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Reta s- it A a “ y ewe ’ * * os Le J er t , 4 . ay Mg ‘ a . . ‘~ . he ‘ve “ : i oa ; " hey ’ teow ee wow ahd : : 5 ¥ core L LA akae - : : . . by , . : y ve “—v ee ote tae atly Me : iy F No > wa FROGS . ‘ ' aelkdh A sep eeeereke BAG eee Palo the ww wre se mh UT Ae 4 yy weatgty te tee S : Ms Te La oW i x .- 4 1 Delon eth witli ies. + ‘ ‘' 7 tee w Pee vereet He tite" sll da hodindiedteglindi-t e ' see’ per) wer’ wees % i : p . t w . Veer ew ee ae wre eleeey Spec 7 / . . eet py rere id ge ssw sree ‘ t — } CPE Mew eN® ee sn ee 7% real des 27 2 aR a Sw ® lars ae © A247 smsnenaeel PORT emwieanctieceE pen! peer ida ere acd Ue a eA SF qIN pa! Rian BA Dae grrr? eee) | a | WW Nu a yee ; Fa fit esis @ yn} pnhcean,, Bus baal oe . | V idl? Ny WN s j ry de meters Pid | ald ” Mar AS “ Sa lla Pei ai Peele i dillata tPA aoe LAM mnnvee ) ne agevtapirie git ADA AAAS.’ meEeee eee ik bap ohn Ve - i 4 NArtNcene Biebidelal eitanet? tthe N ls | | Hy ne ror LN semen Wiha, eee, fuer df Vann: PARAA- Tehgueanan’’ anaes ‘\ Mdnd a Py Wy. Wiser iy 44 604 » tye | | | ha Wye u - SIS mie Pennie ts co oman UCR PED OCRTEC UU UMMM ps YuBeectiny ae ee eG sai Wha ne eth LAC’ COSINPANAANARA, frowns in nee TN eee nat ae par neta Vy Urn ™ a ' Pialalacas a an 4 ba | 1" ” HART, Ad ‘ am | LLL NAGS Ama aey J Ne 4 x | se ot ya winnwrnneee | ea Nay ee oll Wy Vie hae d we w ” a es7) PASI CSS rise 4 at ara - . : , L : ae idl Puke THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Epitror: EDWARD S. DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Prorrssors GEORGE L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, W. G. FARLOW anp WM. M..DAVIS, or Camsrines, Prorsssors A. E. VERRILL, HORACE L. WELLS, CHARLES SCHUCHERT, L. V. PIRSSON, H. E. GREGORY, anp HORACE 8S. UHLER, or New Haven, Proressor JOSEPH S. AMES, or Battimorz, Mr. J. 8S. DILLER, or Wasurneron. FOURTH SERIES VOL. XLVI-[WHOLE NUMBER, CXCVT}. WITH TWO PLATES “3 $2204 NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. 1918. THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR COMPANY A NEW HAVEN CONTENTS TO VOLUME XLVI. Number 271. Art. I.—The American Journal of Science from 1818 to 1918; PR RErEVeRo. D) ANAND Te ee Il.—A Century of Geology, 1818-1918: Historical Geology; By OuAREWs OCHUCHHRT 5. 22200522220 Sse Ill.—A Century of Geology: Steps of Progress in the Inter- pretation of Land Forms; by Hrerpert EK. Grecory.-. - IV.—A Century of Geology: The Growth of Knowledge of Harth Structure; by JosrpH BaRRELL.-.--..---------- V.—A Century of Government Geological Surveys; by Sew Ore EROS MSO MIE Hg foo) sa ee ek ViI—The Development of Vertebrate Pe ORY = by PP EO AEE Se. eae ead. tine. of Sone es VII.—The Rise of Perle: as a Science; by Louis V. > LUSSIE Vice PRene Se OO Be ae Oe eS Spake eather ea iiryatiy VIIl.—The Growth of Mineralogy from 1818 to 1918; by Bibeeimone ORD: ne eee Se Ce ete A VItIa.—The Work of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington; by R. B. Sosman- IX.—The Progress of Chemistry during the past One Hun- dred Years; by H. L. Wetts and H. W. Foors.----.- X.—A Century’s Progress in Physics; by Letau PacsE.---- RES A Century of Zoology in America; by Wers.LEy R. Cor XIJ.—The Development of Botany as shown in this Journal; PmerEOR GH WG OOM MLE soba 6 an ale ERRATA. Page 34, line 10 (bottom), for 27, 40b, 1835, read 27, 406, 1835: Page Page 37, line 3 (bottom), also page 40, line 8, for George W. read George Is Goodale. Page 38, line 9, for 35, 181, 1855, read 35, 181, 1888. Page 10 near bottom, after 1818, American Journal etc., add the line : 1818—. Flora, or Allgemeine botanische Zeitung. Regensburg, Munich. lv CONTENTS. Number 272. Page Art. XIIL.—The Melting Points of Cristobalite and Tridy- | mite; by J. B. Fercuson and H. E, Merwin .-..---_- 417 XIV.—The Application of Rapidly Rotating Metallic Re- ductors in the Determination of Vanadie Acid; by F. A. Goocna and W .Scotr :..-.-.- -2. 522 42/7 XV.—Notes on the Geology of Rhode Island; by A. C. HAWEING 22... .+..2-+-)-75 Upp Ss S255 e ee rn 437 XVI—A Possible Source of Vanadium in Sedimentary Rocks; by, A. H..Paiibs...-....- 4. 9. ae Geology and Mineralogy—Fossil Plants: a text-book for students of Botany and Geology, A. C. SEwarp, 475.—The Cedar Mountain Tiap Ridge near Hartford, W. M. Davis. 476.—Canada Department of Mines, 477.—Con- tributions to the Mineralogy of Black Lake Area, Quebec, E. Porrrvin and R. P. D. Granaw, 479. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Field Museum of Natural History, F. J. V. Sxirr: The Sarawak Museum Journal, 479.—The Normal and Patho- logical Histology of the Mouth, A. HopsweELu-SmitH: Helvetica Chimica Acta, 480. Pg Obituary—W. EK. Hippen: A. PepuEr, 480. CONTENTS. ¥ Number 278. Page Arr XVII.—A Modification of the Periodic Table; by I. Per rere eee. ie i et sl it a8 XVIII—On the Cretaceous Age of the “ Miocene Flora” of Sendai: soy A. N. KRryvsHTOFOVICH,.. 2. .2.. 2.2. -. . 502 XIX.—Paleozoic Glaciation in Southeastern Alaska; by E. OS TETE. Layee LS a a a sae pe ree Re Ne eg Dee” ee Aree 511 XX.—The Lopolith; an Igneous Form Exemplified by the Mami Gabbro; by. Hy KF: Grout): 3. 22 a26 ses! pak 516 XX1i.—Geologic Section of Blair and Huntingdon Counties, Sentral Pennsylvania; by .C. Burrs 22 22.2: 22h. 2522 528 XXIU.—A Method for the Separation and Determination of Barium Associated with Strontium; by F. A. Goocu AE OMEENAN so ee ee eS 538 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Modern Inorganic Chemistry, J. W. MELLOR: James Woodhouse, a pioneer in Chemistry, 1770-1809, E. F. Smirx, 541.— Laboratory Manual, A. A. BLANCHARD and F. B. WabeE: Lessons in Astronomy, Revised Edition. C. A. Youne: The Origin of our Planetary System, E. Miter, 542.—Ozone, and the Ultra-violet Transparency of the Lower Atmosphere, R. J. Strutt, 543.—Molecular Frequency and Molecular Number, H. S. ALLEN, 544. Geology—Thirteenth Report of the Director of the State Museum and Science Department, State of New York, J. M. CLarKE, 545.—Geology of the Oregon Cascades, W. Du Pre Smits: Evolution of Vertebrze, and The Osteology of some American Permian Vertebrates, III, S. W. WiL.iston, 546 —Onaping Map-area, W. H. CoLuins: Timiskaming County, Quebec, M. E. Witson: The Pliocene History of Northern and Central Mississippi, E. W. Suaw, 547. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligencc—Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, H. C. SHERMAN: Physical Chemistry of the Proteins, T. B. Ropertson, 548.— Lecithin and Allied Substances, The Lipins, H. Macnizeaw: Directions for a Practical Course in Chemical Physiology, W. CRAMER: An Outline of the History of Phytopathology, H. H. Wuetzet, 549. Obituary—H. S. Wiuxiams: J. D. Irvine: C. C. TROWBRIDGE, 550. v1 CONTENTS. Number 274. Art. XXIIJ.—The Green River Desert Section, Utah; by W. B. EMsRY 2.2.2.0... =e ee 551 XXIV.—The Law of Dissipation of Motion; by E. Jonson. 578 XX V.—An American Occurrence of Periclase and its Bear- ing on the Origin and History of Calcite-Brucite Rocks; Page by A. FF. Rogers. .2.... 2.222 5s a 581 XXVI.— On the Preparation of Hypophosphates; by R. G. VanName and W. J. Horr: 2... _2. 22 ee 587 XX VII.—Origin of the Western Phosphates of the United States; by G. R. Mansrikip. ge. 232). eee 591 XXVIII. — Dustfall of March 9, 1918; by A. N. WincHELi and EH. BR. Minter 222.0222 22. 2 ee XXIX.—Note on a Universal Switch for Delicate Potential Measurements ; by W. P. Wsitm. = 2.252583 610 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Apparatus for Determining Molecular Weights and Hydrogen Equivalents, W. H. Cuaapin, 613.—Detection of Iodides in the Presence of Cyanides, L. J. CuRTMAN and C. Kaurman: Determination of Zine as Zine Mercury Thiocyanate, G. S. Jamieson: Principles of Chem- istry, J. H. HILLEBRAND, 614.—Organic Compounds of Arsenic and Anti- mony, G. T. Morean: Edible Oils and Fats, C. A. MitcHELL: Seattering of Light by Dust-free Air, with Artificial Reproduction of the Blue Sky, R. J. Strutt, 615.—Occurrence in the Solar Spectrum of the Ultra-violet Bands of Ammonia and of Water-vapor, A. FowLer and C. C. L. GREGORY, 617.—A Calendar of Leading Experiments, W. S. FRANKLIN and B. Mac Nort, Gis. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Journal of the Ceramic Society, 619.— A Century of Science in America with especial reference to the American Journal of Science, 1818-1918, 620. Obituary—R. Ratusun: S. F. Peckaam: S. W. WIL.isron, 620. CONTENTS. Vil Number 275. Page Art. XX X.—Radioactive Properties of the Mineral Springs Geeeolowdo;. by.OnC) Luspmr ui foe set ig ee ec ent 621 XXXI.—Spotted Lakes of Epsomite in Washington and Buch: Columbia ; iby O;P. Penkine? 222055 -2--<265 638 XX XIL—A Study of Some American Fossil Cycads ; Part VIII, Notes on Young Floral Structures; by G. R. PeMULTO Nie temo TE ee Se Ue eee el BED XXXIII.—Means of Solving Crystal Problems; by J. M. AR a 0s ie eee eS ed Se 651 XXXIV.—Separation of Germanium from Arsenic by the Distillation of the Chloride in the Presence of a Chro- mate; by P. E. Brownine and 8. E. Scotr.-.-------- 663 XXXV.—Mysticocrinus, a new genus of Silurian Crinoidea; Buel eDERINGHE (With Plate Il). 22.2702. 222 666 Been MnORE GIGRERT,. 2205 oo. tee een Ja HS. B69 PMEMEE STAT HR VV TELIAMS...-. 20.2 20 ft eee 682 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—A New Method for the Quantitative Estimation of Vapors in Gases, H. S. Davis and Mary D. Davis: Determination of Or- ganic Matter in Soils, J B. Ratuer, 688.—A New Reaction for Osmium, M. T. TScCHUGAEFF: Chemical Combinations among Metals, M. G. and CLARA Giua-Louuini: The Zinc Industry, E. A. SMirH: Stoichiometry, S. YounG, 689.—Elements of General Science, Revised Edition, O. W. CADWELL and W. E. E1kenBerry, 690.—Airplane Characteristics, F. BEDELL, 691. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Medical Contributions to the Study of Evolution, J. G. Apami, 691. Obituary—C. R. Hastman: W. B. Paruuirs, 692. M1] CONTENTS. Number 276. Page Art. XXXVI.—The Origin of Serpentine, a Historical and Comparative Study; by W. N. Benson...--.--_.._-- 693 ArT. XXXVII.—Stratigraphy and Correlation ot the Devo- nian of Western Tennessee; by C. O. DunBar___-.... 732 RicwarpD Ratusun and His Contributions to Zoology -.-.-, 757 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—N otes on Isotopic Lead, F. W. CLARKE: Recovery of Potash and Other Materials from Kelp, C. A. Hiaeins, 764.—Treatise on Applied Analytical Chemistry, V. VILLAVaccHtIa: Outlines of Theoreti- cal Chemistry. F. H. German, 765 —Electro-Analysis, E. F. SmirH: Absorption of X-Rays in Aluminium and Copper, C. M. WiLLiams, 766. —Flame and Furnace Spectra of Iron, G. A. HEMSALECH, 767.—Pub- lications of the American Astronomical Society, 768. Geology —Maryland Geological Survey, E. B. MatnEews, 768.—San Lorenzo Series of Middle Califurnia, B. L. Chark: West Virginia Geological Survey, I. C. Wuartr. 769. -The Evolution of the Earth and its Inhabi- tants. J. BARRELL, C. Scoucuert, L. L. Wooprvurr, R. S. LULL, and K. HUNTINGTON: Equide of the Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene of North America, Ilconographie type revision, H. F. Osporn, 770.—The genus Homalonotus, F. R. C. REeEp, 771. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Dispensaries, their Management and Development. M. M. Davis, Jr., and A. R. Warner, 771.—Principles and Practice of Filling Teeth, C. N. Jonnson: A Study of Engineering Edueation, C. R. Mann: National Academy of Sciences, 772. - Inprex to Volume XLVI, 773. $s SR eee pone BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M.D., LL.D. PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, PHARMACY, MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY IN YALE COLLEGE PREFATORY NOTE The present number commemorates the one-hundredth anni- versary of the founding of the American Journal of Science by Benjamin Silliman in July, 1818. The opening chapter gives a somewhat detailed account of the early days of the Journal, with a sketch of its subsequent history. The remaining chap- ters, eleven in number, are devoted to the principal branches of science which have been prominent in the pages of the Journal. They have been written with a view to showing in each case the position of the science in 1818 and the general progress made during the century; special prominence is given to American science and particularly to the contributions to it to be found in the Journal’s pages. References to specific papers in the Journal are in most cases included in the text and give simply volume, page, and date, as (24, 105, 1833); when these and other references are in considerable number they have been brought together as a Bibliography at the end of the chapter. The entire cost of the present number is defrayed from the income of the Mrs. Hepsa Ely Silliman Memorial Fund, estab- lished under the will of Augustus Ely Silliman, a nephew of Benjamin Silliman, who died in 1884. Certain of the chapters here printed have been made the basis of a series of seven Silli- man Lectures in accordance with the terms of that gift. The selection of these lectures has been determined by the conveni- ence of the gentlemen concerned and in part also by the nature of the subject. A special volume reproducing this number, with some important additions, will soon be published by the Yale University Press. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF > SCIENCE [FOURTH SERIES.] oe Art. L—The American Journal of Science from 1818 to 1918; by Epwarp 8. Dana. INTRODUCTION. In July, 1818, one hundred years ago, the first number of the American Journal of Science and Arts was given to the public. This is the only scientific periodical in this country to maintain an uninterrupted existence since that early date, and this honor is shared with hardly more than half a dozen other independent scientific periodicals in the world at large. Similar publications of learned societies for the same period are also very few in number. It is interesting, on the occasion of this centenary, to glance back at the position of science and scientific liter- ature in the world’s intellectual life in the early part of the nineteenth century, and to consider briefly the mar- velous record of combined scientific and industrial prog- ress of the hundred years following—subjects to be handled in detail in the succeeding chapters. It is fitting also that we should recall the man who founded this Journal, the conditions under which he worked, and the difficulties he encountered. Finally, we must review, but more briefly, the subsequent history of what has so often been called after its founder, ‘‘Silliman’s Journal.’’ The nineteenth century, and particularly the hundred years in which we are now interested, must always stand out in the history of the world as the period which has combined the greatest development in all departments of science with the most extraordinary industrial progress. It was not until this century that scientific investigation Am. Jour. Sci.—Fourta SerRIES, Vout. XLVI, No. 271.—Juty, 1918. a! 2 Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. used to their full extent the twin methods of observation and experiment. In cases too numerous to mention they have given us first, a tentative hypothesis; then, through the testing and correcting of the hypothesis by newly acquired data, an accepted theory has been arrived at; finally, by the same means carried further has been established one of nature’s laws. Early Science.—Looking far back into the past, it seems surprising that science should have had so late a growth, but the wonderful record of man’s genius in the monuments he erected and in architectural remains shows that the working of the human mind found expres- sion first in art and further man also turned to litera- ture. So far as man’s thought was constructive, the early results were systems of philosophy, and explana- tions of the order of things as seen from within, not as shown by nature herself. We date the real beginning of science with the Greeks, but it was the century that pre- ceded Aristotle that saw the building of the Parthenon and the sculptures of Phidias. Even the great Aristotle himself (384-322 B. C.) though he is sometimes called the ‘‘founder of natural history,’’ was justly accused by Lord Bacon many centuries later of having formed his theories first and then to have forced the facts to agree with them. The bringing together of facts through observation alone began, to be sure, very early, for it was the motion of the sun, moon, and stars and the relation of the earth to them that first excited interest, and, especially in the countries of the East, led to the accumulation of data as to the motion of the planets, of comets and the occur- rence of eclipses. But there was no coordination of these facts and they were so involved in man’s super- stition as to be of little value. In passing, however, it is worthy of mention that the Chinese astronomical data accumulated more than two thousand years before the Christian era have in trained hands yielded results of no small significance. Doubtless were full knowledge available as to the science existing in the early civilizations, we should rate it higher than we can at present, but it would probably prove even then to have been developed from within, like the philosophies of the Greeks, and with but minor influence from nature herself. It is indeed remarkable Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. 3 that down to the time with which we are immediately con- cerned, it was the branches of mathematics, as arithmetic and geometry and later their applications, that were first and most fully developed: in other words those lines of science least closely connected with nature. Of the importance to science of the Greek school at Alexandria in the second and third centuries B. C., there ean be no question. The geometry of Euclid (about 300 B. C.) was marvelous in its completeness as in clearness of logical method. Hipparchus (about 160-125 B. C.) gave the world the elements of trigonometry and devel- oped astronomy so that Ptolemy 260 years later was able to construct a system that was well-developed, though in error in the fundamental idea as to the relative position of the earth. It is interesting to note that the Almagest of Ptolemy was thought worthy of republication by the Carnegie Institution only a year or two since. This great astronomical work, by the way, had no successor till that of the Arab Ulugh Bey in the fifteenth century, which within a few months has also been made available by the same Institution. To the Alexandrian school also belongs USrohimesie: (287-212 B. C.), who, as every school boy knows, was the founder of mechanics and in fact almost a modern physi- cal experimenter. He invented the water screw for rais- ing water; he discovered the principle of the lever, which appealed so keenly to his imagination that he called for a zov oro, or fulerum, on which to place it so as to move the earth itself. He was still nearer to modern physics in his reputed plan of burning up a hostile fleet by converging the sun’s rays by a system of great mirrors. To the Romans, science owes little beyond what is implied in their vast architectural monuments, buildings and aqueducts which were erected at home and in the countries of their conquests. The elder Pliny (23-79 A. D.) most nearly deserved to be called a man of science, but his work on natural history, comprised in thirty- seven volumes, is hardly more than a compilation of fable, fact, and fancy, and is sometimes termed a collec- tion of anecdotes. He lost his life in the ‘‘grandest geological event of antiquity,’’ the eruption of Vesuvius, which is vividly described by his nephew, the younger 4. Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. Pliny, in ‘‘one of the most remarkable literary produc- tions in the domain of geology’’ (Zittel). With the fall of Rome and the decline of Roman civ- ilization came a period of intellectual darkness, from which the world did not emerge until the revival of learn- ing in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Then the extension of geographical knowledge went hand in hand with the development of art, literature, and the birth of a new science. Copernicus (147 3-1543) gave the world at last a sun-controlled solar system; Kepler (1571-1630) formulated the laws governing the motion of the planets ; Galileo (1564-1642) with his telescope opened up new vistas of astronomical knowledge and laid the founda- tions of mechanics; while Leonardo da Vinei (1452-1519), painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, musician and true scientist, studied the laws of falling bodies and solved — the riddle of the fossils in the rocks. Still later Newton (1642-1727) established the law of gravitation, developed the caleulus, put mechanics upon a solid basis and also worked out the properties of lenses and prisms so that his Optics (1704) will always have a pRaie place in the history of science. From the time of the Renaissance on science grew steadily, but it was not till the latter half of the eight- eenth century that the foundations in most of the lines recognized to-day were fully laid. Much of what was accomplished then is, at least, outlined in the chapters following. Our standpoint in the early vears of the nineteenth century, just before the American Journal had its begin- ning, may be briefly summarized as follows: A desire for knowledge was almost universal and, therefore, also a general interest in the development of science. Mathe- matics was firmly established and the mathematical side of astronomy and natural philosophy—as physics was then called—was well developed. Many of the phenom- ena of heat and their applications, as in the steam engine of Watt, were known and even the true nature of heat had been almost established by our countryman, Count Rum- ford; but of electricity there were only a few sparks of knowledge. Chemistry had had its foundation firmly laid by Priestley, Lavoisier, and Dalton, while Berzelius was pushing rapidly forward. Geology had also its roots down, chiefly through the work of Hutton and Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. 5 William Smith, though the earth was as yet essentially an unexplored field. Systematic zoology and botany had been firmly grounded by Buffon, Lamarck and Cuvier, on the one hand, and Linneus on the other; but of all that is embraced under the biology of the latter half of the nineteenth century the world knew nothing. The state- ments of Silliman in his Introductory Remarks in the first number, quoted in part on a following page, put the matter still more fully, but they are influenced by the enthusiasm of the time and he could have had little com- prehension of what was to be the record of the next one hundred years. Now, leaving this hasty and incomplete retrospect and coming down to 1918, we find the contrast between to-day and 1818 perhaps most strikingly brought out, on the material side, if we consider the ability of man, in the early part of the nineteenth century, to meet the demands upon him in the matter of transportation of himself and his property. In 1800, he had hardly advanced beyond his ancestor of the earliest civilization; on the contrary, he was still dependent for transportation on land upon the muscular efforts of himself and domesticated ani- mals, while at sea he had only the use of sails in addition. The first application of the steam engine with commercial success was made by Fulton when, in 1807, the steamboat ‘‘Clermont’’ made its famous trip on the Hudson River. Since then, step by step, transportation has been made more and more rapid, economical and convenient, both on land and water. This has come first through the per- fection of the steam engine; later through the agency of electricity, and still further and more universally by the use of gasolene motors. Finally, in these early years of the twentieth century, what seemed once a wild dream of the imagination has been realized, and man has gained the conquest of the air; while the perfection of the sub- marine is as wonderful as its work can be deadly. Hardly less marvelous is the practical annihilation of space and time in the electric transmission of human thought and speech by wire and by ether waves. While, still further, the same electrical current now gives man his artificial illumination and serves him in a thousand ways besides. But the limitations of space have also been conquered, during the same period, by the spectroscope which brings 6 Dana—Aierican Journal of Science, 1818-1918. a knowledge of the material nature of the sun and the fixed stars and of their motion in the line of sight; while spectrum analysis has revealed the existence of many new elements and opened up vistas as to the nature of matter. The chemist and the physicist, often working together in the investigation of the problems lying between their two departments, have accumulated a staggering array of new facts from which the principles of their sciences ‘ have been deduced. Many new elements have been dis- covered, in fact nearly all called for by the periodic law; | the so-called fixed gases have been liquefied, and now air in liquid form is almost a plaything; the absolute zero has been nearly reached in the boiling point of helium; physical measurements in great precision have been car- ried out in both directions for temperatures far beyond any scale that was early conceived possible; the atom, once supposed to be indivisible, has been shown to be made up of the much smaller electrons, while its disintegration in radium and its derivatives has been traced out and with consequences only as yet partly understood but cer- tainly having far-reaching consequences; at one point we seem to be brought near to the transmutation of the elements which was so long the dream of the alchemist. Still again photography has been discovered and per- fected and with the use of X-rays it gives a picture of the structure of bodies totally opaque to the eye; the same X-rays seem likely to locate and determine the atoms in the crystal. Here and at many other points we are reaching out to a knowledge of the ultimate nature of matter. In geology, vast progress has been made in the knowledge of the earth, not only as to its features now exhibited at or near the surface, but also as to its history in past ages, of the development of its structure, the minute history of its life, the phenomena of its earth- quakes, voleanoes, ete. Geological s surveys in all civilized countries have been carried to a high degree of per- fection. | In biology, itself a word which though used by Lamarck did not come into use till taken up by Huxley, and then by Herbert Spencer in the middle of the cen- tury, the progress is no less remarkable as is well devel- oped in a later chapter of this number. Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. 7 Although not falling within our sphere, it would be wrong, too, not to recognize also the growth of medicine, especially through the knowledge of bacteria and their functions, and of disease germs and the methods of com- bating them. The world can never forget the debt it owes to Pasteur and Lister and many later investigators in this field. To follow out this subject further would be to encroach upon the field of the chapters following, but, more important and fundamental still than all the facts dis- covered and the phenomena investigated has been the establishment of certain broad scientific principles which have revolutionized modern thought and shown the rela- tion between sciences seemingly independent. The law of conservation of energy in the physical world and the principle of material and organic evolution may well be said to be the greatest generalizations of the human mind. Although suggestions in regard to them, particu- larly the latter, are to be found in the writings of early authors, the establishment and general acceptance of these principles belong properly to the middle of the nineteenth century. They stand as the crowning achieve- ment of the scientific thought of the period in which we are interested. Any mere enumeration of the vast fund of knowledge accumulated by the efforts of man through observation and experiment in the period in which we are interested would be a dry summary, and yet would give some meas- ure of what this marvelous period has accomplished. As in geography, man’s energy has in recent years removed the reproach of. a ‘‘Dark Continent,’’ of ‘‘unexplored’’ central Asia and the once ‘‘inaccessible polar regions,’’ so in the different departments of science, he has opened up many unknown fields and accumulated vast stores of knowledge. It might even seem as if the limit of the unknown were being approached. There remains, how- ever, this difference in the analogy, that in science the fundamental relations—as, for example, the nature of gravitation, of matter, of energy, of electricity; the actual nature and source of life—the solution of these and other similar problems still lies in the future. What the result of continued research may be no one ean pre- dict, but even with these possibilities before us, it is hardly rash to say that so great a combined progress of 8 Dana—American Journal of Scrence, 1818-1918. pure and applied science as that of the past hundred years is not likely to be again realized. SCIENTIFIC PERIODICAL LITERATURE IN 1818. The contrast in scientific activity between 1818 and 1918 is nowhere more strikingly shown than in the amount of scientific periodical literature of the two periods. Of the thousands of scientific journals and reg- ular publications by scientific societies and academies to-day, but a very small number have carried on a con- tinuous and practically unbroken existence since 1818. This small amount of periodical scientific literature in the early part of the last century is significant as giving a fair indication of the very limited extent to which scientific investigation appealed to the intellectual life of the time. Some definite facts in regard te the scientific publications of those early days seem to be called for. Learned societies and academies, devoted to literature and science, were formed very early but at first for occa- sional meetings only and regular publications were in most eases not begun till a very much later date. Some of the earliest—not to go back of the Renaissance—are the following: 1560. Naples, Academia Secretorum Nature. 1603. Rome, Accademia dei Lineei. 1651. Leipzig, Academia Nature Curiosum. 1657. Florence, Accademia del Cimento. 1662. London, Royal Society. 1666. Paris, Académie des Sciences. 1690. Bologna, Accademia delle Scienze. 1700. Berlin, Societas Regia Scientiarum. This was the forerunner of the K. preuss. Akad. d. Wissenschaften. The Royal Society of London, whose existence dates from 1645, though not definitely chartered until 1662, began the publication of its ‘‘Philosophical Transac- tions’’ in 1665 and has continued it practically unbroken to the present time; this is a unique record. Following this, other early—but in most cases not continuous— publications were those of Paris (1699); Berlin (1710) ; Upsala (1720); Petrograd, 1728; . Stockholm, (1739); and Copenhagen (1743). For the latter half of the eighteenth century, when the foundations of our modern science were being rapidly Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. 9 laid, a considerable list might be given of early publica- tions of similar scientific bodies. Some of the prominent ones are: Gottingen (1750), Munich (1759), Brussels (1769), Prague (1775), Turin (1784), Dublin (1788), ete. The early years of the nineteenth century saw the begin- nines of many others, particularly in northern Italy. It is to be noted that, as stated, only rarely were the publi- cations of these learned societies even approximately continuous. In the majority of cases the issue of trans- actions or proceedings was highly irregular and often interrupted. In this country the earliest scientific bodies are the following: Philadelphia. American Philosophical Society, founded in 1743. Transactions were published 1771-1809; then inter- rupted until 1818 et seq. Boston. American Academy of Arts and Sciences, founded in 1780. Memoirs, 1785-1821; and then 1833 e7 seq. New Haven. Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, begun in 1799. Memoirs, vol. 1, 1810-16; Transactions, 1866 et seq. Philadelphia. Academy of Natural Sciences, begun in 1812. Journal, 1817-1842; and from 1847 et seq. New York. Lyceum of Natural History, 1817; later (1876) became the New York Academy of Sciences. Annals from 1823; Proceedings from 1870. The situation is somewhat similar as to independent scientific journals. A list of the names of those started only to find an early death would be a very long one, but interesting only historically and as showing a spasmodic but unsustained striving after scientific growth. Jt seems worth while, however, to give here the names of the periodicals embracing one or more of the sub- jects of the American Journal, which began at a very early date and most of which have maintained an unin- terrupted existence down to 1915. It should be added that certain medical journals, not listed here, have also had a long and continued existence." 1The statements given are necessarily much condensed, without an attempt to follow all changes of title; furthermore, the dates of actual publication for the academies given above are often somewhat vaguely recorded. For fuller information see Scudder’s ‘‘Catalogue of Scientific Serials, 1633-1876,’’ Cambridge, 1876; also H. Carrington Bolton’s “*Catalogue of Scientific and Technical Periodicals, 1665-1882’? (Smith- sonian Institution, 1885). The writer is much indebted to Mr. C. J. Barr of the Yale University for his valuable assistance in this connection. 10 Dana—American Journal of Scrence, 1818-1918. Early Scientific Journals. 1771-1823. Journal de Physique, Paris; title changed several times. 1787-. Botanical Magazine. (For a time known as Curtis’s Journal. ) 1789-1816. Annales de Chimie, Paris. Continued from 1817 on as the Annales de Chimie et de Physique. 1790. Journal der Physik, Halle (by Gren); from 1799 on became the Annalen der Physik (und Chemie), Halle, Leipzig. The title has been somewhat changed from time to time though publication has been continuous. Often referred to by the name of the editor-in-chief, as Gren, Gilbert, Poggendorff, Wiedemann, ete: 1795-1815. Journal des Mines, Paris, continued from 1816 as the Annales des Mines. 1796-1815. Bibliotheque Britannique, Geneva. From 1816— 1840, Biblhothéque Universelle, ete. 1846-1857, Archives des Sci. phys. nat. Since 1858 generally known as the Bibliothéque Universelle. 1797. Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and the Arts (Nicholson’s Journal) London; united in 1814 with the Philosophical Magazine (Tuilloch’s Journal). 1798—. The Philosophical Magazine (originally by Tulloch). This absorbed Nicholson’s Journal (above) in 1814; also the Annals of Philosophy (Thomson, Phillips) in 1827 and Brew- sters’ Edinburgh Journal of Science in 1832. | 1798-1803. Allgemeines Journal de Chemie (Scherer’s Journal). 1803-1806; continued as Neues Allg. J. ete. (Geh- len’s Journal.) Later title repeatedly changed and finally (1834 et seq.) Journal fir praktische Chemie. 1816-18. Journal of Science and the Arts, London. 1819-— 30, Quarterly J. ete. 1830-31, Journal of the Royal Institution of Great Britain. : 1818. American Journal of Science and Arts until 1880, when ‘‘the Arts’’ was dropped, New Haven, Conn. First Series, 1-50, 1818-1845; Second Series, 1-50, 1846-1870; Third Series, 1-50, 1871-1895; Fourth Series, 1-45, 1896-June, 1918. 1820-1867. London Journal of Arts and Seiences Be 1855, Newton’s Journal). 1824. Annales des sciences naturelles. Paris. 1826—. Linnea, Berlin, Halle; from 1882 united with Jahrb. d. K. botan. Gartens. 1828-1840. Magazine of Natural History, London; united 1838 with the Annals of Natural History, and known since 1841 as the Annals and Magazine of Natural History. Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. 11 1828-. Journal of the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, from 1826; earlier (1825).the American Mechanies Magazine. 1832—. Annalen der Chemie (und Pharmacie) often known as Liebig’s Annalen. Leipzig, Lemgo. THe FOUNDER OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. The establishment of a scientific journal in this country in 1818 was a pioneer undertaking, requiring of its founder a rare degree of energy, courage, and confidence in the future. It was necessary, not only to obtain the material to fill its pages and the money to carry on the enterprise, but, before the latter end could be accom- plished, an audience must be found among those who had hitherto felt little or no interest in the sciences. This ereat work was accomplished by Benjamin Silliman, ‘the guardian of American Science,’’ whose influence was second to none in the early development of science in this country. Before speaking in some detail of the early years of this Journal and of its subsequent history, it is proper that some words should be given to its founder. Benjamin Silliman, son of a general prominent in the Revolutionary War, was born in Trumbull, Connecticut, on August 8, 1779. He was a graduate of Yale College of the class of 1796. Though at first a student of law and accepted for the bar in Connecticut, he was called in 1802 by President Timothy Dwight—a man of rare breadth of mind—to occupy the newly-made chair of chemistry, min- eralogy (and later geology) in Yale College at New Haven. To fit himself for the work before him he earried on extensive studies at home and in Philadelphia and spent the year 1805 in travels and study at London and Edinburgh, and also on the Continent. His active duties began in 1806 and from this time on he was in the service of Yale College until his resignation in 1853. From the first, Silliman met with remarkable success as a teacher and public lecturer in arousing an interest in science. His breadth of knowledge, his enthusiasm for his chosen subjects and power of clear presentation, com- bined with his fine presence and attractive personality, made him a great leader in the science of the country and gave him a unique position in the history of its develop- ment. Much might be said of the man and his work, but, the \ 12 Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. best tribute is that of James Dwight Dana, given in his inaugural address upon the occasion of his beginning his duties as Silliman professor of geology in Yale College. This was delivered on February 18, 1856, in what was then known as the ‘‘Cabinet Building.’’ Dana says In part: ‘In entering upon the duties of this place, my thoughts turn — rather to the past than to the subject of the present hour. I feel that it is an honored place, honored by the labors of one who has been the guardian of American Science from its child- hood; who here. first opened to the country the wonderful. records of geology; whose words of eloquence and earnest truth were but the overflow of a soul full of noble sentiments and warm sympathies, the whole throwing a peculiar charm over his learning, and rendering his name beloved as well as illus- trious. Just fifty years since, Professor Silliman took his sta- tion at the head of chemical and geological science in this college. Geology was then hardly known by name in the land, out of these walls. Two years before, previous to his tour in Europe, the whole cabinet of Yale was a half-bushel of unlabelled stones. On visiting England he found even in London no school public or private, for geological instruction, and the science was not named in the English universities. To the mines, quarries, and cliffs of England, the crags of Scotland, and the meadows of Holland he looked for knowledge, and from these and the teach- ines of Murray, Jameson, Hall, Hope, and Playfair, at Edin- burgh, Professor Silliman returned, equipped for duty,—albeit a great duty,—that of laying the foundation, and creating almost out of nothing a department not before recognized in any institution in America. He began his work in 1806. The science was without books— and, too, without system, except such as its few cultivators had each for himself in his conceptions. It was the age of the first beginnings of geology, when Wernerians and Huttonians were arrayed in a contest. . . . Professor Silliman when at Edin- burgh witnessed the strife, and while, as he says, his earliest predilections were for the more peaceful mode of rock-making, these soon yielded to the accumulating evidence, and both views became combined in his mind in one harmonious whole. The science, thus evolved, grew with him and by him; for his own labors contributed to its extension. Every year was a year of expansion and onward development, and the grandeur of the opening views found in him a ready and appreciative response. And while the sciences and truth have thus made progress here, through these labors of fifty years, the means of study in the institution have no less increased. Instead of that half- Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. 13 bushel of stones, which once went to Philadelphia for names, in a candle-box, you see above the largest mineral cabinet in the country, which but for Professor Silliman, his attractions and his personal exertions together, would never have been one of the glories of old Yale. Moreover, the American J ournal of Science,—now in its thirty-seventh year and seventieth volume [1856] ,— projected and long-sustained solely by Professor Silliman, while ever dis- tributing truth, has also been ever gathering honors, and is one of the laurels of Yale. We rejoice that in laying aside his studies, after so many years of labor, there is still no abated vigor. . . . He retires as one whose right it is to throw the burden on others. Long may he be with us, to enjoy the good he has done, and cheer us by his noble and benign presence.’’ In addition to these words of Dana, much of vital interest in regard to Silliman and his work will be gathered from what is given in the pages immediately following, quoted from his personal statements in the early volumes of the Journal. THe Earuty YEARS OF THE JOURNAL. In no direction did Silliman’s enthusiastic activities in science produce a more enduring result than in the found- ing and carrying on of this Journal. The first sugges- tion in regard to the enterprise was made to Silliman by his friend, Colonel George Gibbs, from whom the famous Gibbs collection of minerals was bought by Yale College in 1825. Silliman says (25, 215, 1834): ‘“Col. Gibbs was the person who first suggested to the Editor the project of this Journal, and he urged the topic with so much zeal and with such cogent arguments, as prevailed to induce the effort in a case then viewed as of very dubious success. The subject was thus started in November, 1817; proposals for the Journal were issued in January, 1818, and the first number appeared in July of that year.’’ He adds further (50, p. iii, 1847) that the conversation here recorded took place “on an accidental meeting on board the steamboat Fulton in Long Island Sound.’’ This was some ten years after Robert Fulton’s steam- boat, the Clermont, made its pioneer trip on the Hudson river, already alluded to. The incident is not without significance in this connection. The deck of the ‘‘Ful- AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCUBNCIE, WAG; : MORE POREGIAEEY OF C((2 ~ MINERALOGY, GEOLOGY, AND THE OTHER BRANCHES OF NATURAL HISTORY ; : AGRICULTURE @ AND THE ORNAMENTAL AS WELL AS USEFUL 2 ARIUS See ie ae CONDUCTED BY BENJAMIN SILL TMA JN’, PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY. MINERALOGY. ETC IN YALE COLLEGE, AUTHOR OF TRAVELS IN ENGLAND. SCOTLAND. AND HOLLAND, ETC Ta Te VOL. I.....NO. I. ——=1nqeo— ENGRAVING IN THE PRESENT NO. New apparatus for the combustion of Tar, &c. by the vapour of water. — 66 6. 6.2 ©0306 ==—— Pew-ork : & ria PUBLISHED BY J. FASTBURN AND CO. LITERARY ROOMS, BROADWAY, AND BY HOWE AND SPALDING, NEW-HAVEN. --—> @-<------ Abraham Paul, printer. Ooeor se eene ne ae Sat See ca Sa ac nee STh ¢ ad Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. 15 ton’’ was not an inappropriate place for the inauguration of an enterprise also great in its results for the country. In the preface to the concluding volume of the First Series (loc. cit.) Silliman adds the following remarks which show his natural modesty at the thought of under- taking so serious a work. He says: Although a different selection of an editor would have been much preferred, and many reasons, public and personal, con- curred to produce diffidence of success, the arguments of Col. Gibbs, whose views on subjects of science were entitled to the most respectful consideration, and had justly great weight, being pressed with zeal and ability, induced a reluctant assent; and accordingly, after due consultation with many competent judges, the proposals were issued early in 1818, embracing the whole range of physical science and its applications. The Editor in entering on the duty, regarded it as an affair for life, and the thirty years of experience which he has now had, have proved that his views of the exigencies of the service were not erroneous. The plan with which the editor began his work and the lines laid down by him at the outset can only be made clear by quoting entire the ‘‘Plan of the Work’’ which opens the first number. It seems desirable also to give this in its original form as to paragraphs and typog- raphy. The first page of the cover of the opening num- ber has also been reproduced here. It will be seen that the plan of the young editor was as wide as the entire range of science and its applications and extended out to music and the fine arts. This seems strange to-day, but it must be remembered how few were the organs of pub- lication open to contributors at the time. If the plan was unreasonably extended, that fact is to be taken not only as an expression of the enthusiasm of the editor, as yet inexperienced in his work, but also of the time when the sciences were still in their infancy. He says (1, pp. v, vi): “PLAN OF THE WORK. This Journal is intended to embrace the circle of THE PHys- ICAL SCIENCES, with their application to THE Arts, and to every useful purpose. It is designed as a deposit for original American communica- tions; but will contain also occasional selections from Foreign J ournals, and notices of the progress of science in other coun- tries. Within its plan are embraced 16 Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. Natura History, in its three great departments of MInER- ALOGY, Borany, and Zoouoey ; CHEMISTRY and NatTuRAL PHILOSOPHY, in their various branches: and MATHEMATICS, pure and mixed. It will be a leading object to illustrate American NaturaAu History, and especially our Mineratocy and GHonoey. The AppLicaTIONS of these sciences are obviously as numer- ous as physical arts, and physical wants; for no one of these arts or wants can be named which is not connected with them. While ScreNceE will be cherished for tts own sake, and with a due respect for its own wmherent dignity; it will also be employed as the handmad to the Arts. Its numerous applica- tions to AGRICULTURE, the earliest and most important of them; to our MANUFACTURES, both mechanical and chemical; and to our Domestic Economy, will be carefully sought out, and faithfully made. It is also within the design of this Journal to receive communi- cations on Music, ScuLPTURE, ENGRAVING, PAINTING, and gener- ally on the fine and liberal, as well as useful arts; On Military and Civil Engineering, and the art of Navigation. Notices, Reviews, and Analyses of new scientific works, and of new Inventions, and Specifications of Patents; Biographical and Obituary Notices of scientific men; essays on CoMPARATIVE ANATOMY and PHystioLoGcy, and generally on such other branches of medicine as depend on scientific prin- ciples ; Meteorological Registers, and Reports of Agricultural Experi- ments: and we would leave room also for interesting miscellane- ous things, not perhaps exactly included under either of the above heads. Communications are respectfully solicited from men of science, and from men versed in the practical arts. Learned Societies are invited to make this Journal, occasion- ally, the vehicle of their communications to the Public. The editor will not hold himself responsible for the sentiments and opinions advanced by his correspondents; but he will con- sider it as an allowed liberty to make slight verbal alterations, where errors may be presumed to have arisen from inadver- tency.’ In the ‘‘Advertisement’’ which precedes the above statement in the first number, the editor remarks some- what naively that he ‘‘does not pledge himself that all the subjects shall be touched upon in every number. This is plainly impossible unless every article should be very short and imperfect. . .’’ ) The whole subject is discussed in all its relations in the ‘‘Introductory Remarks’’ which open the first vol- Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. 17 ume. No apology is needed for quoting at considerable length, for only in this way can the situation be made clear, as seen by the editor in 1818. Further we gain here a picture of the intellectual life of the times and, not less interesting, of the mind and personality of the writer. With a frank kindliness, eminently characteristic of the man, as will be seen, he takes the public fully into his confidence. In the remarks made in subsequent vol- umes,—also extensively quoted—the vicissitudes in the conduct of the enterprise are brought out and when suc- cess was no longer doubtful, there is a tone of quiet satisfaction which was also characteristic and which the circumstances fully justified. The Inrropuctory Remarks begin as follows: The age in which we live is not less distinguished by a vigorous and successful cultivation of physical science, than by its numer- ous and important applications to the practical arts, and to the common purposes of life. In every enlightened country, men illustrious for talent, worth and knowledge, are ardently engaged in enlarging the bound- aries of natural science; and the history of their labors and discoveries 1s communicated to the world chiefly through the medium of scientific journals. The utility of such journals has thus become generally evident; they are the heralds of science; they proclaim its toils and its achievements; they demonstrate its intimate connection as well with the comfort, as with the intellectual and moral improvement of our species; and they often procure for it enviable honors and substantial rewards. Mention is then made of the journals existing in England and France in 1818 ‘‘which have long enjoyed a high and deserved reputation.’’ He then continues: From these sources our country reaps and will lone continue to reap, an abundant harvest of information: and if the light of science, as well as of day, springs from the East, we will wel- come the rays of both; nor should national pride induce us to reject so rich an offering. But can we do nothing in return? In a general diffusion of useful information through the vari- ous classes of society, in activity of intellect and fertility of resource and invention, producing a highly intelligent popula- tion, we have no reason to shrink from a comparison with any country. But the devoted cultivators of science in the United States are comparatively few: they are, however, rapidly increasing in number. Among them are persons distinguished for their capacity and attainments, and, notwithstanding the 18 Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. local feelings nourished by our state sovereignties, and the rival claims of several of our larger cities, there is evidently a predis- position towards a concentration of effort, from which we may hope for the happiest results, with regard to the advancement of both the science and reputation of our country. Is it not, therefore, desirable to furnish some rallying point, some object sufficiently interesting to be nurtured by common efforts, and thus to become the basis of an enduring, common interest? To produce these efforts, and to excite this interest, nothing, perhaps, bids fairer than a ScIENTIFIC JOURNAL. The valuable work already accomplished by various medical journals is then spoken of and particularly that of the first scientific periodical in the United States, Bruce’s Mineralogical Journal. This, as Silliman says (1, p. 3, 1818), although ‘‘both in this country and in Europe received in a very flattering manner,’’ did not survive the death of its founder, and only a single vol- ume of 270 pages appeared (1810-1813). Silliman continues : No one, it is presumed, will doubt that a journal devoted to science, and embracing a sphere sufficiently extensive to allure to its support the principal scientific men of our country, is ereatly needed; if cordially supported, it will be successful, and if successful, it will be a great public benefit. Even a failure, in so good a cause, (unless it should arise from incapacity or unfaithfulness,) cannot be regarded as dishonour- able. It may prove only that the attempt was premature, and that our country is not yet ripe for such an undertaking; for without the efficient support of talent, knowledge, and money, it cannot long proceed. No editor can hope to carry forward such a work without the active aid of scientific and practical men; but, at the same time, the public have a right to expect that he will not be sparing of his own labour, and that his work shall be generally marked by the impress of his own hand. To this extent the editor cheerfully acknowledges his obligations to the public; and it will be his endeavour faithfully to redeem his pledge. Most of the periodical works of our country have been short- lived. This, also, may perish in its infancy; and if any degree of confidence is cherished that it will attain a maturer age, it is derived from the obvious and intrinsic importance of the under- taking; from its being built upon permanent and momentous national interests; from the evidence of a decided approbation of the design, on "the part of gentlemen of the first eminence, obtained in the progress of an extensive correspondence; from assurance of support, in the way of contributions, from men of Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. 19 ability in many sections of the union; and from the existence of such a crisis in the affairs of this country and of the world, as appears peculiarly auspicious to the success of every wise and good undertaking. An interesting discussion follows (pp. 5-8) as to the claims of the different branches of science, and the extent to which they and their applications had been already developed, also the spheres still open to discovery. The Introductory Remarks close, as follows: In a word, the whole circle of physical science is directly applicable to human wants and constantly holds out a light to the practical arts; it thus polishes and benefits society and everywhere demonstrates both supreme intelligence and harmony and beneficence of design in the Creator. The science of mathematics, both pure and mixed, can never cease to be interesting and important to man, as long as the relations of quantity shall exist, as long as ships shall traverse the ocean, as long as man shall measure the surface or heights of the earth on which he lives, or ecaleulate the distances and examine the relations of the planets and stars; and as long as the tron reign of war shall demand the discharge of projectiles, or the construction of complicated defences. The closing part of the paragraph shows the influence exerted upon the mind of the editor by the serious wars of the years preceding 1818, a subject alluded to again at the close of this chapter. In February, 1822, with the completion of the fourth volume, the editor reviews the situation which, though encouraging is by no means fully assuring. He says (preface to vol. 4, dated Feb. 15, 1822): Two years and a half have elapsed, since the publication of the first volume of this Journal, and one year and ten months since the Editor assumed the. pecuniary responsibility. } The work has not, even yet, reimbursed its expenses, (we speak not of editorial or of business compensation,) we intend, that it has not paid for the paper, printing and engraving; the proprietors of the first volume being in advance, on those accounts, and the Editor on the same score, with respect to the ageregate expense of the three last volumes. This deficit is, however, no longer increasing, as the receipts, at present, just about cover the expense of the physical materials, and of the manual labour. A reiterated disclosure of this kind is not erateful, and would scarcely be manly, were it not that the public, who alone have the power to remove the difficulty, have 20 Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. a right to a frank exposition of the state of the case. As the patronage is, however, growing gradually more extensive, it is believed that the work will be eventually sustained, although it may be long before it will command any thing but gratuitous intellectual labour. : These facts, with the obvious one,—that its pages are supplied with contributions from all parts of the Union, and occasionally from Europe, evince that the work is received as a national and not as a local undertaking, and that the community consider it as having no sectional character. Encouraged by this view of the subject, and by the favour of many distinguished men, both at home and abroad, and supported by able contributors, to whom the Editor again tenders his grateful acknowledgments, he will still persevere, in the hope of contributing something to the advancement of our science and arts, and towards the elevation of our national character. In the autumn of the same year, the editor closes the fifth volume with a more confident tone (Sept. 25, 1822) : A trial of four years has decided the point, that the American Public will support this Journal. Its pecuniary patronage is now such, that although not a lucrative, it is no longer a hazard- ous enterprise. It is now also decided, that the intellectual resources of the country are sufficient to afford an unfailing supply of valuable original communications and that nothing but perseverance and effort are necessary to give perpetuity to the undertaking. The decided and uniform expression of public favour which the Journal has received both at home and abroad, affords the Editor such encouragement, that he cannot hesitate to per- severe—and he now renews the expression of his thanks to the friends and correspondents of the work, both in Europe and the United States, requesting at the same time a continuance of their friendly influence and efforts. Still again in the preface to the sixth volume (1823) he takes the reader more fully into his confidence and shows that he regards the enterprise as no longer of doubtful success. He says: The conclusion of a new volume of a work, involving so much eare, labour and responsibility, as are necessarily attached, at the present day, to a Journal of Science and the Arts, natur- ally produces in the mind, a state of not ungrateful calmness, and a disposition, partaking of social feeling, to say something to those who honour such a production, by giving to it a small share of their money, and of their time. The Editor’s first impression was, that the sixth volume should be sent into the (2204 Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. 21 world without an introductory note, but he yields to the impulse already expressed, and to the established usages of respectful, courtesy to the public, which a short preface seems to imply. He has now persevered almost five years, in an undertaking, regarded by many of the friends whom he originally consulted, as hazardous, and to which not a few of them prophetically alloted only an ephemeral existence. It has been his fortune to prosecute this work without, (till a very recent period,) returns, adequate to its indispensable responsibilities ;—under a heavy pressure of professional and private duty; with trying fluctua- tions of health, and amidst sévere and reiterated domestic afflictions. The world are usually indulgent to allusions of this nature, when they have any relation to the discharge of public duty; and in this view, it is with satisfaction, that the Editor adds, that he has now to look on formidable difficulties, only in retrospect, and with something of the feeling of him, who sees a powerful and vanquished foe, slowly retiring, and leaving a field no longer contested. This Journal which, from the first, was fully supplied with original communications, is now sustained by actual payment, to such an extent, that it may fairly be considered as an estab- lished work; its patronage is regularly increasing, and we trust it will no longer justify such remarks as some of the following, from the pen of one of the most eminent scientific men in Europe. ‘‘Nothing surprises me more, than the little encourage- ment which your Journal,’’ (‘‘which I always read with very great interest, and of which I make great use,’’) ‘‘experiences in America—this must surely arise from the present depressed condition of trade, and cannot long continue.’’ Six years more of uninterrupted editorial work passed by, the sixteenth volume was completed, and the editor was now in a position to review the whole situation up to 1829. This preface (dated July 1, 1829), which is quoted nearly in full, cannot fail to be found particularly inter- esting and from several standpoints, not the least for the insight it gives into the writer’s mind. It is also note- worthy that at this early date it was found possible to pay for original contributions, a privilege far beyond the means of the editor of to-day. When -this Journal was first projected, very few believed that it would succeed. Among others, Dr. Dorsey wrote to the editor; ‘‘I predict a short life for you, although I wish, as the Spaniards say, that you may live a thousand years.’’ The work has not lived a thousand years, but as it has survived more than the hundredth part of that period, no reason is apparent why it may not con- 22 Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. tinue to exist. To the contributors, disinterested and arduous *.as have been their exertions, the editor’s warmest thanks are ~ due; and they are equally rendered to numerous personal friends for their unwavering support: nor ought those sub- seribers to be forgotten who, occupied in the common pursuits of life, have aided, by their money, in sustaining the hazardous novelty of an American Journal of Science. A general appro- bation, sufficiently decided to encourage effort, where there was no other reward, has supported the editor; but he has not been inattentive to the voice of eriticism, whether it has reached him in the tones of candor and kindness, or in those of severity. We must not look to our friends for the full picture of our faults. He is unwise who neglects the maxim— —fas est ab hoste doceri, and we may be sure, that those are quite in earnest, whose pleasure it is, to place faults in a strong hght and bold relief; and to throw excellencies into the shadow of total eclipse. Minds at once enlightened and amiable, viewing both in their proper proportions, will however render the equitable verdict; Non ego paucis offendar maculis,— It is not pretended that this Journal has been faultless; there may be communications in it which had been better omitted, and it is not doubted that the power to command intellectual effort, by suitable pecuniary reward, would add to its purity, as a record of science, and to its richness, as a repository of dis- coveries in the arts. But the editor, even now, offers payment, at the rate adopted by the literary Journals, for able original communications, con- taining especially important facts, investigations and discoveries in science, and practical inventions in the useful and ornamental Arts. As however his means are insufficient to pay for all the copy, it is earnestly requested, that those gentlemen, who, from other motives, are still willing to write for this Journal, should con- tinue to favor it with their communications. That the period when satisfactory compensation can be made to all writers whose pieces are inserted, and to whom payment will be acceptable, is not distant, may perhaps be hoped, from the spontaneous expres- sion of the following opinion, by the distinguished editor of one of our principal literary journals, whose letter is now before me. ‘‘The character of the American Journal is strictly national, and it is the only vehicle of communication in which ‘— an inquirer may be sure to find what is most interesting in the wide range of topics, which its design embraces. It has become in short, not more identified with the science than the literature of the country.’’ It is believed that a strict examination of its contents will prove that its character has been decidedly Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. 23 scientific; and the opinion is often expressed to the editor, that in common with the journals of our Academies, it is a work of reference, indispensable to him who would examine the progress of American science during the period which it covers. That it might not be too repulsive to the general reader, some miscel- laneous pieces have occasionally occupied its pages; but in smaller proportion, than is common with several of the most distinguished British Journals of Science. Still, the editor has been frequently solicited, both in public and private, to make it more miscellaneous, that it might be more acceptable to the intelligent and well educated man, who does not cultivate science; but he has never lost sight of his great object, which was to produce and concentrate original American effort in science, and thus he has foregone pecuniary returns, which by pursuing the other -course, might have been rendered important. Others would not have him admit any thing that is not strictly and technically scientific; and would make this journal for mere professors and amateurs; especially in regard to those numerous details in natural history, which although important to be registered, (and which, when pre- sented, have always been recorded in the American Journal, ) can never exclusively occupy the pages of any such work without repelling the majority of readers. If this is true even in Great Britain it is still more so in this. country; and our savants, unless they would be, not only the exclusive admirers, but the sole purchasers of their own works, must permit a little of the graceful drapery of general literature to flow around the cold statues of science. The editor of this Journal, strongly inclined, both from opinion and habit, to gratify the cultivators of science, will still do everything in his power to promote its high interests, and as he hopes in a better manner than heretofore; but these respectable gentlemen will have the courtesy, to yield something to the reading literary, as well as scientific public, and will not, we trust, be disgusted, if now and then an Oasis relieves the eye, and a living stream refreshes the traveller. Not being inclined to renew the abortive experiment, to please every body, which has been so long renowned in fable; the editor will endeavor to pursue, the even tenor of his way; altogther inclined to be courteous and useful to his fellow travellers, and hoping for their kindness and services in return. THE CLOSE OF THE First Series. The ‘‘First Series,’’ as it was henceforth to be known, closed with the fiftieth volume (1847, pp. xx + 347). This final volume is devoted to an exhaustive index to the forty-nine volumes preceding. In the preface (dated April 19, 1847) the elder Silliman, now the senior editor, 24 Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. reviews the work that had been accomplished with a frank expression of his feeling of satisfaction in the vic- tory won against great obstacles; with this every reader must sympathize. He quotes here at length (but in slightly altered form) the matter from the first volume (1818), which has been already reproduced almost entire, and then goes on as follows (pp. xi et seq.) : Such was the pledge which, on entering upon our editorial labors in 1818, we gave to the public, and such were the views which we then entertained, regarding science and the arts as connected with the interests and honor of our country and of mankind. In the retrospect, we realize a sober but grateful feeling of satisfaction, in having, to the extent of our power, discharged these self-imposed obligations; this feeling is chas- tened also by a deep sense of gratitude, first to God for life and power continued for so high a purpose; and next, to our noble band of contributors, whose labors are recorded in half a century of volumes, and in more than a quarter of a century of years. We need not conceal our conviction, that the views expressed in these ‘‘Introductory Remarks,’’ have been fully sustained by our fellow laborers. Should we appear to take higher ground than becomes us, we find our vindication in the fact, that we have heralded chiefly the doings and the fame of others. The work has indeed borne throughout ‘‘the impress’’ of editorial unity of design, and much that has flowed from one pen, and not a little from the pens of others, has been without a name. The materials for the pile, have however been selected and brought in, chiefly by other hands, and if the monument which has been reared should prove to be ‘‘aere perennius,’’ the honor is not the sole property of the architect; those who have quarried, hewn and polished the granite and the marble, are fully entitled to the enduring record of their names already deeply cut into the massy blocks, which themselves have furnished. Diva retrospective survey of the labors of thirty years on this occasion has rekindled a degree of enthusiasm, it is a natural result of an examination of all our volumes from the contents of which we have endeavored to make out a summary both of the laborers and their works. ; The series of volumes must ever form a work of permanent interest on account of its exhibiting the progress of American science. during the long period which it covers. Comparing 1817 with 1847, we mark on this subject a very gratifying change. The cultivators of science in the United States were then few— now they are numerous. Societies and associations of various names, for the cultivation of natural history, have been insti- tuted in very many of our cities and towns, and several of them Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. 25 have been active and efficient in making original observations and forming collections. A summary follows presenting some facts as to the erowth of scientific societies and scientific collections in this country during the period involved: Then the striking contrast between 1818 and 1847 in the matter of organized effort toward scientific exploration is dis- cussed, as follows (pp. xvi et seq.): When we began our Journal, not one of the States had been surveyed in relation to its geology and natural history; now those that have not been explored are few in number. State collections and a United States Museum hold forth many allure- ments to the young naturalist, as well as to the archzxologist and the student of his own race. The late Exploring Expedition [Wilkes] with the National Institute, has enriched the capital with treasures rarely equalled in any country, and the Smith- sonian Institution recently organized at Washington, is about to begin its labors for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men. It must not be forgotten that the American Association of Geologists and Naturalists—composed of individuals assembled from widely separate portions of the Union—by the seven ses- sions which it has held, and by its rich volume of reports, has produced a concentration and harmony of effort which promise happy results, especially as, like the British Association, it visits different towns and cities in its annual progress. Astronomy now lifts its exploring tubes from the observatories of many of our institutions. Even the Ohio, which within the memory of the oldest living men, rolled along its dark waters through interminable forests, or received the stains of blood from deadly Indian warfare, now beholds on one of its most beautiful hills, and near its splendid city, a permanent obser- vatory with a noble telescope sweeping the heavens, by the hand of a zealous and gifted observer. At Washington also, under the powerful patronage of the general government, an excellent observatory has been established, and is furnished with superior instruments, under the direction of a vigilant and well instructed astronomer—seconded by able and zealous assistants. Here also (in Yale College) successful observations have been made with good instruments, although no permanent building has been erected for an Observatory. We cnly give single examples by way of illustration, for the history of the progress of science in the United States, and of institutions for its promotion, during the present generation, would demand a volume. It is enough for our purpose that science is understood and valued, and the right methods of prosecuting it are known, and the time is at hand when its moral 6 26 Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. and intellectual use will be as obvious as its physical applica- tions. Nor is it to be forgotten that we have awakened an European interest in our researches: general science has been illustrated by treasures of facts drawn from this country, and our discoveries are eagerly sought for and published abroad. While with our co-workers in many parts of our broad land, we rejoice in this auspicious change, we are far from arrogating it to ourselves. Multiplied labors of many hands have produced the great results. In the place which we have occupied, we have persevered despite of all discouragements, and may, with our numerous coadjutors, claim some share in the honors of the day. We do not say that our work might not have been better done—but we may declare with truth that we have done all in our power, and it is something to have excited many others to effort and to have chronicled their deeds in our annals. Let those that follow us labor with like zeal and perseverance, and the good cause will continue to advance and prosper. It is the cause of truth—science is only embodied and sympathized truth and in the beautiful conception of our noble Agassiz—‘‘it tells the thought of God.”’ The preface closes with some personal remarks: In tracing back the associations of many gone-by years, a host of thoughts rush in, and pensive remembrance, of the dead who have labored with us casts deep shadows into the vista through which we view the past. Anticipation of the hour of discharge, when our summons shall arrive, gives sobriety to thought and checks the confidence which health and continued power to act might naturally inspire, were we not reproved, almost every day, by the death of some co-eval, co-worker, companion, friend or patron. This very hour is saddened by such an event,—but we will continue to labor on, and strive to be found at our post of duty, until there is nothing more for us to do; trusting our hopes for a future life in the hands of Him who placed us in the midst of the splendid garniture of this lower world, and who has made not less ample provision for another and a better. Editorial and financial.—The editorial labors on the Journal were carried by the elder Silliman alone for twenty years from 1818 to 1838. As has been clearly shown in his statements, already quoted, he was, after the first beginning, personally responsible also for the finan- cial side of the enterprise. With volume 34 (1838) the name of Benjamin Silliman, Jr., is added as co-editor on the title page. He was graduated from Yale College the year preceding and at this date was only twenty-one years old. His aid was unquestionably of much service 7 Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. 27 from the beginning and increased rapidly with years and experience. The elder Silliman introduces him in the preface to vol. 34 (1838) and comes back to the subject again in the preface to vol. 50 (1847). The whole edi- torial situation is here presented as follows: ‘*During twenty years from the inception of this Journal, the editor labored alone, although overtures for editorial co-opera- tion had been made to him by gentlemen commanding his con- fidence and esteem, and who would personally have been very acceptable. It was, however, his opinion that the unity of purpose and action so essential to the success of such a work were best secured by individuality; but he made every effort, and not without success, to conciliate the good will and to secure the assistance of gentlemen eminent in particular departments of knowledge. On the title page of No. 1, vol. 34, published in July. 1838, a new name is introduced: the individual to whom it belongs having been for several years more or less concerned in the management of the Journal, and from his education, position, pursuits and taste, as well as from affinity, being almost identified with the editor, he seemed to be quite a natural ally, and his adoption into the editorship was scarcely a violation of individual unity. His assistance has proved to be very import- ant:—his near relation to the senior editor prevents him from saying more, while justice does not permit him to say less.’’ As is distinctly intimated in the preceding paragraph the elder Silliman was fortunate in obtaining the assist- ance in his editorial labors of numerous gentlemen inter- ested in the enterprise. Their codperation provided many of the scientific notices, book reviews and the like contained in the Miscellany with which each number closed. It is impossible, at this date, to render the credit due to Silliman’s helpers or even to mention them by name. Very early Asa Gray was one of these as occa- sional notes are signed by his initials. Dr. Levi Ives of New Haven was another. Prof. J. Griscom of Paris also sent numerous contributions even as early as 1825 (see a, fo4, 1825; 22, 192,.1832; 24, 342, 1833, and others). Some statements have already been quoted from the early volumes as to the business part of Silliman’s enter- prise. The subject is taken up more fully in the preface to volume 50 (1847). No one can fail to marvel at the energy and optimism required to push the Journal for- ward when conditions must have been so difficult and encouragement so scanty. He says (pp. 1), Iv): 28 Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. This Journal first appeared in July, 1818, and in June, 1819, the first volume of four numbers and 448 pages was completed. This scale of publication, originally deemed sufficient, was found inadequate to receive all the communications, and as the receipts proved insufficient to sustain the expenses, the work, having but three hundred and fifty subscribers, was, at the end of the year, abandoned by the publishers. An unprofitable enterprise not being attractive to the trade, ten months elapsed before another arrangement could be carried into effect, and, therefore, No. 1 of vol. 2 was not published until April, 1820. The new arrangement was one of mutual responsi- bility for the expenses, but the Editor was constrained neverthe- less to pledge his own personal credit to obtain from a bank the funds necessary to begin again, and from this responsibility he was, for a series of years, seldom released. The single volume per annum being found insufficient for the communications, two volumes a year were afterward published, commencing with the second volume. The publishers whose names appear on the title page of the four numbers of the first volume are ‘‘J. Kastburn & Co., Literary Rooms, Broadway, New York’’ and Howe & Spalding, New Haven.’’ For the second volume and those immediately following the corresponding state- ment ‘‘printed and published by 8S. Converse [New Haven] for the Editor.’’ Silliman adds (p. iv): At the conclusion of vol. 10, in February, 1826, the work was again left upon the hands of its Editor; all its receipts had been absorbed by the expenses, and it became necessary now to pay a heavy sum to the retiring publisher, as an equivalent for his copies of previous volumes, as it was deemed necessary either to control the work entirely or to abandon it. The Editor was not willing to think of the latter, especially as he was encouraged by public approbation, and was cheered onward in his labors by eminent men both at home and abroad, and he saw distinctly that the Journal was rendering service not only to science and the arts, but to the reputation of his country. He reflected, moreover, that in almost every valuable enterprise perseverance in effort is necessary to success. He being now sole proprietor, a new arrangement was made for a single year, the publishers being at liberty, at the end of that time, to retire, and the Editor to resume the Journal should he prefer that course. The latter alternative he adopted, taking upon himself the entire concern, including both the business and the editorial duties, and of course, all the correspondence and accounts. From that time the work has proceeded without interruption, two volumes per annum having been published for the last Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. 29 twenty years; and its pecuniary claims ceased to be onerous, although its means have never been large. Later in the same preface he adds (p. xiv): It may be interesting to our readers to know something of the patronage of the Journal. It has never reached one thousand paying subscribers, and has rarely exceeded seven or eight hundred—for many years it fluctuated between six and seven hundred. It has been far from paying a reasonable editorial compensa- tion; often it has paid nothing, and at present it does little more than pay its bills. The number of engravings and the extra labor in printer’s composition, cause it to be an expensive work, while its patronage is limited. It is difficult at this date to give any adequate state- ment of the amount of encouragement and active assist- ance given to Silliman by his scientific colleagues in New Haven and elsewhere—a subject earlier alluded to. It is fortunately possible, however, to acknowledge the gen- erous aid received by the Journal in the early days from a source near at hand. It has already been noted in another place that the dawning activity of science at New Haven was recognized by the founding of the ‘‘ Connecti- eut Academy of Arts and Sciences,’’ formally estab- lished at New Haven in 1799 and the third scientific body to be organized in this country. From the beginning of the Journal in 1818, the Connecticut Academy freely gave its support both in papers for publication and at least on one occasion later it gave important financial aid. Upon the occasion of the celebration of the centennial anniversary of the Academy on October 11, 1899, Pro- fessor, later Governor, Baldwin, the president of the Academy, discusses this subject in some detail. He says in part: To support his [Silliman’s] undertaking, a vote had been passed in February [1818], ‘‘that the Committee of Publication may allow such of the Academy’s papers as they think proper, to be published in Mr. Silliman’s Scientific Journal.’’ Free use was made of this authority, and a large part of the contents of the Journal was for many years drawn from this source. In some cases this fact was noted in publication ;? but In most 1t was not. . *The following footnote accompanies the opening article of the first volume of the Journal. ‘‘From the MS. papers of the Connecticut Acad- emy, now published by permission.’’? Similar notes appear elsewhere. 30 Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. In 1826, when the Journal was in great need of financial sup- port, the Academy further voted to pay for a year the cost of printing such of its papers as might be published, in it. In Baldwin’s Annals of Yale College, published in 1831, it is described as a publication ‘‘honorable to the science of our common country,’’ and having ‘‘an additional value as being adopted as the acknowledged organ of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.’’ | ‘Many active campaigns were carried on over the country through paid agents to obtain new subscribers for the Journal and it was doubtless due to these efforts that the nominal subscription list was, at times, as already noted, relatively large as compared with that of a later date. The new subscribers in many cases, however, did not remain permanently interested, often failed to pay their bills, and the uncertain and varying demand upon the supply of printed copies was doubtless one - reason why many single numbers became early out of print. An interesting sidelight is thrown upon the efforts of Silliman to interest the public in his work, at its begin- ning, by a letter to the editor from Thomas J efferson, then seventy-five years of age. The writer is indebted to Mr. Robert B. Adam of Buffalo for a copy of this letter and its interest justifies its being reproduced here entire. The letter is as follows: Monticello, Apr. 11. 718. Sir The unlucky displacement of your letter of Mar 3 has been the cause of delay in my answer. altho’ I have very generally withdrawn from subscribing to or reading periodical publica- tions from the love of rest which age produces, yet I willingly subseribe to the journal you propose from a confidence that the talent with which it will be edited will entitle it to attention among the things of select reading for which alone I have time now left. be so good as to send it by mail, and the receipt of the 1st number will be considered as announcing that the work is commenced and the subscription money for a year shall: be forwarded. Accept the assurance of my great esteem and respect. Th. Jefferson Professor Silliman. Dana—American Journal of Scrence, 1818-1918. 31 Contributors.—An interesting summary is also given by Silliman of the contributors to the Journal and the extent of their work (vol. 50, pp. xii, xiii); he says: We find that there have been about 600 contributors of orig- inal matter to the Journal, and we have the unexpected satis- faction of believing that probably five-sixths of them are still living; for we are not certain that more than fifty are among the dead; of perhaps fifty more we are without information, and if that additional number is to be enrolled among the ‘‘stel- ligeri,’’ we have still 500 remaiing. Among them are not a few of the veterans with whom we began our career, and several of these are still active contributors. Shall we then conclude that the peaceful pursuits of knowledge are favorable to long life? This we think is, cewteris paribus, certainly true: but in the present instance, another reason can be assigned for the large amount of survivorship. As the Journal has advanced and death has removed its scientific contributors. younger men and men still younger, have recruited the ranks, and volunteers have enlisted in numbers constantly increasing, so that the flower of the host are now in the morning and meridian of life. We have been constantly advancing, like a traveller from the equinoctial towards the colder zones,—as we have increased our latitude, stars have set and new stars have risen, while a few planetary orbs visible in every zone, have continued to cheer us on our course. The number of articles, almost exclusively original, contained in the Journal is about 1800, and the Index will show how many have been contributed by each individual; we have doubtless included in this number some few articles republished from foreign Journals—but we think they are even more than coun- terbalanced by original communications without a name and by editorial articles, both of which have been generally omitted in the enumeration. Of smaller articles and notices in the Miscellany, we have not made any enumeration, but they evidently are more numerous than the regular articles, and. we presume that they may amount to at least 2500. Of party, either in politics or religion, there is no trace in our work; of personalities there are none, except those that relate to priority of claims or other rights of individuals. Of these vindications the number is not great, and we could heartily have wished that there had been no oceasion for any. General Scope of Articles—Many references will be found in the chapters following which throw light upon the character and scope of the papers published in the Journal, particularly in its early years; a few additional statements here may, however, prove of interest. 32 Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. One feature that is especially noticeable is the frequent publication of articles planned to place before the read- ers of the Journal in full detail subjects to which they might not otherwise have access. These are sometimes translations; sometimes republications of articles that had already appeared in English periodicals; again, they are exhaustive and critical reviews of important memoirs or books. The value of this feature in the early history of the Journal, when the distribution of scientific literature had nothing of the thoroughness characteristic of recent years, is sufficiently obvious. It is also interesting to note the long articles of geo- logical description and others giving lists of mineral or botanical localities. Noteworthy, too, is the attempt to keep abreast of occurring phenomena as in the many ~ notes on tornadoes and storms by Redfield, Loomis, ete. ; on auroras at different localities; on shooting stars by Herrick, Olmstead and others. The wide range of topics treated of is quite in accord- ance with the plan of the editor as given on an earlier page. Some notes, taken more or less at random, may serve to illustrate this point. An extended and quite technical discussion of ‘‘Musical Temperament’’ opens the first number (1, pp. 9-35) and is concluded in the same volume (pp. 176-199). An article on ‘‘Mystery’’ is given by Mark Hopkins A.M., ‘‘late a tutor of Williams Col- lege’? (13, 217, 1828). There is an essay on ‘‘Gypsies”’ by J. Griscom (from the Revue Encyclopédique) in vol- ume 24 (pp. 342-345, 1833), while some notes on American gypsies are added in vol. 26 (p. 189, 1834). The ‘‘divin- ing rod’’ is described at length in vol. 11 (pp. 201-212, 1826), but without giving any comfort to the credulous ; _on the contrary the last paragraph states that ‘‘the pre- tensions of diviners are worthless, etc.’’ A long article by J. Finch on the forts of Boston harbour appeared in 1824 (8, 338-348); the concluding paragraph seems worthy of quotation. ‘‘Many centuries hence, if despotism without, or anarchy within, should cause the republican institutions of America to fade, then these fortresses ought to be destroyed, because they would be a constant reproach to the people; but until that period, they should be preserved as the noblest. monuments of liberty.’’ Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. 33 The promise to include the fine arts is kept by the pub- heation of various papers, as of the Trumbull painting's (16, 163, 1829); also by a series of articles on ‘‘architec- ture in the United States’’ (17, 99, 1830; 18, 218, 220, 1830) and others. Quite in another line is the paper by J. W. Gibbs (33, 324, 1838) on ‘‘Arabic words in Eneglish.’’ A number of related linguistic papers by the same author are to be found in other volumes. Papers in pure mathematics are also not infrequent, though now not considered as falling within the field of the Journal. Applied science takes a prominent place through all the volume of the First Series. An interesting paper is that on Eli Whitney, containing an account of the cotton gin; this is accompanied by an excellent portrait (21, 201-264, 1832). The steam engine and its application are repeat- edly discussed and in the early volumes brief accounts are given of the early steamboats in use; for example, between Stockholm and St. Petersburg (2, 347, 1820) ; Trieste and Venice (4, 377, 1822); on the Swiss Lakes (6, 385, 1823). The voyage of the first Atlantic steam- boat, the ‘‘Savannah,’’ which crossed from Savannah to Liverpool in 1819, is described (38, 155, 1840); men- tion is also made of the ‘‘first iron boat’’ (3, 371, 1821; 5, 396, 1822). A number of interesting letters, on ‘“‘Steam Navigation’’ are given in vol. 35, 160, 162, 332, 3308, 306; some of the suggestions seem very quaint, viewed in the light of the experience of to-day. A very early form of explosive engine is described at length by Samuel Morey (11, 104, 1826); this is an article that deserves mention in these days of gasolene motors. Even more interesting is the description by Charles Gris- wold (2, 94, 1820) of the first submarime invented by David Bushnell and used in the Revolutionary War in August, 1776. An account is also given of a dirigible balloon that may be fairly regarded as the original ances- tor of the Zeppelin (see 11, 346, 1826). The whole sub- ject of aérial navigation is treated at length by H. Strait (25, pp. 25, 26, 1834) and the expression of his hopes for the future deserve quotation: ‘‘Conveyance by air can be easily rendered as safe as by water or land, and more cheap and speedy, while the universal and uniform diffusion of the air over every portion of the earth, will render aérial navigation preferable to any other. To Am. Jour. Sci1.—FourtH Srries, Vou. XLVI, No. 271.—Juty, 1918. 2 en 34. Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. carry it into effect, there needs only an immediate appeal on a sufficiently large scale, to experiment; reason has done her part, when experiment does hers, nature will not refuse to sanction the whole. Aerial navigation will present the works of nature in all their charms; to commerce and the diffusion of knowledge, it will bring the most efficient aid, and it can thus be rendered serviceable to the whole human family.’’ A subject of quite another character is the first discus- sion of the properties of chloroform (chloric ether) and its use as an anesthetic (Guthrie, 21, 64, 405, 1832; 22, 105, 1832; Levi Ives, 21, 406). Further interesting communications are given of the first analyses of the gas- tric juice and the part played by it in the process of digestion. Dr. William Beaumont of St. Louis took advantage of a patient who through a gun-shot wound was left with a permanent opening into his stomach through which the gastric juice could be drawn off. The results of Dr. Beaumont.and of Professor Robley Dungli- son, to whom samples were submitted, are given in full in the hfe of Beaumont by Jesse 8S. Myer (St. Louis, 1912). The interest of the matter, so far as the Journal is concerned, is chiefly because Dr. Beaumont selected Professor Silliman as a chemist to whom samples for examination were also submitted. An account of Silli- man’s results is given in the Beaumont volume referred to (see also 26, 193, 1834). Desiring the support of a chemist of wider experience in organic analysis, he also sent a sample through the Swedish consul to Berzelius in Stockholm. After some months the sample was received and it is interesting to note in a perfectly fresh condi- tion; it is to be regretted, however, that the Swedish chemist failed to add anything to the results already obtained in this country (27, 40b, 1835). The above list, which might be greatly extended, seems to leave little ground for the implied criticism replied to by Silliman as follows (16, p. v, 1829): A celebrated scholar, while himself an editor, advised me, in - a letter, to introduce into this Journal as much ‘‘readable’’ matter as possible: and there was, pretty early, an earnest but respectful recommendation in a Philadelphia paper, that Litera- ture, in imitation of the London Quarterly Journal of Science, &c. should be in form, inscribed among the titles of the work. Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918, 35 Tue SEconD, THIRD AND FourRTH SERIES. The Seconp Series of the Journal, as already stated, began with January, 1846. Up to this time the publica- tion had been a quarterly or two volumes annually of two numbers each. From 1846 until the completion of an additional fifty volumes in 1871, the Journal was made a bimonthly, each of the two yearly volumes having three numbers each. Furthermore, a general index was given for each period of five years, that is for every ten volumes. Much more important than this change was the addi- tion to the editorial staff of James Dwight Dana, Suilli- man’s son-in-law. Dana returned from the four-years eruise of the Wilkes Exploring Expedition in 1842; he settled in New Haven, was married in 1844, and in 1850 was appointed Silliman professor of Geology in Yale College. He was at this time actively engaged in writ- ing his three quarto reports for the Expedition and hence did not begin his active professional duties in Yale College until 1856. Part of his inaugural address was quoted on an earlier page. Dana had already performed the severe labor of pre- paring the complete index to the First Series, a volume of about 350 pages, finally issued in 1847. From the beginning of the Second Series he was closely associated with his brother-in-law, the younger Silliman. Later the editorial labor devolved more and more upon him and the larger part of this he carried until about 1890. His work, was, however, somewhat interrupted during periods of ill health. This was conspicuously true during a year’s absence in Europe in 1859-60, made necessary in the search for health; during these periods the editorial responsibility rested entirely upon the younger Silliman. Of Dana’s contributions to science in general this is not the place to speak, nor is the present writer the one to dwell in detail upon his work for the Journal. This sub- ject is to such an extent involved in the history of geology and zoology, the subjects of several succeeding chapters, . that it is adequately presented in them. It may, however, be worth stating that in the pinliew raphy accompanying the obituary ‘notice of Dana (49, 329-356, 1895) some 250 titles of articles in the Journal are enumerated; these aggregate approximately 2800 | 36 Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. pages. The number of critical notes, abstracts, book reviews, ete., could be also given, were it worth while, but what is much more significant in this connection, than their number or aggregate length, is the fact that these notices are in a large number of cases—like those of Gray in botany—minutely critical and original in matter. They thus give the writer’s own opinion on a multitude of different subjects. It was a great benefit to Dana, as it was to science also, that he had this prompt means at hand of putting before the public the results of his active brain, which continued to work unceasingly even in times of health prostration. This may be the most convenient place to add that as Dana became gradually less able to carry the burden of the details involved in editing the Journal in addition to his more important scientific labors, particularly from 1890 on, this work devolved more and more upon his son, the present editor, whose name was added to the editorial staff in 1875, with volume 9, of the Third Series. The latter has served continuously until the present time, with the exception of absences, due to ill health, in 1893-94 and in 1903; during the first of these Professor Henry S. Willams and during the second Professor H. KH. Greg- ory occupied the editorial chair. The Tuirp Serres began in 1871, after the completion of the one-hundredth volume from the beginning in 1818. | At this date the Journal was made a monthly and as such it remains to-day. Fifty volumes again completed this series, which closed in 1895. The FourrH Srrizs began with January, 1896, and the present number for July, 1918, is the opening one of the forty-sixth volume or, in other words,—the one hundred and ninety-sixth volume of the entire issue since 1818. The Fourth Series, according to the precedent estab- lished, will end with 1920. Associate Editors —In 1851 the new policy was intro- duced of adding ‘‘ Associate Editors’’ to the staff. The first of these was Dr. Wolcott Gibbs of Cambridge. He began his duties with the eleventh volume of the Second Series in 1851 and continued them with unceasing care and thoroughness for more than twenty years. Ina note dated Jan. a 1851 (11, 105), he says: Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. 37 It is my intention in future to prepare for the columns of this Journal abstracts of the more important physical and chemical memoirs contained in foreign scientific journals, accompanied by references, and by such critical observations as the occasion may demand. Contributions of a similar character from others will of course not be excluded by this arrangement, but I shall hold myself responsible only for those notices which appear over my initials. The departments covered by Dr. Gibbs, in his excellent monthly contributions, embraced chemistry and physics, and these subjects were carried together until 1873 when they were separated and the physical notes were fur- nished, first by Alfred M. Mayer and later successively by E. C. Pickering (from 1874), J. P. Cooke (from 1877), and John Trowbridge (from 1880). The first instalment of the long series of notes in chemistry and chemical physics by George F. Barker, was printed in volume 50, 1870. He came in at first to occasionally relieve Dr. Gibbs, but soon took the entire responsibility. His name was placed among the associate editors on the cover in 1877 and two years later Dr. Gibbs formally retired. It may be added that from the beginning in 1851 to the present time, the notes in ‘‘Chemistry and Physics’’ have been continued almost without interruption. The other departments of science have been also fully represented in the notes, abstracts of papers pub- lished, book notices, ete., of the successive numbers, but as with the chemistry and physics the subject of botany was long treated in a similar formal manner. For the notes in this department, the Journal was for many years indebted to Dr. Asa Gray, who became associate editor in 1853, two years after Gibbs, although he had been a not infrequent contributor for many years previously, Gray’s contributions were furnished with great regu- larity and were always critical and original in matter. They formed indeed one of the most valuable features of the Journal for many vears; as botanists well appre- ciate, and, as Professor Goodale has emphasized in his chapter on botany, Gray’s notes are of vital importance in the history of the development of his subject. With Gray’s retirement from active duty, his colleague, George W. Goodale, took up the work in 1888 and in 1895 Wilham G. Farlow, also of Cambridge, was added as an associate editor in cryptogamic botany. At this time, ae + re ——— A AR et 38 Dana—American Journal of Scrence, 1818-1918. | however, and indeed earlier, the sphere of the Journal had unavoidably contracted and botany perforce ceased. to occupy the prominent place it had long done in the Journal pages. This is not the place to present an appreciation of the truly magnificent work of Asa Gray. It may not be out of place, however, to call attention to the notice of Gray written for the Journal by his life-long friend, James D. Dana (35, 181, 1855). The opening paragraph is as follows: | 3 ‘‘Our friend and associate, Asa Gray, the eminent botanist of America, the broad-minded student of nature, ended his life of unceasing and fruitful work on the 30th of January last. For thirty-five years he has been one of the editors of this Jour- nal, and for more than fifty years one of its contributors; and through all his communications there is seen the profound and always delighted student, the accomplished writer, the just and genial critic, and as Darwin has well said, ‘The lovable man.’ ’’ The third associate editor, following Gray, was Louis Agassiz, whose work for science, particularly in his adopted home in this country, calls for no praise here. His term of service extended from 1853 to 1866 and, par- ticularly in the earlier years, his contributions were nu- merous and important. The next gentleman in the lst was Waldo I. Burnett, of Boston, who served one year only, and then followed four of Dana’s colleagues in New Haven, of whose generosity and able assistance it would be impossible to say too much. These gentlemen were Brush in mineralogy; Johnson in chemistry, particularly on the agricultural side; Newton in mathematics and astronomy, whose contributions will be spoken of else- where; and Verrill—a student of Agassiz—in zoology. All of these gentlemen. besides their frequent and important original articles, were ever ready not only to give needed advice, but also, to furnish brief communt- cations, abstracts of papers and book reviews, and other- wise to aid in the work. Verrill particularly furnished the Journal a long list of original and important papers, chiefly in systematic zoology, extending from 1865 almost down to the present year. His abstracts and book notices also were numerous and trenchant and it is not too much to say that without him the Journal never eould have filled the place in zoology which it so long held. Much later the list of New Haven men was Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. 39 increased by the addition of Henry S. Williams (1894), and O. C. Marsh (1895). Of the valuable work of those more or less closely asso- ciated in the conduct of the Journal at the present time, it would not be appropriate to speak in detail. It must suffice to say that the services rendered freely by them have been invaluable, and to their aid is due a large part of the success of the Journal, especially since the Fourth Series began in 1896. But even this statement is inade- quate, for the editor-in-chief has had the generous assist- ance of other gentlemen, whose names have not been placed on the title page, and who have also played an important part in the conduct of the Journal. This policy, indeed, is not a matter of recent date. Very early in the First Series, Professor Griscom of Paris, as already noted, furnished notes of interesting scientific discoveries abroad. Other gentlemen have from time to time acted in the same capacity. The most prominent of them was Professor Jerome Nickles of Nancy, France, who regularly furnished a series of valuable notes on varied subjects, chiefly from foreign sources, extending from 1852 to 1869. On the latter date he met an untimely death in his laboratory in connection with experiments upon hydrofluoric acid (47, 434, 1869). It may be added, further, that one of the striking features about the Journal, especially in the earlier half century of its existence, is the personal nature of many of its contributions, which were very frequently in the form of letters written to Benjamin Silliman or J. D. Dana. This is perhaps but another reflection of the extent to which the growth of the magazine centered around these two men, whose wide acquaintance and broad scientific repute made of the Journal a natural place to record the new and interesting things that were being discovered in science. The following list gives the names and dates of ser- vice, as recorded on the Journal title pages, of the gen- tlemen- formally made Associate Editors: Miolcott Gapbs: vse... eS ile tsotte (3) 18, 1879 Pre Gane ase tl. 25) fF, Eeloriehs 99 4% >.34 4887 Waugh Neassin! ya. Pele. alo elena. ip (2)? 4 1866 Rvaldo ies Bumnetie aes eh. dap aOR oe cas LT)! PBS. Geer. jibsmishe wi o6c/. . uae Peo OGay 146(o)) LO 1809 Sanminel Wed OhNSON:. . 2 sn. 2 fea lousuery Sy Lee deo a een 40 Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. Elubert: Av Newton 251" ae be 7p (2) 38, 1864 to (4) 1, 1896 Addison’ i: AVviervililec 0 we. Pad, 1869 | Alfred iii Mia eet ce cee ce (3)...b, 1878 ete 7G) Gas is © Hdward, C. Pickerino 6.00 2 e. Sy 1, IOTA ee dene ahesrg) Georeeeih sbarker Us tjhs sec 14, 1ST a ae a0 Osialiicr:: COOKE... 0... ae. see a EST Ga eeese Joume Mrowbrmdee. onc. 5c. = KOS LS Sh George W. Goodale 202.45. 2. bh eae disiste: Ffenry *S2nw ibiamis® 220200 tee ‘47, 1894 Henry, P.: Bowditel= 55.2020 ‘S| 49. 1895 tte (i Saaisgs Wallhiam: Go Warlows }:505 i. oo. 2 ‘© 49. 1895 | Othniel C. Manshvsape = Weercn. ‘49, 1895: tonG’) 6, se9 Henry A Rowland: 3... se S27. (4)... 1, 1896 "742" Nee 300 HOSED oe puOMMGNe. aoe Oa gre a 5 ek, SOG Gouis .V. (Pimssom: ori oe ee ee ee Walhiana avi Davis's ees sk ee 89. eee OSE Pits Oe Aas” te ae ere ae 7. dy wom Eorace =i WVclisee... we Ser es NS, TG04 Tlerbert is Grecory |i ne es “eS, Oe Efondcer SU ere ee he reo be LZ PRESENT AND EF uTuURE CONDITIONS. The field to be oceupied by the ‘‘ American Journal of Science and Arts,’’ as seen by its founder in 1818 and presented by him in the first number, as quoted entire on an earlier page, was as broad as the entire sphere of science itself. It thus included all the departments of both pure and applied science and extended even to music and fine arts also. As the years went by, however, and the practical applications of science greatly iecreased, technical journals started up, and the necessity of culti- vating this constantly expanding field diminished. It was not, however, until January, 1880, that ‘‘the Arts’’ ceased to be a part of the name by which the Journal was known. About the same date also—or better a little earlier— began an increasing development of scientific research, particularly as fostered by the graduate schools of our prominent universities. The full presentation of this subject would require much space and is indeed unneces- sary as the main facts must be distinct in the mind of the reader. It is only right, however, that the large part played in this movement by the Johns Hopkins Univer- sity (founded in 1876) should be mentioned here. As a result of this movement, which has been of great benefit in stimulating the growth of science in the Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. 41 country, many new journals of specialized character have come into existence from time to time. Further local- ization and specialization of scientific publication have resulted from the increased activity of scientific societies and academies at numerous centers and the springing into existence thereby of new organs of publication through them, as also through certain of the Government Departments, the Carnegie Institution, and certain uni- versities and museums. As bearing upon this subject, the following list of the more prominent scientific periodicals started in this country since 1867 is not without interest: 1867— American Naturalist. 1875— . Botanical Bulletin; later Botanical Gazette. 1879-1913. American Chemical Journal. 1880-1915. School of Mines Quarterly. 1883— Science. 1885-— Journal of Heredity. 1887— Journal of Morphology. 1887-1908. Technology Quarterly. 1888-1905. American Geologist. 1891- Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1893- Journal of Geology. 1893— Physical Review. 1895-— Astrophysical Journal. 1896- Journal of Physical Chemistry. 1896— . Terrestrial Magnetism. 1897-1899. Zoological Bulletin; followed by 1900- Biological Bulletin. 1901- .. American Journal of Anatomy. 1904— . Journal of Experimental Zoology. 1905- . Economic Geology. 1906- . Anatomical Record. 1907— . Journal of Economic Entomology. 1911- . Journal of Animal Behavior. 1914— . American Journal of Botany. 1916— . Genetics. 1918- . American Journal of Physical Anthropology. The result of the whole movement has been of neces- sity to-narrow, little by little, the sphere of a general scientific periodical such as the Journal has been from the beginning. The exact change might be studied in detail by tabulating as to subjects the contents of succes- sive volumes, decade by decade, from 1870 down. It is sufficient, here, however, to recognize the general fact that while the number of original papers published in the periodicals of this country, in 1910, for example, was very 42 Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. many times what it was in 1825, a large part of these have naturally found their home in periodicals devoted to the special subject dealt with in each case. That this movement will continue, though in lessened degree now that the immediate demand is measurably satisfied, is to be expected. At the same time it has not seemed wise, at any time in the past, to formally restrict the pages of the Journal to any single group of subjects. The future is before us and its problems will be met as they arise. At the moment, however, there seems to be still a place for a scientific monthly sufficiently broad to include original papers of important general bearing even if special in immediate subject. In this way it would seem that ‘‘Siliman’s Journal’’ can best continue to meet the ideals of its honored founder, modified as they must be to meet the change of conditions which a century of scien- tific investigation and growth have wrought. Incident- ally it is not out of place to add that a self-supporting, non-subsidized scientific periodical may hope to find a larger number of subscribers from among the workers in science and the libraries if it is not too restricted in scope. The last subject touched upon introduces the essential matter of financial support without which no monthly publication can survive. With respect to the periodicals of recent birth, listed above, it is safe te say that some form of substantial support or subsidy—often very gen- erous—is the rule, perhaps the universal one. This has never been the case with the American Journal. The liberality and broad-minded attitude of Yale Coilege in the early days, and of the Yale University that has devel- oped from it, have never been questioned. At the same time the special conditions have been such as to make it desirable that the responsibility of meeting the financial requirements should be carried by the editors-in-chief. At present the Yale Library gives adequate payment for certain publications received by the Journal in exchange, though for many years they were given to it as a matter of course, free of charge. Beyond this there is nee approaching a subsidy. The difficulties on the financial side met with by the ase Silliman have been suggested, although not adequately presented, in the various statements quoted from early volumes. The same problems in varying degree have continued for the past sixty years. Since 1914 they have been seriously aggravated for reasons that need not be ° 9 Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918, 48 enlarged upon. Prior to that date the subscription list had, for reasons chiefly involved in the development of special journals, been much smaller than the number estimated by Silliman, for example, in volume 50 (p. xiv), although there has been this partial compensation that the considerable number of well-established libraries on the subscription list has meant a greater degree of sta- bility and a smaller proportion of bad accounts. The past four years, however, the Journal, with all simi- lar undertakings here and elsewhere, has been compelled to bear its share of the burden of the world war in dimin- ished receipts and greatly increased expenses. It is gratifying to be able to acknowledge here the generosity of the authors, or of the laboratories with which they have been connected, in their willingness not infrequently to give assistance, for example, in the payment of more or less of the cost of engravings, or in a few special cases a large portion of the total cost of publication. In this way the problem of ways and means, constantly before the editor who bears the sole responsibility, has been simplified. It should also be stated that as those immediately interested have looked forward to the present anniver- sary, 1t has been with the hope that this occasion might be an appropriate one for the establishment of a ‘‘Silliman Fund’’ to commemorate the life and work of Benjamin Silliman. The income of such a fund would lift from the University the burden that must unavoidably fall upon it when the responsibility for the conduct of the Journal can no longer be carried by members of the fam- ily including the editor and—as in years long past—a silent partner whose aid on the business side has been essential to the efficiency and economy of the enterprise. Present conditions are not favorable for such a move- ment, although some thing has been already accomplished in the desired direction. At the present time every patriotic citizen must feel it his first duty to give his sav- ings as well as his spare income to the support of the National Government in the world struggle for freedom in which it is taking part. But, whatever the exact con- dition of the future may be, it cannot be questioned that the Journal founded by Benjamin Silliman in 1818 will survive and will continue to plav a vital part in the sup- port and further development of science. The present year of 1918 finds the world at large, and ———— —— : SURE SS SSeS hss steals selesestpsnssnessemepesonmeemmsmomememennsisee a ES eT 44 Dana—American Journal of Science, 1818-1918. with it the world of science, painfully crushed beneath the overwhelming weight of a world war of unprecedented severity. The four terrible years now nearly finished have seen a fearful destruction of life and property which must have a sad influence on the progress of science for many years to come. Only in certain restricted lines has there been a partial compensation in the stimulating influence due to the immediate necessities connected with the great conflict. One hundred years ago ‘‘the reign of war’’ was keenly in the mind of the editor in beginning his work, but for him, happily, the long period of the Napoleonic wars was already in the past, as also the brief conflict of 1812, in which this country was engaged and in which Silliman himself played a minor part. We, too, must believe, no matter how serious the outlook of the present moment, that a fundamental change will come in the not distant future; the nations of the world must sooner or later turn once more to peaceful pursuits and the scientific men of different races must become again not enemies but brothers engaged in the common cause of uplifting human life. The peace that we look forward to to-day is not for this country alone, but a peace which shall be a permanent blessing to the entire world for ages to come. Norr.—The portrait which forms the frontispiece of the present number has been reproduced from the plate in volume 50 (1847). The original painting was made by H. Willard in 1835, when Silliman was in Boston engaged in delivering the Lowell lectures; he was then nearly fifty-six years of age. The engraving, as he states elsewhere, was made from this painting for the Yale Literary Magazine, and was published in the num- ber for December, 1839. It is interesting to quote the remarks with which the editor introduces the portrait (50, xviii, 1847). He says: The portrait prefixed to this volume was engraved for a very different purpose and for others than the patrons of this Jour- nal. It has been suggested by friends, whose judgment we are accustomed to respect, that it ought to find a place here, since it is regarded as an authentic, although, perhaps, a rather austere resemblance. In yielding to this suggestion, it may be sufficient to quote the sentiment of Cowper on a similar occasion, who remarked—‘‘that after a man has, for many years, turned his mind inside out before the world, it is only affectation to attempt to hide his face.’’ Charles Schuchert—Historical Geology, 1818-1918. 45 Art. Il.—A Century of Geology—The Progress of His- torical Geology in North America; by CHaRLES ScHUCHEBRT. INTRODUCTION. The American Journal of Science, ‘‘one of the greatest influences in American geology,’’ founded in 1818, has published a little more than 92,000 pages of scientific mat- ter. Of geology, including mineralogy, there appear to be upward of 20,000 pages. What a vast treasure house of geologic knowledge is stored in these 194 volumes, and how well the editors have lived up to their proposed ‘‘plan of work’’ as stated in the opening volume, where Silliman says: ‘‘It is designed as a deposit for original American communications’’ in ‘‘the physical sciences . . and especially our eet and geology’’ (1, v, 1818)! Not only is it the oldest continuously published scientific journal of this country, but it has proved itself to be ‘‘perhaps the most important geological periodical in America’’ (Merrill). It is impossible to adequately present in this memorial volume of the Journal the con- tents of the articles on the geological sciences. Editor Silliman was not only the founder of the Jour- nal, but the generating center for the making of geologists and promoting geology during the rise of this science in America. For nearly three decades, the work- ers came to him for counsel and help, and he had a kind paternal word for them all. This influence is also shown in the many letters which were addressed to him, and which he published in the Journal. Then in 1834 De Charpentier read a paper before the same society, meeting at Lucerne. ‘‘Seldom, if ever, has such a small memoir so deeply excited the scientific world. It was received at first with incredulity and even scorn and mockery, Agassiz being among its opponents.’’ The paper was published in 1835, first at Paris, then at Geneva, and finally in Germany. It ‘‘attracted much attention, and the smile of incredulity with which it was received when read at Lucerne soon changed into a desire to know more about it.’’ Louis Agassiz (1807-1873), who had long been ac- quainted with his countryman, De Charpentier, spent several months with him in 1836, and together they studied the glaciers of the Alps. Agassiz was at first ‘fadverse to the hypothesis, and did not believe in the great extension of glaciers and their transportation of boulders, but on the contrary, was a partisan of Lyell’s theory of tr ansport by icebergs and ice-cakes .. . but from being an adversary of the glacial theory, he returned to Neuchatel an enthusiastic convert to the views of Venetz and De Charpentier. ... With his power of quick perception, his unmatched memory, his perspicacity and acuteness, his way of classifying, judg- ing and marshalling facts, Agassiz promptly learned the | whole mass of irresistible arguments collected patiently during seven years by De Charpentier and Venetz, and with his insatiable appetite and that faculty of assimila- tion which he possessed in such a wonderful degree, he Charles Schuchert—Historical Geology, 1818-1918. 87 digested the whole doctrine of the glaciers in a few weeks. ”’ In July, 1837, Agassiz presented as his presidential! address before the Helvetic Society his memorable ‘‘ Dis- cours de Neuchatel,’’ which was ‘‘the starting point of all that has been written on the Ice-age,’’—a term coined at the time by his friend Schimper, a botanist. The first part of this address is reprinted in French in Marcou’s book on Agassiz. The address was received with aston- ishment, much incredulity, and indifference. Among the listeners was the great German geologist Von Buch, who ‘‘was horrified, and with his hands raised towards the sky, and his head bowed to the distant Bernese Alps, exclaimed: ‘‘O Sancte de Saussure, ora pro nobis!’’ Even De Charpentier ‘‘was not gratified to see his glacial theory mixed with rather unealled for biological prob- Jems, the connection of which with the glacial age was more than problematic.’’ Agassiz was then a Cuvierian catastrophist and creationist, and advanced the idea of a series of glacial ages to explain the destruction of the geologic succession of faunas! Curiously, this theory was at once accepted by the American paleontologist T. A. Conrad (35, 239, 1839). The classics in glacial geology are Agassiz’s Etudes sur les Glaciers, 1840, and De Charpentier’s Essai sur les Glaciers, 1841. Of the latter book, Marcou states that it has been said: ‘‘It is impossible to be truly a geologist without having read and studied it.’’ In the English language there is T'yndall’s Glaciers of the Alps, 1860. The progress of the ideas in regard to Pleistocene glaciation is presented in the following chapter of this number by H. E. Gregory. Older Glacial Clinuites. —Hardly had the Pleistocene glacial climate been proved, when geologists began to point out the possibility of even earlier ones. An enthu- siastic Scotch writer, Sir Andrew Ramsay, in 1855 described certain late Paleozoic conglomerates of middle England, which he said were of glacial origin, but his ev idence, though never completely ‘gainsaid, has not been venerally accepted. In the following year, an English- man, Doctor W. T. Blanford, said that the Talchir con- glomerates of central and southern India were of glacial origin, and since then the evidence for a Permian glacial climate has been steadily accumulating. Africa is the 88 Charles Schuchert—HMistorical Geology, 1818-1918. land of tillites, and here in 1870 Sutherland pointed out that the conglomerates of the Karroo formation were of olacial origin. Australia also has Permian glacial deposits, and they are known widely in eastern Brazil, the Falkland Islands, the vicinity of Boston, and else- where. So convincing is this testimony that all geolo- gists are now ready to accept the conclusion that a glacial climate was as wide-spread in early Permian time as was that of the Pleistocene. | In South Africa, beneath the marine Lower Devonian, occurs the Table Mountain series, 5000 feet thick. The series 1s essentially one of quartzites, with zones of shales or slates and with striated pebbles up to 15 inches long. The latter occur in pockets and seem to be of glacial origin. There are here no typical tillites, and no striated under- grounds have so far been found. While the evidence of the deposits appears to favor the conclusion that the Table Mountain strata were laid down in cold waters with floating ice derived from glaciers, it is as yet impossible to assign these sediments a definite geologic age. They are certainly not younger than the Lower Devonian, but it has not yet been established to what period of the early Paleozoic they belong. In southeastern Australia occur tillites of wide distri- bution that he conformably beneath, but sharply sep- arated from the fossiliferous marine Lower Cambrian strata. _David (1907), Howchin (1908), and other Aus- tralian geologists think they are of Cambrian time, but to the writer they seem more probably late Proterozoic in age. In arctic Norway Reusch discovered unmistak- able tilliites in 1891, and this occurrence was confirmed by Strahan in 1897. It is not yet certainly known what their age is, but it appears to be late Proterozoic rather than early Paleozoic. Other undated Proterozoic tillites occur in China (Willis and Blackwelder 1907), Africa (Schwarz 1906), India (Vredenburg 1907), Canada (Coleman 1908), and possibly in Scotland. | The oldest known tillites are deseribed by Coleman in. 1 For more detail in regard to these tillites and the older ones see Climates of Geologic Time, by Charles Schuchert, being Chapter XXI in Hunting- ton’s Climatic Factor as Illustrated in Arid America, Publication No. 192 of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1914. Also Arthur P. Coleman’s presidential address before the Geological Society of America " toe Dry Land in Geology, published in the Society’s Bulletin, 27, divas LONG; “ Charles Schuchert—Historical Geology, 1818-1918. 89 1907, and occur at the base of the Lower Huronian or in early Proterozoic time. They extend across northern Ontario for 1000 miles, and from the north shore of Lake Huron northward for 750 miles. Fossils as Climatic Indexes.—Paleontologists have long been aware that variations in the climates of the past are indicated by the fossils, and Neumayr in 1883 brought the evidence together in his study of climatic zones mentioned elsewhere. Plants, and corals, cepha- lopods, and foraminifers among marine animals, have long been recognized as particularly good ‘‘life ther- mometers.’’ In fact, all fossils are climatic indicators to some extent, and a good deal of evidence concerning paleometeorology has been discerned in them. This evi- dence is briefly stated in the paper by Schuchert already alluded to, and in W. D. Matthew’s Climate and Evolu- tion, 1915. Sediments as Climatic Indexes.—Johannes Walther in the third part of his Einleitung—lLithogenesis der Gegenwart, 1894—is the first one to decidedly direct attention to the fact that the sediments also have within themselves a climatic record. In America Joseph Bar- rell has since 1907 written much on the same subject. On the other hand, the periodic floodings of the con- tinents by the oceans, and the making of mountains, due to the periodic shrinkage of the earth, as expressed in T. C. Chamberlin’s principle of diastrophism and in his publications since 1897, are other criteria for estimat- ing the climates of the past. Conclusions.—In summation of this subject Schuchert Says: ‘““The marine ‘life thermometer’ indicates vast stretches of time of mild to warm and equable temperatures, with but shght zonal differences between the equator and the poles. The great bulk of marine fossils are those of the shallow seas, and the evo- lutionary changes recorded in these ‘medals of creation’ are slight throughout vast leneths of time that are punctuated by short but decisive periods of cooled waters and great mortality, followed by quick evolution, and the rise of new stocks. The times of less warmth are the miotherm and those of greater heat the plrotherm periods of Ramsay. On the land the story of the climatic changes is different, but in general the equability of the temperature simulates that of the oceanic areas. In other words, the lands also had long- 90 Charles Schuchert—Historical Geology, 1818-1918. enduring times of mild to warm climates. Into the problem of land climates, however, enter other factors that are absent in the oceanic regions, and these have great influence upon the climates of the continents. Most important of these is the peri- odie warm-water inundation of the continents by the oceans, causing insular climates that are milder and moister. With the vanishing of the floods somewhat cooler and certainly drier climates are produced. The effects of these periodic floods must not be underestimated, for the North American continent was variably submerged at least seventeen times, and over an area of from 154,000 to 4,000,000 square miles. When to these factors is added the effect upon the climate caused by the periodic rising of mountain chains, it is at once apparent that the lands must have had constantly varying climates. In general the temperature fluctuations seem to have been slight, but geographically the climates varied between mild to warm pluvial, and mild to cool arid. The arid factor has been of the greatest import to the organic world of the lands. Further, when to all of these causes is added the fact that dur- ing emergent periods the formerly isolated lands were connected by land bridges, permitting intermigration of the land floras and faunas, with the introduction of their parasites and parasitic diseases, we learn that while the climatic environment is of fun-- damental importance it is not the only cause for the more rapid evolution of terrestrial life : | Briefly, then, we may conclude that the markedly varying climates of the past seem to be due primarily to periodic changes in the topographic form of the earth’s surface, plus variations in the amount of heat stored by the oceans. The causation for the warmer interglacial climates is the most difficult of all to explain, and it is here that factors other than those mentioned may enter. Granting all this, there still seems to lie back of all these theories a greater question connected with the major changes in paleometeorology. This is: What is it that forces the earth’s topography to change with varying intensity at irregularly rhythmic intervals? . . . Are we not forced to conclude that the earth’s shape changes periodically in response to gravitative forces that alter the body-form ?’’ EVOLUTION. Modern evolution, or the theory of life continuously descending from life with change, may be said to have had its first marked development in Comte de Buffon (1707-1788), a man of wealth and station, yet an indus- trious compiler, a brilliant writer, and a popularizer of science. He was not, however, a true scientific investi- Charles Schuchert—Historical Geology, 1818-1918. 91 gator, and his monument to fame is his Histoire Nat- urelle, in forty-four volumes, 1749-1804. A. 8. Packard in his book on Lamarck, his Life and W ork, 1901, con- eludes in regard to Buffon as follows: ‘‘The impression left on the mind, after reading Buffon, is that even if he threw out these suggestions and then retracted them, from fear of annoyance or even persecution from the bigots of his time, he did not himself always take them seriously, but rather jotted them down as passing thoughts . . . They appeared thirty-four years before Lamarck’s theory, and though not epoch-making, they are such as will render the name of Buffon memorable for all time.’’ Chevalier de Lamarck (1744-1829) may justly be regarded as the founder of the doctrine of modern evo- lution. Previous to 1794 he was a believer in the fixity of species, but by 1800 he stood definitely in favor of evolution. Locy in his Biology and its Makers, 1908, states his theories in the following simplified form: _ “Variations of organs, according to Lamarck, arise in animals mainly through use and disuse, and new organs have their origin in a physiological need. A new need felt by the animal [due to new conditions in its life, or the environment] expresses itself on the organism, stimulating growth and adaptations in a particular direction.’ To Lamarck, “caeneneie ree was a simple, direct trans- mission of those superficial changes that arise in organs within the lifetime of an individual owing to use “and disuse.’’ This part of his theory has come to be known s ‘‘the inheritance of acquired characters.’’ Georges Cuvier (1769-1832), a peer of France, was a decided believer in the fixity of species and in their crea- tion through divine acts. In 1796 he began to see that among the fossils so plentiful about Paris many were of extinct forms, and later on that there was a succession of wholly extinct faunas. This at first puzzling phenom- enon he finally came to explain by assuming that the earth had gone through a series of catastrophes, of which the Deluge was the most recent but possibly not the last. With each catastrophe all life was blotted out, and a new though improved set of organisms was created by divine acts. The Cuvierian theory of catastrophism was widely accepted during the first half of the nineteenth century, and in America Louis Agassiz was long its greatest 92 Charles Schuchert—Historical Geology, 1818-1918. exponent. It was this theory and the dominance of the brilliant Cuvier, not only in science but socially as well, that blotted out the far more correct views of the more philosophical Lamarck, who held that life throughout the ages had been continuous and that through individual effort and the inheritance of acquired characters had evolved the wonderful diversity of the present living world. In 1830 there was a public debate at Paris between Cuvier and Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, the one holding to the views of the fixity of species and creation, the other that life is continuous and evolves into better adapted forms. Cuvier, a gifted speaker and the greatest debater zoolegy ever had, with an extraordinary memory that never failed him, defeated Saint-Hilaire in each day’s debate, although the latter was in the right. A book that did a great deal to prepare the English- speaking people for the coming of evolution was ‘‘ Ves- tiges of Creation,’’ published in 1844 by an unknown author. In Darwin’s opinion, ‘‘the work, from its power- ful and brillant style... has done excellent service in thus preparing the ground for the reception of analogous views.’’ This book was recommended te the readers of the Journal (48, 395, 1845) with the editorial remark that ‘‘we cannot subscribe to all of the author’s views.’’ We can probably best illustrate the opinions of Amer- icans on the question of evolution just before the appear- ance of Darwin’s great work by directing attention to James D. Dana’s Thoughts on Species (24, 305, 1857). After reading this article and others of a similar nature by Agassiz, one comes to the opinion that unconsciously both men are proving evolution, but consciously they are firm creationists. It is astonishing that with their extended and minute knowledge of living organisms and their philosophic type of mind neither could see the true significance of the imperceptible transitions between some species, which if they do not actually pass into, at least shade towards, one another. | Dana speaks of ‘‘the endless diversities in individu- als’’ that compose a species, and then states that a living » species, like an inorganic one, ‘‘is based on a specific amount or condition of concentered force defined in the act or law of creation.’’? Species, he says, are perma- Charles Schuchert—Historical Geology, 1818-1918. 93 nent, and hybrids ‘‘cannot seriously trifle with the true units of nature, and at the best, can only make tempo- rary variations.’’ ‘‘We have therefore reason to believe from man’s fertile intermixture, that he is one in species: and that all organic species are divine appointments which cannot be obliterated, unless by annihilating the individuals representing the species.’’ Through the activities of the French the world was prepared for the reception of evolution, and now it was already in the minds of many advanced thinkers. In 1860 Asa Gray sent to the editor of the Journal (29, 1) an article by the English botanist, Joseph D. Hooker, entitled ‘‘On the Origination and Distribution of Species,’’ with these significant remarks: ‘ Onaping’ Map-Area; (by W. i. Comune: 4Ep ae 2 maps, 11 pls. No. 98. Magnesite deposits of Grenville district, Argenteuil county, Quebec; by M. E. Witson. Pp. 88, 3 maps, 11 pls:, 2 figs. No. 99. Road material surveys in. 1915; by Li. REINECKE. Pp. 190, 2 maps, 10 pls., 10 figs. No. 100. The Cretaceous Theropodus Dinosaur Gorgosaurus ; by Lawrence M. Lampe. Pp. 84, 49 figs. This is a carnivorous Dinosaur from the Belly river formation of Red Deer river, Alberta, first described by the author in April, 1914 (Ottawa Naturalist, vol. 28). It had an estimated length of some 28 or 29 feet and the restoration of the type specimen is well shown on a separate plate (x 1/18), fig. 49. No. 101. Pleistocene and recent deposits in the vicinity of Ottawa, with a description of the soils; by W. A. JOHNSTON. Pp. 69, 1 map (scale 1 mile to 1 inch, to be had separately), 8 pls. No. 102. Espanola district, Ontario; by TERRENCE T. QUIRKE. Pp. 92, 1 map, 6 pls., 8 figs: No. 103. Timiskaming County, Quebec; by M. E. Wiison. Pp. 197,11 map; 16-pls., 6 figs: Museum Buuuetin.—No. 27. Contributions to'the Mineralogy of Black Lake area, Quebec; by EUGENE PoirTEvIN and R. P. D. GRAHAM. Pp. 82, 12 pls., 22 figs. See the following notice. SuMMARY Report for 1916. Pp. 419, 138 maps, 12 figs. (2.) Mines Branch; EuGENE HAANEL, Director. No. 217. Iron Ore Occurrences in Canada. In two volumes, compiled by E. LinpemMAN and L. L. Bowron. Introductory by A. H. A. Ropinson, with appendixes containing numerous maps in separate covers. BuLuetTINS.—No. 14. The Coal Fields and Coal. Industry of Eastern Canada; a general survey and description; by FRANCIS WieGRAy. Ep. Gi lamep. 26 pls ol te No. 15. The Mining of thin coal seams as applied to the Eastern Coal Fields of Canada; by J. F. KELLocK Brown. Pps lemap, i plate, Oi mes: No. 17. The value of peat fuel for the generation of steam; by JoHN Buizarp. Pp. 42, 1 plate, 5 figs. No. 19. Test of some Canadian sandstones to determine their suitability as pulpstones; by L. HeBer Cour. Pp. 6, 6 pls., 4 fies. SumMMARY Report for 1916. Pp. 183, 14 pls., 10 figs. Also separate reports on the production for 1916 of copper, gold, lead, nickel, silver, ete.; of iron and steel; of coal and coke. Further, the Preliminary Report on the Mineral Production of Canada for 1917 (JoHn McLeisu, Chief of Division of Mineral Resources and Statistics). The total valuation of all products Miscellaneous Intelligence. 479 is estimated at very nearly 200 million dollars. This is an inerease of about 9 p. c. over 1917, and 40 p. c. over 1916. 4. Contributions to the Mineralogy of Black Lake Area, Quebec; by KuGENE Potrevin and R. P. D. Granam. Mus. Bull. No. 27, Dept. Mines, Can. Geol. Surv., 1918, pp. 82, pls. 12, figs. 22.—An important asbestos and chromic iron district is located in the southeastern part of Ireland and the northwestern part of Coleraine townships, Megantic county, province of Quebec. Unusual minerals have been obtained from the various mines and pits of this district for a considerable time but no systematic study of them has previously been published. After a short introduction giving the general geological features of the area and a section devoted to a consideration of the genesis of the minerals, the authors give a detailed description of the different species observed. Some thirty-four different minerals are noted, chemical analyses and the results of crystallographic and optical study being given for the most important. The following miner- als are especially interesting; Stichtite, previously known only from Tasmania, has been identified here. Diopside is found in minute erystals of unusual habit, their color being either color- less, lilac or yellow; some eleven new forms have been identified on the erystals together with a large number of rare forms; analyses show that the material is almost of the normal type rep- resented by the formula CaMg(Si0,),. Both grossularite and andradite garnets are found; the crystals are notable frequently having rare tetrahexahedral and hexoctahedral forms, one type showing the hexoctahedron (853) almost in simple develop- ment. Small and exceptionally brilliant crystals of vesuvianite also occur, showing the following colors: colorless, lilac, emerald- green, pale yellow and reddish brown. A new mineral colerain- ite was also found. An abstract of its description has been given in this Journal, see 45, 478, 1918. W. E. F. II. Muiscetnanrous Screntiric INTELLIGENCE. 1. Field Museum of Natural History—Annual Report of FREDERICK J. V. SkirF, Director, to the Board of Trustees for the year 1917. Pp. 147-222, with numerous illustrations. Notwith- standing ,adverse conditions gratifying progress on the new museum building in Grant Park is noted. It is stated that the steel for the roof of the entire building (except entrances) would probably be in place by April, 1918. Botanical Series. Vol. 4, No. 1. New Species of Xanthium and Solidago; by CHARLES FREDERICK MimuspaueH and Earn E. SHERFF. Pp. 7, 6 pls. 2. The Sarawak Museum Journal; issued by the Sarawak Museum under the authority of His Highness the Rajah—Part IIT of vol. 2, pp. 287-424 contains an important memoir, entitled ‘Keys to the Ferns of Borneo;’’ this is by BE. B. CopEuann, professor of plant biology, University of the Philippines. 480 Scientific Intelligence. 3. The Normal and Pathological Histology of the Mouth; by ArtHur Hopewett-Smiru. Vol. I, Normal Histology. Pp. xvii, 345, with 2 colored plates and 262 text figures. Philadel- phia, 1918 (P. Blakiston’s Son and Co.).—This is the first of the two volumes of a second, revised and enlarged edition of the author’s ‘‘ Histology and Patho-histology of the teeth and asso- ciated parts.’’ It describes the cellular formation and _ histo- genesis of all the organs of the mouth, but has partieular reference to the structure and development of the teeth. The subject is treated comprehensively, the dental structures found in various mammals, reptiles and fishes being introduced for com- parison. Debated questions concerning the functions of various types of cells are discussed in an appendix. Both text and illus- trations require the highest commendation. WwW. R. C. 4. Helvetica Chimica Acta (Georg & Co., Basel, Geneva ).— The Swiss Chemical Society, founded some seventeen years ago, has recently issued the first part (pp. 1-96) of a new periodical, under the title given above; it is to be devoted to pure chemistry and to serve as the organ of the Society. The editorial commit- tee consists of MM. Bosshard, Fichter, Guye, Pictet, Rupe and Werner, all of Switzerland. The present plan is to issue 6 to 8 parts yearly, aggregating from 500 to 1000 pages; the subserip- tion price is 25 franes per year. This undertaking is particu- larly noteworthy in view of the difficult situation economically occupied by Switzerland at the present time, and the disinter- ested contributions which the country is so freely making in behalf of suffering humanity. OBITUARY. WiuuiAmM Earu Hippen, well known for his work in American Mineralogy, died at his country home, Ocean Grove, N. J., on June 12, 1918, at the age of sixty-five years. He was early engaged as an artist, but his interest in minerals led to his spend- ing many years in the search for rare specimens, particularly those of commercial value found in the South. One of the remarkable localities investigated by him was that in Alexander County, N. C.; from it came the emerald-green variety of spodumene, used as a gem and which received the name Hid- denite (1881). He also developed the deposit of rare minerals at Burnett, Llano Co., Texas. The pages of this Journal contain many notes and articles on minerals by him particularly from 1880 to 1905. Sir ALEXANDER PEDLER, F.R.S., died on May 13 at the age of sixty-eight years. He was early an active investigator in chem- istry and in 1873 was made professor of chemistry at Calcutta; later he was prominent in the meteorological service and in other official lines; since 1907 he had been honorary secretary o the British Science Guild. as VA fe Ys 3 1916 ING 8 PATENT | oe” AU Jeb 13) ee AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE PROUUR TH SERIES. | Art. XVII—A Modification of the Periodic Table; by Inco W. D. Hackn. About fifty years ago Newland! recognized a certain periodicity among the elements and compiled his well known ‘‘octaves.’’ At that time chemical knowledge had progressed so far, that Lothar Meyer? and Mendeléeff? could express it in the form of the periodic system. But it was still somewhat fragmentary, that is to say while the periods were clearly recognized as such, there was a certain discrepancy in connecting them. In other words, there was a missing link, which was not found until the discovery of the rare gases by Ramsay, Ray- leigh, Travers and Cleve in 1894 and 1895. These ele- ments seemed at first to have no place in the system and aroused much controversy as to their position in the periodic system. But in spite of the fact that some, e. g. Dennstedt,' believed argon to be a kind of nitrogen—=N, (like ozone — O,) they were placed either in a new group, the zero group, or in the eighth group by Thomson,° Ramsay,*® Crookes’ and others. As Thomson has pointed out, the electropotential of these rare gases may be regarded as +0 or +o. Thus they form the connecting link between the periods, viz. the halogens and the alkali metals, and we obtain a con- tinuous line of elements when arranged with increasing atomic weights. But there was still some uncertainty as to the limits of the periodic system (compare Losanitsch*®) which was not * For references see the end of this paper. Am. Jour. Sc1.—Fourts Series, Vou. XLVI, No. 273.—SrepremBer, 1918. 18 482. Hackh—Modification of the Periodic Table. cleared up until the recent discovery of the high-fre- quency spectra of the elements by Moseley,® and the assignment of atomic numbers to the elements. From the work of Broglie,’® Hicks," and Rydberg,! and others we are now comparatively certain as to the relative atomic numbers of the elements and the spaces left blank by so far undiscovered elements. We can, therefore, proceed to establish the periodic system in a more rigid form. The customary table of Mendeléeff and Meyer is not correct, owing to the extreme difficulty of classifying the elements Nos. 59-72. If they eT 6.0 | 7.N “8.0 OUR i@ie a “Tb 11.Na_12 1 15.P° 16:8. SaeGe IIb puis 13.A 32.Ge | 33.As 34.Se 35.Br| 36.Kr [IIIb | 50.Sn | 51.Sb_ 52.Te 53.1 | 54.Xe | IVb eLU 82.Pb | 85.Bi_ 84.Po 85. 86.Nt_| Vb + tool f+ ———> +9: too | TaBLE I. The periods of the system: Group O being the terminals, Group 4 being the transition points. are placed in the usual way, we would expect to find another rare gas between Xe and Nt; another alkali metal between Cs and No. 87; and so on—but we know that this is not the case, and the considerations of this paper will prove this. Many attempts have been made to harmonize these facts with the periodic system, either by means of ‘‘pleyads”’ = Ce, = Fe as proposed by Biltz,'* Buchner™ and others, or by subdivision into smaller groups, e. g. by RB. J. Meyer ;?® or by simply writing these elements into the different groups, without regard to their properties, as done e. g. by Brauner;!® or by the more convenient way of simply ignoring them and writing into the proper place of the system: ‘‘Ce ete.,’’ as is the usual and cus- tomary method of procedure. Our present knowledge enables us now to make the assumption that the rare gases are so to speak the ter- Hackh—Modification of the Periodic Table. 483 minals of the periods. Beginning in any period with a rare gas, whose electro potential we consider to be + « we find that the elements following it change from posl- tive to negative until the period ends in a rare gas again. This is shown in Table I. It will be noticed that in this arrangement only the first four and last four members of the periods are recorded and that the elements of the carbon group form the transition line from a positive to a negative element. The elements of the carbon group may be regarded as the zero point in each period respec- tively. We have then in the first and second period one zero point each (C, Si) and in the third and fourth period two zero points each (T1-Ge, Zr-Sn), while the very long fifth period has three zero points. When we plot the relative position of the elements in the displacement _ series against the atomic numbers, we obtain the follow- ing interesting curve (p. 484). The displacement series was constructed from such data ‘as offered by Wilsmore,'? Palmaer,'® Abege’® and those given in the Chemiker Kalender?® and Landolt Born-- stein.t. There are interesting analogies in this curve. The first six and the last seven elements of the four com- plete periods have similar positions; this makes thirteen elements whose position is determined. It is, therefore, clear that in the fifth period from X to Nt there can be no unknown rare gas with its. corresponding thirteen ele- ments; we must rather assume that, as the potential dit- ference between the first and last member in each group is the same, and divided among 7, 17, 35 elements, the _ difference in potential among the 35 elements is naturally very small and gives a group of very similar elements, that is the group of the rare earth metals. In other words the potential difference from Li to F, and from Na to Cl in the first two periods, is divided among seven elements. The potential difference from K to Br, and from Rb to I in the two long periods, is divided among seventeen elements, which show alr eady the formation of ‘vertical’? groups (Mn-Fe-Co-Ni, ete jet int the ffth period this same potential is divided among 39 elements, thus forming naturally a very long group of elements in which the difference of their properties is very slight. A similar curve is obtained by plotting the maximum polar number of the elements against the atomic number as shown in fig. 2. The negative or positive polar num- "SJUOULITO OY} JO 9OLOJ GATJOWLOAZOO]O OALYL[OL ou Deore +N x 4 W | Saat | a ¢ -= cco = — = = Modification of the Periodic Table. eee a Hackh ‘T prq 484 485 ‘ogo ‘y-+ pue [— [0 ‘e+ pue e— N ‘6 ‘2 ‘@ jop v Aq pozeorput st toquinu zejod UNUILUIH eYy oLoyA\ “S[BJeTIUOM OY} OJ qdaoxe ‘(7 Sl lequinu qejog WNULLUTT, OU, ‘syuetueTs 949 Fo Joquinu ABlOd WUNUIXeT, eT SG “Ory O06 og OL 09 OS OV O€ 02 Ol ab). 2) HL IS ) Hackh—Modification of the Periodic Table. QUI Con exe 9D = On f= 00 tO. Cy ‘Sg “DIY 486 Hackh—Modification of the Periodic Table. ber of an element is the mathematical expression of their valence on the basis of oxygen = -—2, according to Bray and Branch.?? A table of all the polar numbers is given in Table II which gives also an indication of the character of the compounds. It will be noted that the oO BBWoZzaw Oo 6 7 8 9 °) 1 2 e) i Positive Polarnumbers of stable compounds nh" ,oxides of strong basic charac t f 1 weak " eter amphoteric weak acid strong acid unstable or little knovm compounds i} i uurunh wu Negative Polamumbers of mainly stable compounds. "OXIDATION" is the augmentation of the polarnumber, that is the increase in valency, while the reverse "REDUCTION" is the diminution of the polarnunber, e.g. the change from ferrous = 2 to ferric = 3, and from ferric = to ferrate = 6 is "oxidation", TasLE II. The polar numbers (valence) of the elements. first and second periods are analogous, also the third and fourth, while in the fifth we recognize in the begin- ning and end the analogy. The first five and the last eight elements of each period are similar to each other, as was exactly the case in fig. 1. Hackh—Modification of the Periodic Table. +87 From these two generalizations of facts we are entitled to divide the elements into periods, similar to the divi- sions already proposed by Batschinsky,?? Werner,** Adams,2** Harkins,” and myself.2° We have, accord- ingly, the following periods: i from He to EF 8 =2 x 2? elements (first short period) peer Ne Cl gS «Sf (second “* ) geass or brilS=2 xX 3? * (first long period) eran, tks 5“ + (second ‘* ae) fee he 8592 = 2K 4? ae (very long period) Secs NG * U7 elements (together with H = 1 2? elements) The explanation for this periodic increase in the number of the elements between the rare gases must be found in the constitution of the atoms. That is to say that the positive and negative charges, or corpuscles, in the rare gases form a stable and neutral system. Let us indicate this stable system of negative electrons around the pos- itive nucleus as x, then this x must be 8 or a multiple of 8, for we have in the first period (according to Parson’s scheme ) Heidi Be B 6 N O F Ne g #+1 #42 2643 o4+4 @4+5 246 «47 248 = 20 and so on for the other periods, e. g. the third period: 2 ea ied ig Ca Se Abi. 3x2 3xe+1 3844+2 32+3 382+4 Ge As Se Br 4 Kr 4¢+4 4¢7-+5 4¢+6 4¢+7 4¢+8 = Oe This would indicate that the atoms of the elements near the rare gases constitute more stable systems of elec- trons, and thus exhibit a more distinct characteristic in their properties. On the other hand the larger the num- ber of electrons becomes, the less rigid, and easier inter- changeable they become. The interchange of electrons may be illustrated by the remaining elements of the fifth pericd as follows: Ce eb derasolien es Sime eit Geb bo) Dy. - Ho Tz +4 5 6 7 8 Ge NOt: ahora. dS Sa + i 2 3 4 Dd Gx + 488 Hackh—Modification of the Periodic Table. Kr ¢ Pm’ Tim”: Yo “ba Tas We aS Os aie te ++ D4” «15416 82 + 6 7 8 9-510. SVD 4.32 8 & Bie ene 9a + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Au He Tl Pb On 9 1G. 12 210 OG ro This indicates that e. g. the atom of gold is an equilibrium of the system 92 +9—10x%-+1 ete. It is outside the scope of this paper to treat the constitution of the atoms, and the above was mentioned in order to bring out the length of the different periods, together with the 3 impos- sibility of the existence of another rare gas between Xe and Nt. The next task is then to arrange these results in the best possible way. ‘There are numerous modifications of the periodic table, a proof that the table is not perfect. One of the main objections to the periodic table is the placing of the main and sub groups together in one col- umn; another, far more serious objection is that no indication is made of the different length of the periods. Table III will meet these objections, besides having other advantages. This table :was derived from a curve?" by the simple method of using the upper part of a spiral in its relation to the lower part like an image and its mirrored semblance. The ideal way of representing the periodic system is naturally a curve, which may take the form of a spiral drawn on a plane, or a helix constructed in space, as has been pointed out by Harkins.?* In the literature we find many such spirals, compare e. g. those of Reynolds,” Spring,*° Huth,?! Crookes,?? Houghton,?* Stoney,*+ Erd- - mann,’ Tocher,?® Hmerson,?? Rayleigh,?* Scheringa,®® Hack,*® Hackh,*! Rydberg,*? Soddy,* Bilecki,* Lorne Kunz** and others. But the more extensive use of those spirals is encumbered by the technical difficulties of reproducing them, and for this reason a table derived from a spiral and embodying its advantages is practical and useful. The table presented in this paper preserves not only those relationships among the elements which are expressed by the customary table of the periodic system, but illustrates also a number of new correlations among the elements. : Hackh—Modification of the Periodic Table. +489 So, for example, the groups and subgroups of the ele- ments are clearly separated, bringing thus the respective elements closer together. From a study of the table we may draw the rule that the semilarity among the proper- ties of the elements in the upper half of the table 1s more pronounced in the vertical direction (analogy m groups), _ 27 28 Co Ni Cu Zn AD5 46 | 47 Rh Pd Ag Cd In 58 Booee Gl 62. 657764, 165 566 67 G8 -69: 702 71 Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm' Tm" Yb 72 73 74 15 79 80 81 Lu ia W Au 90 3=(o9 92 Th By U 26 Fe 44 Ru TaBLE III. The periodic table, showing groups and periods. while the sumilarity among the elements wm the lower half of the table is more pronounced in the horizontal direc- tion (analogy wm periods). Accordingly we may speak of group relations and period relations, e. g., the group relation of Au is in regard to Ag and Cu, while the period relation of Au is in regard to Hg and Pt. Or in other words, we may say, e. g., that the chromium group includes Cr, Mo, W, U; while the chromium period may embrace Cr, Mn, Fe, Co. 490 Hackh—Modification of the Periodic Table. A classification of the elements into nonmetals and metals is easily made by considering the elements to the left of the rare gases as nonmetals, those to the right as light metals, and those in the lower half of the table as the heavy metals. The carbon group furnishes the tran- sition elements framing in the elements of the table and guiding from one line to the other. Among other general properties common to elements in certain areas of the table may be mentioned: The elements in the upper half of the table have the highest electro-potential, the simplest spectra, colorless ions and mostly soluble compounds, and possess mostly a single valence. The elements in the lower half of the table have a — lower electro-potential, complex spectra, colored ions and form complex double salts, and possess mostly more than one valence. | On the left side of the table are the electro-negative elements forming’ acids. On the right side of the table are the electro-positive elements, forming bases and oxysalts, sulphides, ete. In the center of the lower half are the amphoteric ele- ments, forming weak acids, weak bases, many compli- cated compounds and double salts, many insoluble and colored ions. A new and striking feature of the table is also the illustration of the somewhat notorious chemical affinity. This often criticized term affinity 1s employed to express the tendency or selective preference for certain elements. Such a tendency exists and is characteristic of certain regions in the table. We have for instance: Klements combining with nitrogen and forming typical nitrides are those around boron: Ca Se A, Mas Al Li Be | B Elements having a weak tendency to combine with » oxygen (the noble metals) are those neighboring gold: Ag Platin-metals Au Hg se = Hackh—Modification of the Periodic Table. 491 Elements combining with sulphur, forming typical sulphides, are: Mar he Co “Nr Cu Zn Ga "Go" As Ae Cd" “Int “Sn Sb Poe Hoes) Pp Bi where the maximum of affinity is at Pd and decreases eradually toward Mn, which has the lowest affinity for sulphur.* The elements combining with hydrogen fall into two distinct areas: (a) The nonmetals, giving gaseous or liquid hydrogen- compounds in which hydrogen is positive. (b) The light metals, giving hydrides in the form of salts, with hydrogen being negative. Elements combining with cyanogen (CN’) and form- ing characteristic radicals and cyanid-ions also occupy neighboring places: Greer aim he “Cos Ni Cus 2m Mo — “Ru Rh: Pd Ae’ Cd Oo ir Get. An sa Typical ammoniae compounds are formed by the ele-- ments around nickel: Cor: Nas. Cay Pd Cd Pi These illustrations of the selective tendency or the chemical affnity among the elements could be multi- pled indefinitely, e. g., organometallic compounds, ete. Closely related to this is the polar number, already men- tioned, and the isomorphism. Table Il has shown the positive or negative polar numbers of the elements, and from it the periodicity of the valence is clearly shown. It appears that the last * The affinity for sulphur is given as follows: Pd Hg Ag Cu Bi Cd Sb Sn Pb Zn Ni Co Fe As Tl Mn, which forms a kind of a displacement series of importance in mineralogy; see Schuermann, Liebig’s Annalen, 249, p. 326, 1888. Weed, Eng. & Min. J., 50, p. 484, 1890. Van Hise, U. 8. Geol. Surv. Monograph, 47, p. 1114, 1904. Buckley & Buehler, Missouri Bur. Geol., 4 (2d ser.), p. 90. Emmons, U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. 625, 1917. 492. Hackh—Modvrfication of the Periodic Table. four members of each period have polar numbers always two units apart, e. g., 1-3-5-7, 2-4-6, 1-3-5, 2-4, ete., while the polar numbers of the elements in the middle of a period are odd and even. A survey of their compounds show, that isomorphism is closely related to the polar number of the elements. Thus the table of isomorphism as given by Nernst can be completed as follows: Polar number 1: Li-Na-K-Rb-Cs; Cu-Ag-Pd-Au-Hg-TI. Polar number 2: Be-Mg-Ca-Sr-Ba; Zn-Cu-Ni-Co-Fe-Mn-Cr-V-Ti; Cd-In-Sn; Hg-Pb. Polar number 3: B-Al-Se-Y-La; Se-Ti- V-Cr-Mn-Fe-Co-Ni; Ga-In-Tl; La-Ce-rare earth, ete. Polar number 4: C-Si-Ti-Zr-Th; Ge-Sn-Pb; ete. Polar number 5: N-P-As-Sb-Bi; V-Cb-Ta. Polar number 6: 8-Se-Te; Cr-Mo-W-U; Mn-Fe; Ru-Rh; W-Os-Ty. Polar number 7: F-Cl-Br-I; Mn. We may take, for example, group 6, with the maximum polar number 6 and find the following general formulas for some of their compounds: —2:H,X = Hydrogen-x-ides, where X is 8-Se-Te. +4:X0, + H,O0 = H,XO, = x-ites, resp. their salts where X ean be practically each element. + 6:X0O, + H,O = H,XO, = x-ates, resp. salts. thus we have sulphates, selenates, tellurates, chromates, manganates, molybdates, tungstates, uranates, ferrates, ete., etc., in all of them X being hexavalent. Fig. 3 illus- trates this relationship. We may e. g. take the bivalent and trivalent elements and find two distinct series of com- pounds: the metall-ows compounds, erystallizing all with 7 mol. of H,O and commonly known as the vitriols of (Ti) (V) Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zm Me(Be) Mo Rh Pd Cd (W) Ir Pt all of them being soluble and forming double salts with the elements of group 1. On the other hand we have the metall-ic compounds of the simple formula M.(SQO,);. 12H,O which forms the well-known series of alumes XM ( SO,), .24H,.O where X is a monovalent ae or NH,’ and M a trivalent element, either Hackh—Modification of the Periodic Table. 493 Piatt GaccAl Sef VV; Cr. Mn.Ne...Co In both cases we have seen that the elements occupy neighboring positions in the table, and the connecting Big. 3. AES) SRR wails 3 caer BRIA 3 Pe = K 4 Na : HHZIE pelle Greene ° Gore dine tine ob ee Se fe a3 An 2346 eae EISEN ~ Fie. 3. Polar number and Isomerism of the elements. medium is its polar number. The closer the elements stand to each other, the closer are its properties related to each other. We may take, for instance, the chlorides of any A- group, say LiCl, NaCl, KCl, RbCl, CsCl and we find, as is 494. Hackh—Modification of the Periodic Table. well known, close relationship not only in regard to their forms of crystallization, their solubility, their melting- points, but also in regard to their chemical behavior and stability. This periodicity can be extended to the mono- Nt Th Bi 20 Mo 06 |9.01 peas be ia fae REY ae Teds teat Nd Sm | Eu Gd | Tb | Dy | Ho Er | Tm “Yb | Lu 6.7| 6.5| 6.9 7.8 1 cc H,O at 18°C, 760 mn = 1,00 TABLE IV. The specific gravity of the elements (calculated to H.O = 1). chlorides of Cu, Ag, Au with the addition, however, that in the lower half of the table the similarity along periods dominates the similarity along groups; therefore the properties of these chlorides, CuCl, AgCl, AuCl, will be Hackh—Modification of the Periodic Table. 495 more affected by the period relation than the group rela- tion. Thus we find that CuCl and AgCl, while still stable, are less soluble and ionized, while AuCl is unstable and hydrolyzes with water forming Au and AuCl,, this latter chloride being more stable and closely related to PtCl,, as should be expected from the rule given above. To give further illustrations of this rule of ‘‘vertical’’ resemblance in the upper half, and ‘‘horizontal’’ resem- blance in the lower half of the table, is unnecessary; an metallic as non-metallic oa 33, Arsenic ; 34, Selenium erst.- cristallinic amph.- amorphous metl.- metallic mnel.-monoclinic liqu.- liguid TaBLE V. The allotropic forms of some nonmetals, showing the position toward the metallic side. examination will make this self-evident. It should be pointed out, however, that by the separation of the ele- ments into their ak and B groups, the periodicity of their properties is more clearly exhibited and one can grasp the increasing or decreasing tendencies of these proper- ties ina more convenient and shorter way. A very good illustration is furnished by Table IV, showing the specific gravity of the elements. The arrows indicate the increasing density, which follows the arrows with the exception of some elements of the first period, in a strik- ing manner. It is well known that in a given group of elements the metallic character increases with increasing 496 Hackh—Modification of the Periodic Table. density and this fact can even be extended to the allo- tropic forms of the elements. Table V represents a section of the main table in which the density of the allotropic forms of some elements are placed. These a a 317.4 336 .6|1076 |160 oo 2068 Na Mg SI $71.01 90a2 - 111687 C i fee 3090 iB: Mn fee ne on 1530 ne >, e ae 1231 Ag In iors oe sis as sai ee 1234.4 sl A428 Ce | Pr | Nd Sm[Eul |Gd]Tb/ Dy! Ho Er |Tm Yb 896 |1210 600 (Gener 2 2 ? 7 110 ? 2170 Ta W Os | Ir Pt Au Hg Tl “es 3120 | 3540 2970 | 2670 | 2028/1335 .5| 234.28] 574.8 |600.5 pa U e ; ; : 2700 T= Ut - 273.13 > >< 39 € K€ € €< TABLE VI. Melting points of the elements (absolute degrees). allotropic forms are so placed that they follow the gen- eral direction of increasing density and the result is, that the more metallic allotropes come toward the carbon group, which forms the transition to the metals, while the Hackh—Modification of the Periodic Table. 497 allotropic forms of a nonmetallic character are placed toward the halogen group, thus fitting very well into the system. The melting points given in Table VI follow not so generally a certain direction, nevertheless their aa ea | 7A aa | 4 _| 83 85 ee 87 89 an _ == Bi oo Ac By Disintegration takes place in two ways: €— ~ alpha-radiation, indi- cati loss of He-atom ; C the elements becomé more ele- 212 tro-positive and the atomic AcC eet decreases by 4, A = beta-radiation, indi- cati loss of electrons : the elements become more electro-negative, the atomic weight remains the same. RaA 218 2 Io U 226 wa ZaQUe a \os4 Ss Isotopes of the elements with atomic number 81-92 are the substances mentioned in the vertical colums. The number of isotopes Bre Tn at the bottom of the table. Thus e.g. Pb has 7 isotopes. TABLE VII. System of radioactive elements, from thallium to uranium. periodicity is. better exhibited than in the old table. I have used the table in keeping a permanent record of all the numerical data about the elements; each property that can be expressed in a numerical value has its own table, and I have found this method very satisfactory and better than the customary alphabetical tables. New Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtTH Series, Vout. XLVI, No. 273.—SepteMBER, 1918, 498 Hackh—Modification of the Periodic Table. determinations are constantly added and the reference recorded. In doing this work, I was surprised to find how very fragmentary our knowledge is; with the excep- tion of the specific gravity and the melting point, which are known of nearly every element, there are hardly any data of properties in the literature for more than forty Pb Bi PbRa —— RaF Ra PbTh\ 7 The! PbAc AcC' RaD : see) te: <—{Ict) AcA RaB RaA TABLE VIII. The complete periodic system (elements and isotopes). elements; most of those are limited to twenty and even ten elements. There is still a great field open for physi- eal determinations of element- constants. The isotopes of the radioactive elements are given in Table VII, in which the three series of disintegration, e. g., uranium, actinium, thorium, are combined into one. It will be seen, that with the exception of the beginning of these series, the disintegration of all three series is analo- gous from the isotopes of thorium (RaTh, RaAc, Io) to Hackh—Modification of the Periodic Table. 499 the isotopes of lead (PbTh, PbAc, RaD). The connec- tion between the uranium and actinium series is doubtful (U-Uy-Uz-Ac) and indicated by a broken arrow. The other series begin as follows: U-Ux’-Ux” (Bv)-U,-Io-Ra, ete. Th-MsT’-MsT”-RaTh-ThX, ete. Ac-RaAc-AcX, ete. At the bottom of the table are given the number of known isotopes and their atomic weights. The atomic weights of the isotopes of the longest life periods are underlined, while the missing atomic weights of the actinium series are indicated by an arrow. A regularity in the atomic weights is naturally to be expected and clearly seen from a study of the table. This table of the radioactive elements can be attached at the bottom of the main table, or as done in Table VIII, these elements may be put in brackets, indicating their isotopes, and also their group-relationship, indicated by horizontal or vertical lines respectively. An exhaustive treatise on the periodic system is in preparation, of which this paper is intended to be a preliminary statement. CoNCLUSION. 1. By plotting the elements, as to their atomic num- bers against their relative position in the displacement series, a periodic curve is obtained, in which a similarity among the element groups and periods exists. (Fig. 1.) 2. A similar periodicity is shown by the polar num- bers of the elements (fig. 2); accordingly the elements are divided into two short, two long and one very long period. 3. From both curves it can be predicted that no new rare gas can be discovered, because such a new element would demand characteristic properties of about thirteen other elements, and of these thirteen elements none is known, or in other words, no known element between the atomic numbers 63 and 76 exhibits these characteristic properties. Therefore all the elements of the electro- potential + wo are known. 500 Hackh—Modification of the Periodic Table. 4. In establishing a more rigid form of the periodic system these elements (He, Ne, A, Kr, X, Nt) are used as the starting and ending points of the periods; between these terminals the properties change periodically, and the more elements there are between (fifth period), the less characteristic is the change. This accounts for the formation of such groups as Fe- Co- Ni, Ru-Rh-Pd, Os-Ir- Pt, and the rare earths. 5. The periodic system is best expressed in a con- tinuous curve, e. g., spiral. But as such graphic repre- sentations are difficult, a table has been derived which shows the relationship among the elements better than the customary table. A number of characteristic fea- tures of the table have been pointed out and the rule established that: The Similarity among the elements in the upper half of the table is in a vertical direc- tion, while the similarity among the elements in the lower half is in a horizontal direction. 6. The term affinity is vindicated, when its use is restricted to a characteristic tendency of the elements in a certain area of the new periodic table. 7. A table showing the close relationship ‘between polar number and isomorphism is presented. 8. The periodicity of the specific gravity is shown in Table V and the allotropic forms of the elements are introduced into the periodic system by Table VI, repre- senting a section of the main table. An accumulation of more facts regarding the allotropic forms of other ele- ments will justify an enlarged table, giving also the tran- sition points. 9. A condensed system of the radioactive elements has been constructed (Table VII) which can be used as an appendix to the main table (Table VIII). Berkeley, California. REFERENCES. Chem. News, 13, pp. 113 and 130, 1866. 7 Ann. Chem. Pharm., 7, 354, 1870. * Journ. Russ. Phys. Chem. Ges., 1, pp. 60 and 229, 1869. *Chem. Zeitg., 19, p. 2164, 1895. °Z. anorg. Chem., 9, pp. 190 and 283, 1895. * Ber., 31, p. 3111, 1898. Ae anorg. Chem., 18, p. 72, 1898. © Die Grenzen des periodischen Systems, Belgrad, 1906, and Ion, 1, 259, SAO: Hackh—Modification of the Periodic Table. 401 ® Phil. Mag., 26, p. 1024, 1913. Compt. rend., 159, p. 304, 1914. Pio, Mac., 28, p. 139, 1914. Paul. Mag., 28, p.. 144, 1914. % Ber., 35, p. 562, 1902. 144 Ber., 46, p. 422, 1915; also Chem. Weekbl., 12, p. 336, 1915. 1 Naturwissenschaften, 2, p. 781, 1914. 16 Z, Elektrochem., 14, p. 525, 1908. uw 7, Hlektrochem., 7, p. 254, 1900; also Z. phys. Chem., 35, p. 291, 1900. 18 Festschrift Nernst, p. 332, 1912. 1 Handbuch der anorg. Chem., ITI, 2, p. 2, 1907. arehem. Ial., IT, p. 333; 1915. 1 Phys. Chem. Tabellen, p. 1208. 2 J. Am. Chem. Soe., 35, p. 1440, 1913. *87Z. phys. Chem., 43, p. 372, 1893. 4 Ber., 38, p. 914, 1905. *“a J. Am. Chem. Soc., 33, p. 648, 1911. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 38, p. 169, 1916. °° Weltwissen, 3, p. 63, 1915. * Hackh,. Das Synthetische System der Atome, Hamburg, 1915. 8 J. Am. Chem. Soc., 38, p. 169, 1916. *° Chem. News, 54, p. 1, 1886. Ber., 29,°p. 3092, 1886. ** Periodische Gesetz, Berlin, 1887. * Chem. News, 78, p. 25, 1898; also Proc. Roy. Soc., 63, p. 408, 1898, and Z. anorg. Chem., 18, p. 72, 1898. * Chem. News, 58, pp. 93 and 103, 1888. * Phil. Mag., 4, p. 411, 1902; also Chem. News, 57, p. 163, 1888; and Proc. Roy. Soc., 46, p. 115, 1888. * Lehrbuch der anorg. Chem., Beilage. “Pharm J., 84, p. 159, 1910. * Am. Chem. J., 45, p. 160, 1911. *8 Proc. Roy. Soe., 85, p. 471, 1911. *° Chem. Weekblad, 8, p. 389, 1911. ® Erklarung der chemischen Wertigkeit und periodischen Regelmassigkeit des elements durch ein model, Hamburg, 1913. * Weltwissen, 3, p. 63, 1915. * Rev. geh. sci., 25, p. 734, c/o Chem. Abstr., 9, p. 540, 1915. “Le Radium, 11, p. 6; also in Chemistry of the Radioactive Elements, part 2, p. 11, 1915. = Cnem. Zentr., 2, p. 1, 1915. Chem. News, 111, p. 157, 1915. “ Orig. Com., 8th Int. Congr. Appl. Chem., 22, p. 187. 502 - Kryshtofovich—Cretaceous Age of the Arr. XVIII.—On the Cretaceous Age of the ‘‘ Miocene Flora’ of Sakhalin; by A. N. Krysurorovics.! The following pages form a summary of the results of the elaboration of a part of plant fossils collected on Sakhalin Island during 1917, the balance of the collec- tions having been shipped to Petrograd. The fossil flora of the island of Sakhalin comes chiefly from two localities, Dui and Mgach. It was described originally by Heer? in 1878 who referred it to the Mio- cene. Since it is rather extensive it has usually been taken as a type for purposes of comparison with other Tertiary floras despite the presence of Nilssoma, a genus quite unusual in Tertiary deposits. No doubts as to the Ter- tiary age of this flora have been expressed except that on purely geological grounds Messrs. Tikhonovich and Polevoi® have suggested recently that the Dui series (and consequently its flora) was of considerable older Tertiary age than the Mgach series, which is also characterized by a rich flora, and which they regarded as belonging to the Miocene. The matter of special interest is that Nilssoma was believed to be a member of this Mgach flora. Having been despatched by the Comité Géologique in 1917 to Sakhalin, I have been able to prove that the fossil flora of Sakhalin does not belong merely to the Miocene or Tertiary, but comprises several different horizons from the Miocene down to the Cenomanian and in part probably still more ancient. Heer unfortunately described mixed collections from Mgach, where, as I noticed, the exposures of plant-bearing Cenomanian and Miocene beds outer op close together, although the two are unconformable, a fact which Schmidt and other explorers failed to observe. The predominance of speci- mens collected in the upper Tertiary exposures in the Heer collection convinced him that the whole flora was Tertiary. However, the presence in my collections made at this locality of Dammara borealis, Protophyllocladus subintegrifolius, many ferns, cycads and typical Angio- 1 Communicated and edited by Prof. Edward W. Berry. Puen 1878, Die Miocene Flora der Insel Sachalin, i. foss. Arct., vol. 5, pt. earmonoricn and Polevoi, 1915, Geomorphological Sketch of Russian Sakhalin, Mémoires de la Comité Géologique, Russia, vol. 120 (new series). ““Miocene Flora’’ of Sakhalin. 503 sperms, all collected in lower coastal outcrops, as well as the entire absence of any of these in the flora of upper exposures, leads me to regard the former as really Cretaceous. The paleobotanical explorations along the sea shore to the south and to the north from the capital of Russian Sakhalin, Alexandrovsk, disclosed many Cretaceous out- crops, not yet fully determined. The presence of the Cretaceous flora in Sakhalin is particularly important because in Russia as well as in the countries of the Far Kast we have only meager Creta- ceous floras of Angiosperms, notwithstanding that Cre- taceous rocks are widely distributed, as was recently noticed by Berry in the description of the Lower Cre- taceous of Maryland. Except some fossil woods and Lower Cretaceous forms from the Province of Moscow,?* and the Ryoseki flora of Japan,> we know but one Angio- sperm flora from Ural Provincee,® one leaf of Cretaceous Platanus conf. Heer Lesg. from Turkestan,’ and some plants from Hokkaidd, mostly preserved as petrified fragments.* In a subsequent paragraph I will indicate that some floras of Siberia, hitherto believed to be Ter- tiary, partly even Miocene, must be regarded rather as Cretaceous after the present elucidation of the composi- tion of the vegetation during the Cretaceous period in Sakhalin. Geological sketch of the area. In addition to the Paleozoic rocks, without any organic remains except Radiolaria, and chiefly limited in the eastern part of Sakhalin, the Russian Sakhalin, espe- cially its western part, is made up of Cretaceous, Terti- ary and Postplocene deposits. Former interpretations of the geology of the island, based upon the plant fossils, may now be regarded as wrong. Orographically in this part of Sakhalin the Coast * Trautschold, 1876, Der Klin’sche Sandstein in Russland, Nouv. Mémoires de la Soe. Imper. des Nat. de Moscou, vol. 13, p. 191. ° Yokoyama, 1894, Mesozoic Plants from Kozuke, Kii, Awa, and Tosa, Jour. Coll. Imp. Univ. Rokyo, vol. 7, .p.:3. * Kryshtofovich, 1914, The discovery of the Angiosperm Flora in the Cretaceous of Ural Province, Bull. de 1’Acad. Imper., 1914, p. 603. *Romanowsky, 1890, Materialien zur Geologie von Turkestan, vol. 3, pr. Lao. “See Stopes, 1913, The Cretaceous flora, Bibliography. 504 Kryshtofovich—Cretaceous Age of the Range stretching from the Japanese frontier terminates somewhat to the south of Alexandrovsk, in Cape de la Jonquiére, being limited by the Gulf of Tartary on the west and by the graben of Dui river (Alexandrovka) on the east. In the same direction but farther toward the north stretches the Western Range. This mountain chain is separated by the Coast Range from the sea shore to the south from Alexandrovsk. Farther to the north the country is quite open from the sea. According to the testimony of the animal fossils the median part of the Coast Range consists chiefly of the Cretaceous, especially its upper series, which further to the east is interrupted by the fault along the left bank of Alexandrovka river. ‘The Cretaceous here contains sandstones with conglom- erates as well as the dark slate with coal, and character- ized by both faunal and floral remains. ‘This is overlain without discordance by the Lower Tertiary with two beds of conglomerate at the boundary, in turn intercalated with the coaly shales the age of which is not yet deter- mined although some fossil plants were collected at this horizon. We observe the Cretaceous further to the east beyond the valley of Alexandrovka, where it appears on the slopes of the Western Range. Here it is also coal bearing and at least a part of it represents a more ancient — series, characterized only by the fossil plants and lacking the fauna found associated with plants in the Coast Range. As I have observed, the whole western slope as far~as Cape Khoi is made up of the same Cretaceous partly unconformably overlain by the younger Tertiary. In the same area, somewhat to the northeast from Alex- androvsk, are exposed the most ancient known Creta- ceous strata of the region, characterized by a flora of ferns—mainly Gleichenia. According to the differences indicated by the floras represented at the different horizons of the Cretaceous, and having in mind the presence of the Senonian Jnocera- mus fauna? in the upper beds, I propose dividing the Cretaceous into the following three series: I, Upper or Orokkian Series: II, Middle or Gyliakian Series; TIT, Lower or Ainuan Series. ° Sokolow, Kreideinoceramen des russischen Sachalin. Mém. de la Comité géol., n. s., livr. 83, St.-Pétersb. Also Schmidt. 1873, Ueber die Kreide Petrefacten von Sakhalin, Mém. Acad. Sci. St.-Pétersb. (7) vol. 19, No. 7; Yabe, 1909, Zur Straticraphy und Paleontologie der oberen Kreide von Hokkaido and Sachalin, Zeitschrift der Deutsche Geol. Gesell., vol. 61, p. 402. “Miocene Flora’’ of Sakhalin. 505 The Tertiaries are represented by Older and Younger series called respectively the Dui and Megach series by Tikhonovich and Polevoi (op. cit.). The Lower series or Dui series takes a prominent part in the composition of the Coast Range, being concordant with the Cretaceous. — It consists of sandstones and slates partly marine with shells, but chiefly coal-bearing and containing the best quality of coal in Sakhalin which can be compared only with the English Cardiff and the best Japanese Taka- shima coal. The series is exposed chiefly on the sea shore and has not been observed out of the boundaries of the Coast Range. It is pierced by eruptive rocks and intercalated by several basaltic sheets and tuffs. The Mgach or Younger Tertiary series consists of a coal-bearing division below and is represented in the upper part by loose shales and sandstones containing marine shells. To this series belong the slow burning non-coking coals worked at Mgach. This Younger Series also fills the graben of Alexandrovka and noncon- formably overlies the Cretaceous to the north of Alex- androvsk, where no traces of the Lower Tertiary Dui series were observed. The Paleobotanical evidence. The younger horizon of the Cretaceous developed in the Coast Range is particularly interesting, since it con- tains representatives of both the fauna and flora at Cape dela Jonquiere. The whole appearance of this broad leaf flora overlaid by Inoceramus and Ammonites horizons is so recent that Schmidt, influenced by Heer’s determina- tions, erroneously regarded this bed as true Tertiary and inverted; just as he believed similar inverted conditions of exposures of beds containing an Angiosperm flora and typically Cretaceous fauna in the island of Vancouver. In addition to the fact that the flora of Cape dela Jon- quiére is not of the usual Tertiary type, the rich Creta- ceous fauna of Ammonites, Helcion, Inoceramus, etce., fixes the age of this horizon as Senonian, thus giving us a knowledge of a true Senonian flora in the extreme East of Asia. In some exposures on the slopes of the Western Range and on the sea shore to the north from Alexandrovsk I have found a flora of more archaic appearance that must be regarded as representing a more ancient horizon 506 Kryshtofovich—Cretaceous Age of the although without associated invertebrate faunas. Thus the three established Series of the Cretaceous in Russian Sakhalin, the Orokkian, Gyliakian, and Ainuan, may be florally characterized as follows: I. The Orokkian. This series is chiefly characterized by broad leaved types besides a few ferns and some conifers, from which I have as yet identified only Asplenium dicksonianum Heer Sequowa smittiana Heer Populus arctica Heer Credneria sp. Hedera mcclurwu Heer Viburnum schmidtianum Heer Il. The Gyltakian flora, very rich and varied, and studied in more detail by me, contains Dicksonia mamiyai n. sp. Asplenium dicksonianum Heer Pecopteris virginiensis Fontaine*® Pecopteris cf. bohemica Corda? Pteris frigida Heer Stenopteris jambot n. sp. Sagenopteris variabilis (Vel.) Velen. Cycas steenstrupu Heer Glossozamites aff. schenckw Heer Nilssonia serotina Heer Ginkgo sp. A. Ginkgo sp. B. Protophyllocladus subintegrifolius (Lesq.) nee Dammara borealis Heer ‘Sequoia reichenbachwu (Gein.) Heer S. fastigiata Sternberg Thuja cretacea (Heer) Newberry Populus arctica Heer Cocculus aff. extinctus Velenovsky Credneria aff. integerrma Zenker Bauhina cretacea Newberry Celastrophyllum yokoyamat n. sp. Aralia polevow n. sp. A. tikhonovichw n. sp. MacClintockia sachalinensis n. sp. IiI. The Ainuan flora, studies in less detail, shows only the following species: * Referred by Berry to Cladophlebis browniana (Dunker) Seward. “* Miocene Flora’? of Sakhalin. 507 Gleichenia rigida Heer G. zipper (Corda) Heer Gleichenia sp. Asplenium dicksonianum Heer Populus ef. potomacensis Ward The general composition of these floras and the presence in the youngest horizon of an Ammonite fauna compels me to regard the whole flora as undoubtedly Cre- taceous. However, its different horizons show some peculiar features. Thus the flora of the uppermost series, the Orokkian, shows a younger aspect, and might very readily be mistaken for Tertiary on account of con- taining many species common in the so-called Arctic Tertiary floras of Greenland, Spitzbergen, etc. but searcely anything is common to the latter and the true Tertiary flora of Sakhalin. The undoubted Cretaceous age of the Sakhalin floras listed above and the presence in them of elements characteristic of the ‘‘Arcto-Ter- tiary’’ flora leads me to suggest a revision of the age of the latter, which may be really even older than the similar floras in Sakhalin, on account of their more northern position, if the migration of floras was really from the north. : The characteristic form of Orokkian, Populus arctica, has not yet been found in the Dui series (though it oceurs in the lower Tertiary flora of Onnenai in Japanese Sakhalin) but it is abundantly represented in the Gylia- kian together with some typical Cretaceous plants. I regard this horizon as an equivalent of the Patoot of Greenland, and being not very different in age from the prebasaltic deposits of Atanekerdluk, the latter undoubt- edly Cretaceous and not Tertiary as it has been hitherto considered. Thus the age of this Series may be taken as Senonian and possibly partly Turonian. The flora of the Gyliakian is very rich in ferns resem- bling those of the Atane and Dakota floras and partly those of the Patapseco formation. Several cycads also suggest those of the Atane beds of Greenland and the Cenomanian of other countries. The Conifers and the Angiosperms are also very typical of the Cretaceous, especially of the Raritan and Dakota, e. g., Protophyllo- cladus. Dammara, Bauhinia cretacea; Aralia polevoi is very similar to Araliaephyllum magnifolium of the Patapsco; Celastrophyllum yokoyama closely resem- 508 Kryshtofovich—Cretaceous Age of the bles the Celastrophylla of the Dakota. Sagenopteris variabilis and Cocculus affinis are common in the Ceno- manian of Bohemia, and Aralia tikhonovichit is repre- sented there by a closely allied species. Having many features common with the Cenomanian flora of Europe, the Gyliakian flora is, however, more closely allied to those of North America and Greenland. If in making more close comparisons with the American Cretaceous floras we notice that the Gyliakian flora has some ele- ments of the Patapsco flora, its resemblance with those of the Dakota and Raritan is more striking. The pres- ence in the Gyliakian of Populus arctica, not yet discov- ered in the Atane beds or even in some younger (in which, however, it was probably recorded under some other names) also compels me to correlate the Gyliakian with the younger rather than the older, and I am there- fore inclined to regard it as the equivalent of Dakota, Raritan and Atane, being Cenomanian and probably partly Turonian. Thus the paradoxal presence of the Nilssoma of real Mesozoic aspect in the ‘‘Mgach Flora’’ of Heer is quite simply explained, and the botanists must give up the hope of finding it still living somewhere in China as was expressed by some of them on account of its supposed existence as late as in the ‘‘ Miocene Flora’”’ of Sakhalin. The flora of the Ainuan Series shows very few features of resemblance either with the upper or Orokkian flora or even with that of the Gyliakian Series, being represented | mainly by ferns, in part not yet determined. There are only a few remains of a Populus of primitive aspect identified by me as Populus ef. potomacensis Ward which occurs in what is probably an uplifted horizon of this series. I believe this flora corresponds to the Kome flora of Greenland as it is not younger than Albian, but the complete investigation of it 1s not yet made. The importance of correctly determining the age of the Sakhalin fossil floras may be understood when it is recalled that in all Asia there have not before been known any upper Cretaceous floras except single remains men- tioned in my introductory paragraphs and some petrified specimens hardly comparable with the flora of impres- sions of other countries, and presenting therefore insuf- ficient materials for judging the evolution of the flora in Asia. ““Miocene Flora’’ of Sakhalin. 509 The Cretaceous flora now discovered in Sakhalin becomes still more remarkable if we remember that its upper horizon shows associated with the flora a rich fauna which can be correlated not only with those of Hokkaido but even with the more distant fauna of Hin- dustan and Vancouver. On the other hand the flora itself, representing a considerable interval of time, fills the gap hitherto existing between Europe and America in the ring of the floras around the North Pole, the supposed center of origin and migration of the Angiosperm flora. When completely elaborated the Mesozoic flora of Sak- halin, since it is extensive and its upper limit is fixed in age by the associated fauna, may furnish a helpful scale for the revision of age of the Arctic floras and those of Canada, on account of presence in the Orokkian of such species as Populus arctica, Hedera mccluru, etc., believed to be Tertiary in the above mentioned floras. In addition there are numerous floras scattered all over the vast Siberian expanse and hitherto without a good scale for the judging of their age. Already after a preliminary study of the Sakhalin flora I decidedly put into the rank of the Cretaceous the flora of Simonova!! as _ being older than the uppermost horizon of this system. Still younger but undoubtedly Cretaceous appear some floras in Amurland partly described previously as Tertiary. One of the latter, namely the flora of Boguchan mountain near Sagibova on Amur river, I put into the Cretaceous in 1916. Others may represent the transitional floras corresponding to the Laramie of western North America. -On the other hand, the true Tertiary flora of Sakhalin is rich in species and also represents several horizons. Freed from the unfortunately admixed Cretaceous ele- ments it also may be taken as a good seale for com- parison with the Siberian floras, especially on account of the intercalation of the flora of the Dui series in Sak- halin with several faunal horizons. Some interesting deductions may also result from the comparison of the Sakhalin floras with those of Japan. The following diagram represents the relation of the Sakhalin Cretaceous floras to those best known in the Old and New World :?” 1 Heer, 1878, Beitrage zur foss. Flora Sibiriens und des Amurlandes, Fl. foss. Arctica, vol. 5, part 2. 2 American and European correlations taken from Berry, E. W., Lower and Upper Cretaceous floras of the World, 1911 and 1916. Kryshtofovich—Cretaceous Age, ete. 510 (uvdep) tyesodAy ({BiQ, Yynos) aLutay,-uouep[n yy (goutAord resstue x ) BAOUOUITG uBypus0g LAY Boing uBnULy wery erp Ay) ULIYYOLO SOT}I[BOO] OIPBISY IOIO UI[BVYYVG UBISsnay ouvyy 40078] quexnye UBLULODOS NT JLOPSU.1O jopun.tw UIT ST UBIULILILE WIS LBULV ueydy UeTaTy: oosdvye SBI[Od UVILLBY Z4N.10q ea Ga UBLUBULOUOAD) BIOYVC | VUIOYOS.OpoOLN 3.19 UISSTO AA AYJOSBIN, a7 aoe ae ZILULB IN UBIUO.L YT, zt do, BIVAQ OTN UdSOTI SOTA So UBLUOUVg OLUIBIET UvIUB BoLLouLy adoangy | Kirk—Paleozoic Glaciation in Alaska. 511 Art. XIX.—Paleozoic Glaciation in Southeastern Alaska; by Enwin Kirx.* Evidence of glaciation in the Paleozoic is of interest even though the discovery of tillites has become the com- monplace of geologic field work. During the past field season a tillite of Silurian age was found in southeastern Alaska. This is particularly interesting as being the first record of Silurian glaciation. Fairly conclusive evidence of Permian glaciation was also secured. There is some reason to believe that glacial deposits occur in the Devonian of the region as well. Cairnes in 1914 described a conglomerate of ‘‘Permo- Carboniferous?’’ age which he found on the Alaska side of the international boundary just north of 65° north latitude. He considered the conglomerate as possibly of glacial origin. The conglomerate has a thickness of 700 to 800 feet and his description leaves little doubt but that it is a true tillite. One of his arguments against the probable elacial origin of the beds is that no other deposits of like character are known in Alaska. This objection has been met by the discovery of conglomerates in southeastern Alaska that apparently hold the same stratigraphic posi- tion and have most of the characteristic features of till- ites. The conglomerate described by Cairnes has been accepted by Coleman as a tillite without question. Apart from this discovery of Cairnes no other paleozoic glacial deposits have been reported from Alaska. The Silurian conglomerates which have proved to be of glacial origin were first noted by the Wrights! in their bulletin on the Ketehikan and Wrangell mining districts, Alaska. They were given an estimated thickness of 1200 feet and were placed within and at the base of the - Lower Devonian. No special description of the con- glomerates was given by the Wrights and no suggestion of possible glacial origin was made. These conglom- erates are a conspicuous feature of the area on the west coast of Prince of Wales Island bordering on Davidson Inlet and Sea Otter Sound. The conglomerates are found seattered over an area of some 200 or 500 square * Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. 1 Wright, F. HE. and C. W., U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 347, 1908. 519 Kirk—Paleozoic Glaciation im miles in this immediate region, and further study would no doubt considerably extend the range to the south, east, and north. The best exposures of the Silurian elacial beds seen were on Heceta Island, although good outcrops are to be found on the south shore of Kosciusko Island, about 15 miles to the north. Apparently the same beds occur along Ei] Capitan passage betwen Kosciusko and Prince of Wales islands. At the north end of Kuiu Island, some 125 miles to the north, a bowlder bed holds the same stratigraphic position and, I believe, represents the same glacial deposit. Kosciusko and Heceta islands, where the best Silurian glacial deposits are to be found, he between 55° and 60° north latitude, and 133° and 134° west longitude. These islands are situated on the west coast of Prince of Wales Island, toward the northern end. Prince of Wales Island is the large island of the south- eastern Alaska group, the southern point of which just clears the Alaskan-Canadian boundary. Kuiu Island hes to the north and slightly west of Prince of Wales Island. The most favorable locality for an examination of the conglomerate is in the large bay about midway on the north shore of Heceta Island. The coast here is well pro- tected from storms and there is a continuous. outcrop of the hmestone underlying the conglomerate, the conglom- erate itself, and the overlying limestone. In places the conglomerate is well broken down by weathering, making the collection of pebbles and bowlders an easy matter. As exposed, the beds outcrop along the shore between tide levels and give an outcrop perhaps 2000 to 3000 feet in length. The beds strike about N. 30° W. and have an average dip of about 30° N.E. At the east end of Heceta Island, on what is locally known as Blue Bluff, several hundred feet of the conglomerate are exposed in an abrupt face together with the basal portion of the over- lying limestone. Both this exposure and that on the — south side of Kosciusko Island are difficult of access except under exceptionally favorable weather conditions. The glacial conglomerate is underlain and overlain by fossiliferous marine limestones. The succession of beds is clearly shown and unmistakable. The same relations can even more clearly be seen on the bold cliff at the east end of Heceta Island as to the upper limit of the conglom- erate. The relations of the conglomerate to the under- Southeastern Alaska. 513 lying limestone are well shown on Kosciusko Island. The strata as a whole in this region are badly disturbed and, as is the case throughout southeastern Alaska, contacts are very poorly shown, being as a rule indicated by an indentation of the shore line and a depression running back into the timber. At present, therefore, although the relative positions of stratigraphic units are obvious, the character of the unconformity and the nature of the passage beds are only partly known. The limestone series overlying the conglomerate car- ries a rich Conchidiwm fauna. In certain thin beds the rock is almost wholly made up of the brachiopods. This fauna appears to be identical with that of the limestone near Meade Point at the northern end of Kuiu Island. At the base of the limestone at this locality is a bowlder bed which I believe to be glacial in origin and to be cor- related with the conglomerate of Heceta. The lime- stones below the conglomerate likewise carry a rich fauna consisting of pentameroids, corals, and gastropods. The general aspect of both faunas seems to place them as approximately late Niagaran in age. The conglomerate itself has a thickness of between 1000 and 1500 feet. It will probably be found to vary considerably from place to place. In the main the con- olomerate appears to consist of heterogeneous, unstrati- fied or poorly stratified material. Rarely lenticular bodies of cross-bedded sandstone occur in the mass. These are clearly water-laid and indicate current action. The bowlders in the tillite range in size up to 2 or 3 feet in length, as seen. They consist of greenstone, gray- wacke, limestone, and various types of igneous rocks; limestone bowlders are scaree. All the bowlders are smoothed and rounded. Facetted bowlders are numer- ous, and given the proper type of rock, characteristic glacial scratches are common. The scratches show best on the fine-grained, dense greenstones. Limestone bowl- ders and certain types of igneous rocks do not show them at all.~ The shore line is strewn with these pebbles and bowlders which were undoubtedly derived from the con- glomerate as they are not to be found on the adjacent limestone shores. All the material collected was taken from the conglomerate itself. This is well broken down by weathering in some places, and the pebbles may be picked out with the fingers or tapped out with the ham- Am. Jour. Sct.—Fourts Series, Vou. XLVI, No. 273.—SmpremBer, 1918. 20 . 514 Kirk—Paleozoic Glaciation in mer. When fresh the conglomerate as a rule is massive and exceedingly hard. The nature of the deposit is such as to suggest a till. The heterogeneous character of the bowlders, both as regards size and material, and the apparent lack of strat- ification in the main, point to a true till rather than a submarine bed of ice-transported glaciated material. Such evidence as is at hand indicates that the Heceta area was very near the shore line and might easily have been land while the glacial material was being deposited. The question of interglacial periods in the Silurian of the region can not at present be discussed with any degree of certainty. The finer points of stratigraphic succession are not known owing to the complex structural relations, the poorly shown outcrops, and the apparent lateral variation in character of sediments. I believe, however, that there are several distinct bodies of tillite separated by marine sediments. At the old Haida vil- lage of Klnkwan on the southwest coast of Prince of Wales Island and a few miles north of the west shore of Klakas Inlet are what I take to be beds of tillite inter- bedded with Silurian graptolite shales. The same con- dition obtains on the east shore of Dall Island in the neighborhood of View Cove. These tillites and shales I believe come above the limestone series overlying the tilite on Heceta Island. On Heceta Island itself, unless there has been considerable repetition by faulting, which does not seem probable, two or three distinct beds of tillite are indicated. PERMIAN GLACIAL DEPOSITS. In Pybus Bay, Admiralty Island, and on the Sereen Islands off the west shore of Etolin Island are conglom- erates strongly suggesting glacial material. In both cases these overlie high Carboniferous beds which have been correlated by Girty with the Gseshelian. Overlying the conglomerates are Upper Triassic beds. Where seen the conglomerates had not weathered down and it was not possible to obtain loose bowlders which might show scratches; facetted bowlders occur in the conglomerate, however. It will probably be found that this is a true glacial deposit and to be correlated with the conglomerate described by Cairnes near the Alaskan-Canadian boun- dary. A conglomerate similar to that described- above Southeastern Alaska. 515 underhes the upper Triassic rocks of Dall Head, Gravina Island, and may prove of the same age and of similar character. The occurrence of Permian glacial deposits in Alaska is of special interest inasmuch as most of the reported occurrences of tillites of this age have been in the tropics or to the south of the equator. Alaskan gilacia- tion coupled with that near Boston, Mass., the two being possibly synchronous, indicate widespread glacial con- ditions in North America during this time. A con- glomerate in southwestern California of approximately the same age is worth noting. This conglomerate is described in a U. S. Geological Survey Report, now in press, on the geology of the Inyo Range, California, by Adolph Knopf and Edwin Kirk. This conglomerate is composed of ill-assorted pebbles and bowlders and car- ries contemporary potholes. Sandstones and conglom- erates, probably to be correlated with this conglomerate, extend widely through Utah and Nevada and possibly correlate with the Weber. A careful study of these sedi- ments offers interesting possibilities in the way of adding to our knowledge of land and possibly glacial conditions in Permian times. PossIBLE DEVONIAN GLACIATION. In the Stringocephalus-bearing limestone zone of the Middle Devonian small facetted pebbles up to 214 inches in length are of fairly frequent occurrence at one locality on the west coast of Prince of Wales Island. In Fresh- water Bay and in Port Frederick, which lie near the northern end of Chicagof Island some 250 miles to the north, conglomerates occur in the Lower or Middle Devonian. Rounded bowlders up to 2 feet in diameter were seen. They are very unlike normal sedimentary conglomerates. Should the bowlders in the Devonian prove glacial, a somewhat different origin would probably be postulated for the conglomerates themselves. These are thin, ranging in thickness up to 25 feet or so, and would be more easily explained perhaps as consisting of berg-borne material, though glacial in origin. Bottoms of a similar nature are even now to be found in the chan- ~ nels of southeastern Alaska. U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. 516 Grout—Lopolith; An Igneous Form Art. XX.—The Lopolith; an Igneous Form Exemplified by the Duluth Gabbro; by Franx F. Grovt. CONTENTS. Introduction. Possible forms of the Duluth gabbro, and early ae The laccolith. The lopolith. General remarks on the Duluth gabbro. Summary. Introduction.—The several students of the Duluth gab- bro as a formation have had several opinions as to its form and relations. Recent descriptions refer to it as a laccolith, though it differs from the typical laccoliths in some details. Several other large intrusions are of sim- ilar form, and it is here suggested that the form deserves a special name. The size and relations of the Duluth mass are summarized. Possible forms of the Duluth gabbro, and early sugges- tions.i—In 1883, R. D. Irving referred to the gabbro as probably the reservoir from which the Keweenawan flows came. N. H. Winchell, in several papers from 1880 to 1910, refers to the ‘‘great basal flow’’ and later to bosses and intrusive masses. Bayley, as late as 1893, quotes Irving that it is ‘‘not intrusive in the ordinary sense,’’ but says it might be a succession of thick flows or the reservoir from which the flows came. Grant, in 1900, and others more recently have described it as a laccolith. The intrusive character of the gabbro is clearly shown at Duluth.2 It has as definite a roof and floor as a lac- eolith or sill, and was intruded along a surface approxi- mately corresponding to a previous structure,—the unconformity at the base of the Keweenawan. On the basis of its banded structure one may estimate the posi- tion of its floor. This eliminates the probability of any- thing funnel like or particularly irregular,—it is not like the “ethmolith”? or ‘‘chonolith.’? Thus it comes about that by a process of elimination the gabbro is placed with ‘Trving, R. D., Copper bearing rocks of Lake Superior: U. 8S. Geol. Surv., Mon, 5, pp. 144, ete. Winchell, N. H., Minn. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey, Ann. Rept. 10, p. 114, 1881; Final Rept., vol. 4, and vol. 5. Grant, U.S., Minn. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Final Rept., vol. 4, p. 326; and Bull. Geol. Soe. America, vol. 11, p. 505, 1900. *Grout, F. F., Paper at the December (1917 ) meeting of the Geological Society of America. Exzemplified by the Duluth Gabbro. “Holey the laccoliths. It is best, however, to review the defi- nitions and usage of the term laccolith. The laccolith—The laccolith as originally defined by Gilbert? is insinuated between strata (or along the plane of some previous structure) with a flat floor and an up-domed roof; its thickness ranges around one-seventh its width, and its ground plan is nearly circular. Several - geologists, after wide experience with intrusive masses elsewhere, have found it convenient to shghtly modify the definition to include clearly related masses.t Thus, the concordance with previous structure is not always per- fect, but a general tendency is characteristic; the form also may be somewhat unsymmetrical. Laccoliths grade into sheets on one hand, and into ‘‘bysmaliths’’ with faulted uplifted roof, on the other. It seems to have been agreed that the magma was aggressive in uplifting its roof, stretching the overlying beds and separating its roof and floor; Harker even coined the name ‘‘ Phaco- lith’’ for similar forms which might be attributed to other forees.® Several large intrusions are known which differ from laccoliths in having a sunken rather than a domed roof; in fact, some are so thick that a roof could not have been held up, isostatically. The masses are now in the form of great saucers or basins. The process of intrusion was probably very different from that of a laccolith. In spite of the fact that each of the several examples has in recent years been described as a laccolith, it is difficult to formu- late a definition to include both types. For example, Daly gives an excellent summary of current usage, and defines a laccolith as plano-convex or doubly convex.® Later he calls the larger concavo-convex masses lacco- liths, frankly admitting that they are departures from the type. This being the case, Professor Joseph Barrell has sug- gested that as igneous forms they deserve a distinct * Gilbert, G. K., Report on the geology of the Henry Mountains, U. S. Geol. and.Geog. Survey of the Rocky Mountain region, pp. 19, 53 and 55. *Geikie, A., Structural and field Geology, p. 190. Iddings, J. P., Igneous rocks, vol. 1, p. 314. Harker, Alfred, Natural history of Teneous Rocks, p. 65. Pirsson, ibe ue and Schuchert, Charles, Text book of Geology, Dtsel, p- 297 °C. R. Keyes, however, now argues for a different mechanism for the true laccolith, December (1917) meeting of the Geol. Soc. of America. ®° Daly, R. A., Igneous Rocks and their Origin, p. 70. 518 Grout—Lopolith; An Igneous Form name. Such a name is better based on the known facts of form or relations than on any theory of origin, and the name proposed by the writer is ‘‘lopolith”’ (from oras, a basin, a flat earthen dish, and /@os, a stone).* The lopolith. —A lopolith may be defined as a large, lenticular, centrally sunken, generally concordant, intru- sive mass, with its thickness approximately one-tenth to one-twentieth of its width or diameter. Most of the known lopoliths are in part of basic rocks, and probably because of their large size and slow cooling have differentiated notably. They may show the varying degrees of complexity described as ‘‘multiple,’’ ‘‘com- posite,’’ ‘‘divided,’’ ‘‘interformational,’’ as distinguished from ‘‘simple.’’ The type departs from a laccolith, not only in form but in the probable mechanics of its intrusion. The Duluth gabbro with its differentiates is one of the best illustrations of a lopolith. At Duluth the roof and floor dip east. The crescentic outcrop, concave toward Lake Superior (see fig. 1), dips in all parts toward the lake. The assumed eastern border of the lopolith is con- cealed under other rocks and under the lake, but the sheet of gabbro on the Gogebic range dips north even more steeply than the Minnesota mass dips south. It is thus somewhat unsymmetrical, but clearly sunken in the center. Its cross-section is also clearly lenticular. The overlying rocks are mostly Keweenawan flows, and though the horizon of the roof may vary some hundreds of feet, the discordance is unimportant when compared to a lateral extent of about 150 miles. The base of the gabbro rests on such a series of formations from Archean to Keweenawan, that the first impression is one of com- plete discordance with earlier structure. However, if the intrusion transgressed the earlier structure, it is a remarkable coincidence that the two ends, now outecrop- ping 140 miles apart, and the southern outcrops almost as far to the south, all transgressed up to exactly the same horizon. This coincidence is not the only difficulty in the assumption of a transgressing intrusion. After the bor- ders had transgressed to the Keweenawan, the central parts of the intrusion which must have been in the Archean, must have stoped their way up to exactly the horizon to which the border was first intruded; we now * Pronunciation, 16’polith. Exemplified by the Duluth Gabbro. 519 Fie. 1. Me Red Rock above it 20! Sandstone d Shope ees Fic. 1. Map of the west end of Lake Superior showing Keweenawan areas. 520 Grout—Lopolith; An Igneous Form find the roof at a fairly constant horizon. The magma must have spread along an unconformity, or we are forced to the absurd conclusion that the magma knew when to cease its stoping. Another fatal objection to the idea of transgression and much stoping, is the volume of material missing. The Rove slate, where it dips under Hie. 2: Thick Strong alr gle Lape So Lopolish © re Fie. 2. Sketches to suggest the possible relation of a mace to the other forms of occurrence of igneous rocks. the gabbro, is estimated to be 2600 feet thick, 7 and this is only one of several missing formations. Hall has esti- mated that the slates west ‘of the gabbro are 20,000 feet thick, 5000 feet in sight.2 The estimates are not based on accurate data, but are probably of the right order of magnitude. These formations could easily have been 7 Van Hise, C. R., and Leith, C. K., Geology of the Lake Superior region; U. S. Geol. Survey, Mon. 52, p. 201. ® Hall, C. W., The Kewatin of eastern Minnesota: Bull. Geol. Soc. America, vol. 12, p. 374, 1901. j Exemplified by the Duluth Gabbro. 521 eroded in the long pre-Keweenawan interval,®? but could hardly have been stoped into the gabbro, no matter what the horizon of intrusion. It seems certain, therefore, that the gabbro was intruded and spread approximately along the base of the Keweenawan. Besides the Duluth mass as a type, one might classify aS lopoliths the Sudbury and Bushveldt masses; and possibly the basin-like mass on the Isle of Skye and the banded rock of Julianahaab, Greenland. As a piece of speculation it may be of interest to sug- gest a relation between laccoliths and the larger lopo- hths; and note what would result from a continued increase in size. Figure 2 is self-explanatory. General remarks on the Duluth gabbro.—If the form of the Duluth gabbro is as assumed, certain consequences may be stated. The form being roughly lenticular, it seems probable that the extent down the dip is nearly as great as the length of an eroded outcropping edge. EHKven if it is only half that extent, a glance at the map indicates that it is very probable, as Van Hise and Leith mention,” that the gabbro of the Gogebic range in Wisconsin is part of the same original lopolith. If a roughly circular outline is drawn around all the known outcrops, it encloses over fifteen thousand square miles, the area once occupied by the lopolith; besides which it is evident that a part has been eroded, and prob- able that the subsidence which tilted the gabbro in Wis- consin to an angle of more than 75°, was accompanied by a good deal of crustal shortening. The present area of gabbro outcrops may be much less than the original. Estimates of the thickness may be made on the assump- tion that the floor of the gabbro dips approximately with the adjacent internal structure.11 The estimates are only approximate because of a scarcity of outcrops where the gabbro is widest, and because in the same region there are some thick sills which are distinguished with dif- ficulty from the gabbro. The maximum thickness indi- eated-in Minnesota is about 50,000 feet; at Duluth about 12,000 feet are exposed; at the northeastern outcrops in Minnesota the lopolith is less than 3000 feet thick. These estimates are conservative in the matter of dip,—former ®*'Van Hise, C. R., and Leith, C. K., op. cit., p. 208. 7 Op. cit; P..57 0. -orout, FB -Op. cit, 522, Grout—Lopolith; An Igneous Form. records of structure would indicate nearly twice as steep a dip as that here used.‘?, In Wisconsin the thickness of the gabbro is probably less than 4,000 feet.1* If the lopo- lith is thickest in the center like a lens, the real maxi- mum thickness is concealed below the lake. The volume of the lopolith may be estimated at over 00,000 cubic miles. It is evidently one of the largest known intrusive masses. Considered with some related intrusions,—the Logan sills, the sills at Beaver Bay, and other intrusions of the same age in more distant parts of the Lake Superior region—it indicates an immensity of intrusive action at this time, that has rarely been equalled. Summary.—Certain large, centrally sunken intrusions are given a distinct name, lopolith. Lopoliths differ from laecoliths not only in these points of size and form, but probably also in the mechanics of their intrusion. The Duluth gabbro is a multiple, composite, divided lopolith which is furthermore interformational over most of its length. Conservative estimates of its size indicate an area of over 15,000 square miles, and a volume of over 50,000 cubic miles—one of the largest known. floored intrusions. Other illustrations of lopoliths are sug- gested. Acknowledgments are here gratefully given to the members of the geologic staff of the graduate faculty at Yale University, for very helpful suggestions. a invaner hE De ope Clb. peec0o. 18‘Van Hise, and Leith, op. cit., p. 377. Butts—Geologic Section of Pennsylvania. 523 Arr. XXI.—Geologic Section of Blair and Huntingdon Counties, Central Pennsylvama,;* by Cuaries Burts. The geologic section in Blair and Huntingdon counties, Pa., was worked out by the writer in 1908 in a survey of the Hollidaysburg quadrangle and in 1913 in a survey of the Huntingdon quadrangle, which adjoins the Hollidays- burg quadrangle on the east. These two quadrangles include a large part of the two counties and lie across two great folds, the Nittany anticline and Broad Top Moun- tain syneline. The strata exposed have a maximum thickness of over 27,000 feet and an average thickness, as shown in the accompanying section, of nearly 25,000 feet. This is probably as thick as any if not the thickest section - exposed in the Appalachian region in so small an area. Geologists familiar with the region will see that the writer’s contributions to the stratigraphy consist partly of detail, such as the delimitation of the Middle and Upper Devonian formations recognized by the geologists of the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania but the boundaries of which were not defined by them. Much that is new has, however, been added, particularly con- cerning the lower part of the section, where the valley limestone, No. 2 of the older geologists, has been split up into twelve formations and several members. Brief notes, mainly on the new formations and their names, follow. In the Chemung the name Saxton con- glomerate member is introduced to replace White’s name Lackawaxen conglomerate, as it seems very uncertain whether this conglomerate is the same as the Lacka- waxen. ‘The conglomerate is well exhibited in and about Saxton, Huntingdon County, whence the name. The Portage group has been divided into two forma- tions, the Brallier shale and. the Harrell shale which includes, in the bottom, the Burket black shale member. The Brallier shale is named from a station on the Hunt- ingdon & Broad Top Mountain Railroad a few miles northeast of Everett, in Bedford County. This shale is the same as the Woodmont shale member of the Jen- * Published by permission of the Director of the United States Geological Survey, with the statement that parts of the classification and nomenclature have not yet been officially adopted. All the names of formations and members shown in the stratigraphic column have, however, been adopted by the Survey. 524 Butts—Geologic Section of Blar and nings formation of Maryland, except that the Woodmont extends down to the Burket black shale member, regarded by the Maryland Survey as Genesee. The Brallier is well exposed and. can be most conveniently seen along the Pennsylvania Railroad west of Altoona and just east of Huntingdon. The Harrell shale is perfectly distinct lithologically from the Brallier, as shown by the deserip- tions of the section. In the Broad Top Mountain syncline in Huntingdon County the Harrell is about 250 feet thick and consists of soft, dove-colored fissile shale and interbedded layers of black fissile shale. In Blair County, to the west, however, the black shale is all im the bottom and is about 75 feet thick, the soft, dove-colored, highly fissile (paper) shale, about 200 feet thick, being free of black shale and forming the upper part of the Harrell. The name is taken from Harrell, a station on the Petersburg branch of the Pennsylvania Railroad, about midway between Hollidaysburg and Williamsburg where the dove-colored shale is well displayed. This shale is also well shown in a cut of the Pennsylvania. Railroad in the western outskirts of Altoona and in the brick yard at Eldorado, a few miles south of Altoona. The black shale member of the Harrell is named from Burket, a suburb of Altoona. The Burket member is well exposed in and about Altoona, at several places southwest of Altoona for 20 miles, and along the Penn- sylvania Railroad between Altoona and Bellwood. As already stated, this shale has been regarded as Genesee, but it carries no distinctively Genesee fossils; on the other hand, it and the overlying part of the Harrell gen- erally contain a good representation of the Naples fauna, found at the base of the Portage in western New York. The Burket is, therefore, believed to be basal Portage rather than Genesee. 7 Just below the Harrell shale there is, in places at least, a limestone about a foot thick, from which were obtained Chonetes aurora and a Martinia like one of those of the McKenzie River region of Canada, which are there also associated with the same Chonetes. As Chonetes aurora is a characteristic fossil of the Tully limestone of New York, to which it appears to be confined, the thin lime- stone here is probably the feather edge of the Tully extending in an embayment into this part of Pennsylva- nia. If so the limestone really belongs in the Upper Huntingdon Counties, Central Pennsylvania. 525 Devonian instead of in the top of the Hamilton, as placed in the section. The name Reedsville was introduced by Ulrich (Revi- sion). The formation corresponds about to the upper half of the Martinsburg shale. The top sandstone member, with Orthorhyncula, etc., is 30 to 56 feet thick, and extends without change from central Pennsylvania to New River, Va. Orthorhyncula was found also at Gate City, Va., near the Tennessee line. It is an extremely valuable horizon marker. The Trenton lhmestone here is said to agree well in character with the Trenton nearer its type locality. The Rodman limestone is new and is named from Rod- man, a station on the Pennsylvania Railroad near Roar- ing Spring, several miles south of Hollidaysburg, Blair County. This formation is only about 30 feet thick but is persistent throughout Nittany Valley and is identical in character and thickness in Center County and in Blair County. It can be seen in any of the quarries of the region, where it immediately overlies the quarry rock from which it can easily be distinguished by its litho- logic character and by the fact that it outcrops at the top margin of the quarries on the side toward the dip. The Rodman carries a considerable and an interesting assemblage of fossils which may be listed in a future paper. Echinospherites occurs in a zone of beds at Belle- fonte, Pa., between the Lowville and Trenton, of identical character and in part at least contemporaneous with the Rodman. Ulrich regards the beds in this zone as upper Black River and as falling within the scope of the Chambersburg limestone as defined in the Mercersburg- Chambersburg folio. It is not yet decided whether this EKichinospherites zone is to be identified with the upper or the lower of the two Echinospherites zones of that region but Ulrich is at present inclined to identify it with the lower. The fauna of the Rodman is not the same as that of the Sinuites bed in the base of which is the upper occurrence of EKchinospherites, while it contains forms that are so far known only in the lower Echinospherites zone. In the complete section these two zones are sep- arated by almost 400 feet of limestone. Ulrich thinks the Rodman may be the same as the Niskey limestone of Wherry, in the Lehigh Valley, but in 526 Butts—Geologic Section of Blar and view of the uncertainty regarding their equivalence the local name is here used. The Lowville limestone is regarded as good typical Lowville. Fossils are comparatively scarce but so far as known the fauna is thoroughly in harmony with the litho- logic criteria on which the correlation was originally based. The Carlim lhmestone is new, named from a quarry town on the Petersburg Branch of the Pennsylvania Rail- road a few miles northeast of Williamsburg, Blair County. The Lemont member of the Carlim is named from - Lemont, near State College, Center County. Both the Carlim and the Lemont member are well dis- played in all the quarries of the region, the part of the Carlim below the Lemont member, with the Lowville overlying the Lemont member, being the main quarry beds of the region, which supplies a large part of the flux rock for the Pittsburgh blast furnaces. The Lemont is not utilized except for road metal or concrete, and con- siderable bodies of it remain in quarries where the flux rock has been taken out. The main body of the Carlim is very epoca fossil- iferous, but the Lemont member is locally richly so. ix} = te to] O, Qu. 2) 536 Butts—Geologic Section of Blair and IT. Brallier = — = == = == = = ——= L350 shale a ee a shee _—<————— 2erket beck shale Hamilton formation Q, ) 0 t i) ) Porta V, meee MIDDLE DEVONIAN Tae limestone al Ree Clinton. formation. | Tascarare. | carore. qu | Tascarare. | S ILU ALAN NIAGARA a formation. Ses aa eens Me OES sandstone Huntingdon Counties, Central Pennsylvania, 537 a OS Sore tet el ae =; E: shale et) Ll JE Q)y§| Trenton limestone FS 320 | (¢/83| Hodman limestone === O[28| Lowville limestone Fy g=| Carlim limestone SS Bellefonte dolomite 7 ! BEEKMANTOWN ee ber CANADIAN A ‘ ch : a a ee i 7 a —sa ines dolomite SSS SS eS M EU RTETSR pee aS RE aa BP Bal 2 ee er ee eee Gatesburg, 5 formation. Pes, DAS ALPES a OZARKIAN pete) pues ed UPPER CAMBRIAN CAMBRIAN MIDDLE CAMBRIAN 4) 588 Gooch and Soderman—Barwm and Strontium. Arr. XXII—A Method for the Separation and Deter- mination of Barwum Associated with Strontium; by EK. A. Goocu and M. A. Soperman. (Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—eccii.) It has been shown by Mar, in a former article from this laboratory,’ that barium may be separated quantitatively from calcium and magnesium by dissolving the mixed chlorides in the least possible amount of water and throw- ing the barium out of solution as the hydrous chloride by the addition of a 4:1 mixture of concentrated aqueous hydrochloric acid and ether, the calcium and magnesium remaining in solution. The following account gives the outcome of an attempt to adapt this procedure to the similar separation of barium from strontium. The results of preliminary experiments showed plainly that the procedure found by Mar to be satisfactory for the separation of barium from calcium and magnesium yields high indications for barium when strontium is present even in moderate amounts. It has been found, however, that excellent results may be attained by a modified procedure. The success of the operation depends upon so adjusting the amounts of the water and of the aqueous hydrochloric acid and ether mixture that the barium chloride shall be as insoluble © as possible while strontium chloride, in reasonable amount, shall be completely dissolved. Without describ- ing in detail many experiments with varying amounts of the water, acid, and ether used in the process, as well as experiments in which alcohol was also introduced (with- out beneficial effect), it will be sufficient to indicate the procedure by which good analytical separations of barium and strontium may be accomplished surely and easily. 3 It has been found that the proportion of water in the mixture may be regulated properly by dissolving the mixed chlorides in the least possible amount of water and adding a suitable amount of a 4:1 mixture of 33% — hydrochloric acid and ether. Under such conditions the barium chloride is precipitated and strontium chloride dissolves. It has been found that the solubility of barium chloride after solution in the least possible amount of 1 This Jour., (3) 43, 521, 1892. Gooch and Soderman—Barium and Strontwm. 539 water and treatment with 50 cm’—75 em? of such a mix- ture is practically negligible, while strontium chloride equivalent to 0:3 grm. of the anhydrous salt, dissolved in the least possible amount of water and treated with the mixture, first yields a characteristic precipitate of crys- talline needles and then dissolves completely when the volume of the precipitating mixture has been sufficiently increased and before this has reached the 75 cm? limit. The precipitate of barium chloride formed when only barium chloride is similarly treated is coarsely granular and fails to dissolve upon further addition of the precipitant up to the limit named. When a solution of barium chloride and strontium chloride in the least possible amount of water is similarly treated with a considerable volume of the acid-ether mixture the former salt is completely precipitated and the latter may be partially precipitated at first and, excepting any inclusion in the barium chloride, go into solution later as the volume of liquid is increased; but if the precipitating mixture is added slowly to the ’solu- tion of the mixed chlorides, drop by drop for the first few cubic centimeters, the liability of the strontium chloride to precipitation and inclusion is minimized. In the practical application of the method elaborated upon these lines, the solution of the mixed chlorides in the least possible amount of water may be accomplished most easily by adding to the dry salts, contained in a beaker, a very little water (beginning with about 0-2 em® and, if necessary, adding more later), and warming gently, with agitation, and then cooling. If crystals separate on cooling, the operation is cautiously repeated until a cold saturated solution is obtained. The precipitation is begun by adding the acid-ether mixture to the cold saturated water solution of the mixed salts, drop by drop and with constant agitation during the addition of the first two or three cubic centimeters of the precipitant. Thereafter the precipitant is added in amounts necessary to complete the precipitation of the barium chloride and dissolve the strontium chloride—50 -em® to 75 cm? for amounts not exceeding 0-5 grm. of the mixed salts nor 0-3 grm. of anhydrous strontium chloride. The liquid is decanted upon asbestos in the perforated crucible. The residue, washed and transferred to the filter with a 4:1 mixture of concentrated hydrochloric 540 Gooch and Soderman—Barwm and Strontium. acid (38%) and ether (applied in a fine jet from a small wash bottle), is dried at 150° and weighed as anhydrous barium chloride. The results of experiments made in the manner described upon weighed amounts of hydrous barium chloride and anhydrous strontium chloride are given in the following table: Precipitation by 4:1 Miature of Hydrochloric Acid (383%) and Ether. Volume BaCl..2H.O SrCl. Theory BaCl, of taken taken BaCl, found Error _Precipitant erm. germ. grm. erm. erm. em? A : (P9002 ear ies ©2 0-4264 0-4260 —0-0004 50 050028 Faye, 0-4264 0-4260 —0-0004 50 O:LOOGA R= 2a 0-0857 0-0855 —0-0002 30 0:0100) steers se: 0-0082 0-0083 +0-0001 00 O;0010 eres 0-0008 0-0008 0-0000 50 © O20 NOD pes tees 0-0082 0-0082 0-0000 165) B 0-40038 0-0620 0-3412 0-3408 —0-0004 50 0-3005 0-1200 0-2562 0-2560 —0-0002 50 0-2001 0-1820 0-1706 0-1705 —0-0001 30 0-1006 0-2480 0-0858 0-0855 —0-0003 D0 0-:0503 0-2480 0-0426 0:0428 +0:-0002 50 0-0010 0-1000 0-0008 0-0008 0-0000 50 0-1006 0-2480 0-0857 0-0856 —0-0001 15 0-0100 0-3100 0-0082 0-0084 +0-0002 75 0-0010 0-3000 0-0008 0-0008 0-0000 19 These results show that barium and strontium may be satisfactorily separated by treating the saturated solu- tion of the chlorides with a 4:1 mixture of hydrochloric acid of 33% strength and ether, and washing the precip1- tate with a 4:1 mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid (38%) and ether, according to the procedure described. Chemistry and Physics. 541 SOLE NTIETE INTELLIGENCE: I. CuHemistrRY AND PuHysics. 1. Modern Inorganic Chemistry; by J. W. Metior. New Edition. 8vo, pp. 910. London, 1917 (Longmans, Green and Co.).—This is an extensive and unusually excellent text-book. It is written in a remarkably clear and interesting manner giving many appropriate quotations and allusions. It gives a very - gatisfactory account of the facts of inorganic chemistry as well as of the generalizations that are derived from the facts, and it takes up the most recent theories of physical chemistry in a very suitable way. The book indicates remarkably thorough knowledge on the part of the author as well as high ability in the presentation of the subject. , While the book is too extensive and elaborate in its treatment of the subject to be put into the hands of beginners as their sole text-book, it appears certain that it is a very suitable work for the use of all sorts of students of chemistry for reference and extra reading, as it should greatly stimulate the interest, and extend the knowledge beyond that usually obtained from the usual, frequently dry, and often almost childishly brief, text- books that are frequently used. The book appears to be particularly well adapted for the use of teachers of chemistry who wish to put themselves in touch with the present developments of the science. The large number of examination questions, many of which are taken from actual college papers, are also useful, not only for students, but as suggestions for teachers. 2S aes Ce 2. James Woodhouse: A pioneer in chenustry, 1770-1809; by Epear F. SmirH. Pp. 296, with portrait, 12mo. Philadel- phia, 1918 (The John C. Winston Company ).—This is an inter- esting biography of one of the most prominent pioneers of American chemistry. Dr. Woodhouse became Professor of Chem- istry at the University of Pennsylvania in 1795, just after the chair had been offered to and declined by the celebrated Joseph Priestley, the discoverer of oxygen, who had recently emigrated to the United States. Woodhouse did important work in advo- eating and establishing the modern ideas of oxidation which had recently been founded by Lavoisier. He had frequent inter- course with Priestley and finally entered into a controversy with him in connection with the phlogiston theory to which Priestley adhered to the end of his days in spite of the great service he had rendered in bringing about its overthrow. Woodhouse was an ardent laboratory worker, and although his scientific results appear to be somewhat trivial from our present point of view, his philosophy was sound and his teach- 549 Scientific Intelligence. ing was important. One of his pupils was Benjamin Silliman, the founder of this Journal, who spent two periods of study with him in 1802 to 1804. Another was Robert Hare, the inven- tor of the compound blowpipe. Dr. Smith has rendered a valuable service to American chem- ical history by publishing this attractive book. H. iL. W. 3. Laboratory Manual; by ArtHur A. BLANCHARD and FRANK B. Wave. Loose-leaf notebook, 95 sheets. New York, 1917 (American Book Company) .—This manual has been devised to accompany “‘‘Foundations of Chemistry’’ by the same authors. Each of the sheets is devoted to a single experiment or to a series of closely connected ones. In each case the equip- ment required and the purpose of the experiment are mentioned, then full directions for the work are given, pertinent questions in regard to the results are asked, and space is provided for the students’ notes. The course of work appears to be very well selected and presented for the purposes of beginners in elemen- tary laboratory work in chemistry. H. L. W. 4. Lessons in Astronomy, Revised Edition; by CHarRuEs A. Youne. Pp. ix, 420; 118 figures. Boston, 1918 (Ginn & Co.) .— This excellent text first appeared in 1891 and it was thoroughly revised by its author twelve years later. Accordingly it does not seem necessary to give, at the present time, a detailed account of the scope and salient features of this. deservedly popular book. The preface to the issue of 1918, which is signed by Anne Sewell Young, consists of the following single, explana- tory sentence: ‘‘ While the greater part of the text remains as it was written by its author, such changes have been made in this issue as are necessary to bring it down to date.’’ H, Se-Us5 5. The Origin of our Planetary System; by KucENE MiuEr. Pp. 90. Topeka, 1918 (Crane & Co.).—This little book con- tains a non-mathematical and supposedly new explanation of the genesis and development of the solar system. The author first sets forth twelve requirements which must be fulfilled by any rational account of the early history of this system and then proceeds with the solution of each problem. A few typical examples of the facts to be accounted for are: the planets revolve around the sun in approximately the same plane, all the known planets revolve in the same direction, the planets between Jupiter and the sun are relatively small whereas those beyond are very large, the planets interior to Jupiter have high specifie gravities while the outside planets have low specific eravities, ete. | | The fundamental hypothesis is that the sun and Jupiter originally constituted a double star. Gravitational, centrifugal, cohesional, and other forces caused Jupiter to assume an ovoid shape with the blunt end turned away from the sun. Tidal oscillations and reactional vibrations subsequently forced Chemistry and Physics. 543 Jupiter, when in a fluid state, to throw off pairs of planets; the smaller twin being born from the region of greatest curvature nearest to the sun, and the larger twin being dropped from the most remote region of least curvature. ‘‘Jupiter’s aphelion distance was decreasing and his peri- helion distance was increasing, while his entire orbit was becom- ing more and more circular. The first interior planet was dropped at a time when Jupiter’s perihelion was very near the sun and when his orbit reached the limit of its elongation, and he dropped the outermost planet at the same time, but from his opposite side. So the first small planet and the first, or outer- most, big planet are of the same age.’’ ‘‘Saturn and the asteroids are the youngest set of planetary children; Mars and Uranus are the next youngest in our system; then come Karth and Neptune. This arrangement leaves Venus and Mercury unpaired.’’ ‘‘So not only do I assert that the two undiscovered planets are there, but I assert without the suggestion of a doubt that they MUST BE THERE.”’ The author’s style is generally clear and attractive, and he presents his case in a very plausible manner. Nevertheless, since the deductions are not based on mathematical calculations it remains to be seen whether the ‘‘theory’’ will stand the test of rigorous, quantitative analysis. tees) Ue 6. Ozone, and the Ultra-violet Transparency of the Lower Atmosphere.—The absorption of ultra-violet light by the atmos- phere near the surface of the earth has been recently studied experimentally by R. J. Strutt. For distances up to 1200 yards a spark between cadmium electrodes was used as source. For the greatest distance available, namely 4 miles, a quartz mercury vapor lamp was employed. The spectrograms were taken with a small prismatic camera containing a single 60° quartz prism and a quartz lens of 1 inch aperture and 5 inches focal length. The source of light was placed behind a quartz lens of 3-5 inches diameter in order to focus the radiations on the distant station. Under these circumstances, the monochro- matic images were round dots instead of the usual spectral lines. Lack of an assistant necessitated adjusting the apparatus in the daytime and taking the exposures at night. “The spectrum of the cadmium spark taken at 3600 feet showed no definite indication of ozone, the whole spectrum being transmitted to » 2313, right through the region, near » 2536, where ozone absorption is a maximum.’’ An exposure of two hours, taken on a clear night with the mercury lamp at a distance of four miles, recorded the spectrum as far as \ 2536. This result may be compared with the limit, \ 2922. of the solar spectrum, as obtained by Simony on the Peak of Teneriffe. When reduced to standard conditions, the thickness of air traversed by the solar light was not greater than 17,900 feet whereas the layer of air was not less than 20,100 feet in the 544 Scientific Intelligence. case of the mercury lamp spectrum. It is thus evident that the air near the surface of the earth is far more transparent than the upper atmosphere to ultra-violet rays, when equal masses are considered. Since the more refrangible limit of the solar spectrum is known to be due to ozone, it follows that there must be much more ozone in the upper air than in the lower. By timing the exposures, for long and short distances, so as to give about the same photographic density in the green and yellow regions of the spectrum, it was found that the ultra-violet impressions fell off very rapidly in intensity as the thickness of air increased. Strutt gives numerical data and computations to show that this rapid decrease in intensity cannot be due to the absorption of pure air, but that it may be caused by the scattering of light by suspended particles having diameters large compared to those of molecules but small with respect to the wave-lengths concerned. An alternative cause would be a small amount of ozone in the lower atmosphere. Spectrograms were accordingly taken by passing the light through a tube, 18 mm. long, containing calculable percentages of pure ozone. ‘‘We may conclude then that even if the low intensity of » 2536 in the long distance spectrum were wholly due to ozone absorption, it would be accounted for by less than 0-27 mm. of ozone in 4 miles of air. We have already seen that it is quite probable that an effect equivalent to 0-26 mm. ozone is really due to atmospheric scattering. The close agree- ment of the two figures is, no doubt, largely accidental, but still, allowing for the somewhat uncertain deduction to be made > for scattering, it cannot be said that any undoubted effect remains to be attributed to ozone absorption. In any case it is certain that the ozone cannot exceed 0-27 mm.’’—Proc. Roy. Soc., 94 A, 260, 1918. H. S. U. 7. Molecular Frequency and Molecular Number—The idea of ‘‘atomic number’’ has been generalized by H. STANLEY ALLEN to apply to chemical compounds. He has introduced the term ‘‘molecular number’’ to signify’ the sum of the posi- tive charges carried by the atomic nuclei contained in the molecule. Thus when a molecule contains @ atoms of an ele- ment A, b atoms of B, c atoms of C, so that its chemical formula is A,B,C., the molecular number V =aN,+6N,+ cX., where N., Nz, NV. are the atomic numbers of the component elements. For example, the molecular number of water (H,O) is 10, for the nuclear charge of hydrogen is 1, and of oxygen is 8. The molecular number generally, but not invariably, comes out even due to the circumstance that when the valency is odd the atomic number is usually odd also. The importance of the new definition lies in the fact that certain simple empirical formulae which Allen has shown to hold for the atomic numbers and other characteristic constants Geology. . 545 of the chemical elements are equally valid for molecular num- bers and compounds. These formulae are Nv = nv, and Nv= (x + 4)v,, where N = molecular number, n — small posi- tive integer, v — characteristic frequency, andv, = ‘‘frequency number’’ = 21x10” sec”. Three papers on this subject, by the same author, are devoted to testing these relations. The data for a large number of organic and inorganic compounds have been used and the equa- tions have stood the test in such a great majority of cases as to leave little room for the suspicion that the agreement arises from an accidental play of numbers. Then, too, the physical constants have been derived from many sources and the ealcu- lations based on data of different kinds. For a small number of compounds the results of low-temperature measurements were available and the characteristic frequency was deduced from the specific heat. In many cases v was calculated from 4 -4 Lindemann’s formula, which is v= 4&7, M V, where 7 = absolute temperature of the melting-point, M — molecular weight, V = molecular volume, and k= 3-08 X 10!2 (Nernst’s value). In still other cases the required frequencies were obtained directly from the wave-lengths of the ‘‘residual rays’’ isolated by repeated reflections from the surfaces of crystalline solids. Allen’s formulae are doubtless expressions of a funda- mental property of the solid state of matter, and their form sug- gests a probable connection with the quantum theory.—Phil. Mag., 35, 338, 404, 445; 1918. Hei Ss) Ue Il. Geronoey. 1. Thirteenth Report of the Director of the State Museum and Science Department, State of New York; by JouHn M. CLARKE. -Pp. 307, many plates. Albany, 1917.—In this vol- ume the present conditions and aspirations of the most extensive of the state museums are set forth, and also the present status of the various scientific reservations in New York. Among the scientific papers are the following: The Philosophy of Geology and the Order of the State, by John M. Clarke; Geology and public Service, by G. O. Smith; Plastic Deformation of Gren- ville Limestone, by D. H. Newland; Geological Features at the Champlain Assembly, Cliff Haven, by G. H. Hudson; Some structural Features of a fossil embryo Crinoid, by G. H. Hud- son; Devonian glass Sponges, by John M. Clarke; Primary and secondary Stresses, by John M. Clarke; The Mining and Quarry Industry of New York State, by D. H. Newland. Still another paper entitled ‘‘Strand and Undertow Markings of Upper Devonian Time as Indications of the prevailing Cli- Am. Jour. Scit.—FourtaH SERIES, VoL. XLVI, No. 273.—SEPTEMBER, 1918. 22 546 - Scientific Intellagence. mate,’’ by John M. Clarke, is especially interesting, because in these markings the author has further confirmation of his con- clusion that ‘‘the late Devonian was a period of cold which brought the land ice down to what is now the edge of the sea at the northeast [Gaspé], and may well have created conditions, regardless of the alternation of the seasons, which would give plenty of means for channeling the Devonian strands of New York, by the movement of land ice toward the sea, or by the landward thrust of the sea ice back from the water.’’ R. Ruedemann also has a very important paper, Paleontology of arrested Evolution. This is a study of the persistent or con- servative genera and chiefly of invertebrates. Of these there are 506 genera out of a possible total of about 4000, or over 12 per cent. Itis among the lower classes of organisms, and again among the lower forms within the subclasses, that are found the more primitive genera with the greater percentage of persistent forms. Restriction and specialization for narrow conditions of life lead -““to extinction when these conditions change.’’ On the other hand, the animals that live in the open ocean and in the abyss, or under subterranean conditions, have more stable environments and tend to show a remarkable persistence and immortality. Sessile forms also tend toward persistence, and in the marine waters persistent types are more common than in fresh waters and on the land. Originally the persistent types were the most vigorous stocks. ‘‘The evidence here gleaned from the persistent types and equally supported by both groups of persistent types, the persistent radicals and persistent terminals, leads necessarily to the general conclusion that there is no inherent propelling force of variation or of development, and that all evolution in the last analysis is largely dependent on the exterior agencies sup- plied by the ever changing physical conditions.”’ GS. 2. Geology of the Oregon Cascades; by WARREN Du PRE SmitH. Univ. of Oregon Bulletin, n.s., 14, No. 16, 54 pp., 1 pl., 1917.—The author points out that we know little “‘ with certainty about the formations and events prior to the Tertiary,’’ and that the West Coast geological events are similar to those on the other side of the Pacific. ‘‘The three most striking instances of this [similarity] are the period of Tertiary gold deposition, prac- tically contemporaneous around the entire Pacific arc, the Hocene coal formations, and the tremendous eruptions of basaltic and andesitic lavas, which continue to this day, though not on so extensive a seale as in the past. ‘‘The general conclusion is that the geology of the various countries bordering on the Pacific must be deciphered and inter- preted by duly considering the data from all these regions.’’ Osis 3. The Evolution of Vertebre, and The Osteology of some American Permian Vertebrates. III; by SaAmMuEL W. WILLIS- Geology. 547 TON. Contrib. from Walker Museum, 2, No. 4, pp. 75-112, pls. 3, 4, text figs. 1-19, 1918.—The first paper, as the title indicates, treats of the evolution of the vertebrx, and upholds the concep- tion first worked out by Cope. The Stegocephalia in the Temnos- pondyli have divided vertebra, inherited from the fishes. Out of this stock with embolomerous vertebre arose the reptiles in the late Paleozoic. The succeeding changes are then traced through the various orders of reptiles. In the second paper, the author discusses the skulls and other parts of the skeleton of Hryops, Chenoprosopus, Naosaurus, Sphenacodon, and the new genus Platyops. Both papers are fully illustrated by excellent drawings made by the author. CUS: 4. Onaping Map-area; by W. H. Couuins. Geol. Survey Canada, Mem. 95, 157 pp., 11 pls., 8 text figs., 2 maps, 1917.—In this memoir are clearly described the pre-Cambrian rocks of the Onaping area lying to the north of Georgian Bay and Sudbury, and their economic content. The geologic succession is as fol- lows: Pleistocene thin glacial deposits; great unconformity ; Huronian division, separated into the upper basic intrusives (= ?Keweenawan) and the lower Cobalt series; great uncon- formity; pre-Huronian highly metamorphosed division, which includes the younger granite-eneiss bathyliths, and below, the great schist complex. Collins prefers for the present to use the term pre-Huronian rather than Keewatin, Laurentian, or Algo- man. This because ‘‘no reliable classification of the pre-Huron- ian can be made until a correlation datum plane has been established within the pre-Huronian”’ area. Cz.8: 5. Timiskaming County, Quebec; by M. E. Witson. Geol. Survey Canada, Mem. 103, 197 pp., 16 pls., 6 text figs., 1 map, 1918.—This is an interesting report describing the pre-Paleozoic formations or the basal complex, the physiography, and the economic geology of the area, along with a presentation of its special problems. The interesting Huronian tillites are also described, and the small area of Paleozoic strata is believed to be a down-faulted mass into the basal complex, or more specifi- eally, into the Abitibi group. The Keweenawan, or Nipissing diabase, is referred with doubt to the pre-Cambrian, and the Huronian (Coba!t series) and the Basal Complex definitely. The latter includes the pre-Huronian bathyliths, the Abitibi group and the Grenville series. CaS. 6. The Piiocene History of northern and central Mississippi; by Eucene W. SHaw. U.S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 108-H, pp. 125-163, pls. 45-60, text figs. 21-25, 1918——This good work is of especial interest in pointing out that the long misinterpreted Lafayette formation is not a depositional unit, and that most of it is weathered material belonging to various underlying formations. In the opinion of Mr. Shaw, ‘‘the material called ‘Lafayette 548 . Scientific Intellagence. formation’ in Mississippi is the product neither of Pleistocene icy floods from the north nor of a marine invasion. it is not a Pliocene blanket of waste from the Appalachians gradually spread over the State by streams; and it does not consist alto- gether of parts of pre-Phocene formations, with their surface residuum. It is-believed to be made up of unrelated or dis- tantly related materiais that have been erroneously grouped together and to consist in the main of more or less modified parts of the underlying formations, including some residuum and colluvium, and of terrace deposits of Pliocene and Quater- nary age.’’ CoS Ill. Misce,LAnerous Screntiric IN? ELLIGENCE. 1. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition; by Henry C. SHER- MAN, Ph.D. Second Edition. Pp. xiv, 454. New York, 1918 (The Macmillan Co.).—With the science of nutrition bringing new and epoch-making contributions at exceedingly short inter- vals in the past few years it is difficult, if not impossible, to find any dependable account of the newer results at a time when we begin to realize that ‘‘food will win the war.’’ Doubly difficult is the task set for anyone who ventures to present the story of food and metabolism in its newest and changing aspects. The comparison of the two editions of Professor Sherman’s book shows how much has needed to be expressed anew within a few years. The changes are, perhaps, less conspicuous in the inter- pretation of intermediary metabolism and the energy problems than in the discussion of the protein factor, the novel features of the little understood vitamines and the so-ealled ‘‘balancing’’ of the diet. The revision is both timely and well done. There is an historical perspective, a balancing of evidence and a sane judgment on many debated topics. The new edition will be quite as helpful as was the earlier one. Te By: 2. The Physical Chemistry of the Proteins; by T. BRAILSFORD Ropertson. Pp. xv, 483.. New York, 1918 (Longmans, Green - & Co.).—In the early periods of the modern popularity of colloid chemistry the tendency was to treat all of the representative substances that belong in this domain in a uniform fashion and to attempt to make their phenomena conform to relations observed to hold for some special group. Robertson quite properly insists that the colloids represent an exceedingly heterogeneous group—hence the justification for imdependent consideration of the illustrative type seen in the proteins. This volume is a new edition of the author’s ‘‘Die physikalische Chemie der Proteine,’’ published in 1912. It deals extensively with the descriptive chemistry of the proteins, in so far as this Miscellaneous Intelligence. 549 knowledge is indispensable for a fundamental conception of the physico-chemical phenomena. The content of the subject-mat- ter is indicated by the major subdivisions of the text, viz.: Chemical Statics in Protein Systems; The Electrochemistry of the Proteins; The Physical Properties of Protein Systems; Chemical Dynamics in Protein Systems. iL. Be Mi 3. Lecithin and Allied Substances; The Lipins; by Hucu Macutean. Pp. vu, 206. London, 1918 (Longmans, Green and Co.).—The ‘‘lipins’’ are defined by the author as substances of a fat-like nature yielding on hydrolysis fatty acids or derivatives of fatty acids and containing in their molecule either nitrogen, or nitrogen and phosphorus. This is not the sense in which the term has been employed by some American writers; but at any rate the author’s intent is clear. Any attempt to bring order out of chaos, such as the literature of lecithin and allied ’ subjects represents, is a desideratum; and when it is undertaken by one, like Maclean, who is experienced in this field, the effort is doubly weleomed. The volume is representative of the now well-known Monographs on Biochemistry. That it does not overlook ‘‘ancient history’’ is attested by the long chapter on that much debated subject, protagon, for which it might serve as a funeral oration. L. B. M. 4. Dvurections for a Practical Course mv Chemical Physiology. Third edition; by W. Cramer. Pp. vii, 119. London, 1917 (Longmans, Green and Co.).—The author states that ‘‘the arrangement of the work differs from that generally followed, in that the student is at the outset provided with substances familiar to him, such as a potato, an egg, lard, butter, ete... . In this way he is introduced to the subject without interposing complex chemical conceptions, which the usual arrangement of dividing the subject into the study of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins necessarily involves.’’ Many teachers of the subject will probably debate the alleged superiority of this scheme. There is nothing essentially novel in the little manual, though it has the advantage of inexpensive form. Numerous omissions may doubtless be accounted for on the basis of the comparatively elementary character of the course intended to be served. L. B. M. 5. An Outline of the History of Phytopathology ; by HERBERT Hick WHETzEL. Pp. 130. Philadelphia 1918 (W. B. Saunders Co.).—Professor Whetzel has made a valuable contribution to the literature of historical biology. From the earliest mention of plant diseases, he traces the development of our knowledge and control of them down to recent progress in this country. Stress is laid on the most significant discoveries and the more important individuals. that have contributed to the advancement of the science. In the opinion of the author, Anton de Bary should not be considered the father of modern plant pathology; this title is 550 Scientific Intelligence. conferred upon Julius Kuhn. The characterizations of prom- inent men are terse but well done and there are many very good portraits. The value of the book, which is strictly an outline, is further enhanced by a classified bibhography and an index. Hi Dr Hyde OBITUARY. ProFressor HeNry SHALER WiuuiAMs of Ithaca, N. Y., well known for his valuable work in geology and paleontology, died in Havana, Cuba, on July 31 at the age of seventy-one years. He was born at Ithaca on March 6, 1847, was graduated at Yale university with the degree of Ph.B. in 1868, and remained as assistant in paleontology from 1868 to 1870; in 1871 he received the degree of Ph.D. His first position as a teacher was as pro- fessor of natural science at Kentucky University in. 1871-72; from there he went to Cornell University as professor of geology, remaining at Ithaca until in 1892 he became Silliman professor of geology at Yale. In 1904 he returned to Cornell as head of the department of geology, which position he held until he became emeritus in 1912. Much of his time has been spent dur- ing recent years in Cuba, in part in the investigation of oil fields. Huis contributions to science, and particularly to paleon- tology on its broader side, were numerous and important; this subject will be presented more fully in a later number. As an associate editor of this Journal his work was of great value, especially for the years following his appointment until he left New Haven in 1904; for a year, beginning 1893, he performed the duties of editor-in-chief with the unselfish devotion charac- teristic of the man. He was a member of several prominent geeological societies and through the kindliness of his nature won for himself a wide circle of friends. PROFESSOR JOHN Durer Irvine, who had since 1907 held the chair of economic geology in the Sheffield 1entifie School of Yale University, died of pneumonia in July while serving his country as instructor in an engineering camp in Franee. He was in his forty-fourth year and had already made a wide repu- tation in his own department, particularly with reference to the subject of ore deposits. For a number of years he had been editor of the journal ‘‘ Economie Geology.’’ His loss is a serious one to the science of the country, as to the university with which he was connected. CHARLES CHRISTOPHER TROWBRIDGE, assistant professor of physies in Columbia University, died suddenly on June 2 in his forty-ninth year. He had been connected with the teaching staff of Columbia since 1892 and was especially known for. his work in ornithology. An important paper by him on ‘‘The Interlocking of Emarginate Primary Feathers in Flight’’ was published in this Journal for February, 1906 (vol. 21, pp. 145-169). THE 3 ee feat AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE [FOURTH SERIES.] Sanna Art. XXIII.—The Green Rwer Desert Section, Utah;* by Wirson B. Emery. GENERAL STATEMENT. The charm of the Southwest and of its geology ever lingers with me, and so it was with considerable pleasure that in 1917 I again undertook work in this region for the U.S. Geological Survey, after several seasons spent else- where. The examination in hand, which was a recon- naissance to determine the oil possibilities of the Green River Desert, Utah, necessitated a more or less detailed study of the stratigraphy of the area, and it is the results of this phase of the investigation that I shall present in the following pages. These results constitute further evidence of the remarkable similarity in hthologic char- acter and stratigraphic sequence of the thick series of sedimentary beds exposed broadly over the vast area of the Colorado Plateaus. Very frequent comparison will be made with the rocks of the Navajo Country in the southern Colorado Plateaus, for it 1s with the stratig- raphy of this region, embracing many hundred square miles in southern Utah, northern Arizona, and north- western New Mexico, that I have first-hand knowledge, acquired during a long field season in 1913, while assist- ant to Professor Herbert EK. Gregory, in his studies there for the United States Geological Survey. Green River Desert is situated in east-central Utah and embraces that portion of the Colorado Plateaus which is in Emery and Wayne counties, between the Den- * Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geol. Survey. Am. Jour. Sct.—Fourta Series, Vou. XLVI, No. 274.—Octosrr, 1918. 23 552. Hmery—Green Rwer Desert Section, Utah. ver and Rio Grande Railroad, Dirty Devil River, San Rafael Reef, and the canyon of Green River (fig. 1). The rocks exposed in the Desert range in age from Penn- Paes \ \ Provo 72 "Richfield Marysvale € re INDEX MAP sylvanian (?) to Upper Cretaceous and embrace a thick series of sandstones with some shale and a very little hmestone. The oldest bed examined was a white sand- stone of Pennsylvanian (?) age which is extremely cross- bedded and is saturated with petroleum. Above it lies, probably unconformably, the Moenkopi formation (heré Emery—Green River Desert Section, Utah. 558 assigned to the Lower Triassic), constituted principally of red-brown sandstone and shale, but containing at its base a prominent zone of buff shale and sandstone. The Moenkopi is unconformably overlain by the Shinarump conglomerate (Triassic), which is a very valuable key formation for correlation purposes, because of its pecu- har lithologic character and widespread distribution. The variegated shales of the Chinle formation (Triassic) which lie perhaps unconformably above the Shinarump, are succeeded, also perhaps unconformably, by the mas- sive, much cross-bedded sandstones of the Wingate (Jurassic). There is some evidence to indicate that the overlying beds, here tentatively correlated with the Todilto formation (Jurassic), rest unconformably on the Wingate. The Todilto (?) in addition to a rather hetero- geneous mass of reddish shale and dirty gypsum, con- tains near its base a dense limestone which is fossil- iferous and is therefore an invaluable key bed, as it occurs in the midst of a considerable thickness of unfossiliferous strata. The Navajo sandstone (Jurassic) succeeds the Todilto (?) and is composed of massive red sandstone at the base, with thinner-bedded red sandstone and sandy shale above and a prominent thick belt of gypsum at the top. The Wingate, Todilto (?), and Navajo together form what has been called the La Plata groups of rocks. The MceElmo formation (Cretaceous?) comes next above - the Navajo and consists of coarse white sandstone and conglomerate at the base (the Salt Wash sandstone mem- ber), variegated shales containing dinosaur bones and well polished pebbles resembling gastroliths in the mid- dle portion, and at the top, coarse sandstones and con- glomerates with minor quantities of variegated shale. The McElmo is believed to rest unconformably on the Navajo. An unconformity occurs also at the top of the McElmo, for it is in places overlain by a thin bed of Dakota sandstone (Upper Cretaceous) but is elsewhere in contact with the Mancos shale (Upper Cretaceous). This shale, which is several thousand feet thick, is blue- eray to drab in color and fossiliferous at numerous hori- zons. Itis an important stratigraphic marker because of ‘its hthologic character and fossil content. The areal distribution of these formations in the Green River Desert is shown in the geologic sketch map Emery—Green River Desert Section, Utah. bo4 HIG. 12; GEOLOGIC OK ETLGH. MAP OF GREEN RIVER DESERT > 7 UTAH Geology by Wilson B Emery Base from San Rafael Quadrangle U.S.Geol Survey Seale 1 inch = about 91% miles. 2. iG: Emery—Green River Desert Section, Utah. 555 (fig. 2), and their correlation with beds 1 in adjacent areas is Shown in the table on page 556. PENNSYLVANIAN (?) SANDSTONE. A sandstone of Pennsylvanian(?) age which is exposed in Klaterite Basin and also outcrops rather broadly in San Rafael Swell behind ‘‘The Reef,’’ is the lowest formation I had the opportunity of seeing in the Green River Desert. It is heavily impregnated with oil on the outcrop and is probably oil-bearing throughout its areal extent in this region. This sandstone, which is composed mostly of translu- cent quartz grains held together by calcareous cement, is coarse-grained, massive, very cross-bedded, and rather soft. Where not impregnated with petroleum it is white both on the fresh face and on weathered surfaces, but where filled with oil is a steel gray at the surface but dark brown to black on fresh fracture. It commonly weathers into deep pockets, constituting excellent rain water res- ervoirs, and is further characterized in San Rafael Swell by searlet spots and blotches on the weathered surfaces. Near Temple Mountain, San Rafael Swell, fully 100 feet, and in Elaterite Basin about 50 feet of the Pennsyl- vanian (?) sandstone are exposed. In both localities the sand is heavily saturated with oil from top to bottom, but the oil is definitely confined to certain, probably more porous layers, for I saw no sign of oil in clean white laminae in direct contact with dark petroliferous laminae. At the top of the Pennsylvanian (?) near Temple Mountain is a very distinctive bed containing quartzite pebbles and irregular areas of calcite and having the appearance of a coarse, irregular conglomerate. It attains a maximum thickness of 7 feet, but is locally absent, which with its conglomeratic character is indica- tive of an unconformity at this horizon. The presence of an unconformity at the top of the Pennsylvanian (?) is = LEGEND (Fie. 2). TRIASSIC JURASSIC CRET? CRET. —_ Ba ie] SS Ema =) 6s hl S eS piarop Chinle eee 5s. Todilto form. ae ss. M°Flmo Mancos shale congl. OL eer aS LOrI.. and Dakota ss; 7 La Hlata Greup where present 556 = Hmery—Green River Desert Section, Utah. Table able of Correlations. Green oy ae G er ge | tomaye coutey af Navajo Country a/ [Henry Mountains Pee etre Oe ae Cisen:stiver: Besaht aint see ete fete gh 2 = Mancos shale Manceos shale Oh o 0 8 po?) © 5 bv Dakota sandstone Dakota sandstones akota sandstone Unconformity ‘Unconfomnity Unconfommity - Neklmo formation Salt Fash sand-~ stone mexber Unconformity McElmo formation Salt Yash sandstone meambs Flaming Gorge group Dnconfomity7 Navajo sandstone Unconformity? Todilto (2) fommation Unconf ormity? Navaio sandstona McElmo formation Todilto formation: Jurassic La Plata group Vermilion Cliff group La Plata group Winsate La Plata sandstone sandstone Unconformity? Wingate sandstone Unconformity? Chinile formation "a" division | Chinle formation Uncenfemmity? Unconformity? Shinarump Shinaruzp Shinarump conglomerate conglomsreta conglomerate Unconformity. Unconformity Triassic DeChelly sandstone o" division Absent Nooenkopi formation Moenkopi formation Unconformity Unconfornity? Undifferentiated Pennsylvanian Pennsylvanian (7) (= 1) Gregory, H. E., Geology of the Navajo country, U. S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 93, pp. 15-16, 1917. b (= 2) Gilbert, G. K., Report on the geology of the Henry Mountains, U. S. Geog. and Geol. Survey of the Rocky Mountain region, p. 6, 1877. ¢ (= 3) Lupton, C. T., Oil and gas near Green River, Grand County, ” Utah, U. 8. Geol. Survey, Bull. 541, p. 124, 1914. Emery—Green River Desert Section, Utah. 557 also suggested by the apparent absence of the white, petroliferous sandstone described above in a number of places toward the junction of the Grand and Green rivers, for though I did not have the opportunity of examining this area in detail, from a distance it appears that this oil sand is locally absent. The sandstone just described underlies the beds re- ferred by Gilbert to the lower member of what he termed the Shinarump group in the Henry Mountains region* and which is now known as the Moenkopi forma- tion in the Navajo Country to the south.® In the north- ern part of that area the beds directly below the Moen- kopi are known as the Goodridge formation, and from the physical character and sequence it appears likely that this white Pennsylvanian (?) sandstone is equivalent to the top of the Goodridge. The fact that the Pennsylva- nian (?) sandstone is oil-bearing in Green River Desert as is the Goodridge near Bluff on the San Juan River in southern Utah, affords further evidence of the validity of such a correlation. The Goodridge formation in the San Juan field was definitely determined to be Pennsylvanian in age on the basis of fossils collected there by Woodruft.® A brief examination in the Green River Desert revealed no fossils in the white sandstone, but because of its strat- igraphie position it is here provisionally referred to the Pennsylvanian. MoENKorPiI FoRMATION (TRIASSIC). The Moenkopi formation here includes the series of reddish shales and sandstones between the white Penn- sylvanian (?) sandstone below and the Shinarump con- glomerate above, the intervening De Chelly sandstone not being present in this area. The Moenkopi is exposed in the heart of San Rafael Swell and under The Ledge between the Dirty Devil and Green rivers, where it forms the ‘‘riser’’ to the ‘‘step’’ made by the overlying Shina- rump conglomerate. The Moenkopi formation is arenaceous throughout. At * Gilbert, G. K., Geology of the Henry Mountains, U. 8. Geog. and Geol. Survey of the Terr., p. 6, 1877. °*Gregory, H. E., Geology of the Navajo country, U. S. Geol. Survey, Prot. Paper 93; ©. LLL 1917; ® Woodruff, H. G., Geology of the San Juan oil field, Utah, U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 471, p. 85, 1912. 558 Hmery—Green Rwer Desert Section, Utah. the base are 60 to 75 feet of white to brownish buff sandy shale with numerous interbedded thin sandstones of the same color. This part of the formation makes a rather conspicuous feature of the landscape, for it is in sharp contrast to the nearly dead white color of the underlying Pennsylvanian (?) sandstone and to the alternating red sandstones and shales of the upper Moenkopi. The sand- stone in the Moenkopi consists of fairly well-rounded small quartz grains, held together by a calcareous cement. The finer, more thinly bedded sandstones are beautifully ripple-marked. About 140 feet above the base of the section near Tem-- ple Mountain is a thin layer of very calcareous buff sand- stone, with a coquina-like appearance, containing many fossil fragments. A hurried examination revealed no identifiable specimens, but Mr. Walt M. Small, consulting ceologist, of Tulsa, Oklahoma, who was with me when I visited this section, informs me that he later obtained collections from this horizon on the west side of the Swell. The character of the Moenkopi is shown in the follow- ing detailed sections: Section of Moenkopi formation, North Temple Wash, T mile + north of Temple Mountain, San Rafael Swell, Utah. (Measured with the assistance of Milton Anderson and Walt M. Small of Tulsa, Okla.) Unconformity 1. Sandstone, reddish brown, medium grained with some purple shale “at: top “for oon eee 128’ 2. Sandstone and shale, buff to ecru. Contains a lens- ing oil sand 4’ thick from 30’ to 40’ above base 117’ 3. Sandstone, red-brown, medium grained, thin to mas- sive bedded, cross-bedded, ripple-marked, contains some “shale i202. iss eek. see he 193’ 4. Sandstone, weathers steel gray, darker gray-brown on fresh fracture, lenticular, saturated with DetOleuIM =.=. Ju. Se eae eae oo ee a0. 5. Sandstone, buff to ecru, very limy; contains broken fossils: weathered surface resembles .coquina... 4’ 6. Sandstone and shale, buff, thin-bedded .......... wie SOL (.. Shale, very sandy, waite <2 oa 6 2 he ee ey Uneconformity 583-586’ Emery—Green River Desert Section, Utah. 559 Section of Moenkopi formation near Elaterite Spring, Elaterite Basin, Utah. 1. Conglomerate and coarse light sandstone. Shi- narump conglomerate. Unconformity 2. Sandstone with shale becoming more prominent toward top; red-brown, upper two-thirds almost all shale. One foot of leached greenish shale and SMOLIN LOIES cree. idk std Ba cab ce Sil es 102’ Sandstone, buff, weathers red-brown, fine-grained, massive—a single bed, prominent ledge maker .. atte 4. Shale, sandy, red-brown, chocolate, and cream-col- ored toward top with considerable red-brown sandstone in thin layers, ripple-marked ........ 62’ 5. Sandstone, red-brown, weathering to flakes; thicker meadere than that, DelOW* =. ac 0... ccs b ee cee ee 3! 6. Sandstone, red-brown, ripple-marked, fine-grained, with interbedded red-brown shale ............. 24’ 7. Sandstone, red-brown, fine-grained, honey-comb weathering in places. Ledge maker. Lower 4’ a single bedded. Thinner bedded above ........ oy 8. Shale, red-brown, sandy, with some minor cream- colored, sandy shale and with numerous inter- bedded, thin-bedded sandstone—red-brown, me- dium to fine-grained, much _ ripple-marked. PareMGNS £60 AKC 1 seo aie he cna vies < es ee a we 78’ 9. Sandstone, thin-bedded to beds 3’ thick, brown, weathering light brown to buff, with interbedded Seale take ClO); > Wedge maker ey ri. oe. Eos 16’ 10. Shale, sandy, with some thin sandstone; cream col- DESC ge as Sat Se Poe Ge ae ES Aaa eee ae 45’ 11. Sandstone, white, coarse-grained, impregnated with petroleum. Pennsylvanian(?) sandstone. 356’ The beds just described are limited both above and below by unconformities. They constitute the (c) divi- sion or lowest member of Gilbert’s Shinarump group in the Henry Mountains region, which together with a thick series of overlying beds were referred provisionally to the Jura-Trias by him. Though these beds have not been actually traced into the Moenkopi formation of the Nav- ajo Reservation, I think the correlation is amply war- ranted on the ground of position in the sequence, for they underlie the Shinarump conglomerate, which is an excel- 560 HEmery—Green Rwer Desert Section, Utah. lent distinctive horizon that Gregory’ has shown is equivalent in northeastern Arizona with the similar bed in the Henry Mountains, and overlie beds of probable Pennsylvanian age. The equivalence is further empha- sized by likeness in lithology, every lithologic feature of the series in the Green River Desert being, I believe, susceptible of duplication on the Navajo Reservation. The De Chelly sandstone, present in places between the Moenkopi and Shinarump on the Reservation, is Bias in Green River Resert. The brief examination of the Moenkopi formation on the borders of Green River Desert did not result in the collection of identifiable fossil forms, though a limy bed containing shell fragments was noted in the lower part of the formation near Temple Mountain. Butler has, however, collected fossils on Miners Mountain near Fruita, about 45 miles southwest of Temple Mountain, from a limestone about 300 feet below the Shinarump conglomerate, which Girty has determined to be Triassic (probably to be correlated with the Lower Triassic, Thaynes and Woodside formations of the Wasatch range). This fossiliferous limestone is interbedded in a series of reddish sandstones and shale, which, because of lithology and stratigraphic position, I believe cor- relative with the Moenkopi of the Green River Desert. The Moenkopi is accordingly here referred to the Trias- sic, though the Moenkopi of the Navajo Reservation was referred by Gregory to the Permian (?), because in that area the various bits of fossil evidence obtained were contradictory.® SHINARUMP CONGLOMERATE (TRIASSIC). The Shinarump conglomerate, which unconformably overlies the Moenkopi formation, is more resistant to erosion than are the beds above and below, and where inclined at low angles as it is under The Ledge, makes a prominent bench in the topography. In San Rafael Swell it is sharply upturned and forms a small ‘‘hog- back.’’ The Shinarump, from 80 to 100 feet thick, is generally “Gregory, H. E., op. cit. §’ Butler, B. S., Ore deposits of Utah, U. S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 111, in press. °Gregory, H. E., op. cit., pp. 30-31. Emery—Green River Desert Section, Utah. 561 hght-colored, having a somewhat Nile-greenish tinge on exposed faces, though locally it weathers almost black. It is composed of very coarse-textured, cross-bedded and massive sandstone and conglomerate. The conglomerate is of two types, the one consisting of water-worn black and brown quartz pebbles one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch or more in diameter, the other of angular yellow and drab lmestone and shale pebbles. Limestone pebbles appear to be absent under The Ledge, but are distributed from top to bottom of the formation near Temple Moun- tain and are especially prominent at the top. limestones. About 200 feet above the base of the forma- tion and forming a prominent escarpment is 15 to 20 feet 7 Richardson, G. B., Reconnaissance of the Book Cliffs Coal field, U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 371, p. 14, 1909. Emery—Green River Desert Section, Utah. 577 of shale more resistant than the rest of the formation and which erodes into small lozenges, steel gray on the weathered face. This together with the tendency of the shale to rmg when trod upon leads one to suspect that it may represent the Mowry shale of Wyoming which lies in a somewhat stratigraphically similar position. With this resistant shale are associated, near Tidwell, minor sandstones containing sparsely distributed, small black quartz pebbles with which were found fragments of Inoceramus sp. and sharks’ teeth belonging to Lamna and possibly other genera. The black quartz pebbles sug- gest that these beds may represent in this region the sandstones of the Frontier formation of Wyoming. The following species identified by Doctor Stanton as Benton in age were collected from calcareous sandstone nodules in the shale about 50 feet above the base of the formation 3 miles northwest of the Greenriver-Hanks- ville road: Gryphaea newberryt Stanton Exogyra suborbiculata lLa- Plicatula? sp. marck? Cardium pauperculum Meek Veniella martona M. and H. Gryphaea newberryt Stanton oceurs profusely at the very base of the formation and fragments of Inoceramus sp. are widely distributed through the lower part of the series. Richardson, Lupton and others who have studied this shale near Greenriver have correlated it with the Mancos, and fossil evidence amply confirms the correlation. The more resistant band of shale described as lying about 200 feet above the base of the formation is to be cor- related I think with the Ferron sandstone member of the Mancos,”* for although this part of the shale cannot be actually traced into the Ferron east of Greenriver yet the distance between the two outcrops is so small and their stratigraphic position is such that there can be no doubt of the correlation. *8 Lupten, C. T., op. cit. 578 Jonson—The Law of Dissipation of Motion. Arr. XXIV.—The Law of Dissipation of Motion; by Hirnnst JONSON. In order to explain the physical aspect of the universe it is assumed that matter consists of separate particles tied together by forces in such a manner that when the particles move motion is transmitted from one particle to another. Transmission of motion is mechanically con- ceivable only if we assume that.a force acts on the two particles between which transmission of motion takes place, 2. e., when the two particles are the points of application of a force. When two stars revolve about their common center of gravity there occurs a continuous transmission of motion from each one to the other. Such transmission of motion involves permanent action of force. When a water mole- cule collides with an iron molecule in the wall of a steam cylinder the resulting transmission of motion is momen- tary because the force acts only for an instant. The revolution of masses of matter about each other is a comparatively stable condition. Most natural changes evidently are due to transmission of motion through col- lision. In the mechanics of collision then must be found the final explanation of all those natural phenomena which result from the transmission of molecular energy. The following derivation of the Law of Dissipation of Motion is a contribution to this branch of mechanics. The chief immediate interest in this law arises from the fact that it explains the Law of Dissipation of Hnergy by rendering its mode of operation mechanically present- able. When a collision occurs between two particles and the motions of the colliding particles are not parallel, each motion may be resolved into two perpendicular compon- ents in such a way that each component of one motion is parallel with one of the components of the other motion, and so that the two components which have the same direction also have the same size. The momentum AB in figure 1 is resolved into the momenta AD and DB, and the momentum CB into the momenta CD and DB. The two coinciding components of the original motions repre- sent the common motion of the two particles and have therefore nothing to do with the collision. The collision of the two particles results, of course, entirely from their relative motion. This relative motion is represented by Jonson—The Law of Dissipation-of Motion. 4579 the two components AD and CD which are of opposite direction. The probability that the paths of initial motion of two colliding particles will exactly coincide is zero, because there is an infinity of possible degrees of eccentricity of collision. The actual relative motion of two colliding particles, therefore, must be regarded as eccentric. When two moving particles collide and thus become the points of application of a force each particle receives from the other an additional momentum of the same numerical magnitude but of opposite direction. If the paths of initial motion of the two particles do not coin- Pres be) D S cide these added motions are not parallel with the initial motions, but the added motion is a deflecting motion as indicated in figure 2. Take two particles with the respective initial momenta AB and BOC, each receiving an additional momentum, the momentum BD being added to AB and the momentum DB to BC. If one of the initial momenta, say AB, is ereater than the other initial momentum, BC, the dif- ference AC between the two initial momenta is greater than the difference between the two resultant momenta AD and DC.. To demonstrate this proposition it is neces- sary only to consider that since the sum of the lengths of two sides of a triangle is greater than the length of the third side AC plus DC is greater than AD. If DC be deducted from both quantities it is seen that AC is greater than AD minus DC. In other words, the differ- ence between the initial momenta is greater than the difference between the resultant momenta. 580 Jonson—The Law of Dissipation of Motion. The possible relations of magnitude which may exist between AB and BC are infinite. Hence, the probability that these two momenta are equal is one divided by infinity, 2. e., zero. In every actual transmission of momentum the initial momenta must be regarded as dif- Bie. 2. D B fering in magnitude, and, as has been previously shown, as not coincident in their paths. Hence, it must be con- cluded that in every actual transmission of momentum the difference in momentum is decreased, which means that momentum or motion is dissipated. The Law of Dissipation of Motion accordingly may be formulated as follows—every transmission of motion through collision is attended with a dissipation of motion. Knergy has two phases, energy of motion and energy of position. - In a collision motion only is transmitted. However it is highly probable that all transmission of molecular energy occurs through a transmission of motion through collision. If this assumption be granted the Law of Dissipation of Energy has been explained mechanically. The foregoing study of the problem of collision makes it clear how energy dissipates itself, and why energy is never concentrated as a result of physical process. ; 1101 Aeolian Hall, New York City. Rogers—American Occurrence of Periclase. 581 Art. XXV.— 1-740), magnetite, antigorite, and a colorless mineral occurring in rounded grains and subhedral ecrys- tals which is identified as a member of the chondrodite croup by the indices of refraction ny = 1-637 = -003; na —= 1607 + -003. These maximum and minimum values of the indices of refraction were determined by the immersion method. A few of the chondrodite crys- tals show polysynthetic twin lamelle with a maximum extinction angle of about 30° and this distinguishes it from humite and clinohumite. This occurrence is interesting not only on account of the presence of periclase but also because of its bearing on the origin and history of calcite-brucite rocks. 2. The Origin of Calcite-Brucite Rocks. Calcite-brucite rocks were first described from Pre- dazzo in Austrian Tyrol under the supposition that they represented a distinct mineral with the composition CaCO,.Mg(OH), which was called predazzite. Damour showed that the predazzite was a mixture of calcite and brucite. His conclusion was accepted until Lenecek? in 1891 decided that the mineral associated with the ealcite is hydromagnesite instead of brucite and since that time there has been some doubt as to the nature of predazzite.® Besides the Riverside occurrence the writer has studied two other American occurrences of dedolomitized lime- stones which contain but small amount of silicates and finds brucite to be present in abundance. In one of these occurrences hydromagnesite occurs and the relation of * Weinschenk (Petrographic Methods, translation by Clark, p. 244) speaks of ‘‘tombac brown, anomalous interference colors, which indicate a very low double refraction that approximates that of chlorite.’’ The last part of this statement is incorrect, for brucite has fair maximum double refraction, about 0-021. The interference color in a section about 0-032 mm. thick (determined by taking the highest interference color of the chondrodite) reaches as high ‘as blue of the second order. 2Min. petr. Mitt., 12, 429-442, 447-456, 1891. * Kemp, for example, in the olossary of hic Handbook of Rocks Says, ‘“It is partly calcite and partly brucite or hydromagnesite.’’ Rogers—American Occurrence of Periclase. 988 the brucite to the hydromagnesite could be determined. Fig. 2 shows the general character of the calcite-brucite eel in thin ane 3. Calcite-Brucite Rock from Crestmore, California. A white crystalline limestone occurring in contact with eranodiorite at the Chino Hill quarry of the Riverside Portland Cement Company at Crestmore, about eight miles from Riverside, California, contains a pale pinkish gray mineral which has been identified as brucite by Kakle.t The brucite occurs in crystalline aggregates like those in the Riverside rock just described. The indices hiiferraction were found to be: .»y.— 1-583 + :003; Na = 1-563 + -003. The brucite is evidently an alteration product of periclase though no trace of the latter mineral was found. The form of the original periclase has been preserved as rough equant crystals, which are oscillatory combinations of the dodecahedron and octahedron, in habit much like a diamond crystal illustrated by Fers- mann and Goldschmidt.® The limestone also contains small amounts of minute colorless, rounded subhedral crystals of chondrodite.® They were isolated by dissolving the rock in dilute hydro- ehloric acid and were identified by the following indices Gutermacion: ny, — 1:643 +--003;. mm =—.1-613 =. -003. The residue from the hydrochloric acid solution also contains a colorless, optically isotropic mineral in the form of rounded equant subhedral crystals which is probably spinel (vn — 1-715 + -005)* and a few subhedral prismatic crystals of apatite as a nitric acid solution of the rock gives a faint test for the phosphate radical. This mineral is not wilkeite,’ which is found in the adjoin- ing quarry for no sulphate test was obtained. On the exterior of some of the limestone specimens the pinkish gray brucite gives place to an opaque white mineral which is identified as hydromagnesite. It is *Hakle, University of California Publications, Bull. Dept. Geol., vol. 10, pp. 327-360, 1917. The analysis gives MgO 67-48, FeO, 0-55, H.O 31-73 — 99.76. ° Der Diamant, Atlas, Taf. 14, fig. 98, Heidelberg, 1911. °Hakle (loc. cit. p. 333) ineludes chondrodite in his list of minerals from this locality, but says that there is no well authenticated proof of its existence in the quarries. "Rankin and Merwin (Jour Am. Chem. Soce., 38, 512, 1916) find the index of refraction of pure spinel (MgAIl.,0,) to be 1-718 + -002. *Eakle and Rogers, this 7ournal, 37, 262-267, 1914. Am. Jour. Sct.—FourtH Srrizs, Vou. XLVI, No. 274.—Ocroser, 1918. 20 584 Rogers—American Occurrence of Periclase. undoubtedly an alteration product of brucite, for in thin sections it has the same structure as the brucite but can be distinguished from the latter mineral by the fact that the upper first-order interference colors are normal. Its double refraction is about the same as that of brucite but the indices of refraction are less than 1-55. One specimen showed the result of a still further altera- tion, that of the hydromagnesite to a weak doubly refract- ing, though probably amorphous,’? hydrous magnesium silicate which seems to be deweylite. It is a colorless to pale green, compact mineral with an index of refraction of 1-530 e*-008. The portions of limestone containing the deweylite have evidently had a very complicated history. The fol- lowing are the probable stages through which it has passed: Sedimentary limestone. Dolomitic limestone. Dedolomitized limestone with periclase. Calcite-brucite rock. Calcite-hydromagnesite rock. Caleite-deweylite rock. This furnishes another illustration of the fact that the minerals of a given rock or mineral deposit are formed in stages one after another. Notwithstanding statements to the contrary the contact-metamorphic deposits form no exception to this general rule. The dedolomitization and the consequent formation of periclase, chondrodite, spinel, and pyrrhotite are the result of high-temperature ascending solutions, presumably emanating from the magma. ‘The minerals just mentioned were probably formed in stages also, but no evidence on this point was obtained. The Crestmore occurrence is especially interesting because of the later after-effects of contact metamorph- ism. The formation of brucite at the expense of periclase is clearly later than the contact metamorphism and is prob- ably due to a hypogene’® process, for in the Riverside: *See paper by the writer on amorphous minerals, Jour. Geol., 25, pp. 515-541, 1917. © This useful term was intr oduced by Ransome (U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. 540, pp. 152-3, 1914) for minerals or ores formed by ascending solutions. It and the corresponding term, supergene, used for minerals and ores formed by descending solutions, avoid the ambiguity in the use of the terms primary and secondary. D> U1 He O9 DO Rogers—American Occurrence of Periclase. 985 occurrence secondary magnetite occurs in the brucite ageregates and seems to have been formed in part at least from the iron of the original periclase. Magnetite is a typical hypogene mineral usually formed at compara- tively high temperatures and in no known occurrence does it appear to have been formed from descending meteoric waters. The formation of a mineral containing such a large Rigo: Fie. 2. Thin section ( x 30) of calcite-brucite rock (b = brucite, ¢ = calcite). Mountain Lake mine, Utah. percentage of water as brucite (H,O — 30-8 per cent) by ascending solutions is unusual but not improbable. Whether the hydromagnesite is a hypogene or super- gene mineral is difficult to say. The problem of deter- mining the end of the hypogene stages and the beginning of the supergene is an important one, but very difficult in the present state of our knowledge. All possible data bearing on this problem should be recorded in every description of any kind of a mineral occurrence whether ore-minerals are present or not. It seems reasonable to regard the deweylite as a supergene mineral. 4. Calcite-Brucite Rock from the Mountain Lake Mine, near Salt Lake City, Utah. Another brucite-bearing crystalline limestone from a contact zone at the Mountain Lake mine, near the head 586 Rogers—American Occurrence of Periclase. of Big Cottonwood Canyon, twenty-five miles southeast of Salt Lake City, Utah, has been studied by the writer. Calcite and brucite are practically the only minerals present. The brucite occurs in subhedral, more or less rounded, equant aggregates which have exactly the same structure as the Riverside and Crestmore specimens and are doubtless pseudomorphous after original periclase. Fig. 2 shows the general character of the rock in thin sections which is almost identical with a predazzite from Fassathal, Tyrol. 5. Other Occurrences of Calcite-Brucite Rocks in the Umted States. Emmons and Calkins'! report a crystalline limestone from the Phillipsburg quadrangle, Montana, which con- tains brucite and which they say is pseudomorphous after some unidentified mineral. The original mineral was _ probably periclase as they speak of brucite occurring in ‘‘acoregates of microscopic fibrous or scaly individuals”’ and dedolomitized rocks are prominent in the region. Summary and Conclusions. 1. The first recorded American occurrence of periclase is at Riverside, California, in a crystalline limestone. 2. Calcite-brucite rocks (the so-called predazzite) are formed from periclase-bearing limestones by the altera- tion of periclase to brucite. 3. The hydration of periclase to form brucite is prob- ably brought about by hydrothermal ascending solutions in spite of the fact that brucite contains about thirty-one per cent of water. 4. Ata later stage the brucite may be converted into hydromagnesite, a mineral similar to brucite in general characters and one that may easily be mistaken for brucite. 5. In crystalline limestones as in other rocks and mineral deposits in general the minerals are formed in stages one after another. Stanford University, California. — oy Ut. .Geol. SULV.,, ETOt: Paper oO, ps toi, loko Van Name and Huff—Hypophosphates. 587 Art. XX VI.—On the Preparation of Hypophosphates; by . R. G. VanName and Wiipert J. Hurr. (Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—ccciii.) Hypophosphorie acid and its salts are usually prepared by the oxidation of yellow phosphorus. This may be accomplished either by the slow action of the air upon sticks of phosphorus partly submerged in water (the original method, due to Salzer’), or by the gradual addi- tion of the phosphorus to a warm acid solution of copper nitrate (Corne?), or of silver nitrate (Philipp?). It may also be prepared by the electrolytic oxidation of copper phosphide used as anode in dilute sulphuric acid (Rosen- heim*). In all these cases phosphoric and phosphorous acids are formed at the same time, but on converting the three acids into their sodium salts the difficultly soluble, acid sodium hypophosphate, Na,H.P.O,.6H.O, separates first from the solution, and can be purified by recrystal- lization. This salt is consequently the usual starting point for the preparation of hypophosphorie acid and its compounds. The first of the above reactions is the one which has received the most attention, and is the basis of several of the methods described in the literature. Methods of this class are necessarily slow, but have compensating advan- tages in economy and simplicity of operation, including the advantage that the sodium salt just mentioned, which is generally desired, can be obtained directly, without the need of special treatment to remove copper or silver. This reaction is the one employed in the improved appa- ratus and procedure which we describe below. In Salzer’s original method the phosphorus was immersed in water or a dilute solution of sodium chloride. In either case the liquid soon becomes strongly acid, and unless the process is interrupted rather frequently for renewal of the liquid and recovery of the hypophosphoric acid already formed, some of the acid is likely to be lost Tan. Chem. 211, 1. 1882. * Jour. Phar. et Chim., (5) 6, 123, 1882. * Ber. chem. Ges., 16, 749, 1883. * Ber. chem. Ges., 43, 2003, 1910. : * Salzer, loc. cit.; Bansa, Zs. anorg. chem., 6, 128, 1894; Cavalier and Cornec, Bull. Soe. Chim., (4) 5, 1058, 1909. 588 Van Name and Huff— by hydrolytic decomposition.© Drawe’ introduced an important improvement by substituting for the water a 25 per cent solution of sodium acetate. This expedient, by keeping the concentration of hydrogen ion low, greatly diminishes the rate of decomposition, so that frequent removal of the liquid is unnecessary, and the care of the apparatus is materially simplified. Still better results, as our own experiments have demonstrated, can be obtained by the use of a solution of sodium carbonate. Our apparatus, which is a modification of that of Bansa,° is shown in the accompanying figure. It consists Imiveie tt of a cylindrical glass jar, conveniently about 5 inches in diameter by 7 inches in height, provided with a flanged cover of plaster of Paris, cast to shape. ‘The phosphorus, in the form of cylindrical sticks, twenty or more in num- ber, is suspended in the liquid by glass rods, which pass through holes drilled at regular intervals in the cover and are held at the proper height by corks on the project- ing ends. ‘The fit of the rods in the holes is close enough to prevent swinging. Each rod has a small knob or enlargement at the lower end, and extends through the _ whole length of the stick of phosphorus which it supports. — It is imbedded in the phosphorus by melting the latter in ° For measurements of the rate of this hydrolysis see Van Name and Huff, this Journal, 45, 103, 1918. * Ber. chem. Ges., 21, 3401, 1888. ®° Zs. anorg. chem., 6, 128, 1894. Preparation of Hypophosphates. 589 a test tube submerged in warm water, inserting the rod until its knob rests on the bottom of the tube, and finally transferring the whole to a jar of cold water, taking care to hold the rod in the center of the phosphorus until the latter has hardened. When completely cooled the stick of phosphorus is drawn out of the tube by a pull on the imbedded glass rod. In our work the sticks of phos- phorus were about 3-5 inches long by 0-65 inch in diameter. The jar is charged with about a liter of water and any convenient amount of sodium carbonate, usually about 250 grams. It is immaterial whether the salt is in solu- tion or not. The cover and suspended sticks of phos- phorus are then put in place, and the corks adjusted so that less than one centimeter of each stick projects from the liquid. As the exposed area of the phosphorus grad- ually becomes reduced by oxidation and solution this adjustment has to be repeated, ordinarily at intervals of two or three days. Control over the rate of the reac- tion is maintained by regulating the access of air to the interior of the jar. Several extra holes in the cover are provided for this purpose and these are partly closed with stoppers to the extent necessary to give a satisfac- tory rate. Too high a rate is apt to result in spontaneous ignition and consequent melting of the exposed portion of some of the sticks. The apparatus should be set up in some cool place, such as a cellar, and shielded from drafts, which have a tendency to accelerate the reaction. A convenient way of protecting the apparatus against drafts and accidents is to cover it with a large bell jar, taking care to leave a small opening for the entrance of alr. As the oxidation proceeds any sodium carbonate which was still undissolved at the start passes gradually into solution and the alkalinity steadily decreases. From time to time samples of the liquid are withdrawn with a pipette (inserted through a special hole, usually kept stoppered, in the center of the cover) and tested with Congo Red.° When the turning point of this indicator is reached, the cover and suspended sticks of phosphorus are simply transferred to another jar of the same size, * Methyl Orange may be used instead of Congo Red. The hydrogen-ion concentration of a pure solution of acid sodium hypophosphate is slightly nearer to the turning point of Congo Red than to that of Methyl Orange, but it is doubtful whether this difference is of any importance here. 590 Van Name and Huff—Hypophosphates. previously charged with water and sodium carbonate, thus making the process continuous. The product, acid sodium hypophosphate, is found in part as a crystalline precipitate in the first jar; the rest is recovered by con- centrating the mother liquor. It is purified from accom- panying phosphates and phosphites by simple recrystal- lization from hot water. This form of apparatus requires the minimum of atten- tion, and all the manipulations and adjustments are very easily made. Moreover, the sodium carbonate solution has distinct advantages over the sodium acetate which has been generally used in methods of this class hitherto. The alkalinity of the carbonate solution prevents hydrol- ysis, and the proper point for renewing the solution can be determined by a simple and easy test. The carbonate is also more economical, not only on account of its cheap- ness, but also because it eliminates waste. No more of the salt is used than is actually required to react with the phosphorus oxy-acids, while with sodium acetate, which liberates acetic acid, the lack of any convenient method for determining the end point makes it easy to err, either by deferring the renewal of the solution too long, thus permitting excessive acidity to develop, with consequent. loss of hypophosphate, or by interrupting the action too soon, which results in the loss of the unused excess of the sodium acetate. In our experiments the room temperature ranged between 10° and 15° C. and the yields between 10 and 16 per cent of the theory. No marked relation between the average temperature and the magnitude of the yield was observed. A charge of 250 grams of anhydrous sodium carbonate lasted, as a rule, for a period of seven to ten days; the complete oxidation of the sticks of phosphorus required, on an average, eight or nine weeks. Mansfield—Western Phosphates of United States, 591 Art. XXVII.— Origin of the Western Phosphates of the United States; by Grorce R. Mansrrevp.1 The Western phosphate field occupies extensive areas in northeastern Utah, southeastern Idaho, southwestern Montana, and western Wyoming. Adams and Dick? have reported the discovery in Alberta of phosphate deposits similar to those in the states named. ‘The phos- phate rock occurs in mountainous districts where the stratified rocks are folded and faulted on both a large and a small scale and are greatly eroded. The phosphate beds may be regarded as having been formerly more or less continuous throughout the territory mentioned but the agencies of mountain building and erosion have separated the region into large and small phosphate- bearing areas of generally synclinal structure, between which the phosphate has either been removed or carried so far below the surface that it cannot be considered workable. Detailed studies by members of the U. S. Geological Survey, Department of the Interior, in parts of the West- ern field have led to the establishment of great phosphate reserves aggregating more than 2,600,000 acres of public land which are estimated to contain more than 5,290,000,- 000 long tons of relatively high-grade phosphate rock. When these studies, which are only partial, have been completed it is probable that both acreage and tonnage figures will be considerably increased. Phosphate deposits have been identified at two geo- logical horizons, of upper Mississippian and Permian age respectively, but the upper Mississippian deposits, so far as known, are inferior in quality to the Permian deposits and far less extensive. The remarks which follow on the origin of the deposits have been prepared with special reference to the Permian deposits but it is thought that with some modifications they will apply also to the upper Mississippian deposits. The origin of the Western phosphate deposits has an important commercial bearing, for if they were residual hike those of the brown rock of Tennessee, or of second- * Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. * Adams, F. D., and Dick, W. J., Discovery of phosphate of lime in the Rocky Mountains, Commission of Conservation, Canada, Ottawa, 1915. 592 Mansfield—Western Phosphates of United States. ary origin, they might be expected to pass at compara- tively shallow depths into unleached low grade phosphate or even into phosphatic limestones. Thus the valuable deposits would be limited to a comparatively short dis- tance from the outcrop and the great body of rock under cover in the synclines would be valueless. Probably absolute certainty on this point cannot be reached without deep drilling. On the other hand the phosphate beds have been observed in many parts of the region and under many conditions by a number of geologists and every- where they appear to be true bedded deposits analogous to coal or limestone, retaining their thickness and quality over wide areas. For these reasons they are regarded as original sedimentary deposits and it is considered probable that they maintain at depth the characteristics displayed at the surface. Upon this assumption rest the estimates given for the Western field. The sources of the phosphoric acid and the methods of accumulation are to a considerable degree subjects of speculation, but it will perhaps be helpful to summarize opinions thus far advanced and to indicate the probable direction of solution of the problems involved. The first detailed accounts of the Western phosphates are contained in papers of Gale and Richards® and Black- welder.t These authors regard the phosphates as orig- inal marine sedimentary deposits and the first two give a very brief summary of the hitherto recognized sources of phosphorus and the means of its accumulation as phosphates’ through the agency of organic and physico- chemical processes. Because of the relative scarcity of organic remains in the actual phosphate beds, Richards and Mansfield® were inclined to place greater emphasis on physico-chemical than on organic sources and agencies. Blackwelder has contributed two important later papers. In the first’ he gives an interesting and sugges- *Gale, H. S., and Richards, R. W., Preliminary report on the phosphate deposits in southeastern Idaho and adjacent parts of Wyoming and Utah, U. 8. Geol. Survey, Bull. 430, pp. 457-535, 1910. * Blackwelder, Eliot, Phosphate deposits east of Ogden, Utah, U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 430, pp. 536-551, 1910. °Gale, H. S., and Richards, R. W., op. cit., pp. 461-462. ° Richards, R. W., and Mansfield, G. R., Preliminary report on a portion one Idaho phosphate reserve, U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 470, pp. 376-377, aa eM aia Geology of the phosphate deposits northeast of Georgetown, Idaho, U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 577, p. 74, 1914. * Blackwelder, Eliot, The geologic role of phosphorus, this Journal, vol. 42, pp. 285-298, 1916. ; Mansfield—Western Phosphates of United States. 593 tive account of the cycle of changes undergone by phos- phorus from apatites through solution, assimilation by plants or animals, deposition on sea bottom or on land, accumulation into deposits, burial, deformation, and metamorphism back to apatites again. Many subcycles are included and individual atoms of phosphorus may have had widely different histories. In the second* he gives in abbreviated form, as derived from available literature, a view of organic accumulation, which is sub- stantially repeated here for reference. In the ocean special conditions of currents, temperature, etc., not yet understood, may have induced wholesale killing of animals over large areas and accumulation of putrefying matter on the sea floor in moderate and shallow depths. Decomposition through the agency of bacteria produced ammoniacal solutions which dissolved the solid calcium phosphate in bones, teeth, brachiopod shells, and tissues. Putrefactive conditions also prevented the existence of organisms attached to the bottom and most calcareous shells descending from the surface were probably dissolved by the abundant carbonic acid arising from decay. For physico-chemical reasons, already partly understood, the phosphatic material was quickly redeposited in the form of hydrous calcium carbo-phosphates, locally filling, inerusting, and replacing shells, teeth, bones, ete., but especially forming small rounded granules of colophanite and finally a phosphatic cement among all particles. The eranular texture is ascribed chiefly to physico-chemical conditions, such as result in oolitic greenalite, lmonite, aragonite, ete. After having been formed in quiet water some of the granules were reached by bottom-scouring currents and incorporated in clastic deposits and in some instances were strewn over eroded rock surfaces and so became constituents of basal conglomerates. The latest contributor to the origin of the Western phosphates is Pardee,® who is inclined to look with dis- favor upon the view that unusual or abundant sources supplied phosphates rapidly to the sea. He points to the existence of glacial conditions elsewhere in Permian times, and suggests that cool temperatures may have pre- vailed during the deposition of the Western phosphates. ® Blackwelder, Eliot, Origin of the Rocky Mountain phosphate deposits, Bull. Geol. Soe. America, vol. 26, pp. 100-101, 1915. (Abstract.) * Pardee, J. T., The Garrison and Philipsburg phosphate fields, Montana, U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 640, pp. 225-228, 1917. 594 Mansfield—Western Phosphates of United States. Carbon dioxide (CO,) is retained most abundantly by waters of low temperature and this gas is supplied not only from atmospheric sources but also from organic sub- tances that decompose in sea water or on the sea floor. Conditions would thus be unfavorable for the growth of coralline limestone or for the chemical precipitation of hme. Moreover, in such waters calcareous objects would tend to be dissolved and the formation of limestones com- posed of shells and skeletons of marine organisms would be hindered. But if the precipitation of phosphate was not checked that material would accumulate in relatively pureform. The great volume of the deposit (see tonnage estimates) needs no further explanation than the con- tinued or extensive application of the process that initi- ated the formation of the phosphate. The Western phosphates are agreed by all who have seen them in the field to be original marine deposits, analogous to those of Tunis, Algeria, England,!® and to the blue phosphates of Tennessee. The physiographic conditions of their deposition are little known but there are at least six lines of evidence which throw light upon the problem, and from which it may be possible to deduce a working hypothesis. (ay) The Fauna, according to Girty,!! is quite different: from Carboniferous faunas of the Mississippi Valley and even among western faunas has an extremely individual and novel facies. Thus the area of deposition, though of great extent, must have been separated from the main ocean or was more or less restricted. (2) Analyses of higher grade phosphate rock such as constitutes the main bed show generally less than 12 per cent $10,, Al,O,, Fe,O,, and MgO, all added together.’ Silica constitutes the greater part of this percentage and some of this may be of organic origin. It thus appears that detrital material from the land is largely absent from the deposit. This condition may be explained in several ways: (a) the deposit may have been laid in rela- tively deep water, like some of the modern oozes; or (b) the water of deposition, though shallow, may have been too far from land to receive much detritus from that *° Blackwelder, Eliot, op. cit., p. 294. “Gaby rer. eles he fauna of the phosphate beds of the Park City forma- tion in bie Wyoming, and Utah, U. 8. Geol. Survey, Bull. 436, p. 8, 1910. ” Gale, H. S., and Richards, R. W., op. cit., p. 465. é Mansfield—Western Phosphates of United States, 595 source; or (c) the lands adjacent to the waters of deposition were so low, through base leveling or other- wise, that they furnished little clastic material to the sea; or (d) following an earlier suggestion of Hayes.'® strong marine currents may have swept away the fine terrigenous material, leaving only the phosphatic oolites. The physiographic conditions changed from time to time during the deposition of the phosphatic shales, for beds of shale, sandstone, and limestone, some of which are more or less phosphatic, are interbedded with the more nearly pure phosphate. @ (3) The period of deposition may have been long. The time required for the deposition of the phosphate beds and the accompanying Permian strata is not known but some data permit suggestive comparisons. It has been ‘stated that there is at least local unconformity at the base of the Phosphoria formation. This is not, however, regarded as indicating any great time interval. The top of the formation may also mark a disconformity and the faunal change above is very pronounced. ‘The time inter- val here may be large but on the other hand the faunal change may have been produced by the geographic changes of the late Permian or early Mesozoic without ereater lapse of time here than.elsewhere. The phos- phatie shales, with which are grouped some non-phos- phatiec or lean shales, sandstones and limestones, are about 150 feet thick, and of this thickness the actual beds of phosphate rock form only a small proportion. The Phosphoria formation as a whole, representing all the known Permian of the region, is about 500 feet thick. The Permian section in Kansas, according to Prosser," is about 2,000 feet thick; in Texas the Permian forma- tions are reported as 5,000 feet thick’? and in Oklahoma as 2,600 feet thick.1® If these various deposits may be regarded as occupying time intervals at all similar, it is obvious that the deposition of the Phosphoria formation of Idaho was at a much slower rate than the accumulation * Hayes, C. W., Tennessee phosphates, U. S. Geol. Survey, Seventeenth Ann.. Rept., pt. 2, p. 534, 1896. * Prosser, C. S., Revised classification of the upper Paleozoic formations of Kansas, Jour. Geology, vol. 10, pp. 703-737, 1902. * Cummins, W. F., ‘Report on the geology of northwestern Texas, Geol. Survey Texas, Second Ann. Rept., pp. 359-552 (p. 398), 1891. * Beede, J. W., Invertebrate paleontology of the upper Permian red beds of Oklahoma and the Panhandle of Texas, Kansas Univ. Sci. Bull., vol. f No.-o, Dp. tlsatil(p. 136); 1907. 596 Mansfield—W estern Phosphates of United States. of Permian strata in the regions named farther east. It seems at least reasonable, therefore, to attribute the thickness and richness of the phosphatic strata to long- continued, slow deposition under conditions which excluded for considerable intervals of time the accumula- tion of terrigenous material and of carbonate of lime. (4) The ordinary processes of bacterial decay give rise to ammonium phosphate which, according to Clarke,!7 has been experimentally shown to react upon mineral substances in such manner as to produce phosphates resembling those actually found. Blackwelder'® states that such experiments have been carried out by several investigators and that the conditions are such as may readily occur on the sea bottom where organic decom- position is in progress. Thus calcareous shells become phosphatized and even such organic material as exere- tory pellets and bits of wood are known to have been altered in the same way. Bones which initially contained about 58 per cent of tricalcium phosphate have their organic matter replaced by phosphatic minerals, thus raising the ratio to 85 per cent or more. (5) The oolitic texture so characteristic of much of the Western phosphate is doubtless closely connected with the origin of the rock. In a well presented discussion of the origin of oolites Brown'® concludes that the older oolitic beds of Pennsylvania were probably all originally laid down as beds of calcareous oolites composed of the mineral aragonite. This mineral being unstable under ordinary rock-forming conditions soon began to change. Where solutions carrying other substances such as silica or iron were present the oolites were more or less com- pletely replaced, as in the case of the siliceous oolites or of the Clinton iron ore. (6) Caleareous oolites are now forming at a number of places, notably in the region of the Florida keys and the Bahamas, where they have been studied by Drew”? and “ Clarke, F. W., The data of geochemistry, 3d ed., U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 616, p. 523, 1916. . * Blackwelder, Ehot, this Jour., vol. 42 (see above), p. 294. ” Brown, T. C., Origin of .oolites and the oolitic texture in rocks, Geol. Soe. America Bull., vol. 25, pp. 745-780, pls. 26-28, 1914. *” Drew, G. H., On the precipitation of calcium carbonate in the sea by marine bacteria, and on the action of denitrifying bacteria in tropical and temperate seas, Carnegie Inst., Washington, Pub. 182. Papers from the Tortugas laboratory, vol. 5, pp. 9-53, 1914. Mansfield—W estern Phosphates of United States, 597 Vaughan." Drew has shown that in these regions den1- trifying bacteria are very active and are precipitating enormous quantities of calcium carbonate largely in the form of aragonite. Vaughan shows that this chemically precipitated calcium carbonate forms spherulites or small balls, which, by accretion, may become oolitic grains of the usual size, or it may accumulate around a variety of nuclei to build such grains. He reaches the deduction that all marine oolites originally composed of calcium carbonate, of whatever geologic age, may confidently be attributed to this process. Drew’s studies of the distrib- ution of denitrifying bacteria have shown them to be most prevalent in the shoal waters of the tropics. Combining the results of Drew and Murray, Vaughan considers that ereat limestone formations, whether composed of organic or chemically precipitated calcium carbonate, were laid down in waters of which at least the surface temperatures were warm if not actually tropical. Among the deductions from the above data which may serve as a tentative working hypothesis for the origin of the Western phosphates may be mentioned the following: 1. The phosphatic oolites and their matrix were prob- ably deposited originally as carbonate of lime in the form of aragonite. 2. ‘The waters were probably shoal and of warm or moderate rather than of cold temperature. 3. ‘The lands bordering the depositional area were low and furnished little sediment to the sea. Thus far the supposed depositional conditions agree with known mod- ern conditions in the Florida region. 4. The phosphatization of the oolitic deposit was prob- ably subsequent to its deposition rather than coincident with it, for Drew shows that the activities of denitrifying bacteria reduce the nitrate content of the sea water and henee the growth of marine plants and of animals dependent upon them. Such conditions are favorable for the deposition of the carbonate but not of the phosphate of lime. ). Cooler temperature in the waters of deposition, perhaps induced by changes in the character or direction * Vaughan, T. W., Preliminary remarks on the geology of the Bahamas, with special reference to the origin of the Bahaman and Floridian oolites, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Pub. 182. Papers from the Tortugas labora- tory, vol. 5, pp. 47-54, 1914. 598 Mansfield—W estern Phosphates of United States. of marine currents, checked the activities of the denitri- fying bacteria and hence the conditions favorable for the formation of oolitic limestone. At the same time plant and animal life increased in the waters and furnished the decaying matter necessary for the phosphatization of the oolitic limestone in the general manner set forth in Black- welder’s account given above. Perhaps Pardee’s idea of glacial climate may have a bearing in this connection. 6. The temperature change may have been sufficiently abrupt to cause the wholesale killing of certain marine animals, as suggested in Blackwelder’s account. ‘This would supply material for a fairly rapid phosphatization of the oolitic limestone. Such an assumption, however, is not compulsory because the phosphatic shales as a whole were doubtless formed slowly and there was time for sufficient accumulation and trituration of organic remains to produce the observed phosphatization before the moderate crustal changes that permitted the introduc- tion of the clastic material that buried the phosphate bed. 7. The conditions set forth above, which were out- lined particularly with reference to the main phosphate bed, probably were repeated on a less extensive scale for the lesser beds. Shaly partings or minor shale beds in the phosphate might be explained as the result of occa- sional seaward drift of land-derived silts after some > unusual or protracted storm. 8. The sea in which the phosphate was deposited was closed off on the east, south and west, but may have had connections with the ocean northward and northwest- ward, for Girty?? notes faunal resemblances traceable into Alaska, Asia, and eastern Kurope, and Adams and Dick?* report the discovery of phosphate at apparently the same horizon in Alberta. re (Gnurniy Ce cab Ol Cites 10 we *> Adams, F. D., and Dick, W. J., Discovery of phosphate of lime in the Rocky Mountains, Commission of Conservation, Canada, Ottawa, 19165. Winchell and Miller—Dustfall. 599 Arr. XXVIII.—The Dustfall of March 9, 1918; by A. N. WINCHELL and EK. R. Mixer. Some of the snow which fell at Madison, Wisconsin, on March 9, 1918, contained sufficient foreign material to change its color from white to a light brown or yellow. It was observed under conditions which permitted a close study and the collection of some evidence and data regarding the material. It is the object of this note to put these data on record, and to discuss the quantity, nature, and probable source of the coloring matter. The colored snow came down at Madison in the form of moist snow mixed with sleet, during the passage of an unusually intense and fast moving cyclonic disturb- ance. It fell from 11:30 a. m. to 2:30 vp. m., 90th meridian time, but the proportion of coloring matter is believed to have been greater toward the end than at the begin- ning. The moist snow and sleet were preceded by rain, from 9:30 a. m. to 11:30 a. m., which froze as it fell, and remained as a sheet of ice about 5% inch thick on trees, wires, ete. The moist snow and sleet were followed by dry snow from 2:30 p. m. to 9:30 ep. m. Neither the ice nor the dry snow contained an appreciable amount of coloring matter. At the time of the storm the snow and sleet were observed to have a light reddish brown color, not only by the Weather Bureau observers, but also by others, some of whom called upon the Weather Bureau office for an explanation of the ‘‘dirty snow’’ while it was yet falling. The discoloration was still more easily seen after the pure white dry snow had begun falling and drifting into the depressions in the darker layer. On the second day fol- lowing, when the snow began melting the dust was left on top of the snow. Area of fall—The evidence obtained as to the area covered by the dusty snow fall is admittedly incomplete and inconclusive. Inquiries were sent immediately after the fall to a number of Weather Bureau officials in cities. The replies from most of these indicated that the con- tamination of the snow by city smoke, dust, and ashes had precluded any possibility of recognizing the colored snow. Only Mr. J. H. Spencer at Dubuque, Iowa, and Am. JOUR. Pia atts SERIES, Vou. XLVI, No. 274.—OcrossEr, 1918. 600 | Winchell and Miller— Mr. W. J. Schnurbusch at Grand Haven, Mich., had noticed the peculiar character of the snow. Inquiries were then sent to codperative observers of the Weather Bureau in places remote from cities, from Wisconsin, eastward to Maine. The snow unfortunately had disappeared at many of these places by the time of the receipt of the inquiry, and only one-third of those to whom the inquiry was sent had noticed the phenomenon. Kies A: Fig. 1. Localities where dustfalls were observed, storm of March 7-10, 1918. These observers were J. H. Martin, Portage, Wis., F. B. Hamilton, Hancock, Wis., J. Parkinson, Montello, Wis., Lewis Evans, Florence, Wis., John Brown, Newberry, in upper Michigan, and W. F. Dewey, Chelsea, Vt. The location of these points, where dust was observed, is indicated by dots on the outline map (fig. 1). Nature of the coloring matter.—A microscopic study of | the coloring matter separated from the melted snow shows that it consists chiefly of inorganic substances, but contains also some plant tissue. All of the material is in the form of very fine particles, so that it forms a The Dustfall of March 9, 1918. 601 dust when dry. The following minerals have been recog- nized: feldspar, quartz, opal, limonite, hematite, horn- blende calcite, mica, magnetite, apatite, tourmaline, zir- con. There is also some cloud-like material which may gti Cece Fic. 2. Photomicrograph of dust from the dustfall at Madison, 9 March, 1918, showing one of the diatoms. Magnified 360 diameters. be kaolin. From Rosiwal measurements! the proportion of the chief constituents has been estimated to be: Feldspar and quartz 65 to 75%. Amorphous material, including limonite, hematite, kaolin, opal, ete. 20 to 30%. All other constituents + 5%. The feldspar fragments are remarkable on account of the fact that they show no alteration whatever; they are as glassy clear as is the quartz. Both the quartz and feldspar are stained by limonite and hematite, and this condition seems to pervade the fragments so thoroughly +A. Rosiwal, Ueber geometrische Gesteinsanalyzen, Verh. k, k. Reich- sanstalt, Vienna, 1898, p. 143. 602 Winchell and Miller— as to indicate that it is a condition of long standing. The feldspar shows no twinning and much of it is probably orthoclase, but other feldspars are not excluded. Calcite, hornblende, mica, etc., are present in very small amount. Magnetite particles were discovered by using a magnet. In addition to the minerals and organic material, this snow dust contains a considerable number of diatoms, one of which is shown in the photomicrograph (fig. 2). There seems to be more than one kind of diatom present, and the sizes vary, but the usual size in this dust 1s 0-006 to 0-01 mm. in width and 0-02 to 0-035 mm. in length. They are roughly cigar-shaped and so small that it would require 750 laid end to end to measure one inch, and more than three billions to fill one cubic inch. The portion of the diatom found in the dust is the test, which is composed of hydrous silica, or opal, and has various very regular markings over its surface. Microscopic measurements of the size of the dust par- ticles show that they range from about 0-003 mm. to about 0-1 mm., but a surprisingly large percentage falls within much narrower limits, namely 0-008 to 0-025 mm. . At our request, a mechanical analysis of the material was made by Professor H. W. Stewart of the Soils Department of the University of Wisconsin. He reports that the water-free weight of the sample used was 1-8268 grams, and that it yielded the following: : Weight Separates. Size. Grams. Per cent. Oley, a 2a a ne ee Less than -005 mm. 0-2046 11-145 PME kcnliaie pe ee ‘005 to -010 0:4020 22-005 Medinm=sult =o 3. 010 to -025 1:0261 56-169 Coarse Sly. 025 to -050 0-1094 5-988 Very fine sand ....... OD. sto. 2 510 0:0222 1:215 Pime sand. 10 to °-25 0:0189 1:035 Medium*sand <3... De 1O 50 0-0106 0-580 GOarse: Sand 2 ones ‘50 to 1:00 0:0053 0:290 Pime eravel —.2. 22 Yess. 1:00 to 2:00 0:0197 1:078 Total 1:8188 99-504 | Professor Stewart reports also that the organic con- stituents were allowed to distribute themselves wherever they would among the separates, with the result that The Dustfall of March 9, 1918. 603 much, if not all of the four largest sizes consist of organic material, and the very fine sand includes both organic and inorganic matter. The organic constituents were so obviously plant tis- sue that they were submitted to Professor R. H. Dennis- ton of the Department of Botany, who reports that they include fragments of blades of grass, of leaves of clover or some similar legume, fibers of cotton, and fragments of coniferous wood, all more or less decayed, as shown by the presence of saprophytic fungi and their spores. The only inorganic material in the so-called ‘‘gravel’’ con- sists of white particles which effervesce with acetic acid; it is therefore a carbonate. An attempt was made to separate the constituents of the dust by means of a heavy solution of potassium mer- euric iodide. Most of the material sank in a liquid of specific gravity of 2-3, but the material still floating con- tained the same materials as the part which sank. A portion of the dust separated by mechanical analysis to the size 0-010 to 0-025 mm. was tested in the same way. Practically all of it floated at 2-7, less than one quarter of it sank at 2-6; again the two parts contained the same materials; the heavier seemed to contain less limonite stain than the other. It seems probable that submicro- scopic porosity modifies considerably the apparent speci- fic gravity of much of the dust. ~ It will be useful to compare the results of the mechan- ical analysis of this dust with similar analyses of soils, volcanic dust, atmospheric dust, as shown in the following table (p. 604). This comparison shows that the Madison dust has two peculiarities, namely, it is finer than the other dusts and it contains a large percentage within a small range of sizes. Some soils contain much larger amounts of clayey material (smaller than -005 mm.) than the Madison material, but a hasty search of the literature makes it clear that few, if any, soils contain as much silt; on the other hand shower and voleanic dust contains much less clay than the Madison dust. This may be explained as due to the fact that shower and volcanic dusts fall wholly through the action of gravity, while the Madison dust was brought down not by its own weight, but by the weight of the snow or rain condensed upon it. 604 Winchell and Miller— Size ean 2 3 Size x 5 ‘005 mm. LETS CET Ses SES -004— -008 15 ‘005— 010 =22-01 ‘008— 016 141 st 010— -025 5617 65:8 741 016- -:032 36-2 D2 -025— -050 5:99 °032— -125 315 42:0 ‘05 — -10 1:22. 84-0. 13-2 -063— -125 78 42-0 ‘10 — -25 1-04 85 8 -125— -250 a5 ©=:10-0 25 — -50 08 0-2 3 "25 — -d0 3:0 or ‘ 1-0 “29 1-0 2 ‘ 1:0 2 wae 10 -2:0 1-08 0-0 “0 10 -2:0 fe g9-bo 1003s 99-9 3 L002: 5999 1. Dust from snow fall at Madison, Wis., March 9, 1918. 2. Soil, Hays, Kansas, which is subject to blowing. EH. E. Free. ‘‘The Movement of Soil Material by the Wind, U. 8. Bur. Soils, Bulletin 68, page 168, 1911. 3. Silt loam soil (‘‘Waukesha’’) from valley loess, Douglas Co., Neb., A. H. Meyer, et al., U. 8S. Bur. Soils, 15th Rept., De 1994, 1913. 4. Dust from dust shower, Chicago, Ill., Feb., 1896. J. x Udden, The Mechanical Composition of Wind Deposits, Augus- tana Libr. Pub. 1 p..00, 1893; 5. Volcanic dust which fell on snow in Norway after a recent eruption in Iceland. J. A. Udden, I. c., p. 36. No explanation is offered here for the small range of sizes within which such a large part of the Madison © dust is included, other than the remarkable sorting power of the wind; perhaps this is a sufficient explanation even as compared with the shower and voleanic dust, if the smaller size of the Madison dust is remembered. Quantity of the dust.—Several samples of the dust were obtained at Madison. Professor W. H. Twenhofel col- lected the yellow snow from one measured square yard of surface; A. N. Winchell obtained another sample amounting to 514 liters of snow water, while smaller amounts were gathered by HK. R. Miller and W. J. Mead. The residue left after evaporating the colored snow obtained from one square yard of surface weighed four grams, while the sample of 514 liters of snow water yielded 5:2 grams of residue which settled to the bottom, as well as :15 grams of black material, which floated at the surface or in the liquid. These two determinations are mutually corroborative since the second sample was obtained from somewhat more than one square yard of surface. They indicate that the residue amounted to 4:8 The Dustfall of March 9, 1918. 605 erams per square meter, or 4800 kilograms per square kilometer; in more familiar units, this amounts to more than 13-5 tons per square mile. Observers of the U. S. Weather Bureau, quoted above, report that this colored snow fell at least from Dubuque, Iowa, to Chelsea, Ver- mont, in an east-west direction, and from Madison, Wis- consin, to Newberry, Michigan, in a north-south direction. This is about 900 miles east and west, and 300 miles north and south as shown by the map, fig. 1, on which the localities are indicated at which the discolored snow was observed. It covered an area of at least one hundred thousand square miles and probably much more. There- fore, the total quantity of dust may be estimated as at least a million tons, and probably considerably more. In fact, it seems likely that the material was brought down throughout the area covered by this snow storm, and in that case, the quantity deposited would run into the tens or hundreds of millions of tons. Origin of the dust——While the meteorological data do not afford evidence as to the exact locality from which the dust came that was deposited at Madison, yet the possible field may be limited very materially by appealing to them. The winds near the ground can be eliminated at once, first, because the dust was brought down by sleet, which is known to be frozen rain, that is to say, rain formed in an upper, warmer, stratum, falls through a cold lower stratum and is frozen in it; and second, because the lower wind, traced back along its course, is found to have come from the northeast, blowing only over snow-covered ground, and the waters of Lake Michigan, during the time that it was under the influence of the storm, so that it could not have blown up soil or sand. In dealing with upper air currents, say from 500 to 2000 meters above the ground, it is usually assumed by meteorologists, that the velocity is determined by the dis- tribution of pressure as observed with barometers at the surface, and that the direction is along the momentary direction of the isobar. The velocity of the wind has been shown by Shaw? to be a resultant of the gradient velocity and the storm movement in only certain types of storms, but for the sake of simplicity in obtaining a first approxi- mation, these conditions have been assumed in this case. eo te fluid in the atmosphere, Proc. Roy. Soc., Lond., ser. A, 94, p. 34-52. 606 Winchell and Miller— Various formulas, and tables for obtaining the gradient velocity have been given by Shaw, Gold, Patterson, and Humphreys. The revised nomogram of Humphreys? has been used in obtaining the trajectories marked A and B in fig. 3, for the dust-bearing upper currents that arrived at Madison at the beginning and end of the observed time of the dustfall. PIG: ple Si LENIN ees Pea \ YN) . = ee SS > y A) L— Pgs x XY Ay \ Name age TOY RY) ARON Ww \\ \\ Za i NN We : Ni K\\\ \\ XK \ DXA XY Fig. 38. Curve C. shows path of center of storm of March 7-10, 1918. Curve B. shows trajectory of upper air current that arrived at Madison, Wis., at 11:30 a. M., March 9, when the dustfall began. Curve A. shows trajectory of upper air current that arrived at Madison, Wis., at 3:00 P. M., at end of dustfall. Curve D. shows conjectured trajectory of dust-bearing lower current ascending to upper stratum. Horizontal hatchures show snow-cover 7 P. M., March 4, 1918. NE-SW hatchures show area of rainfall during 24 hours preceding 7 A. M., March 8, 1918. NE-SE hatchures show area of rainfall during 24 hours preceding 7 A. M., March 9, 1918. The storm of March 7-10, 1918, was characterized by strong winds at the surface throughout its passage from Utah eastward, so that the mechanism for eroding the surface and carrying the dust up into the atmosphere was * Journal Franklin Inst., November, 1917, page 673, revised. The Dustfall of March 9, 1918. 607 ‘available over a wide area. The telegraphic report of the Weather Bureau at 7 a. m. of March 9, 1918, showed high winds prevailing throughout the southwest from the Mississippi valley to the Rocky Mountains. Among the higher velocities reached during the preceding night were 48 miles per hour at Oklahoma City, 44 at Denver,. 44 at Wichita. On the preceding day the storm center was advancing through Utah and Colorado, and a region of steep barometric gradients and strong winds passed over the arid regions of Nevada, Utah, Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico, a maximum velocity of 48 miles an hour being attained at Modena, in southwestern Utah. The velocities are sufficient to blow up into the air not only clouds of dust, but to whirl up from the ground. gravel of considerable size. The limit of snow cover, from the Snow and Ice Bulletin of the Weather Bureau of March 5, 1918, and the areas covered by rainfall during the advance of the storm are shown in fig. 3. Except in Colorado, and northern New Mexico, the territory sub- jected to high winds was not protected in any way, aside from the natural vegetal covering, against eroding winds. The reports from observers and from military camps in the region indicate that extraordinary duststorms pre- vailed and caused much discomfort. The microscopic study of the dust reveals several facts having an important bearing on its origin. First, it is well sorted and very fine. Both of these facts indicate that it has been carried a long distance in the air (accord- ing to the estimates of Udden a distance which may be a thousand miles or more). Next, the dust is charged with abundant limonite and hematite, although kaolin is not abundant and the feldspar is entirely unaltered. These facts indicate that the dust is a product of physical disintegration, and not of chemical decomposition, that is, it is derived from a region of very arid climate and not from any part of the Mississippi valley. Finally, the dust is dominantly composed of feldspar and quartz with very small amounts of other constituents. Therefore, it is derived from a region of siliceous feldspathic rocks, either granite or arkose, or a gneiss of similar composi- tion. Itis not derived from a region of limestone, sand- stone, mica schist, or basic igneous rocks. It contains far too little kaolin and its feldspar is too fresh to be derived from any ordinary shale or argillite. 608 Winchell and Miller— From all these lines of evidence it is believed that the ~ dust came from an arid region of the southwestern part of this country, where siliceous feldspathic rocks are abundant. Such areas are common in New Mexico and Arizona. It is conjectured that the material was whirled up from the surface on March 8 in the afternoon when the convectional currents are most effective both in caus- ing rapid vertical movements, and in increasing the velocity of the surface air by mixture with the faster mov- ing upper air. During vertical ascent the horizontal component of velocity gradually increased, and the direc- ‘tion gradually veered, as shown by the dotted curve D in fig. 3, until it coincided with the line of gradient veloc- ity indicated by the continuous lines A and B in fig. 3. The dust-bearing current then whirled around the storm center, in contra-clockwise direction until it arrived at the flank of the colder current flowing in from the east over the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence valley. The warmer and lighter air from the southwest then rose over the colder and denser air from the east, and the precipi- tation of the moisture upon the dust particles as nuclei came about through the mechanical cooling of the ascend- ing air. The precipitated moisture was in the form of rain at first, but froze to sleet as it fell through the cold lower stratum. Higher ascent cooled the rising air below the freezing point, and then the snow formed that fell with the sleet formed lower down. ‘The pure white snow fell in the northwest winds, following the storm, and these probably came from the snow-covered land to the north or east. Conclusion.—The evidence here presented that a single storm may transport a million tons of rock material a thousand miles or more, emphasizes the importance of the wind as a geological agent, Water transports larger rock fragments, and its work is readily seen on every hand; air transports much finer material and its work is only rarely noticed at all; yet the air is constantly at work over a much larger surface than that covered by running water, and it is an open question whether the total work done by the air in transporting rock material is not of the same order of magnitude as the work of the same kind accomplished by water. It is clear that arid regions will constantly lose rock material by wind action and that the dust will be held by ~ The Dustfall of March 9, 1918. 609 moist areas which are covered by vegetation. This is a type of erosion which may carry material ‘‘up hill’? from a dry region of little elevation to a moist region of greater elevation. In the case here presented however, the material probably came from a mountainous arid region to an area of lower elevation. The soil of any region is probably derived in consider- able part from material transported by the wind. Diatoms and all sorts of plant and animal life of microscopic size as well as fragments of larger organisms may be transported long distances by the wind. Dr. Albert Mann, Plant Morphologist of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, has examined these diatoms and reports that they belong for the most part to the species Nitzschia amplhioxys (Ehr) W. S. and Navicula borealis Ehr, the former being a little more abundant than the latter, and being represented exclusively by a particularly minute variety. Diatoms are alge and grow only in water, but these two species are doubtless peculiar to localities where there is only the thin film of water which is brought up by surface tension in sphagnum bogs and present in damp moss on the trunks of trees, since their extreme minuteness enables them to live and multiply in such thin films of water. Madison, Wisconsin. 610 White—Switch for Delicate Measurements. Art. XXIX.—WNote on a Umversal Switch for Delicate Potential Measurements; by Waurer P. Watts. Two years ago a description was published in this Journal! of a universal switch for thermoelectric and other delicate work. The instrument was then a combi- nation of two features which had only been tried sep- arately. One was the contact between thin leaves of copper with sheet celluloid insulation; the other, the mechanical arrangement for making the contacts simply and for changing the combination quickly. The actual instrument has now had over a year of trial; the cellu- loid insulation has again proved completely satisfactory ; the mechanical arrangement has been as convenient and reliable as was expected; but two modifications have been found advantageous, which deserve publication. To aid in describing them two diagrams are reproduced from the original article, which contains a detailed account of the construction. One modification concerns the contacts between the ‘‘auxiliary-connecting frames’’ and their bus bars. In the earlier apparatus. the only contacts were like the contacts between the thermoele- ment leads and their bus bar in the present one, and the making of these contacts evidently involves a slight amount of rubbing. The satisfactory performance of the earlier apparatus must have been promoted by this rubbing. The similar contacts in the present one are equally satisfactory. But the auxiliary-connecting con- tacts, which occurred between two bodies moving in the same straight line, required frequent cleaning. It there- fore seemed best to introduce a little rubbing here. This at once made these contacts as satisfactory as the others, and is by all means to be recommended. It was done by making the farther end of the auxiliary-connecting bus bar travel on an inclined plane (laid under each end of the rod, RB), while the sliding frames still move horizon- tally. Friction against the ‘‘ fixed auxiliary-connecting frame,’’ against which the bus bar returns, could be pro- vided by giving this frame a little horizontal travel, with a spring to press it toward the bus bar. The total travel of the operating rod is increased by the same amount. * This Journal, 41, 307, 1916. White—Switch for Delicate Measurements. 611 Bien ap EELS: a8 a Locking bar . Thermoelement bus bars » soni 1 aleml Fic. 1. Top view and section of the universal switch, 44 full size. Full black shows copper; clear white, C, celluloid insulation; shaded, wood or metal. Each of the 8 rods, when pushed forward like the second one above, presses one of the wooden wedges, w, and with it two flexible flat copper thermoelement leads (or leads from some other unknown E.M.F.), against the thermoelement bus bars, which are copper strips connected to the measuring apparatus. At the same time the pin, P., in the rod, may push one of the movable auziliary-connecting frames 5c X, against the auxiliary bus bars, thus connecting in the set of potentiometer dials, or other auxiliary, which it is desired to use with that particular thermo- element. When P, is horizontal the fixed frame, FX, makes the connection. Change of combination is instantly made by rotating the rod. 612 White—Switch for Delicate Measurements. The method adopted involved less change in an instru- ment already constructed, and is perhaps as good in any case. The bus bar, raised by the inclined plane in its backward travel, remains up as it returns to the fixed frame (to secure this the spring was shifted so as to exert a lifting action), and is then pulled down by a bell erank, operated by the further return of the sliding frame. This pulling down gives the rubbing. Motion is transmitted to the crank by a whiffletree attached to the two sliding frames, so that the return of either pulls down the bus bar. The arrangement was constructed in about 2 hours, mainly from strips of sheet brass. Rather thin bakelite of good insulating quality can now be bought ready cut into strips, so that instead of fasten- ing copper strips on the wooden bars by means of sheet celluloid, it may perhaps be more advantageous to pin them to bakelite which is fastened to the wood, provided, of course, that there is no machining of the edges of the strips. This construction is somewhat more robust, at any rate. Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D. C. Chemistry and Physics. 613 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CyHeEemistry AND Puysics. 1. An Apparatus for Determining :Molecular Weights and Hydrogen Equwalents—W. H. Cuapin of Oberlin College has devised an interesting method for the determination of the molecular weights of organic liquids whose boiling-points are below 90°C, and for determining the hydrogen equivalents of such metals as zine, aluminium, sodium and calcium. The method depends upon measuring the pressure produced by the volatilization of the liquid or by the formation of the gas, and since the apparatus is very simple and can be made from the materials usually at hand in chemical laboratories, the process should be very useful for lecture demonstrations and for stu- dents’ laboratory work. The apparatus consists of an ordinary distilling-flask of 600 ce. capacity, of which the side tube is cut off and replaced by a olass manometer tube with a bore of about 7 mm. and a vertical height of about 20 em. The manometer is charged with mer- cury and hangs perpendicularly at a little distance from the bulb of the flask, so that its position is outside of a beaker used in molecular weight determinations as a steam-bath. ‘The steam is supplied by boiling some distilled water in the bottom of the beaker, and the latter is supplied with a cover of sheet-zinec made in two parts so that it fits the lower part of the neck of the flask. The capacity of the flask including its neck is found by weighing it full of water. The average temperature of the interior of the flask when heated by steam is found by means of a thermometer placed at different levels in the bulb and the neck, with due allowance for their capacities. The mouth of the flask is pro- vided with a stopper containing a tube with a sliding rod extending into it from a side branch above the stopper for dropping in the weighed substance according to the arrange- ment commonly used in the Victor Meyer apparatus. The author has used as containers for the organic liquids experi- mented upon small gelatine capsules previously dried at 100° C. The change in level of the mercury is read by means of a celluloid millimeter-scale clamped to the manometer. For the determination of hydrogen equivalents of metals, weighed quantities of the latter are dropped into dilute acids, or in the case of sodium into absolute alcohol, at ordinary tempera- tures while the beaker is kept full of water for maintaining a constant, known temperature. It is advisable to wind copper wire around the pieces of zinc employed in order to facilitate their solution. : The calculations are simple, since the weights of substances, 614 Scientific Intelligence. the volumes, and temperatures are known, while the pressures are determined.—Jour. Phys. Chem., 22, 337. H. L. W. 2. The Detection of lodides~n the Presence of Cyanides—It is a well known fact that cyanides interfere with the qualitative test for iodides where the iodine is set free by means of an oxidiz- ing agent and an acid, and L. J. Curtman and C. KaurmMAan have recently studied the extent of this interference and have found that it varies with different oxidizing agents. It is very marked with potassium nitrite, much less so with the perman- ganate, while it is intermediate in the cases of hydrogen peroxide and chlorine water. Even under the best conditions it appears that the test may fail in the presence of more than about 10 parts of cyanogen to one of iodine. Several methods have been used for removing cyanogen before testing for iodine, such as the ignition of the silver salts, which destroys the cyanide, or the boiling of a solution of soluble salts with an excess of acetic acid, which volatilizes the hydrocyanic acid, but the present authors advise precipitating the cyanide of cobalt, together with the ferrocyanide and ferricyanide, by the addition of cobalt nitrate solution, adding asbestos fiber, boiling for half a minute, filter- ing, and testing the filtrate for iodides after sufficient concen- tration.—Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 40, 914. H. L. W. 3. The Determination of Zinc as Zinc Mercury Thiocyanate.— A gravimetric method based upon the precipitation of the com- pound ZnHg (SCN), by adding a reagent containing KSCN and HeCl, to weakly acid solutions of zine salts, filtering the precipi- tate on a Gooch crucible and weighing it after drying at 108° C., “was described several years ago by Lundell and Bee. The pre- cipitate was washed with water containing a minute quantity of the reagent on account of its solubility in pure water. GEORGE S. JAMIESON has now made a study of the method and -obtained results that indicate that it is very accurate, but he has found that the dried precipitate is anhydrous instead of con- ‘taining a molecule of water of crystallization as supposed by the originators of the process. Jamieson observes that cadmium -cobalt, copper, bismuth and manganese compounds also give insoluble double thiocyanates, while nickel in small amounts and arsenic in large proportions do not interfere with the method. ‘He has employed ammonium thiocyanate in the place of the potassium salt in the reagent with equally satisfactory results, and also he has applied titration with potassium iodate to the “precipitate, in the place of weighing it, with excellent results — Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 40, 1036. Fie Da Wa) 4. Principles of Chemistry; by JonEu H. HimDEBRAND. 12mo, ‘pp. 313. New York, 1818 (The Macmillan Company) .—This text-book has been prepared for the purpose of teaching chemical theories in connection with any other books dealing with the ‘facts of the science. This separation of the two features of Chemistry and Physics. 615 instruction is intended to facilitate the teacher’s individual preferences in regard to the order of presentation. The topics are clearly and simply presented, practically without the employment of mathematical formule. The book appears to be an excellent one for its intended purpose. EL, lee ave 5. Organic Compounds of Arsenic and Antimony ; by GILBERT T. Morgan. 8vo, pp. 376. London, 1918 (Longmans, Green and Co.).—We have here an excellent account of these very numerous compounds, some of which, such as cacodyl and its derivatives, have been of great importance in the development of chemical theory, while others, including salvarsan, neosalvarsan, etc., have acquired extensive use in recent times in connection with the treatment of diseases due to pathogenic protozoa. The subject is presented chiefly from the point of view of pure chemistry, but the historical aspects are clearly brought out, the principles as well as many details of the methods of preparation are included, and many references are made to the toxic and medicinal prop- erties of the substances. An extensive bibliography arranged in chronological order is appended. H. L. W. 6. Hdible Oils and Fats; by C. AinSwortH MITCHELL. 8vo, pp. 159. London, 1918 (Longmans, Green and Co.).—This is one of a series of Monographs on Industrial Chemistry edited by Sir Edward Thorpe. It gives a concise outline of the chem- ical composition and properties of the more important oils and fats, together with a description of the methods of extracting them from the crude materials and of purifying them. The physical and chemical methods of examining edible oils are also presented, the recent processes for hardening or hydrogenating oils are discussed, the manufacture of artificial butter is described, and an extensive and excellent bibliography of the subject is given. The subject is very well treated from a rather scientific point of view, so that the book is very well adapted for furnishing information in regard to the application of science to this very important field of industry. H. L. W. 7. Scattering of Light by Dust-free Air, with Artificial Repro- duction of the Blue Sky—A very clear account of some recent qualitative experiments on the scattering of light by gas mole- ecules has just been published by their author, the Hon. R. J. Strutt. The vessel which contained the gas consisted of two brass tubes, each of diameter 1-5 inches, the axes of which inter- sected at right angles. To avoid circumlocutions we shall refer to the_parts of this compound tube as if its axes formed a dia- eram of ordinary rectangular coordinate axes. The light from the source (usually a hand-regulated carbon are of 12 amperes) passed toward the origin of coordinates (or intersection of the brass tubes) along the negative portion of the axis of x. It was first condensed by a quartz lens, then the heat rays were absorbed by the water in a cell having plane parallel quartz win- Am, Jour. Sci.—FourtH Series, Vout. XLVI, No. 274.—Octoser, 1918. 27 616 Scientific Intellagence. dows normal to the z-axis, next the light entered the xz-tube through a quartz window, after this it passed through the rectangular opening in a diaphragm inside the negative section of the tube, and finally it was absorbed and scattered by the opaque positive end of the tube. The negative portion of the y-tube was designed for making visual and photographic observations along its axis and hence it too was closed at the outer end by a quartz window. ‘The positive segment of the y-tube constituted a dark cave across the mouth of which the beam under investiga- tion passed. The x-tube was furnished with smaller lateral tubes to enable air and other gases to be pumped into, or out of, the tubular cross. The field of view always consisted of a bright ring (due to light scattered from the entrance to the cave-tube) which was usually crossed by a narrow bright band arising from light seat- tered by the gas molecules or by fine dust particles. With ordinary untreated air in the apparatus, a very bright track due to scattering by dust particles was observed. This track had the same color as the are. When air, which had been dried by phos- phorus pentoxide and filtered by cotton wool, was pumped into the apparatus and allowed to stand until the few remaining dust particles had settled to the walls of the vessel, the beam appeared fainter than in the preceding case and its color was definitely blue. The ring of light, of course, did not vary in tint. Es GU SEs - Fase 16-29 none 81 Ree Te | wets bata, > a Se ke trace 82 45-0 eens UNE ee =a so Sait GeO Th Ss cates & none 83 43-0 Sees ss cece ee 0-88 84 17-0 POR, ath ers 1-33 85 Sn Neen RT Nn an ts et eerie Sag ee none 86 13-7 2: BS ae en tea Ae ho es none 87 13-0 Gra Br tera ates eps 2, ee none 88-1 43-0 7-53 117-0 2-03 31-6 88-2 43-0 db) cg 53 Mee ar oe 3:10 89 40-0 yar eae es LS ee 4.19 90 41-6 vars | ea a ee 0-69 91 35-5 2-78 146-10 0-75 39.45 92 32-5 a: ee Ao 2-50 93-1 40-0 6-81 180-15 1-84 48-63 93-2 hale Beaeue OS ns 1:78 94 See i ae ee OCS GH au he ey 27-02 95 38-7 Ee a he ley 2-54 102 18-5 MEO Red x oA 0-51 107 10-0 47-23 164-0 12-75 44.3 none 108 10-0 DU Steere PSO ass, tes none 109 9.3 OO... ' ete 2-99 a ia | 8:5 APOE. an Re 11-44 112 9-5 Dou. swe kR Os 2A soa none 113 8-5 38-07 131-6 10-28 35-52 trace 1 2 an O98 ~ chi 0-26 115 16-3 AOS saree 1-23 ELZ 10-5 LENE eames er ie 2: 2 or heey) ee en eae a ELT 10-2 ZA os ego ecielen a sey eaeee Ss (eases NS) 118 10-0 et, AN te Oa de Gas Gee aie Sar ee 2. 2 eee a 118 15-1 oes aie ee ee eae Ss ort eat et, SS) 119 16-0 Sees asset te 0-96 120 13-5 none trace none trace 120 13-7 Beaeae sh, Sata: Ao Oe ee do OO eee ee Ss 121 HA ee IG. |: ae Pg 3-23 124 14-0 2-35 11-49 0-63 3-10 124 14-7 22.4 15-4 3-74 Ze Gigh aloe Lo ROE Ss 125 ~ 12-0 ro ee Mi ne Sa COR sees none 125 12-8 pL) eee ae HT ee oa ae cea Ss 126 18-0 15-35 77-6 4.14 20-95 none 126 13-0 26-7 47-0 4.49 One! Tee Ss 127 22.3 12-07 73-15 3-26 19-75 none a 127 aug 20-1 48-1 3-36 SUS tat are Ss 128 15-5 ast oe a eS Rate eS none 128 12-7 eet Patele > aie a 2 ate Tg RN es So a aE SS) 129 14.5 2-68 16-22 0-72 4.38 none a 630 Lester—Radioactive Properties of the Temp. 7@ Se eee Ree OU ° WohoawpeH PPRHOWDO, AWHHANO, aes UNOMONM SCHSOSOHN: HOOAH WH HHH TABLE I (continued), | Guries Ra Em. per liter x 101° Mache units per liter Water Gas TEREORES A eek 16-60 155-2 47-3 205-0 4.62 21-93 14-0 28-8 Peet As 19-65 16°84 eee QED Se Cues pene 4.93 262-0 wieeer 391-5 thACe nfo ee Re 656-0 OA OS. eee Ma 202-2 MD eae Petite cae tee GOe4 Oi i Rear aA! stasis ye ed A fea) UN cone mee are 2 assis 334-5 IOS AL Vesceee atten 152-35 AT TY Paap eee RRO eS SO Oia ks ween G38) tees BS Be ae oeen ss Se TOME oh "pete ees bielvaces 6-63 PRU ESS 26 5 Mae OMe 12-36 NONC~ = “te ee 0283 2, cae LAD 2 oo eee MOMES. yg ASR 18-62 760-0 MRO! Ci ceae cates 2050: = eee PSO Scale metas see sn eee 128-5 Bee 229.7 41-10 112-5 79-25 375-6 PAU SY eerie ees = 2 tracer = ines. AG Eo ie pate se eiatie 4.97 We eNee 1-90 8-75 36-2 area 5-66 Water eecee eeeee ecoecvree 0-38 5-03 eoeee Gas eoeeee ecevees eee eee eesees eeeeee cece eee of water Perma- nent activity Gram Ra per liter NOE ee eerece trace 0-091 0-121 0-063 0-186 trace none none Remarks? Mineral Springs of Colorado. 631 TABLE I (continued). | Perma- Curies Ra Em. per Mache | nent: + No. | Temp. ten? 367. 1On22 units per liter | activity | of water | Remarks? | Gram Ra) °C Water Gas Water Gas per liter | | | x 10-2 | #200 14-0 Eg io cece Oe ZO is oun ea trace 203 20-5 ESO soo one ener 2h eas Ae eae none 206 20-0 GAL wat eee 0-71 207 14-5 305-5 2725-0 82-5 735-8 trace 208 We POSS 5 4 nein AS Ki 5 am ee a 0-28 209 14.0 MSS Ae iy ees Sr yb SeNpini s 0.283 210 15-5 97-03 614-8 26-2 166-0 0-233 211 24-0 trace trace trace trace 211 ests OSI rr eras ak OEE foe ce S 212 Oy at Sis Se wiht ees 3-61 212 39-5 1.2 7-9 0-21 Te ey Mra Sevens 213 24.0 9-05 35-0 2-44 9.45 none 213 23-8 14.3 51-5 2-39 ODD eee cl ards ee Ss 214 2350 eee ee GBF2omy ey hese 17-08 216 eye ee’ Psiaicie Cr miles oie 0-65 218 15-0 13-58 60-30 3-67 16-28 none 218 14-8 2-55 20-5 0-43 DEO tis ren. S 222 2s SSS ee ee Eh oy a =a ee ROE 0-89 223 13-5 Ga oi ab ate tae 0.44 223 13-0 WOR Aiea oer. Cis iiiee Su etien wae Rie es acres S) 224 ee PPT ail sa lect 6-91 225 21-0 7 Cy Re 0-7 Le 229 30-5 ay ne ee 1-01 230 49.5 5-14 10-11 1-39 2-73 231 SEO pat gts ache « TSB Te eres 3-25 *232 D0 Gt ST is Rea 0-21 *233 10-0 OrO Saree: 0-18 234 Bee ir scies . POMIOES OFS sesh 4.26 235 — 42.5 2-28 136-6 0-62 36-88 236 RON ae as. TO Ol oe Gah 5-39 237 va) aes ae MASS aren Siereke. 30-20 238 64.0 10-69 562-0 2-89 151-7 none 239 79-0 19-80 956-8 5-35 258-35 trace 240 68-5 19-54 1155-0 5-29 311-8 241 70-0 21-51 1280-0 5-81 345-6 trace 242 71-0 27-94 ~ 1147-0 7-54 309-7 243 59-5 12.66 690-9 3-42 186-5 244 43.0 EG DOM. 2 ee 4.47 245 64-0 28-57 687-5 7-71 185-6 0-083 246 68-0 18-66 1243-5 5-04 335-5 247 66-3" 12-62 555-0 3-41 149.85 248° ~ 5.5 PS Sn ae ‘Sele tas Bae le are a 0-085 249 72-0 aS as setae 0-32 250 ean So eis nits SVG: ie mak eeu 9-77 251 SITES anes tae te ib lee ste 15-74 252 35-5 EY: | ae Fe ae 1-19 *253 hia oe aes eats icles IRS Rca ae ape aria none *254 cae LS Oe tea ee SOS hse as. 3 none 632 Lester—Radioactive Properties of the TABLE II. , Equiv. Act. No. Material grams U per gram x 107!° Grams Ra | Per gram ~<10—" Fusion Solution 12 Quartz sand and orthoclase 0.474 12 - Sand 0-423 13 Mud and organic matter 1-865 27 Limonite and calcareous sinter 0.299 27 Limonite and calcareous clay 0.141 27 Caleareous clay 0-588 27 Caleareous clay 0.907 none 28 Mud and limonite 1-328 (etl Mud and muscovite 0.251 73-1b = Clay 16-88 8-67 73-2b = Clay 15-11 3-62 76b = Sulphura 8-74 1-88 77b ~—s Clay 0-732 77b ~~ Clay : 0-265 108 Sand 0-349 142 Clay 0.444 147 Carbonaceous clay 1.245 147 Carbonaceous clay 1.54 0-291 150 Limonite and calcareous sinter 20:79. Vase iee ae “= gal 150 Limonite and calcareous sinter 9-36. |) oe eee 2-07 152 Caleareous clay 0-007 153 Caleareous clay 0-263 153-1 Caleareous tufa 0-527 154 Limonite and clay 0-321 158 Caleareous sinter 172) Sa tee eee 1-14 175 Caleareous sinter and clay 1-14 trace 175 Caleareous sinter and clay 0-485 177 Tufa 1-345 182 Limonite and clay 0-639 182 Limonite and clay 0-855 183 Limey clay 0.724 183 Caleareous clay 0.449 184 Caleareous clay 0-603 200 Porous sinter and sulphur 0-161 203 Yellow sinter 0-233 203-1 Tufa 0-604 0-085 207 Limonite and sand 0-073 trace 207 Limonite and sand 0.273 0-125 235 0-216 238 Caleareous clay 0-123 238 Caleareous clay 0.397 238 Mud 0-057 165 Cave incrustation, sulphura trace 165 Rusty clay none a Sulphur pure enough to burn. b The springs 73-77 are peculiar. In addition to practically pure sulphur, Schlundt (J. c.) finds that part of the sinter deposited by them is about 87 per cent barium sulphate. He also finds a sample of tufa from one of these springs showing 14-8 « 10-° gram Ra per gram. Mineral Springs of Colorado. 633 these films weigh as much as 5 mgs. and the material was spread uniformly on thin sheet aluminium over a surface of 64sq.cm. The ten films gave an average activity per milligram of three divisions per minute. One division per minute corresponds to 2-82 « 10+ gram uranium. Dry samples of the materials to be examined, weighing roughly from 0-5 lb. to 3 lbs., were first pulverized so as to pass through a 100-mesh screen. Small portions of these were further ground with freshly distilled chloro- form in an agate mortar and this material was thinly painted with a camel’s hair brush over sheet aluminium of the same area as the standard films. These films were made much thicker, however, than the standards so that considerable absorption undoubtedly occurred for which no correction has been made. The activities of the deposits, muds or sediments from a number of the springs listed in Table I are given in Table IJ. It was not possible to collect such samples from all the springs. The samples taken were usually from springs which showed at least some activity in the water or gas. From some springs more than one sample was taken when the deposits appeared to differ in nature, color, or age. These are indicated in the table by a repe- tition of the spring number. In the column headed ‘‘material’’ will be found a classi- fication made by the Colorado State Geological Survey but no formal analysis has been attempted. Column 3 expresses the activity as equivalent to that of so many erams of uranium per gram. Up to the present it has not been possible to do the work necessary to determine the exact substances to which this activity is due. Small portions only, even of what appeared to be calcareous deposits, were soluble in acids. The deposits contain large amounts of clay and silica and the radioactive salts occur generally in the form of sulphates. The values given in column 4 were obtained by the method of.fusion with mixed carbonates. The samples were sealed for over a month in combustion tubing and care was taken to avoid loss of emanation during fusion. Column 5 contains a few results obtained by the boiling- out method from complete solutions of a few grams of material. This of course is the ideal method for reliable results. However, aside from the fact that lack of time has prevented the use of this method in all cases, it 1s 634 Lester—Radwoactive Properties of the very unlikely that results would be obtained commensu- rate in interest with the labor involved. Some work has been done on a few of the springs listed in Table I by other observers. Wolcott’? examined one spring at Glenwood Springs but his method gave qualitative results only. The work of Headden® on the Doughty Springs (Nos. 73-77) near Hotchkiss, Colorado, was done by the photographic method and the results given are also qualitative. A few of the springs at Mani- tou, Colorado, were examined by Shedd? and his results show a fair agreement with later observations consider- ing the lack of precision in his apparatus and the fact that he did not use an emanation standard. The most extensive previous investigation is that of Schlundt?® who tested a number of springs near Boulder, at Manitou, at Steamboat Springs, and at least one spring at Glenwood Springs. He used a fontactometer having a volume of about 15 liters. His results which can be identified with spring's listed in this work are also given in Table I and are indicated by the letter S. The two sets of measurements sometimes agree but often one of them differs by amounts ranging from about one- fourth to five times the other. These differences are due partly to the methods used, to the corrections applied, and partly perhaps to variations in the activity of the sources. An examination of the two sets of temperature readings indicates that changes have occurred in the con- dition of some of the springs. Likewise the testimony of local observers seems to show that springs in a rather closely associated group sometimes change their char- acter due apparently to connection by means of under- eround channels. The differences in the measurement of activity, however, appear to have no relation to these indicated changes. Considered as a whole the results given in Tables I and II indicate a high average activity although there are a few springs which are inactive. The most active waters show the highest radioactivity yet found in the United States and are surpassed by but few foreign springs. The greatest activity found in the. spring gases is exceeded in the United States by a few springs in the 7 Biennial Report Colo. School of Mines, Appendix p. 27, 1904. ® This Journal, 19, 297, 1905. * Proc. Colo. Sci. Soc., 10, 233, 1912. 7 Loc. cit. Mineral Springs of Colorado. 635 Yellowstone National Park and is approached by but two or three European springs. A careful comparison of the radioactivity measure- ments with the data obtained from the chemical analyses shows that there is no connection between radioactivity and any chemical property. Neither is there any con- nection between activity and temperature, nor between the activity in water or gas and that in the deposits. Some springs situated near each other have shown activ- ities of very different magnitude and again the individual springs of a closely associated group have shown quite similar activities. In the first case the waters of the separate springs usually had the appearance of being different in character but not always. Results similar to the foregoing have been recorded by many previous observers both in this country and in Kurope. There is a general agreement that springs from igneous rocks are more active than those from sedi- mentary rocks.1t If we take the ninety-five springs of Table I which show an emanation content equal to or greater than 10 x 107° curie per liter we find that 58 or 61 per cent are in pre-Cambrian formations or near a pre- Cambrian contact; 14 or 14:7 per cent are in igneous rock or near igneous and sedimentary contacts; 23 or 24-2 per cent are in sedimentaries of various formations. Approximately 75 per cent of the more active springs are thus in or near metamorphic and igneous formations. Some of the most active springs, however, are found in sedimentaries. Nos. 73-77 in the Cretaceous and Nos. 136-139 in the Miocene are examples. At the beginning of this investigation it was antici- pated that some springs of extraordinarily high radio- activity would be found since Colorado contains quite extensive deposits of radioactive ores. This expectation, however, was not fulfilled. No large mineral springs were found in regions where radioactive ores are most abundant... A number of springs, often highly gaseous, situated not far outside such regions showed in general the least activity of any examined. On the other hand, some quite active springs such as Nos. 107-109 near “Since this article was written there has appeared an extensive inves- tigation on the Radio-activity of Archean Rocks from the Mysore State by Smeeth and Watson (Phil. Mag., 35, 206, 1918). All these rocks, considered to be of igneous origin, contain remarkably little radium. The various igneous magmas not only appear to contain different amounts of radium but the radioactive material seems to be subject to magmatic segregation. 636 Lester—Radioactiwe Properties of the La Veta and No. 71 near Hartsel in South Park are in regions where radioactive ores occur to some extent. Autunite is found in the La Veta region and some Carno- tite in South Park. Generally speaking, however, the most active springs are found on both slopes of the Conti- nental Divide and not far from it. So far as is known there are no bodies of radioactive ores near them. In the course of this work there were found many groups of springs situated just at the foot or within a mile or two of a high mountain range the individual peaks of which reach elevations as high as 12,000 to 14,000 feet. These groups are sometimes arranged in a more or less definite line a mile or more in length as if along an old fault and again are gathered together in an irregular area the opposite sides of which are only a few hundred feet apart. In such areas springs as widely different as a cold soda spring and a hot sulphur spring may be found separated by only a few feet. These areas seem to be merely the common outlets for underground waters draining often from many square miles of high mountain- ous country which frequently includes formations of widely different age and character. of As to the origin of the radioactivity found in natural waters there seems to be a general agreement that it is picked up little by little during the underground flow from the minute amounts of radioactive matter known to be widely diffused through all rocks and soils. Accord- ing to Dienert and Guillard'? the activity arises eaxclu- sively from this source. They point out further that when water comes from great depths as in Plombieres it is possible to find springs very near together, coming from the same geological beds and having very different activity. The work of Schmidt and Kurz‘? indicates that there is no dependency of emanation content on depth, strength of flow, chemical properties or tempera- ture, but only that springs from eruptive rocks are in general much more active than those from sedimentaries. The question as to whether an underground water or gas collects most of its radioactive material near the out-. let or far removed from it, whether by gradual absorption from surrounding rock or by rapid absorption during a brief contact with more active material, does not seem to be answerable without more information than is usually known about the underground course. Mining opera- “Le Radium, 7, 60, 1910. 31 Phys. Zeitschr, 7, 209, 1906. Mineral Springs of Colorado. 637 tions show that quite extensive open underground water channels are not uncommon and it is quite evident that many of the hot springs flow for long distances in such courses. Ina water course which permits free and rapid flow, radium emanation could be absorbed at a great dis- tance and brought to the surface without losing greatly through disintegration. Likewise a rapid flow through a long underground channel could give at the outlet a very active water or gas which need not have encountered any particularly active material. In the case of slow seepage flows which may collect in an open channel extending only a short distance from the outlet or which may empty into the pool which forms the spring itself, most of the emana- tion is undoubtedly collected not far away. Even though such a spring should show high activity it does not mean necessarily that there is highly active material near by. The slow flow and shorter distance of travel are compensated by the greater area of the underground stream and by its intimate contact with a greater amount of weakly emanating material. The foregoing argument of course does not exclude the possibility of the underground flow touching very active substances but the presence of such material can not be inferred from the existence of a highly radioactive water or gas without other evidence. If a spring happened to be so situated that its waters came in contact with a mate- rial which could be classified as even a low grade radio- active ore, and further if it had the large and rapid flow characteristic of most of the springs examined in this work, it seems fairly certain that it would show an activity of a different order of magnitude from those recorded in the tables above. My thanks are due to Professor R. D. George, Direc- tor of the Colorado State Geological Survey, and to his assistants for help in meeting many unexpected difficul- ties. The Survey has also furnished important informa- tion regarding geological formations. During the work in the field courtesies were extended by Dr. &. B. Moore and Dr. S.C. lind of the United States Bureau of Mines, and by Professor L. F. Miller formerly of the Colorado School of Mines. For the drawings accompanying this paper the author is indebted to Mr. J. H. V. Finney. Hale Physical Laboratory, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado. Am. Jour. Sct.—FourtH Serius, Vou. XLVI, No. 275.—Novemser, 1918. 2 638 Jenkins—Spotted Lakes of Epsomite m Art. XXXI.—Spotted Lakes of Epsomite in Washington and British Columbia; by Ouar P. JeEnxKins1 Since April, 1916, large quantities of natural epsom salts have been mined and shipped from the so-called ‘¢Spotted Lakes’’—two briny lakes, one in Washington and one in British Columbia. These lakes are both on Kruger Mountain, near the international boundary, and Geos Fic. 1.—Large spotted epsomite lake in British Columbia, on Kruger Mountain. Photograph taken during the dry season in July, 1917. within a few miles of each other, north of Oroville, Wash- ington. The lakes have no outlets and the material occurs as a precipitation from the evaporation of waters saturated with magnesium sulphate. The mineral formed is epsomite, MgSO,.7H,0. The accompanying figures show why these lakes are ordinarily described as being spotted. The dark spots represent shallow pools of brine, immediately beneath which are solid rock-like masses of epsomite. The areas between the dark spots are white because they are dry, +This examination was made by the writer while engaged in work for the Washington State Geological Survey during the summer of 1917. Washington and British Columbia. 639 and a thin film of an efflorescence of these salts which covers them produces this appearance. Beneath this white film is mud, black, foul, and treacherous, which has been the cause of the miring of cattle in the past. Dur- ing the rainy season the whole lake is covered with water, and then only a faint appearance of the circles is visible beneath the surface of the fresh water. The smaller of these lakes, but the one more nearly devoid of any other mineral matter except magnesium Dae 2 Fic. 2.—Small spotted epsomite lake north of Oroville, Washington. See explanatory cross-section, fig. 4. sulphate, is in the state of Washington. It has an area of only four acres and a depth (determined by drilling) of 30 feet. It has gone by the names of Salts Lake, Poison Lake, Spotted Lake, and Bitter Lake. It is high up in the hills (1000 feet above Oroville, or 2000 feet above sea-level), in a little depression scooped out by former glacial action. it has no outlet whatever, and hes close to bed rock, which consists of metamorphic rocks, dolomites, and shales. Near by, but at a shghtly higher elevation, are other smaller lakes or ponds of com- paratively fresh water. In one of these is a deposit of marl, which contains-many little fresh water shells. 640 Jenkins—S potted Lakes of Epsomite in The drainage of this basin region is less than half of a square mile, but in this area are numerous metalliferous mineral claims on deposits supposed to prove their value in copper content. The mineral deposits consist largely of pyrite and pyrrhotite bodies, and the presence of these, occurring in metamorphic magnesian rocks, suggests very pointedly the source and origin of the magnesium sulphate in the lake. ie, Bs Fie. 3—View of Oroville with Osoyoos Lake at the right, Gkanogen River in the foreground, and Kruger Mountain in the background, with arrow pointing to situation of the small epsomite lake shown in fig. 2. Not a vestige of visible organic life is left in this lake, but the black mud contains considerable decayed organic matter. In mining the epsomite, first the solid salts were dug out of the spots or pools and hauled away. Later, water was obtained from a neighboring fresh-water lake, when not enough was to be had in the salts lake itself, and this was used to dissolve out the salts from beneath the mud, or from the pools where it was impracticable to get all the salts out by digging. The water was allowed to run down through holes in the mud, and was taken out by means of little gasoline pumps, sent back again through * Washington and British Columbia. 641 other holes and pumped out again, until finally, when saturated it was piped to the salts plant on the railroad, over two miles away. It was discovered, however, that the spots represented the base of inverted cone-shaped or cylindrical masses of salts, the tip of the cone being attached to a lower horizontal bed of solid epsomite beneath, in places as much as fifteen feet in thickness. This fact was import- ant to those working the deposit, for it was found that Fig. 4. White efflorescence as YIM testes SIN 41 NY Lye \ SAWS f ° 50 feet tH Fic. 4—Hypothetical vertical cross-section to show structure of small epsomite lake north of Oroville, Washington. this bed could be tunneled into and timbered, for the over- lying black mud was quite impervious to water. ‘The epsomite in this lower bed is in the form of large clear colorless crystals, some of which might be measured in feet. Upon exposure of this material to the air, a white frosted surface coating 1s formed, and it loses part of the water of crystallization, probably becoming the mineral kueserite, MgSO,H.0. In time the whole mineral changes into this new substance. Sodium sulphate and other allied salts are practically absent. In drilling to the bottom of the lake, when first pros- pecting, it was found that beneath the epsomite was a thin layer of gypsum, and between the gypsum and the bed rock was a thin layer of clayey material. The drilling was done because it was erroneously thought that the lake was in the crater of a voleano, and that it would have great depth. In handling the salts at the plant, the operating com- pany had to separate, when necessary, the included mud particles from the epsomite. This was done by dissolv- ing, setthng, and reprecipitation from a supersaturated solution caused by heating, evaporating, and then cool- ing the clear solution. Much of the material, however, o.P. J. 642 Jenkins—S potted Lakes of Epsomite wm needed no further attention save pulverizing and packing. All of it was graded and packed in such a way that it would not deteriorate through loss of its water of erystal- lization. The reprecipitated crystals were dried first with a great deal of care. The large lake, which hes in Canada, is about seventy acres in extent. Its depth and structure were not yet determined when the writer visited the place, but its sur- face appearance was much like that of the smaller lake. ng, BD. Fic. 5.—Same spotted lake as that in fig. 1. This photograph was taken after the rainy season. At that time the first work was being done—that of removal of the salts from the shallow pools. The brine itself in the pools was so strong that it was very heavy and very shmy lke the white of an egg, and had an offen- sive odor. ‘The work was accomplished by shoveling the salts into wheelbarrows, wheeling them along planks laid down on the mud, and dumping their contents upon platforms on the shore. The writer was told that seasonal changes, and even the daily changes of temperature, noticeably affect this lake. After the rainy season the spots are nearly hidden beneath the surface of the water covering. In the later part of the summer the brine of the lake is quite concen- trated and during cool nights the salts crystallize out of the warmer daytime solution. Washington and British Columbia. 643 A peculiar form of alge grows in this larger lake near the surface.