, Buchanan, 21, 25. — heats of silicates and plati- num, White,-28, 334. |Spectra, absorption of solutions, | and Anderson, 28, 78. — flame, Hemsalech and de Watteville, 25, 450. Spectroscopie, Handbuch der, Kayser, 25, 522; 30, 340. — Astronomique, Salet, 28, 556. Spectrum of Auer burner, Rubens, 21, 172. — emission, of mercury, Castelli, 25, 148. Hollnagel, 29, 552. — of the high tension flaming discharge, Walter, 21, 465. — of nitrogen, Lawton, 24, 101. — of Rontgen rays, Adams, 23, O1. Spencer. Herbert, Life and Let- ters, Duncan, 27, 90. Spencer, J. W. W., Falls of the Niagara, 25, 455. Spherulitic crystallization, 30, 97, 425. Solubilities of Inorganic and Or- Uhler and Wood, 24, 442; Jones. — extreme infra-red, Rubens and 484 Spider thread, strength, Benton, 24, 75. Spiritism, Studies in, Tanner, 30, | 431. Spurr, J. E., geology of Tonopah | mining district, Nevada, 21, 83; ore deposits of Silver Peak Quadrangle, 23, 466; scapolite rocks of America, 25, 154. Standards, Bureau of, bulletin, 24, 87, 442. Stanley, F. C., chemical composi- tion of amphibole, 23, 23. Stansbie, J. H., Metallurgical Chemistry, 23, 383. Stanton, T. W., geology of the) Judith River Beds, 21, 177; Fox Hills sandstone, etc., 30, 172. Star fishes, new species, Verrill, 28, 59. Stars, investigation of parallax, | Chase, Smith and Elkin, 22, 471. Steam, superheated, specific heat, Rubens and Henning, 21, 173. Steel, permeabilities and reluctivi- ties. Peirce, 27, 273. Stegosaurus, armor of, Lull, 29, 201; restoration, Lull, 30, 361. Steinmann, G., Paleontology, 26, 240; Geol. Grundlagen der Abstammungslehre, 27, 341. Stellar Evolution, Hale, 26, 577. Stereochemistry, Stewart, 25, 521. Stevens, W. C., Plant Anatomy, 25, 303. , Stewart, A. W., Stereochemistry, 25, 521; Organic Chemistry, 27, 337- Stokes, Sir G. G. Mathematical and Physical Papers, 21, 174. — Memoir and Correspondence, | Larmor, 24, 81. Stone Implements, Johnson, 23, 465. So. Africa, Suess, E., das Antlitz der Erde, 29, 260. Sun, eclipse of, 1907, 21, 245. — fluctuations in radiation of, Newcomb, 26, 93. — Modern Theories, Bosler, 30, | 205. — relation of radiation and mete-_ hn We Shs orological elements Bigelow, 25, 413. Swiss Alpine lakes, Bourcart, 22, 468. Ty Tahiti, rocks of, Lacroix, 30, 360. GENERAL INDEX, [48 Tanner, A. E., Spiritism, 30, 431. Tassin, W., analysis of Modoc, Kansas, meteorite, 21, 356; of uae Nebr., meteorite, 25, 106. Taylor, T.S., retardation of alpha- rays, 26, 169; 28, 357. Telegraph waves, wireless, Kie- bitz, 23, 461. |Telegraphie sans fil, Van Dam, | 25, 452. | Telegraphy, see Wireless. |Telemeter, new form, Wright, 26, 53m. Telephone relay, microphone con- tact for, Jensen and Sieveking, 21, 173; Trowbridge, 21, 339. Tellurium, see CHEMISTRY, Temiskaming, cobalt-nickel arsen- ides, Miller, 21, 256; crustal warping in, Pirsson, 30, 25. Temperature amplitudes, inver- sion of, Bigelow, 30, 115. /— critical, Gregory, 23, 221. _— measurements of high, Day and Clement, 26, 405; Day and Sosman, 29, 93; Sosman, 30, TI. Terraces, high level, in So. East- ern Ohio, Hubbard, 25, 108. Texas, chalk formation, Gordon, | 27, 360. : — Pelycosaurian from, Matthew, 208, — Jurassic formation, paleontol- ogy, Cragin, 21, 179. — new mercury mineral, Hille- brand, 21, 85. : — Estacado meteorite, Howard, 21, 186. — Paleozoic formations in, Rich- ardson, 25, 474. Thermodynamics of Gas-Reac- | tions, Haber and Lamb, 26, 92. | Thermoelectric force, influence of | pressure upon, Horig, 27, 338. /— -motive forces of potassium and sodium, Barker, 24, 1509. Thermoelement, platinum-rho- dium, Sosman, 30, I. Thermometer, nitrogen, Day and Clement, 26, 405; Day and Sos- man, 29, 93; Holborn and Val- entiner, 23, 143. |— quartz, as geologic, Wright | and Larsen, 27, 421. Thomson, J. J., canal rays, 23, 461; Korpuskular Theorie der Materie, 26, 578. 49] Thorium, radio-activity, Ashman, 27,65; Dadourian, 21, 427. — compounds, radio- -activity, Mc- Coy and Ross, 21, 433. — and helium, 25, 140. — minerals and salts, radio-ac- tivity, Boltwood, 21, 415. — new intermediate compound, Hahn, 24, 79. — products, rays from, Hahn, 24, 374. — salts, radio-activity, Bolewood: 24, 93. Thornton, W. M., Jr., enargite, covellite and pyrite, 29, 358. Thorp, F. H., Industrial Chemis- try, 23, 460. Tillotson, E. W., Jr., orthoclase twins, 26, 149; esters and esteri- fication, 26, 243, 257, 264, 267, ies ae Time distribution 25, 2085ue Todd, D., total solar eclipse, Jan. 1907, 21, 245. Topographic Maps, Salisbury and Atwood, 27, 265. Tower, O. F., Qualitative Chemi- cal Analysis, 27, 486. Trades and anti-trades, 23, 308. eae mines of, Moreau, 22, 0. Travis, C., crystals in light paral- lel to an optic axis, 29, 427. Trigonometry, Plane, Robbins, 29, 200. Trowbridge, C. C., interlocking of feathers in flight of birds, 21, in Paris, 145. Trowbridge, J., magnetic field and coronal streamers, 21, 189; tele- phone relay, 21, 339; phosphor- escence produced by canal rays, 25, 141; use of magnetic field with X-ray tubes, 25, 143; Dop- pler effect in positive rays, 27, 245; electric discharges through hydrogen, 29, 341. Tschermak, G., silicate formulas, 22, 88. Tufts, F. L., photometric meas- urements, 22, 531. Turtles, marine, Wieland, 27, tot. — Fossil, of No. America, Hay, 26, 516. — from Upper Harrison beds, Loomis, 28, 17. Tungsten, melting point of pure, Wartenberg, 24, 440. VOLUMES XXI-XXX., 485 Turkestan, Exploration, Pum- pelly, 27, 413. Twenhofel, W. H., Silurian sec- tion at Arisaig, Nova Scotia, 28, 143; peat beds of Anticosti Island, 30, 65. Tyler, J. M., Man in the Light of Evolution, 27, 419. U Uhler, H. S., deviation of rays by prisms, 27, 223. Uinta Mts., elaciation, Atwood, 27, 340. Ultra-red radiation in gases, in- fluence of pressure upon the absorption of, Bahr, 30, 340. Ultra-violet rays, sterilization by, Daguerre, 30, 414. Underhill, CeRe Wireless Teleg- raphy, 27, 406. ,| United States, see Geol. Reports, Coast Survey, National Mu- seum. — Dep’t of Agriculture, 22, 550. — Economic Geology of, Ries, 2I, 256. — magnetic tables, Bauer, 27, 263. Urals, northern, geology and petrography, Duparc, 29, 272. Uranium, disintegration products, Boltwood, 23, 77. — See also Radio-activity. V Vacuum-tube, rectification effect, Perkins, 25, 485. Valency, Theory of, Friend, 27, 337- Van Horn, F. R., proustite and argentite, 25, 507. Van Name, R. G., Scientific papers of J. Willard Gibbs, 23, 144; velocities of reactions between metals and dissolved halogens, 29, 237; crystals of silver sul- phate and dichromate, 29, 293. Veatch, A. C., localities of sup- posed Jurassic fossils, 21, 457; meaning of term Laramie, 24, 18; geology oF Southwestern Wyoming, 26, Vehicles, Cree otc Homans, 23, 399. 486 GENERAL INDEX. [50 Venice, Lagoon of, 21, 407; 23, 397. Vermont geol. survey, see GEO- LOGICAL REPORTS. — Tertiary lignite of, Perkins, 23, 237. Verrill, A. E., Bermuda Islands, | 24, 170, 180; grapsoid crusta- cean, 25, 119; decapod crusta- cea, 25, 534; new starfishes from the Pacific, 28, 59; obituary notice of Alexander Agassiz, 29, 561. Verrill, A. H., new species of Dy- nastes, Dominica, 21, 317; avi- fauna of Dominica, 21, 337; Solenodon of San Domingo, 24, 55; Hercules beetles from Do- minica Island, 24, 305. Vertebrates, Origin of, Gaskell, 27, 192; 30, 203. Vertical, apparent variations of, Burbank, 30, 323. Verworn, M., Allgemeine Physio- logie, 27, 4109. Vesuvius, ammonia from erup- tion, Stoklasa, 22, 540. — characteristics, etc., Perret, 28 Atge uh — eruption April 1906, Johnston- Lavis, 27, 410. — map of, 26, 166. — tadio-activity of ashes, 22, 460. Vinal, G. W., electric arc, 28, 80. Virginia, lead and zinc deposits, Watson, 21, 255. — geol. survey, see GEOLOGI- CAL REPORTS. — Mineral Resources, Watson, 28, 82. Voigt, W., Magneto- und Electro- Optik, 26, 570. Volcanic activity, Barus, 24, 483. — eruptions, submarine, Wash- ington, 27, 131. Volcanoes active, Mercalli, 24, 282. — of Catalonia, 24, 217, 282. — Hawaiian, Brigham, 29, 363. — of St. Vincent and Martinique, > Anderson and Flett, 27, 89; La- | croix, 26, 400. — See Vesuvius. Vulcanology, Institute of, 30, 430. Ww Wadsworth, M. E., Crystallo- graphy, 30, 89. Walcott, C. D. Cambrian of China, 22, 188; Cambrian geol- ogy of Cordillera area, 27, 414; Cambrian geology and paleon- tology, 30, 410. | Walker, T. L., tungstite and mey- | macite, 25, 305. | Ward, F., Lighthouse granite near New Haven, Conn., 28, 131; mineral notes, 28, 185. Ward, H. A., Columbian meteor- ite localities, 23, I. Ward, H. L., copper oxalate in analysis, 27, 448. | Ward, H. M., Trees, 27, 401. Warren, C. H., yttrocrasite, 22, 515; niobium and _ tantalum separation, 22, 520; geology of Iron Mine Hill, Te, ce Seas krohnkite, natrochalcite, ° etc., from Chile, 26, 342; alteration of augite-ilmenite groups in | Cumberland, R. I., gabbro, 26, 4690; pegmatite in the granite of Quincy, Mass., 28, 449. Wasatch deposits, Loomis, 23, 350; fossil bird, Loomis, 22, 481. Washburn Observatory, see Ob- servatory. | Washington, H. S., syenite of Plauenscher Grund, 22, 120; petrography of Belknap Moun- tains, 22, 430, 493; Roman com- agmatic region, 23, 68; geology of Red Hill, N. H., 23, 217, 433; Catalan volcanoes and their rocks, 24, 217; forms of Ar- | kansas diamonds, 24, 275; kaersutite, from lLinosa and Greenland, 26, 187; submarine eruptions near Pantelleria, 27, 131; feldspar from Linosa, 29, | 52; Chemical Analysis of | Rocks, 30, 80. |Washington, rocks from the | Olympic Mts., Arnold, 28, 9. | Water, amount in cloud, 27, 262. |— decomposition, Kernbaum, 28, | 400. ; |/— role of in tremolite, etc., Allen | and Clement, 26, rot. |— supply, purification by hypo- | chlorites, 29, 263. ; |— temperature of freezing in sealed tubes, Miers and Isaac, 22, 530. iy — vapor, decomposition by elec- | tric sparks, Holt and Hopkin- | Son, 26; 501. 51] Waterglass, Ordway, 24, 473. Waters, artesian, of Costilla Co., Colorado, Headden, 27, 305. — ground, of the Indio region, California, Mendenhall, 27, 340. Watson, T. L., unakite in Vir- ginia, 22, 248; diabase dike in Potsdam sandstone, Va., 23, 80; Mineral Resources of Virginia, 28, 82. Watt, of India, 27, 417. Waves, resistance due to obliquely ant Rayleigh, 28, 405. — See also Electric. Weather Service, 100; 30, 430. Weathering and erosion as time- measures, Leverett, 27, 349. Weed, L. H., action of dry ammo- nia, 24, 470; estimation of chro- mium, 26, 85; standards in alka- | limetry, etc, 26, 138, 143. Weidman, S., Wisconsin, 23, 287: 23, 451. Weights and Measures, Evolu- tion, Hallock and Wade, 22, 346. Wellcome Research Laboratories, Khartoum, Reports, 23, 155; 29, Ol. Weller, S., Cretaceous paleon- tology of New Jersey, 25, 152. Wells, C., new occurrence of hydrogiobertite, 30, 189. Western Australia geol. see GEOLOGICAL RE- PORTS. West Virginia geol. survey, see GEOLOGICAL REPORTS. Wetterkunde, Bornstein, 22, 81. Wheeler, J. T., Zonal Belt Hy- pothesis, 27, 265. Wheelock, F. E., ionization pro- duced by alpha rays, 30, 233. Whitlock, calcite from West Paterson, N. J., 24, 426. White, W. P., polymorphic forms of calcium metasilicate, 21, 80; | diopside, calcium and mag- nesiuim metasilicates, 27, 1; spe- | cific heats of silicates and plati- | num, 28, 334; melting point determination, 28, 453; point methods at high peratures, 28, 474. Wickham, F., fossil insects from Florissant, 26, 76; 28, 126; 29, 47. tem- | VOLUMES XXI-XXX. G., Commercial Products | Maryland, 26, | marignacite from | irvingite, | survey, | melting | 487 Wiedersheim’s Comparative Anat- cane: of Vertebrates, Parker, 25, 160. Wieland, G. R., historic cycads, 25, 93; accelerated cone growth in Pinus, 25, 103; notes on Paleobotany, 25, 354; revision of the Protostegide, 27, 101; armored saurian from the Nio- | brara, 27, 250. Wilde, H., Celestial Ejectamenta, 30, 206. Williams, R. P., Chemistry, 30, 347. Williams, S. R., method of deter- mining coefficients of expan- | sion, 28, 180. Willis, B., Research in China, 25, 340; Outlines of Geologic His- tory, 30, 354. | Williston, S. W., North Ameri- can Plesiosaurs, 20, 22m, Wilson, A. W. G., glaciation of Orford and Sutton Mts., Que- bec, 21, 1096. Wilson, E. B 26, 576. Wilson, Edwin B., divergence and curl, 23, 214. Wilson, R. W., Astronomy, 22, IOI. Winchell, N. H. and A. N., Opti- | cal Mineralogy, 27, 412. | Winds, trades, etc., 23, 308. Winton, A. L., Microscopy of Vegetable Foods, 21, 335. Wireless Telegraphy, Massie and Underhill, 27, 406; Marconi, 30, ., Cyanide Processes, 340. Wy — — directive system, Bellini and Tosi, 26, 576. = — ‘influence of the earth in, Sachs, 21, 80. /— — relation of electromagnetic waves to, Zenneck, 24, 441. | Wisconsin geol. survey, see GEO- LOGICAL REPORTS. '— geology of north Weidman, 24, 500. — lead and zine deposits, Grant, 21, 470. Wollastonite and pseudo-wollas- tonite, Allen and White, 21, 89; Day and Shepherd, 22, 265. pee R. W., Physical Optics, 22, weds. Turning, Ross, 28, 566. | Woodworth, J. B., Shaler expedi- tion to Brazil, etc, 26, 404. central, 488 GENERAL Worlds, Evolution of, Lowell, 29, | 190. — Two New, d’Albe, 25, 148. Wright, C. T., Physical Geog- |, raphy, 23, 323. Wright, F. E., optical study of wollastonite and pseudo-wol- lastonite, 21, 103; determination of feldspars, 21, 361. — interference figures, under the microscope, 22, 19; schistosity produced by crystallization, 22, 224; optical study on the lime- silica minerals, 22, 265; forma- | tion of minerals, MgSiOs, 22, | 385. — measurement of the optic axial angle of minerals, 24, 317. — optical studies on kaersutite, 26, 187; measurement of extinc- tion angles, 26, 349; bi-quartz wedge plate, 26, 391; new tele- meter, 26, 531; interference | phenomena, 26, 536; three con- | tact minerals from Mexico, 26, | 545- Pua | — optical study of diopside, etc., 27, 28; artificial light for micro- scope, 27, 98; new goniometer lamp, 27, 194; sources for mono- chromatic light, 27, 195; quartz | as a geologic thermometer, 27, 42t. — optical study of compounds of alumina with silica, etc., 28, 315. — feldspar from Linosa, 29, 52; new petrographic microscope, 29, 407; new ocular for use with, 29, 415. — plumbojarosite, 30, 101. Wyoming, coal resources, 21, 473. | — Eocene fossils, Cockerell, 28, 447. — geology, Veatch, 26, 230. — supposed Jurassic fossils of Fremont, Veatch, 21, 457. | x X-ray, new kind, Seitz, 21, 80. X-rays, see Rontgen rays. iY, Yale Observatory, transactions, 22, 471. Young, G. A., geology of Mt. Ya- maska, 23, 60. INDEX. “pe Z Zeeman effect, Dufour, 27, 338; Gmelin, 27, 405; Hale, 26, 577. Zoological Congress, seventh in- ternational, meeting at Boston, vay Ob: Sales Zoology, Linville and Kelly, 22, 476; 23, 469; T. H. Morgan, 23, 2A. — Invertebrate, Drew, 24, 382. — Vertebrate, Pratt, 22, 190. ZOOLOGY. African blood-sucking flies, Austin, 29, 92. Animal Histology, Dahlgren and Kepner, 27, 97. Animal Romances, Renshaw, 27, 193. Animals, Life of, Ingersoll, 22, 1Or. Annelids, British, McIntosh, 25, 530. — tubicolous, Bush, 23, 52, 131. Apodous holothurians, Clark, 26, 100. Avifauna of Dominica, A. H. Verrill, 21, 337. Birds of Chicago, Woodruff, 24, 92. — Handlist, Sharpe, 29, 195. — interlocking of feathers in flight, Trowbridge, 21, 145. — origin of, Pycraft, 22, 547. — of the Southern Lesser An- tilles,- Clark, 21, 337. Brachyura of the Eastern Tropical Pacific Expedition, Rathbun, 24, 450. Cahow in Bermuda, Mowbray, 25, 361. Cambridge Natural History, 29, 92. Copepods, No. American pari- sitic, Wilson, 25, 158. Crayfishes, young of, Andrews, 24, 449 Crustacea decapod, Bermuda, Verrill, 25, 534. — of the North Pacific Explor- ing Expedition, Stimpson, 24, 449. — of Norway, Sars, 21, 337; 25, 158. Dynastes, new species from Dominica, A. H.(\Verrill, 21, Bll; 24, S05. Echinoderma, Bather, 21, 330; Grant, 23, 315. -ZOOLOGY. 53] Echinoidea of Danish Expedi- | tion, Mortensen, 25, 150. Echinonéus, teeth of, Agassiz, | 28, 490. Economic Zoology, Osborn, a7; 97. Fauna of the Maldives and | Laccadives, Gardiner, 23, 241. Fishes of North Carolina, Smith, 25, 150. Flies, Blood-sucking British, | Austen, 22, 476; African, 29, | 92. | Frog, Biology of, Holmes, 22, | 190. Grapsoid 25, 110. Homoptera, ;Catalogue, Distant, | 22, 476. Hymenoptera in the British | Museum, Morley, 30, 94. crustacean, Verrill, | Reply Inheritance, works on, Rignano, 23, 468. | Insects, instincts, etc., Fabre, | 25, 80. | Invertebrates of Boston Soc. Nat. History, Sheldon, a1, | 336, 475. | Isopods of No. America, Rich- ardson, 21, 337. Lagenide, FGA peace eT stages, Cushman, 21, 180. | Lepidoptera Phalene in the | British Museum, Hampson, | 23, 321; 27, 492; 28, 507; 30, 94. Madreporaria of Bedot, 25, 158. of the Hawaiian Islands, | Vaughan, 25, 158. Amboina, | VOLUMES XXI-XXX. 489 | ZOOLOGY. Madreporian corals in the Brit- ish Museum, 21, 474. Mammals, E. Ingersoll, 22, 191. — Adirondack, Grant, 23, 76. Orthoptera, British Museum, Kirby, 23, 321; 30, 93. — North American, Cummings, 30, 93. Parasites of Bermuda fishes, Linton, 25, 150. Phasmids, von Wattenwyl and Redtenbacher, 26, 242. Pyramidellide, notes on family, Bush, 27, 475. Rhizopoda, British freshwater, Cash and Hopkinson, 30, 93. Solenodon of San Domingo, Verrill, 24, 55. Starfishes from the Pacific coast, new, Verrill, 28, 50. Ticks, monograph on, 27, 103. Tierwelt, die Antike, O. Keller, 30, 88. Tunicata, British, Alder Hancock, 23, 308. Vertebrates, Cave, of America, Eigenmann, 29, 270. — Comparative Anatomy, Wie- dersheim, Parker, 25, 160. Origin, Gaskell, 27, 192; Gaskell et al., 30, 203. Whales, beaked, in the U. S. National Museum, True, 30, 422. Zellforschung, the and Archiv fur, 07. See. also GEOLOGY. 27; SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES SLD 3 9088 01298 5818