ree ee . aera “* hadiasior ert on : ’ CVO Pe ee . Se ae tole : ea oogtetatace tal “3% ; ane eet ad kd Aen hel erie ae TE ET PE EEE ENED De Thal what ere renee! sgtstotare we weee PP te a ee eae ie a haheatsielet Cera Chee Oele FER Ne IEG Wet ply Pe hd lk A ahaha *eretare’ etateie’s were har vewyanerenes te ioe de eae foto teere . | taen rte va) nse aie ere ely Peele WW ele ele Velarela te viene a eT elels Dv hol atale one! sererehera qtelaienerery he lghe Oana Se ata PE otaleterere aryerres'y Soha tate et® ne hetetar rete ep ie iwi ety. OTT ak iis es de or hr erent yn ti arate -wtenste Wlnte'e oe Bh hetahete irdededi-tidast? , Penuhe 3 e Reta aie ' vee s aha Mteterevs tere" ee ad sone ~ er - sarvisnenetetar rend Mostra tnd tin Me nema ttt Wwe wnherere wien tah ot eretaieletet ratubaperehe” Ldaebeath firchd hd the uaeter vine bib diversity ptetetotre"et mires Sledintes a A ae ower rere nye BUA Mn ae : . ete etere over Weiner “ Serbenireiite wetiitors rtm netebeten . ’ : : Seteie ss wrt te Rie ete Ca leks rereeiatyé Sehemarera™ Wikubuu dha een eh i aod edged Paseo iow «4. mee stanetyeat vee lee ue 1D bad - nu Teraheletetiieavte pie lotaterenee ete ae wvirrewieiyrenterery| rUrealie Biv'ntvt ‘ ‘ ogieiele are canehg ‘ e ih eh weer wane 9 ea rrat arenes: there ae” lad eh et ee a : 7 redial ee ee wraaigrener are bswres re eecytete’e 4 ie 4 hed el did Ce ee a Seer elen ‘rtarroere mqiete etereny'y i deta dd tat ro he al rebar "elehet - evr "t wre otee heey e the'eree! al veer reer rite ow Te eed Se rere yer’ es rae nr re ewe ee ee ’ errr lerorrwe’# ere aowrele ans oer vie peewee ol Saver eaws % ’ dotnet rvs ney feet Heiress areeeep enero Here CO a ea wo orarereretziale Satgtewr ane eee ayer ag ere at at eee ae ae Por Ie ele Wi de od es a he Bl CO COT OT PE EN weld verve ‘oles ss c Ce a i a ope ele ite arrears Pe REV Te ae ek et ore er elelere® ee de Nel wtemeret arene ee se ar Oe ee ote or ‘youlere'ere eee v viet Oe ee ee ee ee CHT CERN MATE TOT E retetete'e ver a biere ~ oe 4 rere vale heae ah tno tm le ¥ *Perevrelety ae yvers ! al dath- his PURE wig wre ers vruey phd ieee dl Pb sad bay a4 fh ¥ ana seditaabads BAN et verre ; ererere'e” Sietblyie! te*e*ar rs ‘e'9" , oe i hd Oe a ati ? ; nf oe towels worse dele! , vr eee 4 regres ere ny he evreiareiewere ew eparwreT Tete e ole & * Hs vee ~~ ee i ore eee waar CO Be ee tere ” Ure wee rw Te wee ee OVOP OTT CVU ee ae ew + anergy atareterw lee arene ehigry UrerErereresetetyre ervVercrreeen 4 , veerels tee eerie we , . vorrirne feet oleae eitely a sviewere egteefsevre ee ee vee Sk eh A oer rrr are ee ee es shah Peete s viene oe ee ie] rrp earwe . ‘ vets iver rere : A dd 09d Tle eer ee rete Bere Ere eee Te Fel ls ee ee ee sooevleigig Oot ear ype eee @ eter pyre eee ew Velen” of olete are wets rrrewver ° VU oes ee ree voheiprete e's wererata t Hees Vwr'e Deere NNW ee vewereeh @evee wR PVE vies whee ele Oe oh ie ee ; Ad Th oh ih ibd bt en dll te di dll dbl Ae ell me eee esraree? wre re’ : Pe La ee ik od he ee vre"@ . 09 WO OPprwlere Ve wee we We era wire ‘ ere werwrew ey » ’ Kee TEV Hee ES SHG whale elegy 2" srr verre vee ORT OPH TE elavatel ea eretel eerie wy * “were pweer ; igiace'efere's “wat , svevvene Vira e ye wane’ SAO wire ar vice ened pene ee F es Ee oe ee eerely varet myrere elt ew ee ete eres ew Vee PE Ww Ree Tews a” vere eee ae aw ee ee ee Tei i ee ¥ ehereree eoureen eo we cree " 1 erpee errata se eaire wee oleae a ote ttelets fan sels eee ce ae ree VERVE een we oe ewe OR eee ovwrwservrerrere? rr ewer rw? WOW O weleetn eet PEC MP wreterrty ey ee 2 yee ew ewlwew ale ete rehearse o'vls we von dae wre sawereete were grew ON FF Ore weve ee errr eergrere ee aes tS Wee larwlnrwra ele i vow vcarreeeet t-te tht d-dh do i eatheh reel ea ere eles cree 7 ' aig : ' RamnDUANT Th Mune he eet ie Hh Pee erieta Y ere ewe Vreven evrnene sree wae eateries mrrvrrore gteti veer aonvaevrreve veh oiee erate erate te Eee Ce bleilelaa creceteete 8 eee ewF celewate ev eleleterew ees viens Mouare i oF aa ehwl ee etal roe re ’ renee wenn? weve? vt Z r Whee eek we La He HO Ge weary ateree pe elelalgr a ere weet rere reds eee vai by a dA pbesuvatasereratetevehonatateraerareroraria Ur eee te emirate eee TUE TT TET PULTE Hyer ee eV RReV ORT Tes ; Ferree NET eee TT err ee hee #0 w58 vel bie bell mt dh Hh bined jp Petal Ma ad syd OTP VEE Er TETNTs gene ‘ qe st , " ae were yf 3 rote eg a? Neg fe aeth Mev : beep ete a ee averorafe slararelerelersteeveressterespterereratg este tiulg’ s eieitia's yey viytey i 4 PETE Te ery we wi De CECE E EOE DEH yR eT ele CUNO VEE Per bes eve a ee ee tee eererter eePVy ores oe o’e“e PPE OEE He Cowles! « wierer eral Cia cvirwecee eee Pree ee OTE eT vearet Vv wele ws Cwrvewewe eit ew evie veer 1 ’ -pghwle wieiargietere'y se wielelelele a Perea lela ate ore tare “ b * : ’ slofeterateleis'o oe bialpe age © ElarR Eg etarerare’® prover pmrtrersreteeters yt ye Hielerete eb rene 8 cere le pie te ele gow ey Ree Wowie ayleelete ye ¢ woe ete eres Ve Pelee etelrie eee sarees ‘ TUNEL UA ew area vie ee ee rei | BAAR Oe errs rev reer yee ee a ‘ P a AME A te'e's reer es eeer rarer J reisterer os oe iateeteteg et ete ee ereiee ® rere’ revrrrerve vr etre were ew ews . oT OHH OEE Oe 8 + oe ert Oe be rete Pa HVE VERS Cee? ee wrrers ber ee Cre erp rererend ele ehh w RLe e Piet Riera ee lees Verweree er eee ere '® eierers ews « oem LAME Ree ee | sey eree’ phere eee W Obaterete we mtetaty a” TITPPL PEE dte ry Vey i ie ot ae ies be * TK. bi Ps Ah wrt ee ie . re fe V; ¢ tL ‘yy | FATE New mys will | MT uel HLL TT con agett MAN, Ni ALI! geenererrn te IL Lih EY HHI : fee A Ayprgichp HUNT Lite yt Case ONAN hy aid 1 6 ae A UTHER Oe ggaet veeeae Sree » v - “ ee 6, [| | M ae win Wadtity J in ia | Sen i dat E betel Tole k wear The 4 Ave ov § ee MA \, | viianvsurll & Denieheeen ab\ baa OF TT i" I} (i NZ Mayer -* Ma ~ 24 yw" a! \p aS, a AA ~~ 2% et . NE ivameamac ui een 1 AeA npg Lui leWinrencit. aera {GAR Ay ATT TTT J | "tteee~ Pil Aw ‘ ‘ k A fo } ‘es Sul" npn ays y Mee eater PAY NA v VV et, yt / ee WM reve \ et 4 re rele K yer tagge tents Nee peso uaea MAbf il ula Mera eee v = fe ~s = iy : Ags NPA tM . Vyt 3 é ve oy, bp VR Py ng ~ 0 on ~ Sw wei ‘e SHiAtet eit Ni Agar? wertirn) A | ca fiver’ g iNew wal = Ah! . PU ady | dat : >" oedlivd Wl Weh ™ Pe) aA mt é CECE ULELT IMA ‘A AAA ETON meses Vo o> “> ye A ly {I Mave , | | vy \ "ver A tote gt et al Aniitng 4 s We VAPAAArets.- SUT tir gan ; gifhy A RD a! \ WW nAannne? TT ep | hereynr rrr fib daaenee a Wek art i Pane | en, dda dde doen SASS etl ecg ett ocanes ereeM Na tannarTTINT TET OT. me will "Wil "4 gees eho 4" NA ttt! Ee ay! i i I . Pent Pa hed xe Ds — icy Ay Pb hh ie biaba' ia bee - .4 pei Ag Aa | A wee al uh ~ Th bi wh) | ae WV Sune lk ek wee Pet Pied BF ALLY wf of", at A ‘ if Nn FAA Ges eme| yin abide ting Vs vo ihe fe be (ies ea Wey ¥ rots Pt wy is 4 vuve Ww ou ; YW. “yrs Taybs © eR ee le 11)} ETL T | | Aa “ehiyeneo PO pall ee MA vines prot UE Pe. Pe re n=) Psy ewe ‘" “ “WEP ay A OC Vet mivegns mierert me coceatth ee: et rvs TH yty ar ewe eras fy} ah thy NT A lg | wdigy! ‘ eae ia ity ga = i 2 Ff Ve v= “e ve Yap ; ci? ms \w we aay WS yy Uy! ee oy % A : a “8g ei Ih Mv 7‘ "any. \ ne veh, ne Oe Ney gye: ‘ hha al ne 7 Yyetcryat? “reuyitt) Neral Vy; ns, Lit Winn LL | wane Le vy Nsw. tn, afte “gf NK whe ipl UNAWARE UNAM OULD on é : eas Wut: Woe » USy ‘ ww # - wy wwe =~ i Lf be fir hee vets een < } Nemes } ¥ nich | Rome “stoewemit re buby ba . Lee Ly rNN Sy ea bd 5 pte fos 4 Micaltente nell “e by me Tver, ~ - @OeEseees cet Mere TE tes ant oes Peru Ad Lab | : : " qv. ap! Hi, rik Wie re | pe Ny my > st Ove eS ; v Hy everett atin Ny oo sere enti Keres ee ©. gee ‘ he 5" i vuu ah PTS AA | A gs’ We ips gh eB ines ne an ; SLT guru er” TT TT haltindi nya VoreaceQPAMM os cneege gL neem vat aay iM ~qnar” 1h ‘eB NAR CA WA yr PM | A prvtipt NT Taal lyn vale. EEE] eyes vite TT LDL bbl bbe neni tniciititt take eb) omar. | Pierre) | Pant wTCrretnes TARA ThA AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCLENCE, Evitrorn: EDWARD 8S. DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Prorsssors GEO. L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, H. P. BOWDITCH anv W. G. FARLOW, or Camprines, Prorressors O. C. MARSH, A. E. VERRILL ann H. &%. WILLIAMS, or New Haven, Prorrssorn GEORGE F. BARKER, or Puimapetpruia, Prorrssor H. A. ROWLAND, or Battiore, Mr. J. S. DILLER, oF WasuinerTon. FOURTH SERIES. VOL. IV—[WHOLE NUMBER, CLIV.] WITH XII PLATES. Fes xnsont eattagg 256163 NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. tlonal Muses F 13.9.3 THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR PRESS, NEW HAVEN, CONN, CONTENTS TO VOLUME IV. Nimabper 19; . ir Page Axt. I.—Pressure Coefficient of Mercury Resistance; by A. PE LONER. dir se Spares Coe Bos Me Me Lee 1 II.—Ctenacanthus Spines from the Keokuk Limestone of owas. by OC. Ree WASTMAN (S25 She oe ees eas 10 III.—Studies in the Cyperacee, V.; by T. Horm .-------.- 18 IV.—Identity of Chalcostibite (Wolfsbergite) and Guejarite, and on Chalcostibite from Huanchaca, Bolivia; by S. L. fo . Renrremp andeAG RENE. 8 eee pete. Oa V.—Interesting Case of Contact Metamorphism; by H. W. BATRBAINIK'S., CS Ee 0 Bid iad SO ARI bone 36 VI.—Tin Deposits at Temescal, Southern California; by H. Rete SPE ANIC S eek eke ee wy SS Ne hewn ee Sao VII.—Outlying Areas of the Comanche Series in Oklahoma andulansass: oy La oW. (VAUGHAN) 204 J Seip ab. 43 VIII.—Electrosynthesis ; by W. G. Mixrer._....-....--- 51 1X.—Monazite from Idaho; by W. LINDGREN _-_---------- 63 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Viscosity of Mixtures of Miscible Liquids, THoRrPE and RODGER: Specific Heats of the Gaseous Elements, BERTHELOT, 65.—Synthetic Action of the Dark Electric Discharge, LOSANITSCH and JOVITSCHITSCH: Struc- tural Isomerism in Inorganic Compounds, SABANEEFF, 66.—Phase Rule, W. D. BANOROFT, 67.—Vorlesungen tiber Bildung und Spaltung von Doppelsalzen, 68. —Limits of Audition, Lorp RAYLEIGH, 69.—Polarization Capacity, C. M. Gor- DON: Oscillatory Currents arising in Charging a Condenser, SEILER: Cathode Rays, 71.—Application of the Roéntgen Rays to Surgery: Transparency of Ebonite, M. Perricot: Theory of Electricity and Magnetism, A. G. WEBSTER, 72.—Light and Sound, E. L. NicHous and W. 8S. FRANKLIN, 73. Geology and Mineralogy—Examination of Deposits obtained from borings in the Nile Delta, J. W. Jupp, 74.—Underground Temperatures at Great Depths, W. HALLocK: Depth of Peat in the Dismal Swamp, G. R. WiELAND: Currituck Sound, Virginia and North Carolina, G. R. W1ELAND, 76.—Papers on Deemone- lix: Genesis and Matrix of the Diamond, Lewis and Bonney, 77.—Transac- tions of the Geological Society of South Africa: Geological Survey of Canada, G. C. HOFFMANN, 78, Botany—New System of Classification of Phenogamia, VAN TIEGHEM, 79. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Cause of Secondary Undulations Registered on Tide Gauges, 82.—Zodlogical Bulletin, 83. Obituary— ALVAN GRAHAM CLARK, 83.—CARL REMIGIUS FRESENIUS, 84. 1V CONTENTS. Number 20. Page Art. X.—Tamiobatis vetustus; anew Form of Fossil Skate; by C. Ri Hasrman.s” (With Plate 1) e225 352°. _ ae XI.—Florencia Formation; by O. H. Hersury--_-.---.--- 90 XIJ.—-Native Iron in the Coal Measures of Missouri; by E. "Bo AUDEN 232028 Sooo ya tet eo aoe oe pet ee 99 XIII.—Bixbyite, a new Mineral, and Notes on the Associated Topaz; by. 8S. L. Punrintp and EE We Poor. sas. 105 XTV.—Composition of Imenite; by 8S. L. Penrretp and H. W oor 222 Oca hot oe Eee he 108 XV.—Separation of Aluminum and Beryllium by the action of Hydrochloric Acid; -by Hs) Mavens yu S225 teae 111 XVI.—Igneous Rocks of the Leucite Hills and Pilot Butte, W yomings by VW >, Grosse. sa at as ee eee 115 KVIE—Stylolites: by. 1. C: Hopming4..2 202 2. oe eee 142 XVIII.—Extinct Felide; by G. I. Apams ..-.----.--_--.- 145 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Electrical Convection of certain Dissolved Substances, Picton and LINDER, 150.—Phenomena of Supersaturation and Supercooling, OstwaLD: Thermochemical Method for determining the Equivalents of Acids and Bases, BERTHELOT, 151.—Action of Potassium and Sodium vapor in color- ing the Haloid salts of these metals, GIESEL: Action of the Silent Electric Dis- charge on Helium, BERTHELOT, 152.—Further Note on the Influence of a Mag- netic Field on Radiation Frequency, LopGE and Daviss, 153. Geology and Mineralogy—Recent publications of the U. S. Geological Survey, 155. —Pleistocene Features and Deposits of the Chicago Area, F. LEVERETT, 157.— A new fossil Pseudoscorpion, H. B. Grinitz: Catalogus Mammalium tam viven- tium quam fossilium, H.-L. TROUESSART: Brief Notices of some recently described Minerals, 158.—The Bendego Meteorite, O. A. DERBY, 159. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—American Association for the Advancement of Science, 160.—Development of the Frog’s Egg, an Introduction to Ex- perimental Embryology, T. H. Morey, 161. Obituary—-ALFRED M, Maygr, 161.—A. DES CLOIZEAUX: JULIUS SACHS, 164. CONTENTS. Vv Number 21. Page Art, XIX.—Principal Characters of the Protoceratide ; by O. C. Marsu. Part I. (With Plates II-VII.)--.---- 165 XX.—Theory of Singing Flames; by H. V. Gitu.-------- a7 XXI.—Electrical Discharges in Air; by J. TRowBripGE... 190 XXIJI.—Oscillatory discharge of a large Accumulator; by Diemer: ONVABIRED GE oh 4iar at ia Earas MeN y h LO XXIII.—Jura and Neocomian of Arkansas, Kansas, Okla- homa, New Mexico and Texas; by J. Marcov---.----- 197 XXIV.—Pithecanthropus erectus; by L. Manovvrienr. Translated by George Grant MacOurdy.-..----.-.--- 213 XXV.—Titration of Sodium Thiosulphate with Iodic Acid ; lye el NEAIOE Ry af omen le ae i tee ee N28 o XXVI.—Solarization effects in Réntgen Ray Photographs; by W. L. Rozs. (With Plates VIIJ—-X.)..-._..--.- 243 XXVII.—Cape Fairweather Beds, a new marine Tertiary Horizon in Southern Patagonia; by J. B. Harcner -.. 246 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Natural History—New Series of Contributions from the Gray Herbarium of Har- vard University, No. XI, J. M. GREENMAN: Synoptical Flora of North Ameri- ea, Vol. 1. Part I, 249.—Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States, Can- ada, and the British Possessions, N. L. Britron and A. Brown: Guide to the Genera and Classification of the North American Orthoptera found north of Mexico, 8S. H. ScuppER: Das Tierreich, KE. HaRTERT, 250. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence— American Association for the Advancement of Science, 250.—Transactions of the American Microscopical Society, 256. -¥i CONTENTS. Number 22. Art. XXVIII.—-Fractional Crystallization of Rocks; by Gui’) BECKER C22 2 Roe eres ee ee ee ee oe XXIX.—Eopaleozoic Hot Springs and the Origin of the Pennsylvania Siliceous Odlite; by G. R. WrEeLanp---~- XXX.—Conditions required for attaining Maximum Accu- racy in the Determination of Specific Heat by the Method of Mixtures; by F. L. O. Wapswortu..- ---- XXXI.—Systematic position of Crangopsis vermiformis (Meek), from the Subcarboniferous rocks of Kentucky; by A.: BH. VORTMAN 2222 52 hee ee XXXII.—New Species of the Palinurid-Genus Linuparus found in the Upper Cretaceous of Dakota; by A. E. ORTMANN: 2-2. 0290). 9G Te Ta ee NS XXXIII.—Studies in the Cyperacee, VI.; by T. Horm---.- XXXIV.—Improved Heliostat invented by Alfred M. Mayers) iby “Ay wa. (Miwa? 38¢ 25220. pele eee XXXV.—Pseudomorphs from Northern New York; by C,H. “Sinners oe ee eee ee XXXVI.—Chemical Composition of Hamlinite and _ its Occurrence with Bertrandite at Oxford County, Maine ; by S. L. PENRIRLD. 2228 © hee ee ee SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 262 265 283 306. 309 313. Chemistry and Physics—Propetties of Highly Purified Substances, SHENSTONE, 317.—Liquefaction of Fluorine, Morissan and DEWAR, 318.—Normal and Iso- pentane from American Petroleum. YouNG and THomMAs: Heat of Combustion, MENDELEEFF, 319.—Capillary constants of molten metals, H. SiEDENTOPF, 320.— Relations between the Geometric constants of a crystal and the Molecular Weight of its Substance, G. Linck, 321.—Induction Coil in practical work, including Rontgen Rays, L. WRIGHT. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—British Association, 324.—Notes on Green- land glaciation, R. S. Tarr: Revision of the Apodide, C. ScHucHERT: New Meteorite from Canada, 325.—Observations on Popocatepetl and Ixtaccihuatl, O.C. FaRRiINGTON: L. Evolution régressive en Biologie et en Sociologie, J. DEMOOR, J. MASSART and E. VANDERNELDE: Birds of Colorado, W. W. CooKE: Mam- moth Cave of Kentucky: an illustrated Manual, H. C. Hovey and R, EH. CALt, 326. CONTENTS. vil Number 23. Page Art. XXXVII.—Geology of Southern Patagonia: by J. B. PUNE Crepes) ieee eh IO ee 327 XXXVIII.—Some of the large Oysters of Patagonia; by eer. ORTMANN, CWitht Plate XI) e222 002 2 eo 355 XXXIX.— Former Extension of the Appalachians across Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas; by J. C. BRANNER.. 357 XL.—Combustion of Organic Substances in the Wet Way; Biya O Ti HRS) eae oa ea Lee ee Nae 372 XLI.—Some Features of Pre-Glacial Drainage in Michigan ; by Wistlie Minbenr ietagte Sh 2 Sr etie ous has 883 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Verification of Dalton’s law for Solutions, WILDERMANN, 387.—Spectrum of Silicon, A. DE GRamMOoNT: Spark Spectrum of Cyanogen, HartLey, 388.—Electrolytic Solution and Deposition of Carbon, CoEHN. 389.— Conversion of Nitrites into Cyanides, Kerp: Physics, Student’s Manual for the Study Room and Laboratory, CooLEY: Action ata distance, P. DRUDE, 390.— Electrical tension at the poles of an induction apparatus, A. OBERBECK: Inves- tigation of the Lenard Rays, TH. DES CoUDRES: Behavior of rarified gases in approximately closed metallic receptacles in a high frequency field, H. EBERT and HK. WIEDEMANN: Cathode Rays, J. J. THomson, 391.—Effect of Pressure on Wave Length, W. J. HUMPHREYS, 392. Geology and Natural History—Recent publications of the U. S. Geological Survey, 392.—Alabama, Geological Survey, 393 —Canada, Geological Survey: Indiana, 21st Annual Report of Department of Geology aud Natural Resources, 1896: Fossil Insects of the Cordaites shales of St. John, N. B., G. A. MatTrHeEw, 394. —Cape of Good Hope, 1st Annual Report of the Geological Commission, 1896: Glacial observations in the Umanak district, Greenland, G. H. Barton: Les Variations de longueur des Glaciers dans les Régions arctiques et boréales, C. Ragpot, 395.— Esquisses Sélénogiques, W. Prinz, 396. — Experimental Morphology, C. B. DAVENPORT, 397. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence —Geological Lectures of Harvard University, Hays ReuscuH, 397.—Calculus for Engineers, J. PERRY: Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exakten Wissenschaften, 398. Obituary—VicToR MEYER, 398. Vili CONTENTS. Number 24. Page Art. XLII.—A Microsclerometer, for determining the Hard- ness of Minerals; by T. A. Jacaar, Jr. (With Plate | XIL). 2. gc. p23 S225 2 ee 399 XLIII.—Recent Observations on European Dinosaurs; by ~ OD C; Manse 2 eee 413 XLIV.—-Sapphires from Montana, with special reference to those from Yogo Gulch in Fergus County; by G. F. KUNZ 212.2 eh oe es er XLV.—Corundum-bearing Rock from Yogo Gulch, Montana; by L..V. PIRsson . 2... 22522 4.2 421 XLVI.—Crystallography of the Montana Sapphires; by J. H. Prati’. 22S a Ss ee ee 424 XLVILI.-—Electrical Measurement by Alternating Currents ; . by H. Ay RowiAND: 22 232 22 5. 5e2 oe es XLVIIi.—The alleged Jurassic of Texas. A Reply to Pro- fessor Jules Marcou3 ‘by lh. TV. Him _ 22 229 ee 449 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Thermal Phenomena attending Change in Rotatory Power, BROWN and PICKERING, 470.—Chemical Action of Electrical Oscilla- tions, DE HEMPTINNE, 471.—Explosion of Chlorine Peroxide with Carbon Mon- - oxide, Dixon, 472.—Absorption of Nitrogen by Carbon compounds under the influence of the silent Electric Discharge, BERTHELOT: Manual of Qualitative Analysis, C. R. FRESENIUS, 473.—Delay in spark discharges, E. WARBURG: Photoelectric relations of Fluorspar and of Selenium, G. C. ScumiptT, 474.— Magnetic method of showing metallic iron: Spectra of certain stars, VOGEL and WILSING: Structure of the Cathode Light and the nature of the Lenard Rays, GOLDSTEIN: New Nicol Prism, 475. Geology and Natural History—Observations on Baffinland, R. BELL, 476.—Inter- national Geological Congress, 477.—Mineral Resources of the United States, 1895, D. T. Day: Descriptive Catalogue of Useful Fiber Plants of the World, including the structural and economic classifications of fibers, C. R. DoDGE#, 478. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Natural Academy of Sciences, 479.—Cordoba Photographs, B. A. GouLp: November Meteors: Sixteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, J. W. Pow Lt, 480.—Field Columbian Museum: American Journal of Physiology, 481. INDEX, 482. has. D. Walcott, U. S. Geol. Survey. fo AMERICAN. | | JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, Epiror:: EDWARD 8S. DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Proressors GEO. L. GOODALE, JOHN’ TROWBRIDGE, . P. BOWDITCH ann W. G. FARLOW, or CamBrinGE, * Prorzssors O. C. MARSH, A. E. VERRILL anv Hi S. WILLIAMS, or New Hven, Prorzssor GEORGE F. BARKER, or Pumapstpnt, Proressor H. A. ROWLAND, or Barrimorg, Mr. J. 8. DILLER, oF Wasurineron. FOURTH SERIES. VOL. IV—[WHOLE NUMBER, CLIV.] No. 19.—JULY, 1897. NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. LS. Ovte TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 125 TEMPLE STREET. i Published monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6.40 to foreign sub- _seribers of countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should be made either by a pnenay 2 BEGPEBY te gata letters, or bank checks, _ known species. The color of the new specimens ranges from delicate straw plane, pyramid or both: and possess a marvelous lustre. An odd and novel type -Barite grouped with Calcite in an attractive manner. erapunite, Witherite, | ar tw hee IN BEAUTIFUL Gee are Ae A rare variety of Vanadinite, having half of the Vanadium replace } Arsenic. A small collection made at the locality and just purchased by 1 embraces specimens which are vastly better than the few quickly sold eight. months ago. In brilliant perfection and highly modified crystallization — fully equal the magnificent examples of the common variety of this low to rich orange-red, the shading in groups or even Ree crystals giving a . charming mottled effect. aay Crystals are short tabular to acicular hexagonal prisms, terminated by basal” y is where the basa! plane of a tabular crystal is fringed by minute needle-like cy c tals of light color, standing parallel to the sides of the larger prism. e Prices are low. $1.00 to $4.00 for exquisite small groups of good sized crys: tals. Micro. mounts and single crystals, 50c. and 7T5c. Begs ANGLESITE, CERUSSITE AND PYROMORPHITE. from the old Phoenixville mines. Through the purchase of a collection ‘made se back in the ’60’s we are enabled to sell choice examples of the rare and beautiful __ minerals of this historic locality. 5c. to $3.00 each. Also cheap- ee specimens. CUMBERLAND MINERALS . in unusually fine specimens. Calcites of new types, bright and gemmy. Blue. * t Hematite with Quartz, 25c. to $4.00. MIMETICAL PYRITE - Curious and interesting crystals which simulate the cube; from Daradagna. Italy. Described by Prof. Luigi Bombicci in an exhaustive illustrated memoir, 50c. to $3.00. FINE SULPHURS (ier stock of Sicilian Sulphurs, far excelling anything even in Europe, has eee et increased by another shipment containing some remarkable specimens. Prices $ > to 4 those formerly obtained. Also a new type of the same species from N Ce NE ern Italy. Poretta Cavernous Quartz, Aragonite. Rabpe to OTHER NEW ARRIVALS Crystals of :—Pyroaurite, Avalite, Monazite, Xenotime, Cleveite and Thorite. ue Excellent Herderites, Bertrandite, Limonite after Pyrite in good groups. a Striated Garnets. Delaware Co. (Pa.) Ae Vna SE ieee METEORITES eel Section of the Sacramento Mts. (N. M.) Iron for sale. Also Canyon Diablo Diamondiferous Iron at lowest prices. slate NATIVE IRON (TERRESTRIAL) Pieces of the mass brought from Greenland and described by Baron Norden- skiold. $2.00 to $3.00 per pound. pes mineral collection should show terres- trial and meteoric won. COLLECTIONS OF MINERALS A SPECIALTY. ‘Laboratory Material. Crystals. Gems. Prices on application. Dr. A. E. FOOTE, WarREN M. Foore, Manager. 1317 ARCH STREET, ; PHILADELPHIA, PA., U. 8. Boe iP EE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE [FOURTH SERIES. ] +O<¢ Art. Il.—On the Pressure Coefficient of Mercury Resistance ; | by A. DeForust PALMER, JR. DuRinG the last fifty years many physicists have investi- gated the specific resistance of mercury and its variations under different conditions, yet the only determinations of the pressure coefficient, previously published, are those of Barus,* who found —-00003 by subjecting commercial mercury to pressures up to 400 atmospheres, and Lenz,+ who found —-0002 for pure mercury between one and sixty atmospheres. The discordance of these results is far too great to be explained by impurities in the mercury and invites further study. The long range of pressure desired for the present investi- gation was easily obtained with Professor Barus’s ‘Screw compressor.” This instrument, together with the vertical piezometer employed in my work, has been so fully described elsewheret that only a cursory mention is necessary here. The piezometer proper consists of a cold drawn seamless steel tube, about 6™™ internal and 13™™ external diameter and 60 long, connected to the compressor in such a manner that very per- fect electrical insulation exists between the two without ren- dering the joint appreciably leaky. The whole apparatus was filled with heavy mineral oil which, though more viscous than water, attained uniformity of pressure with sufficient rapidity -and possessed the advantage of being a very good insulator. * Barus, this Journal, III, xl, p. 219, 1890. + Lenz, Stuttgart, 1882, Wied. Beibl., vi, p. 802, 1882. t{ Barus, Phil. Mag., Oct., 1890, p. 340; Proc. Amer. Acad., xxv, p. 93, 1890; Bull. U. 8. Geological Survey, No. 96. Am. Jour. So1.—FourtH SERIES, Vou. IV, No. 1.—Juty, 1897. ul 2 Palmer—Pressure Coefficient of Mercury Resistance. Moreover it is much easier to prevent leakage of oil than water and it has no detrimental effect on the steel parts with which it comes in contact. An Amagat “ manomeétre a pistons libres”* was used to determine the pressures attained and gave results within one-tenth per cent throughout the entire range. The ratio of its pistons is such that one millimeter difference in height of the mercury column supported by the larger cor- responds to a difference of pressure of °647 atmospheres on the smaller. It is supplied with an open glass manometer three and one-half meters high and is therefore capable of indicating pressures somewhat greater than two thousand atmospheres, but above this limit a large element of uncertainty is introduced by leakage of oil around the pistons. Commercial mercury was digested for about forty-eight hours in a solution of sulphuric acid and bichromate of potash in water and after being carefully washed, dried, and filtered, was distilled directly into the tubes in which its resistance was measured. An ordinary glass thermometer tube, about 18° long and 0-1™™ bore, had 10™ of 2™™ bore tubing welded fo its upper end in such a manner that a cavity, about 1°™ long and 4™™ in diameter, was formed between the two parts. This cavity and the elongated bulb at the lower end of the fine capillary had platinum electrodes melted through their walls and, when filled, formed the terminals of. the mercury thread. under investigation. The open end of the large tube was welded to a small glass mercury still connected, through a dry- ing chamber, with a Geissler-Toepler air pump and the whole apparatus exhausted until the pressure fell below one milli- meter. When the inside walls had become perfectly dry, heat was applied and mercury slowly distilled over and condensed in the experimental tube. As soon as this became full it was emptied and the operation repeated until the mercury thread, when examined with a magnifying glass, appeared perfectly bright and uniform throughout its entire length. Air was then admitted and the large capillary cut off about two centi- meters from the point where it joined the still. After solder- ing silk insulated copper wires to the electrodes the tube was placed inside the steel piezometer and the upper wire con- nected directly to it, while the lower one, after passing down through a narrow glass tube, to insure good insulation, was soldered to the inside of the compressor. Oil was forced up into the piezometer and when its appearance at the top showed that all air had been expelled the opening was closed by a tinned steel screw. The piezometer was surrounded by a long brass cylinder, * Amagat, C. R., eiii, p. 429. 1886. Professor Tait has described a similar apparatus in the ‘Challenger Reports,” 1873-76, Physics and Chemistry, vol. ii. Palmer—Pressure Coefficient of Mercury Resistance. 3 closed at the ends by rubber stoppers, through which water from the city mains was allowed to flow continuously. A ther- mometer with its bulb inside of this cooler showed that the - temperature never varied more than one degree from 9° C. throughout the entire series of experiments and that the varia- tions during the same day were very much less than this. For the measurements at the boiling point of water a tin can about 30™ long and 13°" in diameter, having short brass tubes sol- dered to apertures in the center of its ends, was placed on the piezometer and fastened, by short pieces of rubber tubing, in such a position that it entirely covered the experimental ¢ube within. Two openings in the top were provided, one for the reception of a thermometer and the other for a vertical water condenser. The latter, being open at the top, kept the steam at atmospheric pressure and at the same time obviated the necessity of frequently renewing the supply of water. The whole arrangement with the exception of the bottom was covered with asbestos to prevent radiation and heat was applied by means of a ring burner surrounding the piezometer below the can. Small water coolers were placed above and below to prevent the conduction of heat through the steel tube to the joints where it might cause leaks. Various methods for the measurement of resistance were tried with more or less success, but that due to Carey Foster was found to give the best results owing to its sensitiveness to small variations. The general arrangement of the apparatus for this method is too well known to need description here. The transposition of the standard and unknown resistances was accomplished by means of an eight pole mercury commu- tator similar to those put on the raarket by Nalder Bros. A series of platinoid coils, by Queen & Co., so arranged that their combined resistance could be varied by tenths from zero to ten thousand ohms, without altering the number of plugs in the circuit, was used as a standard with which to compare the mereury thread under investigation. As noted above, the electrodes of the thread were connected respectively to the piezometer and compressor, and since these parts were other- wise very perfectly insulated from one another they served admirably as poles from which to make connection with the commutator. A very uniform german silver wire, about No. 17 B. & 8. gauge, was wound in ten uniform spirals about a vulcanite cylinder 10° in diameter and 3°6™ long. Its ends were fastened, in the same generating line of the cylinder, to two thick brass plates that formed the ends of the drum and were rigidly fastened to two stout brass pillars which were con- nected with the poles of the commutator. An insulated frame work was arranged to revolve about this drum in such a man- 4 Palmer—Pressure Coefficient of Mercury Resistance. ner that a spring contact, which served as one terminal of the galvanometer, could be readily placed on any point of the wire and its position accurately determined by a large microm- eter head divided into one hundred equal parts. This arrange- ment presents a great advantage over the ordinary form of drum bridge since the only friction connections are in the gal- vanometer circuit, where the worst effect they can produce is small variations in sensitiveness, and not, as they are usually placed, at the terminals of the wire, where changes in their resistance produce the maximum effect on the result. Current was eupplied to the bridge by a single Daniell’s cell and was so regulated by a small rheostat in series with the battery that its intensity was never sufficient to appreciably alter the tem- perature of the resistances in circuit. The attainment of bal- ance was judged by a very sensitive and dead beat D’Arsonval galvanometer of the horizontal magnet type and its indica- tions were observed by the telescope and scale method. When the Queen resistance box was bought, some years ago, it was accompanied by a certificate from Professor Anthony to the effect that its readings were correct to one-fiftieth of one per cent at 175° C. and that its temperature coefficient was ‘00023. The coils used in the present investigation have nevertheless been very carefully calibrated and the values thus found used in all the calculations, for, though many of them came quite up to the guarantee, several showed deviations somewhat larger than the probable errors of observation. The resistance of the bridge wire was determined in the following manner. Let the reading of the bridge micrometer, when balance has been obtained, with two nearly equal resistances R and R’ in circuit be z, and when Rand F&’ are interchanged 2’. Then if z and 2’ are the corresponding readings when R has been increased by a known increment @R it is easy to prove that a dR "= (@—2) + (2'—2/) where 7 is the resistance of a length of the wire correspond- ing to one division of the micrometer. About one hundred determinations of this quantity, involving various lengths and different portions of the wire, gave the mean value 7 = ‘000898 ohms the greatest difference between a single observation and the mean being less than 3xX10-* ohms. These measurements also showed that the error of a single setting of the micrometer was about one-tenth of one division and hence that the mean error of a single determination of a resistance, due to this cause alone, was less than ‘0001 ohms. Throughout the entire Palmer— Pressure Coeficient of Mercury Resistance. 5 investigation the resistances in the various arms of the bridge were so proportioned as to give a maximum of sensitiveness, and a movement of the spring contact on the wire equal to one-tenth of a division was always sufficient to reverse the direction of the galvanometer deflection when balance was obtained. During the measurements at 9° ©. no difficulty was experienced from thermoelectro-motive forces, since the water cooler was long enough to keep all the joints at the same tem- perature, but when the steam jacket was employed they caused so much trouble that it became necessary to replace the copper connections inside of the piezometer by iron wires. Disturb- ances of this nature were thus reduced to a minimum and trustworthy results could be obtained by closing first the galva- nometer and then the battery circuit.’ The temperature of the room and of the standard resistances, determined by a small mercurial thermometer placed between the coils, remained nearly constant during the actual time of observation but varied considerably from day to day. If R represents the resistance of the mercury thread and W that of the standard of comparison and if w and 2’ are the readings of the bridge-wire micrometer for the position of bal- ance before and after they are interchanged, we have R= W +r («x—z’) where 7 has the meaning and value assigned to it above and all the connection resistances are eliminated except those between RK and W and the commutator. To determine these the mercury tube was replaced by a thick copper wire soldered to the same connecting wires and measurements were then made under as nearly as possible the same conditions of pres- sure and temperature that were used with the mercury. The mean of a large number of observations gave -0632 ohms with the copper connections used at low temperature and °5095 ohms with the iron ones used-at the boiling point, and no variation with the pressure could be detected. In reducing the resist- ances to the standard temperature of the Queen box the bridge wire was assumed to have the same temperature coefficient and to be always at the same temperature as the standard coils. This assumption could introduce no appreciable error in the results, since the factor 7(a—w’) was always less than 0°1 ohm and the temperature of the room never varied much from that of the box, but it greatly simplified the calculation of the cor- rections. It was further found that the slight variations in the temperature of the mercury thread, from 9° C. in one ease and from 100° C. in the other, introduced errors that could not be neglected and corrections were introduced using °0009 as the temperature coefficient of mereury. Finally the effect of changes in the volume of the glass tube, due to compression, 6 Palmer—Pressure Coefficient of Mercury Resistance. were eliminated on the assumption that the coefficient of eubi- cal compressibility of the glass used was -0000025. Caleula- tions were instituted to determine the effect on the measure- ments of the slight changes in pressure, and hence in the resistances of the mercury thread, due to leakage of the com- pressor and gauge between the direct and reverse settings of the bridge wire contact, and it was found that the errors so introduced were generally so small and their calculation so uncertain that no appreciable benefit could be obtained by attempting their correction. Taste JI. P japan pete RoR hoe Le ae R’ R= R’ | | 1912-470 Fiat 019 || 1199 | 11°963 | 11-956 | 007 57 | 12414 | 12-428 | —-014 | 1400 | 11-871 | 11-872 |—-001 149 | 12°382 | 12°390 |-—-008 | 1651 | 11°749 | 11-768 |—-019 241 | 12°344 | 12°352 | —-008 || 1890 | 11°678 | 11-669 | -009 301 | 12°308 | 12°327 | —-019 || 1984 | 11°637 | 11°630 | -007 386 | 12:°294 | 12-292 002 113 | 12-406 | 12°405 | -001 459 | 12-265 | 12-262 , -003 186 | 12°374 | 12°3750)2 = 00" 515, | 127250) 042-9895). i cose 282 | 12°333 | 12:335 4-002 544 | 12298 | 12-297 | 001 || 378 | 12'302 | 12°295 | 007 581 12-205 | 12°211 | —:006 461 | 12°255 | 12-261 |—-006 1 | 12°456 | 12°451 | -005 || 537 | 12-236 | 12-230 | -006 - 1°91 9-452 | (oo 008 623-1 12°195: | 19494 a et 375 | 12°261 | 12:°297 | —-036 692 | 12°168 | 12°165 | -003 552 | 12-2195 99995 1 —=-D10 TT {12142-11930 ee 581 | 12-216 | 12°211 | 005 ||--867"| 12-0714 12°100 }—-029 605 12200 | 12201 | —-001 || 133 | 12°396 | 12°396 | -000 649 | 127192 | 12°183' | »-009 || - 881 | 12°105 | 12-087 | 018 729 | 12-163 | 12-150 013 || 918 |. 12094 | 12-072. | ---022 1441 | 11°837 | 11°855 | —-018 || 990 | 12°050 | 12°042 ; -008 1504 | 11°809 | 11°829 | —:020 || 1045 | 12°085 | 12:019 | -016 1574 | 11-785 .| 11-800 | = :015.1| 1173) 11-976.) 11-9669 oaae 1619 | 11-765] 11-782 |;—-017 || 1230 | 11:942 |.11:°943 |— 00% . 1686 | 11-740 | 11°754 4: —-014 || 1997.) 11-919 | 11-00so Got 1755 | 11-719 | 11°725 |-—-006 || 1369 | 11-878 | 11:885 |—-007 1831 | 11-702 | 11:694 008 || 1425 | 11°858 | 11:862 |—-004 1923. 11°666 | 11-656 010 || 1479 | 11-838 | 11-839 —-001 tiie 4923 76 1a ois “000 {| 1542") 11°815 | T1812") Ope 359 | 12-306 | 12-303 ‘O03 [1571 | 11-828 1° 11-8017) ae 532 | 12-230 | 12-231 | —-001 || 154 |-12-388 | 12°388 | -000 684 | 127180 | 12-169 ‘O1) || 154 | 12-388 | 12:388 | -000 851 | 12-116 | 12-100 016 || 106 | 12-406 | 12-408 |—-002 1047 | 12°020 | 12-018 002 106 | 12-403 | 12-408 005 Five or ten minutes were always allowed to elapse after each increment to the pressure before the resistance measurements Palmer—Pressure Coefficient of Mercury Resistance. 7 were made in order that the irregularities in temperature, due to compression, might become equalized and the distribution of pressure throughout the whole apparatus become uniform. It was also possible by this method to determine whether the rate of leakage was sufficient to seriously affect the results and when this was found to be the case to adopt means to prevent it. The observations at 9° C. are given, in the order in which they were taken, in table I, and those at 100° C. in table IJ, where the columns P and R contain respectively the pressure in atmospheres and the corresponding corrected resistances in ohms. The chart, fig. 1, shows the same data graphically, the horizontal scale being one hundred atmospheres and the verti- cal one-tenth ohm per division. The base line corresponds to 11°6 ohms and the temperature at which each series was made is marked above it. TasLe II. iP 38 Re she 122 R eae R—R’ 68 | 13°388 |. 13°360 "028 1521 iPS al | 12°714 |—°003 161 fossa ol elo ou, “O24 16007 |< T2685 2) 12°678 "007 Boo. | b37o lO 1\-13°292 "018 1690 | 12°644 12°638 "006 Slo rT Ao 2o fh slelo 25 "004 1788 | 12°603 12°594 | :009 OY SAMS Se Pay 13'216 ‘Oil 1895 12-573 12°545 "028 47] 13°204 | 13°188 "016 EOGO Ak? bw Sey 12a? "006 531 LStivid- | bo: boo “O17 2S Ge esa 2435 024 oe bohaG |, to Teo “014 DINE +) Voraso 12°401 "029 O47 1 3eko5 13°108 SO:17. Ke ral a ulestuca es. lstea73 i) 005 697 103598 9S) 13°086 ‘017 PEO hoe ZO9 13°305 |—-°006 739 | 13°069 13°067 "002 316 13°246 13°257 |—-O11 801 13°030 | 13:039 | —:°009 490 | 13°207 | 138°911 |} —:004 S62" ko OW4s..- 13°0k) "003. 513 13°148 | 13°168 ;—:°020 904 | 12°982 12°992 | —:010 S96 a Lo ties Meets: | -O1r7 947 | 12°974 | 12°973 ‘001 lie ie) lis OT 13°078 |—°031 1008 | 12°981 | 12°945 | —:°014 834 | 13°004 138°024 |—:°020 1053 | 12°920 | 12:925 | --:005 955 12°939 | 12°969 |—-080 1156 | 12°865 | 12°878 | —°013 LOT 12-898" | {197919021 1235 | 12°830 | 12°848 | —°013 1199 | 12°845 (| 12°859 /—:014 298 iho 8244)-19°-8h7 "007 S24) T2800) e803 = 008 POG) E270 Hol 19-8 Lh i Oe 1441 12°721 12°750. | —°029 F400) 1 12°762) | £2768): =="006 £599 ih *6S4.0 12 °6 79 "005 TAGS) LOA S ct 1927388 ‘005 LG AWA 26 UG: 1 22615 ‘001 SOO. LOZ A Oo "005 1877 OSS AT) O25 53 ‘021 1580 | 12°693.| 12°687 ‘006 2029S NA 7 Gr \c Ho: 485 .-—"009 1652 12°668 | 12°655 "O15 VIS hea Sik: 12°447 "034 EOS: | 12°64-7~) 12°63 ‘016 2236 12°339 | 12°392 |—°053 eb 2) b2°625. |209°G695 “000 1838 U2 56d 25 TL. \—004 Oe iediaaO4. 13°396... —-002 1409 12°746 12°764 |—:018 Pe) it S834.) 128i 7 2 5 bys 1023 12°908 | 12°938 |—:030 feos | 12°7638 Peer Souls —:020 587 13-107 13°135 |—°028 1452 | W233 12°445 | —‘012 103 13°401 13°354 "047 8 Palmer—Pressure Coefficient of Mercury Resistance. Combining these observations by the method of “ Least Squares ” we have | at 9° C. R = 12°4518—°000414P at 100°C. R= 13:3999—:000451P The lines on the chart have been drawn in accordance with these equations, and it will be seen that the plotted points are very nearly in coincidence with them. The values of R com- puted by these formule have been entered in the tables under R’ and the relative errors, from which the probable error of a single observation has been found to be ‘008 ohms at 9° C. and 012 ohms at 100° C., under R—R’. Hence the resistance measurements are accurate to less than one-tenth of one per cent and are as good as could be expected when it is remem- bered that the uncertainty in determining the pressure is about the same in magnitude and that it is impossible to entirely prevent leakage when very high pressures are employed. Furthermore small errors were probably introduced by the lag in the indications of the mercurial thermometers behind the actual temperature variations. Putting the above equations in the form R= R,(1+£P) where ® is the increment to unit resistance caused by’ one atmosphere increase in pressure, we have, after calculating the probable error in the usual way from the sum of the squares of the errors, at 9° C. B=—-00003324+-00000014 at 100° C. B=—-00603367 +:00000019 Hence it follows at once that at any temperature 8 =—°0000332—5X10-°¢ where the last term, owing to its extreme smallness, is probably. only approximately accurate. The difference between this result and that of Barus (—-00003) is so small that it can be easily accounted for by the slight impurities in the commercial mercury used by him. Lenz’s original paper is unfortunately inaccessible and the account of it in the Beiblatter is meager. - He used a tube 1°2 meters long filled at atmospheric pressure, and it is probable that the very large coefficient (—:0002) obtained was due to the imperfect removal of air bubbles from its inside walls, a source of error having its maximum effect at the low pressures employed by him. . The two series of observations marked by circles on the chart, fig. 1, are so obviously affected by consistent errors that they have been left out of the calculations. The first was Palmer—Pressure Ooefficient of Mercury Lesistance. 9 obtained after the apparatus had been left sustaining a pressure of about 750 atmospheres for two hours and lies below the line, while the second, obtained after rapidly increasing the pressure from one to 1640 atmospheres, lies above it. Similar J Se eee eee TE es ie a rl ee ee ee Die | ee ee sunnere ia bie Pa = | Pressufe: ter 100 htm | 400 500 600 700 800 300 1000 1100 eel Petre Be eee i J a SB et ned Aa Pe operations at another time failed to produce similar results and an entirely satisfactory explanation does not present itself, but it is probable that the first is due largely to imperfect freedom of the gauge pistons, caused by particles of dirt in the oil leak- ing past them, and the second to the heat produced by rapid - compression. Brown University, March 18, 1897. 4a se Sikes: = lps a led she ee pe ed = Bodicllebe 100 200 300 10 Ctenacanthus Spines from the Keokuk Limestone. Art. Il.—On Ctenacanthus Spines from the Keokuk Lime- stone of Lowa; by O. R. EAsTMan. THROUGH the courtesy of Mr. Lisban A. Cox, of Keokuk, lowa, the writer has recently been able to study certain Selachian remains obtained from the socalled “ lower fish-bed” in the vicinity of Keokuk, and now preserved in the private collec- tion of Mr. Cox. Two very perfect fin-spines were considered by this gentleman to be new, as they differed from anything he had ever observed from this horizon or elsewhere during his long experience as a collector. It will be seen from the fol- lowing that he was largely justified in his conclusions. The larger of the two ichthyodorulites belongs undoubtedly to the genus Ctenacanthus. It preserves a length of 20:5, and is 2°6™ in maximum width; possibly 1:5 or 2°™ are want- ing from the distal extremity, but the base is entire. It is gently arcuate in form, the anterior margin being more strongly and regularly convex than the posterior; and it is laterally much compressed. Its general shape and proportions agree with those of a unique spine from the same horizon, upon which St. John and Worthen* founded the species Acon- dylacanthus ? xiphias, the chief difference consisting in the ornamentation. But these authors are careful to state that their specimen was much abraded, and it was referred to Acondylacanthus with considerable hesitancy on that account. Although admitting that 1f found to possess nodose costee it would have to be transferred elsewhere, they concluded that “in the absence of any such ornamentation and the apparent smooth plain costs, its affinities are clearly with the above genus [Acondylacanthus|.” They also point out that “ the typical forms of Acondylacanthus are more slender and pro- portionately narrower, than the above described form.” There seems to be every reason for believing that the type of A. ?xiphias and the specimen now under consideration represent two examples of the same species, the differences between them being only such as are due to different condi- tions of preservation. In this event the name must be changed to Ctenacanthus xiphias, and the specific definition will require emendation, so as to include characters not observed on the original specimen. As may be seen from the accompanying figure, there is no species with which these Keokuk spines are so closely related as C. denticulaitus M’Coy, from the Lower Carboniferous of England and Ireland. There is a remarkable resemblance to * Paleontology of Illinois, vol. VII, p. 244, pl. xxvi, fig. 1. COtenacanthus Spines from the Keokuk Limestone. 11 this form, both in size, shape, and 1. details of ornamentation. The ; longitudinal costee are of round cross-section, about the same dis- Ya tance apart, and are denticulated bs or collared in the same manner in both forms. In C. xiphias, how- be ever, they arise less frequently by : dichotomy, and as far as can be = learned from the present speci- oe men, the series of denticles on the i posterior face is nearly. obsolete. & Only the bases of these denticles are preserved on the specimen, but they are quite faint, and ie appear to be limited to the distal ia half of the spine. The exserted portion is very obliquely demar- Ld cated from the base, and the pulp- Be cavity remains open for quite a distance beyond it. No evidence of a keel appears on either face, but along the anterior margin two longitudinal costee, arising one on either side, unite to form a blunt ridge serving as a cutwater. The inserted portion tapers more grad- ually than in C. denticulatus and most other species. A knowledge of these characters enables us to ; frame a more complete diagnosis if of this species, as follows : Do he hi tketked whudacdule s OIF VO FT Ne +4 Cienacanthus «xiphias (St. John oe and Worthen). Spines attaining a length of over 20, moderately curved, the ante- rior margin more strongly convex than the posterior ; gradually taper- : = ing, and laterally very much com- J.W-F. ¥ pressed. Base deeply embedded, ‘ pee iene te a tapering, and obliquely z marked sated size. Eu Gedmearuicn 4 off from the exserted portion; pulp jimes enlarged. | cavity continued in a_ posterior a channel for about half the total length of the spine. Denticles a of posterior angles uniformly spaced, more or less rudimentary. _ Ornamentation consisting of parallel longitudinal ridges, rarely bifurcating or implanted, rounded, about their own diameter | | } ' 12. Ctenacanthus Spines from the Keokuk Limestone. apart, and decreasing in size toward the posterior face. Each of the costz is denticulated by numerous sharp folds, which extend half way across the intercostal spaces, and are separated from each other by about the thickness of the ridge. The anterior edge of the spine is formed by a ridge wider than the rest, and of compound origin. The second ichthyodorulite that deserves notice represents a new species of Ctepacanthus. It will be seen from the annexed illustration that the spine is very nearly perfect, only the extreme tip being broken away. It is 12°5™ long, and not quite 1:5 in maximum width. Its stylet-shaped form, nearly rectilinear edges, and the nature of its ornamentation readily distinguish it from all other species. In cross-sec- tion it is less compressed than most spines belong- ing to Ctenacanthus. The posterior face is embed- ded in the matrix, but the latter has been removed along one edge sufficiently to reveal a series of small denticles standing at right angles to the axis of the spine. A convenient fracture makes it pos- sible to remove the base, thus displaying the pulp- cavity at that point. It is of ample size, and is continued for a short distance upward in an open groove as in other species. Another fracture higher up presents the cross section shown in fig. 2B, from which it will be seen that a posterior keel is present. Owing to abrasion, the longitudinal costz appear nearly smooth except along the posterior edges, where they retain their tuberculation. The tuber- cles are quite small, and resemble those of C. keokuk ; a few are also distributed in the intercostal grooves, thus indicating an approach to Asteroptychius. Besides bearing tubercles, the costee appear to have been denticulated along their sides, as indicated by transverse markings in many of the intercostal spaces. The ridges are triangular in cross-section, increase in number downward by dichotomy, and are much crowded towards the posterior face ; some swe of them appear longitudinally striated when worn. The anterior margin of the spine is formed by the concrescence of several ridges, and becomes thickened in con- sequence. : The definition of this species may be summarized briefly as follows: B, Cross-section of same. A, Spine # natural size. Fie. 2.— Ctenacanthus acutus sp. nov. T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 13 Ctenacanthus acutus sp. nov. Medium sized spines with margins of the exserted portion almost perfectly straight, tapering gradually toward the apex ; base deeply embedded ; posterior angles closely set with a row of small denticles arising perpendicularly. Longitudinal cost numerous, triangular in section, bearing minute tubercles on their summits, and denticulated along the sides; increasing by bifurca- tion. Posterior face with a median longitudinal keel. Including the two species described above, the Keokuk lime- stone is known to yield six representatives of Ctenacanthus, and in all ten “genera” of ichthyodorulites. Some of the latter, however, are unsatisfactorily determined. Following is a list of the Clenacanthus species: C. acutus Eastiwan. C. excavatus St. J. and W. C. coxianus St. J. and W. C. keokuk St. J. and W. C. cylindricus Newberry. C. xiphias (St. J. and W.) Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass. Art. II].—Studies in the Cyperacewe; by THro. Hom. V. Fwrena squarrosa Michx. and / scirpoidea Vahl. With 19 Figures (pp. 25, 26). THESE two species are natives of the eastern United States, Ff’. sguarrosa showing a distribution from Massachusetts as far south as subtropical Florida, while the other species is confined to Georgia and Florida alone. It is a marked characteristic of the genus that a true perianth is developed, in our species represented by six leaves in two alternating whorls, those of the inner being spathulate, while the others are merely bristle- shaped like those of Dulichium, P?hynchospora, ete.; this, the outer, whorl of the perianth is, however, undeveloped in sev- eral of the foreign species of /’uirena, as well as in /. umbel- lata, upon which Rottboll established the genus, first discovered in Surinam by Rolander, who described it as “ Scerpus tripe- talus.” The genus is closely related to Scorpus, with which it, also, shows a great resemblance in regard to the general habit, but is well distinguished by the spathulate shape of the perianth as also by the hairy bracts of the flowers, which are smooth in the species of Scirpus. When compared with each other, our two /wirena-species show several external characters, by which they are readily distinguished, viz: the reduction of the stem- leaves in J” scirpoidea to sheaths with a minute blade, while Lf, squarrosa has well-developed leaf-blades. The bracts of 14 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. the flowers are broad and very short-pointed in J. scirpoidea fig. 13), but rather narrow and long-awned in the other species (fig.11). The inflorescence is a spike, there being one terminal and several lateral, often situated close together or scattered on long peduncles from the axils of the stem-leaves as in /’ squar- rosa. A clado-prophyllon is present and is short, very broad and distinetly bidentate in /. scirpoidea (fig. 12), while it varies from oblong, slightly emarginate to long and tubular in fF’, squarrosa (figs. 6 and 10), in accordance with its place on the very short rhachis of the lateral spike or at the base of the long peduncles, which bear several spikes at the apex, and which are commonly developed in the axils of some of the lower stem-leaves in /. squarrosa. Another character is to be observed in the shape of the inner perianth-leaves, which, although they are spathulate in both species, are almost obtuse in /”. scirpoidea, but vary from short-pointed to long-awned in the other species; a similar variation in regard to the respective length may, also, be noticed in the bristles. The fhizome of our species shows a very considerable difference, being stout and extensively creep- ing in J” sctrpoidea in contrast to that of / squarrosa, which is almost ceespitose with ascending, not creeping, shoots and which, also, possesses some tuberous organs, each of which represents a single internode. We see from these divergencies that our two Muirena- species do not lack morphological characters ; all of which are of specific value, and we shall show, later on, in this article that their internal structure is no less important for their spe- cific distinction. We must, however, not neglect to consider our plants also from a biological point of view; and we shall try to demonstrate, at least, a part of their life-history, based upon our investigations and compared with the more important studies of similar kind, which we have met with in our lite- rary research. ‘There are, for instance, in regard to the germi- nation of Huzrena a few points of interest, which deserve notice, although they are not new; nevertheless, when we dis- cuss them, it is merely on account of the very defective knowl- edge we have of the seedlings of this group of plants, the Cyperacee, and we thought, also, that a brief historical sketch of this early stage of their life-history might be of some interest to the reader. The principal difference, that exists between the germina- tion of the Cyperacew and the Graminec, consists in the fact. that in the Cyperacew the plumule is the first to push out through the caryopsis, while in the Graminew the primary root is the first to appear. In werena as in the other Cypera- ce, which so far have been examined, the plumule is covered T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacew. 15 by a membranous sheath at the base of which a small, roundish wart soon becomes visible, and which represents the primary root. The cotyledon, on the contrary, stays inside the seed, its function being to absorb the endosperm. These are the general features of the germination, and .it may, at first glance, seem to be a very easy matter to define these various organs, which as we have shown constitute the seedling. We may, by con- sidering our figure 1), define the conical body (C) as represent- ing the cotyledon and as being identical with the scutellum of the Graminew ; we may define the sheathing leaf (S/) as the second leaf, and L’ as the first developed green leaf. The pri- mary root (R) is already relatively long and covered with root- hairs. By comparing now this figure (16) with our figure 1, we notice the same organs, besides a stem-part (7) which sepa- rates the cotyledon (C) from the sheathing leaf (Sh); a sec- ondary root (7) has developed from this stem-part, and another one (7’), but much younger, has started to break out through the base of the sheathing leaf (SA). One should, according to these figures, never doubt the morphological identity of these organs, as we have defined them above, especially when we point out the long internode (7) which lies between | the cotyledon (C) and the sheathing leaf (Sh), viz: that these organs should not be independent of each other. It seems, nevertheless, to be a most difficult task to define them correctly, so as to bring them in strict conformity with | the corresponding organs in the other monocotyledonous plants, and at the same time avoid bringing their anatomical structure in contest with their rank in a morphological respect. If we, for instance, consider the body at C as the cotyledon, its struc- ture must correspond with that of a leaf, and if we, also, define the sheathing organ at SA as a leaf, this must not be in any connection with the other one at C; furthermore, if the stem-part (7) is really an internode, it must show a structure in conformity herewith. The difficulty is, however, that these organs do not exactly show the anatomical structure as they “ought,” according to our idea, and even if a morphological consideration may seem more natural, we cannot feel justitied in overlooking the structural characters. We will, therefore, in our attempt to explain this matter, strive to establish a con- formity, so that the morphological peculiarities may be brought in accordance with the anatomical ones, and we believe this may be attained by presuming that some modification exists in the development of some of these organs. A literary research upon this question is exceedingly instructive, and there are, indeed, few stages in the plant life that have required go many and such able investigations in order to become understood, as has the germination of the Graminew and the Cyperacew. 16 T. Holm—Studies im the Cyperacee. The Graminew seem, however, to have attracted a good deal more attention than the Cyperacee, although their seedlings agree in most respects. It is, now, interesting to see from the literature how many and very diverse opinions have been expressed by the morphologists in order to define the organs of these seedlings; and even if so eminent an anatomist as Van Tieghem has tried to pacify the contesting parties by submit- ting a most excellent and detailed account of the internal structure of these germinating plantlets, it seems, neverthe- less, that the morphological standpoint taken by Warming, in adherence to the views expressed by Poiteau, Mirbel and Turpin, may prove satisfactory to all concerned. The most important difference between the seedlings of these two families consists in the presence of a very small organ like a rudimentary leaf, which in some Gramnee, but not in all, is to be observed on the anterior face of the seed- ling, and in alternation with the so-called scutellum. This scale-like appendage had been observed and figured by Mal- pighi as far back as the year 1675, and it has since that time been repeatedly described and given a number of names, the best known among these being the “lobule” of Mirbel, and the “épiblaste” of Richard. While Poiteau, Mirbel and Turpin considered this organ as an independent leaf or even as a “second, but small cotyledon,” the majority of the other _ authors have only understood it as a part of the cotyledon. It is strange, that the most modern and generally adopted idea is now that of Gartner (1. ¢c.), who more than a hundred years ago defined the scutellum as the median part of the cotyledon, the épiblaste or lobule as an appendix to this, while the sheath- ing leaf (Sh) should represent the ascending sheath of the cotyledon, thus these three organs should all constitute the cotyledon, and the first green leaf (L’) should then be the first leat of the plant next to the cotyledon. This rudimentary organ, the épiblaste, is not known to exist in the Cyperacee, and we have therefore great difficulty in finding proofs for our explanation, according to which the cotyledon and the sheath- ing leaf should represent organs, independent of each other. It will be seen from our drawings (figs. 1 and 16) that the sheathing leaf (Sh) is situated just above and at the same side of the axis as the cotyledon (C), indicating a leaf arrangement as “uniseriate”’ which would be too unnatural to be acceptable. But when we compare our /werena-seedimgs with similar ones of Graminee “with or without the épiblaste,” the sug- gestion arises that this little organ has been suppressed in the Cyperacew, a8 in a number of the Graminew. Seedlings of grasses with a developed épiblaste show the same biseriate arrangement of the leaves as we find later on in the mature T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 17 plants, counting the cotyledon as the first, the épiblaste as the ‘second and the sheathing leaf as the third leaf of the young plant. We might be allowed to suggest that the épiblaste has become undeveloped in the Cyperacew, but without influencing or rather without disturbing the normal arrangement of the leaves, as we find them in /’wzrena and all the others exam- ined. It was the frequent development of a stem-part between the cotyledon and the sheathing leaf, which led Warming to adopt the explanation of these three organs, including the épiblaste, as independent ; but, strange to say, Warming does not in his paper upon this subject (I. ¢.) enter into any discus- sion as to the severe objections raised. by Van Tieghem against this theory. Van Tieghem denounces the épiblaste as a leaf, because it does not receive any mestome-bundles from the axis ; the sheathing leaf will, therefore, necessarily be situated above and ‘“‘at the same side” as the scutellum, and can consequently not be independent of this. He, finaily, demonstrates that the supposed internode (7) is only a node according to its anatom- ical structure, but a node, which has become unusually stretched, so that the cotyledon and the sheath have become somewhat separated from each other. These very serious objec- tions are, of course, a heavy blow to the theory regarding the existence of three independent leaves, an explanation which otherwise seems so very natural and in good conformity with the rules of morphology. We venture, however, to suggest that the épiblaste may be a leaf-primordium and that it stays as such with no mestome-bundles developed, and as a leaf, which is often suppressed entirely. We will, also, state that we cannot find any decided objection in considering the cotyle- don as a leaf, independent of the épiblaste and of the sheath- ing leaf, even if, as Van Tieghem has proved, the stem-part is only anode. There is among the numerous and most import- ant agrostologic papers by Duval-Jouve one (1. ¢.) in which he describes the nodes of /Lleusine, Cynodon and other Graminew as bearing more than “one leaf,’ from one to two or even three! This same fact is very familiar to us, when we remem- ber the peculiar, dense-leaved nodes of Diplachne, Munroa, Buchloé and several other North-American grasses. We might also state, that it is not quite certain that the épiblaste is constantly present only as a rudimentary organ, since Didrichsen (I. ¢.) has figured this organ taken from Avena sativa, where it shows a distinct nervation, corresponding to a very finely-lobed margin. We believe, however, that a con- tinued research will throw a clearer light upon this subject, and there is no doubt that seedlings of our native grasses and sedges will show some facts that may be helpful for the expla- nation of this remarkable manner of germinating. We will, Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtH Surizs, Vou. IV, No. 1.—Juny, 1897. 2 18 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. also, at this place, call attention to a work by Klebs (1. c.), wherein is given a summary of the different manners of germination, considered from a morphological as well as from a physiological point of view, besides that this author has enumerated the most prominent works upon the subject, which, of course, is a most valuable guide for literary research. Having discussed now the germination of our plants, let us examine them at a later stage, when their vegetative organs are fully developed; and we may begin with the rhizome. We have already mentioned above, that the rhizome of our two species shows a very marked difference in external structure, although their manner of ramification is exactly the same in both species. We find here a true sympodium, and the dif- ference lies merely in the tuberous development of some inter- nodes in /. squarrosa. While the sympodial ramification is very common in the Phanerogames, especially in their rhi- zomes, there are, nevertheless, only a few which exhibit the sympodium so plain as our Pwirena scirpoidea. Figure 7 illustrates the anterior part of a rhizome of this species, and we have, also, redrawn the apex of the same, but on a larger scale in order to represent the exact position of each organ (fig. 8). The rhizome is horizontally creeping and consists of dis- tinct internodes with scale-like leaves. At certain intervals,in our species, between each two leaves, a flower-bearing stem arises, while an axillary bud develops at the same time, con- tinuing the growth of the rhizome in the same direction, as if it was the terminal bud. By comparing figs. 7 and 8, we notice the scale-like leaf B, which is borne on the main axis (az) and which at the same time supports another, but sec- ondary axis (ax’), which is readily seen to be axillary. These two axes (av' and au’) have fused together and form partly a single internode, but there is a somewhat depressed line to be seen where the fusion has taken place, and the axillary branch is, always, well-marked by having its first leaf developed as a bicarinate prophyllon (pr in fig. 8) with its characteristic posi- tion in regard to the main-axis. The rhizome of /. scirpordea does not branch much to the sides, but when such branches develop, they always originate from the axil of the lowest situated leaf of a flowering stem (fig. 9), while we have not observed any to be developed from the scale-like leaves, except- ing from the apex of the rhizome, as described above. The same sympodial ramification is, also, to be found in the other species, /” squwarrosa, some parts of the rhizome of which are illustrated in figures 2 and 4, in addition to some diagram- matical drawings in figs. 8 and 5 of the same parts. Figure 3 shows, for instance, the apex of an old rhizome (fig. 2) where B is a scale-like leaf from the main stem, the continuation of T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 19 which (aa') attains a peculiar tuberous development of the internode above the leaf (6). Another shoot pushes out from the axil of the scale-like leaf B, which is, consequently, of second order (aa’), and which develops into a leaf-bearing shoot of normal structure. We find this same manner of develop- ment if we consider figure 5, which represents an enlarged portion of the rhizome (fig. 4). We see, also, here the two systems of axes (ac’ and az’) one of which (az) shows the — same tuberous internode (2°) as described above. The axillary shoot (ax*) bears here two scale-like leaves (0° and 6°), of which the upper one (6°) supports the shoot, az’, well distinguished as axillary by its prophyllon (pr). This figure shows, then, the development of the axis of first order either as a flower-bear- ing stem with stretched internodes, or as a tuberous shoot with the growing-point arrested in its further development; the axis of second order seems, also, in this species to stay under- ground as purely vegetative. In regard to the tuberous devel- opment of one of the internodes of /. squarrosa, we must state, that this seems to be a very rare case in the Cyperacew, while tubers of several internodes are known from a few species of Cyperus, e. g. C. esculentus and C. phymatodes, which have been described in a very clear and comprehensive manner by Seignette (1. c.) In the Graminee, on the con- trary, such single tuberous internodes are not very rare, and Hackel (1. c.) enumerates quite a number of grasses, represent- ing a development like that of Hwrena squarrosa. These grasses are mostly inhabitants of regions of which a periodical drought is characteristic, and Hackel mentions for instance the Pacific species of dfelica, some Mexican species of Panicum, the genus Hhrharta from the Cape Colony, besides several species from the Mediterranean. In regard to the stem above-ground, this is in /. scwrpoidea built up of a number of rather short internodes, of which all the leaves are merely present as sheaths, the blade being only a rudiment; the stem of the other species is of usual form, but none of the internodes is, however, long enough to be defined as a scape. The leaves of /. squarrosa have long, linear blades, like the tubular sheath very hairy; a ligule is, also, developed as usual in the long-leaved Cyperacee, and it is very strange that this organ seems almost constantly to have been overlooked in this family, although it is very distinct, when developed. LBaillon (1. ¢.) and Bentham and Hooker have even considered the ligule as one of the generic characters of Fuirena, viz: “foliorum vagina ligula coronata.” It is, on the other hand, just as incorrect when the authors of botanical manuals constantly attribute this same organ, the ligule, to all the Graminee without exception, although it is absent in 20 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. many, e. g., all the broad-leaved species of Panicum, viz: P. microcarpon, viscidum, clandestinum, ete. We have already described the structure of the inflorescence and of the single flowers, and having not observed any other characters of morphological interest, we will proceed to the anatomical part of our paper. The rhizome. This shows a very firm structure in / scirpoidea, since the bark-parenchyma contains a concentric ring of small groups of very thick-walled stereome, besides that a closed ring of several layers of this same tissue, the stereome, surrounds the central- cylinder. The mestome-bundles seem to be all collateral, and are supported by stereome on their hadrome-side ; they are not arranged in any order, but scattered in the large mass of funda- mental tissue. We mentioned in our previous article upon Dulichium the presence of tannin-reservoirs, which we have noticed again in both species of /wirena. These reservoirs are quite numerous in the rhizome, especially in the outer layers of the bark-parenchyma. By examining the rhizome of /” sqguarrosa, the internodes of normal thickness showed a large quantity of starch depos- ited in the bark and in the fundamental tissue, which occupies the greater part of the central-cylinder. Immediately inside the epidermis some small groups of stereome are to be observed, and this tissue appears again in about three or four strata, forming a closed ring inside the bark, and surrounding the central-cylinder. A thin-walled endodermis is very dis- tinct, and the collateral mestome-bundles are arranged very regularly in three alternating bands, with their hadrome-side supported by thin-walled stereome; similar, but smaller, mestome-bundles were, also, observed in the bark. Tannin- reservoirs were observed to be quite numerous and of large size 1n the bark. If we now compare this structure with that of a tuberous internode, we notice the almost complete disappearance of the stereome, and also that there is here only one single band of collateral mestome-bundles, located a very short distance from the epidermis. The fundamental tissue occupies the greatest part of the internode and is filled with starch. It appears from this, that the function of these thickened internodes is for the storage of nutritive matters; in the Graminew, however, their function is different, according to Hackel’s observations, who states that he was unable to find any deposits of starch in their swollen internodes, although these were examined at different seasons of the year. He, therefore, concludes that they may represent a kind of water- T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 21 reservoirs, which might be of some use to these plants in the dry seasons. A different view has, meanwhile, been expressed by Seignette, who (I. ¢. p. 89) describes the structure of Avena elatior var. bulbosa (A. bulbosa Willd.), and who found a large quantity of starch deposited in the fundamental tissue. The stem above-ground. It is cylindric, but furrowed in /. sezrpozdea, and, as already stated, consists of numerous internodes. The epidermis-cells are relatively small, perfectly smooth, and stomata are, of course, well represented in this tissue. The bark-parenchyma shows a very characteristic palissade-tissue of several layers, and is interrupted by large groups of stereome. The inner part of the bark passes gradually over into a colorless tissue, which occupies the interior part of the stem; the mestome- bundles are arranged in a band and are to be observed in the green bark, just inside the groups of stereome, which border on their colorless parenchyma-sheaths. A very few mestome- bundles are, also, noticed in the fundamental tissue, and these show a much larger lacune in the hadrome-part than is to be observed in the bundles of the outer band. The stem of / squarrosa shows a somewhat different structure; it is terete, furrowed and smooth, but much weaker than that of the pre- ceding species. The cells of epidermis are large and very > thin-walled, and the green bark consists only of about seven strata, In which lJacunes are to be observed. The mestome- bundles are arranged in two alternating bands and located in the very large, colorless-parenchyma, which occupies the cen- tral-eylinder ; the bundles are supported by large groups of stereome, which reach through the green bark to the epidermis itself. Characteristic of the stem of this species is the pres- ence of lacunes, one between each of the two mestome-bundles and several in the fundamental tissue, rendering the stem almost hollow. The leaf of F. scirpoidea has a long, tubular sheath but only a minute, rudimentary blade. A transverse section of the blade (fig. 17) is thick, but very narrow. The epidermis consists of rather large cells, but none of them are, however, developed as “Dulliform,” although some of the cells above the midrib are considerably larger than the others; stomata (fig. 18) are espe- cially abundant on the inferior face of the small leaf-blade as well as on the sheath. These stomata are not prominent, but almost in niveau with the surrounding cells. The mesophyll (the black tissue in fig. 17) consists of rather closely-packed 22 T.. Holm—Studies im the Cyperacee. roundish or polyédric cells, none of which are differentiated as. palissade-cells. There are only a few, about seven, mestome- bundles, of which the median one is the largest; they are all surrounded by thin-walled and colorless parenchyma-sheaths inside of which we meet with a typical mestome-sheath. The hadrome-part is rather large, and contains a number of vessels. There are groups of stereome on the leptome-side of the mestome-bundles, while this tissue is almost wanting on the hadrome-side, excepting in the median bundle. Reservoirs of tannin were noticed as being very abundant in the mesophyll. A more complete structure is shown by the long leaf-blade of L’. squarrosa (fig. 14). Epidermis consists of very large cells on the superior face of the blade, and is developed as “ bulli- form-cells” above the midrib and two of the largest mestome- bundles. Hairs are abundant in this species, and are present as very short ones on the superior face of the blade, while those of the margins and the inferior face are long and sharply pointed. The stomata (fig. 15) are very prominent, and seem only to be developed on the inferior face of the blade. The mesophyll is well developed, consisting of hexagonal very closely-packed cells, while a large lacune is to be seen between each of the two mestome-bundles. These last are surrounded by colorless, thin-walled parenchyma sheaths as well as by the usual mestome-sheath, and the larger bundles are on both faces supported by some small groups of stereome. The root of /. scirpoidea agrees in most respects with that of the other Cyperacee, having a hypoderm inside the epidermis, and with the characteristic radial arrangement of the bark-cells, of which the innermost layer, as usual, is differentiated as an endodermis. This endodermis shows, however, a very peculiar development, since the cells, which are exceedingly thin-walled, are stretched radially, as shown in our figure 19. The pericambium is, also, here interrupted by protohadrome, and there are five distinct groups of leptome in alternation with five large vessels, while the innermost part of the root is occupied by fundamental tissue. The root of / sguarrosa shows a much weaker struc- ture, since the bark-parenchyma shows many lacunes on account of the radial collapsing of the cell-walls. The cells of the endodermis (/7d in fig. 16) are of normal shape and slightly thickened. A large vessel occupies the center of the root, and tannin-reservoirs were observed in the epidermis as well as in the outer bark-parenchyma. We see from this brief anatomical sketch that there are several structural characters, by which these two /uzrena- T. Holm—Studies im the Cyperacee. 23 species may be distinguished, although their morphological characters are so prominent as to leave the anatomical dis- tinction unnecessary. But it is, nevertheless, quite interesting to compare their structure in order to ascertain whether there may be some connection between the structure of their tissues and the character of the climate and soil wherein they grow. Fuirena scirpoidea was several features in common with some of the most pronounced desert-plants, viz: the reduction of the leaf-blades in contrast to the other species of the genus. It grows in dry, sandy soil and is a very common plant in sub- tropical Florida. The anatomy of its almost leafless stem shows us a well differentiated palissade-tissue in the bark, thus the stem has taken the function of the leaf; the very thick- walled epidermis is another character by which /”. scirpoidea approaches itself to the desert plants, e. g., Panicum turgi- dum, as described in Volkens’ excellent work upon desert- vegetation (Il. c.). We must not, however, consider our Fuirena as an exception from most of the Cyperacew because its leaf-blades are not developed; this very same external structure is, as we remember, very common in species of Scirpus, Hleocharis and in many Juncacee. But these almost leafless species grow always in wet soil, in marshes, etc., while our /uerena prefers the dry sand, although not entering in the “Serub” vegetation, which to a certain extent constitutes a desert-vegetation in Florida. 3 The anatomical characters are, otherwise, to be observed in the root, viz: the peculiar endodermis in /”. scirpozdea, the lacunes in the bark in / squarrosa, while the leaf shows us a dense hairy covering and very prominent stomata in 7” squar- rosa in contrast to /. scirpoidea ; the stem of L/. scirpoidea with its firm structure and the bark developed as palissade- tissue is very different from the weak stem of J”. sguarrosa with its large lacunes. Washington, D. C., January, 1897. | Bibliography. 1. Baillon, H. Monographie des Cyperacées, Restiacées et Kriocaulaceés. Paris, 1893, p. 361. 2. Didrichsen, F. Afbildninger til Oplysning af Greskimens Morphologi, edit. by Warming. Botan. Tidsskr., vol. xviii, Kjobenhavn, 1892, p. 3. 3. Duval-Jouve, I. Sur les feuilles et les nceuds de quelques Graminées. Bull. soc. bot. de France, vol. xvi, Paris, 1869, p. 106. 4, Gartner, I. De fructibus et seminibus plantarum, vol. i, 1788, p- 149. 5. Hackel, E. Ueber einige Higenthtimlichkeiten der Griser trockener Klimate. Verhandl. d. k. k. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien., 1890, p. 2. 24 Cees 10. ie 18. T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacece. Klebs, Georg. Beitrage zur Morphologie und Biologie der Keimung. Untersuch. d. botan. Inst. zu Tibingen, vol. i, Leipzig, 1881-1885, p. 571. Malpighi, Mare. Anatome plantarum. London, 1675, p. 77. Mirbel Brisseau, C. F. Elémens de Physiologie végétale et de Botanique, vol. 1, Paris, 1815, p. 64. Pax, Ferd. Cyperacez in Engler und Prantl’s: Die natiir- lichen Pflanzentamilien. Leipzig, 1887, p. 99. Poiteau, M. Mémoire sur l’embryon ces Graminées, des Cypéracées et du Nelumbo. Ann. du Muséum, vol. xiii, Paris, 1809. Richard, L. C. Analyse botanique des embryons endorrhizes ou monocotylédonées. Ann. du Muséum, vol. xvii, Paris, 1813, p. 455. 2. Rikh, Martin. Beitrage zur vergleichenden Anatomie der Cyperaceen mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der inneren Parenchymscheide. Inaug. diss. Berlin, 1895. . Rottboll, Christen Friis. Descriptiones plantarum rariorum iconibus illustrandas. Hafniz, 1772, p. 27, No. 78. . Seignette, A. Recherches anatomiques et physiologiques sur les tubercules. Thesis. Paris, 1889, p. 26. . Tieghem, Ph. Van. Observations anatomiques sur le cotylé- don des Graminées. Ann. d. sc. nat. Bot. Ser. 5, vol. xv, Panis, US72: . Turpin, P. I. F. Mémoire sur lVinflorescence des Graminées et des Cypérées. Mém. du Muséum, vol. v, Paris, 1819, plate 30, fig. 1. . Volkens, Georg. Die Flora der agyptisch-arabischen W iste. Berlin, 1887, p. 73. Warming, Kug. Forgreningen og Bladstillingen hos Slegten Nelumbo. Vidensk. Medd. naturhist. For. Kjobenhavn, 1879- 80, p. 446. EXPLANATION OF FIGURES. PAGE 25. FIGURE 1 and 1b.—seedlings of Fuirena squarrosa. 9x natural size. (For explanation of the letters see the text.) FIGURE 2.—Rhizome of /. squarrosa; natural size. FIGURE 3.—Part of figure 2, enlarged. Figure 4.—Branch of a similar rhizome; natural size. FIGURE 5.—Same, enlarged. FiGuURE 6.—Clado-prophyllon from the lateral spike-bearing peduncle of F/% squarrosa ; 14x natural size. FIGURE 7.—Rhizome ot F. sctirpoidea ; natural size. FIGURE 8.—Same, enlarged. FIGURE 9.—Part of a similar rhizome; natural size. PAGE 26. FiguRE 10.—Prophyllon from the base of a lateral spike of # squarrosa; much enlarged. FIGURE 11.—Bract from a spike of /. squarrosa ; 6 x natural size. FIGURE 12.—Prophyllon of F. scirpoidea; much enlarged. FIGURE 13.—Bract of same; 6 x natural size. T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacec. 25 FIGURE 14,—Transverse section of stem-leaf of F/ squarrosa. Kp.sup. and Ep. inf. = epidermis of the superior and the inferior face; 75 x natural size, FIGURE 15.—Stoma from the same leaf, transverse section; 320 x natural size. FIGURE 16.—Transverse section of the root of /. squarrosa ; B= the bark; End = the endodermis; Pr = the pericambium: PH = the protohadrome; 320 x natural size. 26 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. FIGURE 17.—Transverse section of the leaf-blade of F. scirpoidea; Ep. sup = epidermis of the superior face; M=the mesophyll; M=the hadrome; LZ= the leptome; PS =the parenchyma-sheath; Si= the stereome; 75 x natural size. FIGURE 18.—Stoma from the same leaf; 320 x natural size. FIGURE 19.—Transverse section of the root of F. scirpoidea ; letters as in figure 16; 320 x natural size. (The black in figures 14 and 17 indicates the chlorophyll-bearing tissue, the mesophyll.) Penfield and Frenzel—Identity of Chalcostibite, etc. 27 Art. 1V.—On the Identity of Chalcostibite ( Wolfsbergite) and Guejarite, and on Chalcostibite from Huanchaca, Bolivia ; by 8. L. PENFIELD and A. FRENZEL. Introduction.—In December, 1894, Mr. Thomas Hohmann, mining engineer at Valparaiso, Chili, sent to one of us (Frenzel), for examination, some specimens, from the Pulacayo mine, Huanchaea, Bolivia. Upon one of these were some prismatic crystals of a mineral with metallic luster, which, we were informed by Mr. Hohmann, was found very sparingly, was unknown to him, and might possibly be new or worthy of investigation. As the material was limited, it was decided to identify the mineral, if possible, by its crystalline form, and, upon examination, it was found that the cleavage and some of the prominent crystal forms corresponded to the rare mineral guejarite, described by Cumenge* as having the composition Cu,S . 28b,8,. About the same time that this material was sent to us, a second specimen from Huanchaca was received at the ALinera- lien Niederlage at Freiberg, Saxony, and Herr Zinkeisen, director of that institution, on learning that the mineral had been identified as guejarite, sent the specimen to Mr. L. Fletcher of London, and it was purchased for the mineral col- lection of the British Museum. In order to identify this mineral with certainty, Mr. Fletcher requested Mr. L. J. Spencer, of the Mineral Department of the British Museum, to examine the crystals, when it was found that the forms agreed not only with guejarite, but equally well with chalco- stibite (wolfsbergite). An article was accordingly prepared by Mr. Spencer “ On Wolfsbergite from Bolivia ; and the probable identity of Wolfsbergite and Guejarite,”’} but on learning that we were engaged in an investigation of the same mineral, Mr. Fletcher called our attention to the fact that guejarite could not be distinguished crystallographically from chalcostibite. He also requested Mr. Spencer to send the results of his investigation to us, in order that his results might be incorpo- rated with ours, and in subsequent pages it will be shown that guejarite, which has been considered as having the composi- tion Ou,S .28b,S8,, is really identical with chalcostibite (wolfs- bergite), Cu,S . Sb,S,. Chalcostibite from Wolfsberg in the Harz.—Upon material from this locality, the species was first founded in 1835, by Zinken,t the mineral being called by him Kupferantimonglanez. * Bull. Soc. Min. de France, ii, p. 201, 1879. i + Read before the Mineralogical Society of London, April 14, 1896. 1 Poge, Aum. XXxv, ps 307, 1835. 28 Penfield and Frenzel—ILdentity of Chalcostibite, ete. The composition Cu,S.Sb,S, was established by an analysis by H. Rose,* and the crystals were measured and determined to be orthorhombic by G. Rose,t who identified two prisms and a pinacoid in one zone, but as no terminal faces were observed, the axial ratio could not be fully determined. The name rosite was assigned to the species in 1841, by Huot,t but on account of its similarity to roselite, it has not been generally accepted. In 1847 the mineral was called chalcostibite by Glocker,§ and in 1849 wolfsbergite, by Nicol.| Glocker’s name thus antedates Nicol’s, and there seems to be no reason for not accepting it, although wolfsbergite is in common use. Terminated crystals of chaleostibite from Wolfsberg are very rare, and we are indebted to Laspeyres{] for the only description of them, and for the determination of the axial ratio. In order to show a crystallographic relation between chalcostibite and the similarly constituted minerals zinkenite, PbS .Sb,S,; sartorite, PbS. As,S, and emplectite, Cu,S . Bi,S,, the crystals were orientated so as to make the perfect cleavage basal, and the prominent prismatic development parallel to the erystallographie axis 6. The forms that were identified by Laspeyres are as follows: c, 001 Gore i OL Dist e €, 307 9g, 201 g, 863 atlas eee The axial ratio was derived from measurements of the pyra- ~ mid p, and was found by Laspeyres to be a@:6:¢= 0°5283:1: 0°6234, but by giving to p the indices 6°12°7 instead of 7-14°8, - the axial ratio becomes 0°5283:1:0°6364. Some of the important measurements made by Laspeyres will be found in column I, in the tables on page 34, et seq. Chalcostibite (quejarite) from Guejar in Spain.—The iden- tity of guejarite as a distinct mineral species had been based upon the following analysis by Cumenge: tt Found. Theory for Cu.S . 28b28s. SPEDE Ge ae ee 25°0 2150) Sb. fee amen ee Ba Be 57°8 Culsc eee 15°5 15:2 Fe 22-335 ae 0'5 ace Pb, 2.228 eee tr a 99°5 100°0 Slibids pool: + Ibid, p. 360. + Mineralogy, i, p. 197. § Syn., p. 32. | Mineralogy, p. 484. “| Zeitschr. Kryst., xix, p. 428, 1891. ** Ags will be shown later, 7:14°8 and 7:21:27 should be 6:12°7 and 134, regpec- tively. ++ Loe. cit. Penfield and Frenzel—Identity of Chalcostibite, etc. 29 Although the results agree fairly well with the theoretical composition, an analysis in which the determinations are car- ried out only to half per cents cannot be considered wholly satisfactory for the establishment of a mineral species, and, as neither the method of analysis is given nor any statement con- cerning the amount of material taken, the results cannot be fairly criticised. As crystals of chalcostibite resemble those of stibnite in color, luster, habit, and cleavage, and, further, as stibnite would probably occur at a locality where chalcostibite is found, as is the case at Wolfsberg in the Harz, it is possible that the material analyzed by Cumenge contained some stibnite, which would account for his failure to obtain the correct formula. It may be noted here that Rammelsberg, in the second supplement of his Handbuch der Mineralchemie, p. 54, 1895, places an interrogation after the formula of guejarite. The crystallization of the mineral was determined as ortho- rhombic by C. Friedel.* The habit is prismatic, with the faces in the prominent zone striated and grading into one another, owing to oscillatory combinations of a series of prisms. Crystals showing terminations are rare. In the position adopted by Friedel, the nearly perfect cleavage in the pris- matic zone was taken as 0, 010, and the following forms were identified : b, O10 h, 210 m, 110 d, 013 c, 001 k, 320+ 1, 230+ e, O11 In addition to the foregoing, the doubtful forms 410, 310, and 032 are mentioned and likewise two pyramids, #(bawv = 56° 24’), and 2(bvAz = 39° 58’), but the symbols of these latter forms cannot be determined, as only a single measurement is given for each. The axial ratio obtained by Friedel is a:b:¢= 0°8221 :1:0°7841. In order to bring the crystals into the position adopted by Laspeyres for chalcostibite, it is necessary to change the orien- tation so that the nearly perfect cleavage is basal, c, 001, and the prominent prismatic zone parallel to the crystallographic axis b. Twice the length of Friedel’s vertical axis is taken as the unit length of 6, and the axial ratio thus becomes a@:b:¢= 0°5242 :1:0°6377, while that derived from Laspeyres’ measure- ments is a@:60:¢ = 0°5283:1 : 0°6364. In the following table, the forms observed by Friedel are given, together with the indices when transposed to the posi- tion adopted by Laspeyres : * Bull. Soc. Min. de France, ii, p. 203, 1879. + The forms 320 and 230 are given by Friedel as 730 and 370, respectively. | 30 Penfield and Frenzel—Identity of Chalcostibite, ete. Guejarite. Chalcostibite. Guejarite. Chalcostibite. Position. Position. Position. Position, b, 010 — Cy OUn iA EG) — d, 101 és UOT = b, 010 i280 — h, 2ve h, 210 4 g, 20t d, 013 == Uu, O61 k, 320 se 7, 302 Co rOlt = t, 021 At the conclusion of his article, Friedel calls attention to the close similarity in the angle of his prism, mam = 101° 9’, with that of the chalcostibite prism 101° 0’ measured by Rose. In the Brush collection at New Haven, there is a specimen of chalcostibite from Guejar, which was presented by Professor Groth of Munich. It is a fragment of a crystal, without terminal planes, and in appearance it agrees exactly with the description of guejarite given by Friedel. However, in order to make sure of its identity with the material described by him, it was carefully measured, with the results which will be found in column IV in the table on page 34. The specimen weighed a little over one gram, and the specific gravity was found to be 4°959. Oumenge gives 5:03. Professor Groth very kindly responded to a request to sup- ply us with some of this rare material for a chemical analysis, and he also furnished measurements of a crystal with terminal planes, belonging to the Munich collection. These measure- ments were made by Mr. Schott, and are given in column V 1. on page 84. The habit of this 3 crystal is shown in fig. 1. Requests for material were also sent to Professor Freidel and Mr. Cumenge, and they were able to supply us with some of the origi-. nal mineral from Guejar investigated by them. That received from Professor Friedel was a small fragment of a crystal, weighing 0°108 gram, which corresponded in every particular with that given to us by Professor Groth. Before using it for analysis, however, it was carefully measured, with the results which are given in column III on page 34. The material supplied by Mr. Cumenge consisted of small, finely striated crystal fragments which were not adapted for measurement. They weighed 0:428 gram, and, before subjecting them to analysis, each crystal was tested for copper so as to make sure that there were no stibnite crystals amongst them. The results of the analyses (by Frenzel) of the specimens received from Professors Groth and Friedel, and Mr. Cumenge, are given below in the columns J, II and III respectively. Penfield and Frenzel-—Identity of Chalcostibite, ete. 31 Specific gravity 4°96. Theory for 1. Ratio. Te > ti, © CusS. Sb Ss. S. 2628+ 82 = 891 4:00 S .... 2612 25°87 Sb 48°86~—120 = ‘407 1°995 Sb 48°50 48°44 48°50 Cu 24°44—126°8 = ‘1938 Oul25"92 . 25°93 25°63 Pb 8 2907 p= 002 “202 0°095. Pho s.2 oP) Sv eee Hei. -49=2 556. == “007% Be Ro! “AQ eat ZT ee 18 Liars 100°58 100°78 100°00 In the first analysis the ratio of S:Sb:(Cu,+Pb+Fe) is almost exactly 4:2:1, which is that demanded by the chalco- stibite formula Cu,S.Sb,8,. The results of the second and third analyses are almost identical with those of the first, so we are thus enabled to establish beyond all doubt the identity in chemical composition of guejarite with chalcostibite. Chalcostibite from Huanchaca, Bolivia.—On the specimen sent to us by Mr. Hohmann, the chalcostibite occurred as pris- matic crystals averaging about 1™™ in diameter and 2™™ in length, which were attached to a gangue of quartz and pyrite vein material. Some massive tetrahedrite was also present, but the chalcostibite crystals were not found directly upon it. Although the erystals were isolated and quite numerous, only a few were implanted so that they could be removed and used for measurement. Doubly terminated ones were not observed. The crystals are quite highly modified, and the forms that have been identified are given in the following table, where those which are new are indicated by an asterisk : c, 001 h, 203* t, 021 vy, 133* dy E30" d, 101 u, 061 a, 265° A, 209% é, 302% g, 868 p, 263* A, 207* g, 201 p, 6127. a, 4°12°5* » 205* s, 065* yw, 136% 7, 261* The large development of the pyramids p and g, whose indices are complicated, corresponds almost exactly with the description given by Laspeyres of the occurrence of the same found on the crystals from Wolfsberg. These pyramids were free from striations and vicinal developments, and gave excel- lent reflections. A few crystals were observed which have the habit represented in fig. 8, by a projection upon the pinacoid 010. All the pyramidal forms given in the foregoing table were observed upon a single crystal of this habit, but, of the faces in the zone between c and J, all of which were quite small, w, » and o are not represented in the figure. 32 Penfield and Frenzel—Identity of Chalcostibite, ete. The axial ratio given below was derived from exceptionally good measurements of the pyramid qg, 863. 863 A 863 = 126° 21’ 863 , 863 = 138° 21' a:b6:¢=0°5312: 1: 0°63955 Laspeyres’ measurements yield 0°5283:1: 0°6364 Friedel’s measurements yield 0°5242:1:0°6377 A list of the measured angles will be found in column VI in the tables on page 34, et seq. Although the amount of material was limited, by careful selection a sufficient quantity of the pure, crystallized mineral was obtained for a chemical analysis, which was made by Frenzel, and gave the following results, corresponding with the theory demanded by the chalcostibite formula: Found. Theory for Cu.8 . Sb28s. S eee ee 26°20 25°87 Sar cume es See 48°45 48°50 Cup eee 24°72 25°63 99°37 100°00 Mr. L. J. Spencer gives the following description of the chalcostibite specimen from Huanchaca, belonging to the British Museum. The small, bright, blade-sbaped crystals of chalcostibite occur upon a specimen consisting mostly of mas- sive and crystallized quartz, pyrite and tetrahedrite. The chalcostibite crystals are flattened parallel to the pinacoid c, 001, and are elongated and striated parallel to the erystallo- graphic axis b. They are sometimes terminated at the ends by unsymmetrically developed, narrow, pyramidal planes, but more often by dull rounding surfaces approximating in posi- tion to the pinacoid 010. The forms that were observed are given in the table below, those which are new being indicated by an asterisk : n, 205 g, 201 y, 474* i, 802 a, 233% 8, 475* anon B, 354* «, 476* Penfield and Frenzel—Identity of Chatcostibite, ete. 33 The measurements obtained by him will be found in column VII in the tables on page 35. Summary of the crystallographic investigations.—The fol- lowing table includes all the forms which have been identified on chalcostibite, and their distribution is shown by the spherical projection, fig. 4: 6.01047 A. 205 F001 p, 136 tT, 261 c, 001 é, 307 Ss, 065 r, 134 a, 233 7, 130 j, 102 i Oo Vv, 138 B, 354 A, 209 h, 208 u, 061 rT, 265 y, 474 A B07 d, 101 q, 863 p, 263 8, 475 A,, 103 i, 302 DP, ClO fas 14 125476 g, 201 All investigators call attention to the striated character of the crystals in the direction of the crystallographic axis 0, and, owing to the difficulty of always obtaining reliable measure- ments, there may be uncertainty in the identification of some of the forms in the zone 100:001. The only forms which have been identified as prominent ones in this zone are A, d, and g. The prominent development of the pyramids p and ¢ with such complicated indices as 6°12°7 and 863, respectively, on crystals from both Wolfsberg and Huanchaca, is certainly very unusual, and there seems to be nothing gained by giving to one of these forms simpler indices, since that would add very much to the complexity of the remaining forms. Am. Jour. Sc1.—Fourts Serizs, Vou. IV, No. l.—Juty, 1897. 3 384 Penfield and Prenzel—-Identity of Chalcostibite, ete. In addition to the perfect basal cleavage, traces of cleavages parallel to the pinacoids 100 and 010 were observed. In the succeeding tables, the calculated values are derived from the axial ratio a@:6:¢ = 0°5312: 1: 063955, and the meas- urements made by various investigators are indicated by Roman numerals placed above the columns, as follows: I. Laspeyres. Crystals from Wolfsberg in the Harz. II. Friedel. Crystals from Guejar in Andalusia. III. Penfield. Fragment of crystal from Guejar, received from Prof. Friedel. IV. Penfield. Fragment of crystalfrom Guejar, received from — Prof. Groth. _Y. Schott. Terminated crystal from Guejar, belonging to the Munich collection. VI. Penfield. Crystals from Huanchaea, Bolivia. VII. Spencer. Crystals from Huanchaca, Bolivia. Measurements from the base c, OOL on to faces in the zone 001: 100. Calculated. I. II. WUE IV. Vv. V1. end, 209 \14259" 14° 10? cAA,, 207 18 59 17 40 CARP N03) 12a Pals s yaaa 2b CAA 2051725 43 25 155 CAE 130 727 Seen ale eT CA j,102) Ista euler ca h, 208 88 45 397581938 45: 38046) 38 oly wae Gnd, 101, 50 17.51 22 (507345,50 3322502555018 eee Cr 4,302) Glas 62 50 61 45 CA 9, 201 6727 06728 G7E389) N67 8) 67 226 (e242 one To the foregoing may be added the measurements of Rose cad = 50° 30’ and cag = 67° 36’, and the following by Spencer: cvAA, = 25° 49’ (mean of 25°51’, 25° 557, 25° 51’ and. 25° 35’) and caz= 63°, 63° and 6321387. These last measurements by Spencer and one given by Friedel, cxaz = 62° 50’, may indicate the existence of a form 805 (001, 805= 62° 34’) instead of the more probable one 2, 302. Measurements obtained from faces in the zones 100: 010 and 010: OOL. Calculated. if JDL ie VI. LA a0 A130 64° 13’ G4° 22) Cie OOl Ola 32 36 Be ead TAF, OM NOs! 114 MeheiiEest SAS, 065,065 104 594 105 24 Crit 00D RA 021041151 159 51° 54! FH 021 ROD: wiTE (O28 76 21 AUP OOLA0GT. 4975 234 45 28 75°24! UAU, 061A 061 29.13 : 29 32 Penfield and Frenzel—Identity of Chaleostibite, etc.” 35 Measurements obtained from pyramidal faces. Calculated. 5 vel, Vig GA; 863 A863...) 0260 21) 1126" 31 126° 21'* VAQq, 863A863 £387.21 Nise WAN at Jag, 863 : 863 32 164 32 18 32 16 PAP, 612°7A6127 69 38 69 49 69 34 DADs, E127 A 6:12°7. 105,19 105 16 Dav, Oed AC127. 267 bee 67 18s 67 114 Cav, 001A 186 20 41 20°18 ear, 001A 134 29 314 30 24 At. Olle 134 16 404 16 22 aA AOY 7 134 40 454 40 324 CAr, 001A 138 37 3 36 45 Gn O0ln 265 42 11 41 46 CA p, 001A 263 56 29 56 12 CAc, 001A 4°12°5 61 64 61 8 CAT, 001A 261 TA83 Tie CAa, 001A 233 US aCe ER ea Meets Phan ee 46° A,Aa, 205 A 233 29 194 | 30 ca B, 001A 354 50 20 50 28’ A, AB, 205 A354 le ae 9 d « B, 101A 354 09.2 Oe eA y, 001A 474 58 41 58 43 A, Ay, 205 A474 42 184 LO) wie d Ay, 101A 474 35 34 | | 54058 CA 6, 001A 475 52 45 52725 Cae, 001 A476 4 37°: 45 to 47° In the preceding tables, many of the measurements show considerable variation from the calculated values, which might be expected, owing to the striated character of some of the faces and the small size of others. On the other hand, the measurements from the best and most prominently developed forms, h, d, g, v, g, and p, show a very close agreement with > the caleulated values, and it is believed that the axial ratio which we have established is more accurate than those given by other investigators. It is probable that the pyramid w mentioned by Friedel (cnw = 56° 24’) is p, 6:12°7 (cap calculated = 56° 243’), which is prominently developed on the crystals from Wolfsberg and Huanchaca. In conclusion, we take great pleasure in expressing our thanks to Professors Friedel and Groth, and Messrs. Cumenge, Hohmann, Spencer, Schott and Fletcher, who have rendered valuable assistance by supplying us with material for this investigation and information concerning the mineral. Mineralogical-Petrographical Laboratory, Sheffield Scientific School, February, 1897. Alli 36 H. W. Fairbanks— Contact Metamorphism. Art. V.—An Interesting Case of Contact Metamorphism ; by H. W. FarrRBanks. BuAck Mountain is the highest peak of the El Paso range, a spur of the Sierra Nevada mountains extending easterly into the Mojave desert. The mountain owes its name to the mantle of dark lavas which covers it. The underlying rocks consti- tute a part of an extensive series of sedimentary beds exposed for many miles along the northern slope of the El Paso range. They consist of sandstones, clays and conglomerates and con- tain in places much fragmental volcanic material as well as occasionally interstratified flows. Last Chance gulch and its tributaries drain the western slope of Black Mountain and in the cafions the character of the sedimentary beds, as well as their relation to the volcanic flows, is often finely shown. The sedimentary beds here have a light yellowish or pinkish color and exhibit in places a finely banded appearance. In the field they were thought to be wholly of voleanic origin, but a micro- scopic examination revealed the fact that the lght-colored paste in which the more distinct tragments were embedded consists of an amorphous kaolin-like substance. The small partly-rounded pebbles and grains appear to be of many kinds, but those of a volcanic nature predominate. The strata have been considerably disturbed and faulted, and in one of the cafions have been intruded by two dikes. One of these has a diameter of less than one foot while the other is 14 feet across. The larger one cuts vertically through the sedimentary rocks which dip at an angle of about 25 degrees. This dike appears very fine-grained, but a microscopic examina- tion shows that it is holocrystalline. The feldspar is probably labradorite and occurs in long laths. The augite has a pale brown color and gives an ophitic structure to the rock. Abundant grains of a reddish color and presenting the appear- ance of having resulted from the alteration of olivine are scat- tered through the rock. Owing to the absence of a glassy base the rock is then an olivine diabase. The surface of the outcrop is quite decomposed and weathers away as rapidly as the soft and slightly tufaceous beds. The remarkable feature connected with the intrusion is the striking manner in which the adjoining rock has been meta- morphosed. The thickness of the band of altered tufa is about two feet where it is best exposed. The light colored-soft rock has been baked to a dark hard and very firm one, the slabs of which give forth a rging sound when struck. A microscopic examination does not reveal any new minerals, but only the fact that the alteration has brought out more clearly the vol- ny “ HH. W. Fairbanks— Contact Metamorphism. 37 eanic nature of the most of the fragments. The metamor- phosed layer weathers out more strongly, as the photograph shows, than either the dike or the unaltered tufa, forming a prominent and sharply defined band extending up ‘the side of the cafion. Contact metamorphism in the Hl Paso range, California. The soft tufa lies on the right of the picture, the slaty contact zone in the middle, the diabase dike on the left. ua In addition to the pronounced manner in which the rock has been baked there is another striking feature. The hardened layer is not massive, but on the contrary, breaks up into thin and regular slate-like slabs parallel to the wall of the dike. The photograph shows the main lines of fissility and the slabs broken off and strewn over the side of the cafion. An exami- nation of any one of these slabs shows that it also is thickly penetrated by fine parallel seams which are slightly irregular and discontinuous, but which under the action of the weather " (ll i 38 H.W. Fairbanks— Contact Metamorphism. would develop into further parting planes. Where these cracks pass through the larger pebbles the latter do not appear to be faulted in the least, so that we cannot attribute their origin to the action of a shearing stress. The most probable explanation which has occurred to the writer is that the part- ings are due to contraction on cooling. This theory would explain the local irregularities as well as the general parallel- ism with the dike. Berkeley, California. ‘H. W. Fairbanks—Tin Deposits in California. 39 Art. VI.—The Tin Deposits at Temescal, Southern Cali- forma; by HAarotp W. FArrBANKs. Introduction.—Several years ago, shortly prior to the final suspension of work upon the Temescal tin deposits, the writer was given exceptional facilities for a careful examination of the mine and the country immediately surrounding it. Subse- quently a brief description was published,* but owing to the political importance of the question at the time no thorough report was attempted. Descriptions of the tin veins occur- ring here have been given by Blaket and Hanks,t although httle has been published concerning the conditions under which the veins occur and the nature of the ore bodies. In the present paper the writer will add to what is already known, a more detailed description of the veins and the country in which they are found. The report of Hanks referred to above contains an outline of the history of the discovery and the excitement following it, the purchase of the old Mexican grant and the final development by the English company, so that this part of the subject will not be touched upon. General Geology of the District.—The Temiseal tin mine is located in the northwestern portion of the San Jacinto grant about five miles southeast of South Riverside. This portion ‘of the grant consists of rolling hills having an elevation of nearly 1,000 feet, and formed of a great variety of rocks. To the west, separated by the Temescal valley filled with late Miocene ‘sediments, is the Santa Ana range, the most striking topographic feature of the region. It is high and steep, con- trasting strongly with the rolling though sometimes quite mountainous country to the northeast. Its elevation is doubt- less due to a great fault line, the northern portion of which passes through the Temescal valley. Immediately adjoming the valley on the east is a more or less connected strip of highly metamorphosed rocks associated with porphyries, but the most of the country in that direction is granite. The tin deposits lie nearly in the center of a rudely semi- circular area of granite about two miles in diameter and con- nected on the east with the great body of similar rock extending indefinitely in that direction. The sedimentary rocks along the edge of the granite area consist of quartzite, mica schist and conglomerate of unknown age. A part at least of the slates and limestones of the Santa Ana range are * XIth Report of the State Mining Bureau, p. III. + Mineral Resources of the United States, 1883-84, p. 614. t IVth Report of the State Mining Bureau, p. 120. 40 H. W. Faerbanks—Tin Deposits nm California. Carboniferous, but further than that we have no information. Extensive bodies of porphyry also border the granite. They vary much in appearance, in some places being of a grayish color and almost devoid of distinet crystals, but more generally the rock presents a groundmass almost black in color in which are sprinkled white feldspar crystals and more rarely those of quartz. It is difficult to say which is the older, the granite or the porphyry. In the neighborhood of the junction both rocks change their character somewhat, although each is dis- tinct. With perhaps one exception, none of the fine-grained granitic dikes abundant in the coarse granite were noticed penetrating the porphyry, but there are bunches and dike-like protrusions of the latter in the granite near the contact. The granite is distinctly intrusive in the metamorphic rocks, as bunches of it project up through them here and there. The granite varies considerably in texture although the main body has a uniform composition. Macroscopically it shows two kinds of feldspar, one a pale brownish color and the other white, abundant quartz and a small amount of the dark sili- cate. Under the microscope it is seen to consist of plagioclase, orthoclase, and quartz in nearly equal proportions, with a much less amount of biotite mica. Towards the outer edges of the granitic boss in which the mine is situated are numerous dikes of a very fine-grained granite consisting almost wholly of quartz and orthoclase in interlocking grains. The proportion of quartz seems to be greater in some of these dikes than in — the coarse granite to which they are genetically related. The Vein System and Tin Deposits.—The semicircular area of granite and portions of the adjoining porphyry have been fissured in a general northeast and southwest direction along almost innumerable-lines and a black vein matter deposited. The veins are generally small, varying from one-fourth to a few inches in thickness, but in the case of the main tin-bearing vein an enormous size is reached at Cajalco hill. As the hill is approached the veins become larger, and finally culminate in this elevation, which is about 300 by 250 feet in diameter at the base. The veinstone of which it is mostly composed rises in prominent and bold croppings. With one or two unim- portant exceptions the material of which this as well as the other veins is formed consists wholly of tourmaline and quartz, with which the tin ores are locally associated. The larger veins, and the Cajalco in particular, are very irregular in size, sometimes appearing to be mere bunches in the granite. A few hundred feet northeast of the hill the vein has narrowed to 6 or 8 feet, and it is here that the large body of tin was first discovered and the main shafts sunk. A slide prepared from one of the smaller veins, which in the yt a tA PS ae ot. a“ vv ». °"." Ar o~ H. W. Fairbanks—Tin Deposits in California. 41 hand specimen appeared to consist wholly of tourmaline, showed bunches of tourmaline crystals radially arranged and embedded in interlocking quartz grains. The crystals are rec- ognized as tourmaline by the hexagonal cross section, parallel extinction, polarization and frequent presence of fibrous termi- nations, although the terminal crystal faces are sometimes present. In the most of the sections prepared the tourmaline appears to be exceptionally opaque, sometimes the border is opaque while the center is feebly translucent. With the blow- pipe the material fused easily with slight intumescence and became magnetic. The reaction for boron was pronounced. The large Cajalco vein consists of tourmaline and quartz in almost equal proportions. This aggregate breaks up quite easily, as it is porous, the spaces being lined with drusy erystals of both components. The deposits have evidently been formed in fissures through a gradual replacement of the granite walls. Judging from an examination of the seam-like veins the sili- cates appear to have been attacked easier and removed first. In places the larger veins seem to blend into the granite and it was at first thought that some of the quartz might be a rem- nant of the granite, as it is rarely if ever segregated in bunches. A microscopic examination showed that this view wes undoubt- edly false, as the grains interlock in a different manner from those in the granite, and in addition contained fluid and liquid inclusions. The relative proportions of quartz and tourmaline in the Cajalco vein are so constant that it presents a uniform appearance. Although the mine reports speak of the occa- sional presence of arsenical pyrites and copper, nothing of the kind came under the observation of the writer. The bunches in these veins, and especially the enormous one forming Cajaleo hill, conld have been formed in no other way than by replacement, although it is difficult to conceive of its having taken place on such a large scale. : With the earlier reports upon this property nearly all the veins were considered tin-bearing, but at the time the writer made the examination shortly before the mine closed, after diligent prospecting the company had succeeded in finding traces of tin in only one or two veins besides the one worked. Tunnels had also been run into Cajalco hill, but in this great body of vein matter nothing was found. The narrower por- tion of the vein to the northeast furnished all that was ever milled. At the time of the examination the vein had been opened to a depth of 180 feet by two working shafts, exposing the vein horizontally for 300 feet. Here the vein has a width of 8 feet or less. The main ore body occurs in the center of the mine between the two shafts and extends down on the dip of the vein. The tin oxide is distributed either through the 49 H. W. Fairbanks—Tin Deposits in California. vein matter or in stringers and bunches. In the latter case it is sometimes found in nearly pure condition. The average of the ore milled was however only about 5 per cent of the oxide. Seams of clay are generally found on or near the sides of the vein, showing some movement since the deposition took place. The walls are quite irregular and sometimes bunches of granite are found wholly.inclosed in the vein. The analysis of. the ore made by Genth, and quoted by both Blake and Hanks, shows silicic acid 9°82 per cent, tungstic acid ‘22, oxide of tin 76°15, oxide of copper °27, oxides of iron and manganese, lime and alumina 13°54. This must have been an exceptionally pure specimen and wholly free from tourmaline. The tin ore occurs in two forms; the more important and common variety is either massive and of a brownish color, or in clear reddish brown crystals lining cavities ; the less common variety is that of ‘‘ wood tin,” which appears uncrystallized and in the form of thin layers. It is not known to the writer whether the ore body which was being followed down finally ran out or not, but at any rate it appears that it was unprofitable to work. The great richness of the ore in places is one of the remarkable features of this deposit when compared with most of the other known occurrences of tin. Another remarkable fact is the great size of the main vein as shown in Cajalco hill and its uniformity and simplicity of composition. It appears that the contents of the veins represent the entire replacement of the granite bor- dering what were originally narrow fissures. The agent which accomplished this was probably heated water carrying various minerals in solution, the economically valuable one, tin, being deposited only in places under exceptional conditions. Vaughan— Outlying Areas of the Comanche Series. 48 Art. VIJ.— Additional Notes on the Outlying Areas of the Comanche Series in Oklahoma and Kansas; by T. Way- LAND VAUGHAN. [Published by permission of the director of the U. S. Geological Survey. ] I was. enabled during the past summer, while working under the direction of Mr. R. T. Hill, to study some areas of the Comanche formations in Kansas and Oklahoma, that have not been described in the literature pertaining to the region. I was also able to visit a locality reported by Cope from near old Camp Supply, and what is probably the original locality from which Marcou obtained the types‘of his G. prtchert (=G@. navia Hall, G. rwamert Marcou, G. forniculata White). Marcou’s were the first observations made in the region ;* Oragint} has published numerous papers, and St. John{ and Hay§ have made lesser contributions. Professor E. D. Cope] has pub- lished some notes on beds near old Camp Supply. Mr. R. T. Hill] has given an extended review of the work that has been done in the whole region, and has published the results of a very careful study of the vicinity of Belvidere. The most recent contribution is that of Professor C. 8. Prosser.** The areas of the beds belonging to the Comanche Series, in Kansas, Oklahoma, Trans-Pecos, Texas, and New Mexico, have been denominated “ Outlying Areas ” by Mr. Hill becanse the connection between them and the main area of the Lower Cretaceous in Texas has been destroyed by erosion, or the beds in the intervening areas buried beneath the Plains Formation. There are great lithologic differences between the beds of the - “Outlying Areas” and those of the main area: the most con- spicuous is the entire absence of chalky formations in the former. For the portion of the Comanche Series, exposed near Bel- videre, the names Belvidere bedst+ may be used. There are * Geology of North America, pp. 22, 26, 27, 38, 39, 1858. + Bulletin of the Washburn College Laboratory, vol. i, No. 3, pp. 85-91, 1885 ; vol. ii, No. 9, pp. 33-37, February, 1889; vol. ii, No. 10, pp. 65-68, December, 1889; vol. ii, No. 11, pp. 69--80, March, 1890; American Geologist, vol. vii, No. 3. pp. 179-181, March, 1891; vol. xiv, pp. 1-12, July, 1894; vol. xvi, pp. 162- 165, September, 1895; and pp. 357-385, December, 1895; Colorado College Studies, Fifth Annual Publication, pp. 49-73, 1894. + Fifth Biennial Report, Kansas State Board of Agriculture, Part II, pp. 132-- 152, Topeka, 1887. § Bull. 57, U. 8. Geol. Survey, 1890. Geology and Mineral Resources of » Kansas, pp. 12, 13, Topeka, 1893. _ || Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., for 1894, pp. 63-68. _ 4] This Journal, vol. 1, pp. 205-234, September, 1895. ** Univ. of Kansas Geol. Sury., vol. ii, pp. 96-194, 1897. tt Hill, this Journal, vol. 1, p. 211, 1895. 44. Vaughan—Outlying Areas of the Comanche Series. two members of the Belvidere beds, a lower sandstone mem- ber, the Cheyenne sandstone of Cragin,* and an upper shale member, the Kiowa shales of Cragin.t The following deserip- tion of the general features of the section are taken from Mr. Hill’s article in this Journal. TV. Plains Tentiary> 2 263 ese se tele IH. -Daketa:sandstonei => ys 9055 II. Belvidere beds: 6. Kiowa shales, blue and black shales, With; hossuise 2 25 ie Seta parte Ee Log. a. Cheyenne sandstone, gradating up- WAT ant Oro oir pe ee gee fakes: I; Red beds]. 45 ee ee Sat Ri feet nts 300 “ For the details of the section the article by Mr. Hill, previ- ously referred to, Professor Cragin’s last contribution to the subject, in the American Geologist for December, 1895, and Professor Prosser’s report should be consulted. The Kiowa shales, in which the marine fossils occur, belong to the Washita division of the Comanche Series, as defined by Mr. Hill. The homotaxial relations of the Cheyenne sand- stone are as yet indefinite. : There is no necessity for making further notes on the vicinity of Belvidere, so I shall proceed to describe the other localities and outcrops examined. Outcrops of the Cheyenne sandstone can be seen in Barber County, about five miles from Sun City on the road to Cold- water, where it is light-colored and cross-bedded, contains clay nodules, and weathers into pillars and pinnacles. The contact between the sandstone and the Red Beds was seen at many places, showing that the former rests upon the deeply eroded surface of the latter. Outcrops of the sandstone were occa- sionally seen on the divide until the descent into the valley of Mule Creek was made. The approximate elevation of the base of the sandstone on the north side of Mule Creek is 1940 to 1960 feet. Exposures of the Cretaceous occur in Comanche County, about one mile south and five miles east of the village of Nescatunga, around the head ef a draw that runs southward into Nescatunga Creek, at an elevation, as judged by the topographic map, between 2020 and 2040 feet. There are several exposures in this vicinity. The easternmost examined consisted of a few feet of very fine-grained pulverulent, strati- fied, white or pinkish sand, resting unconformably upon the Red Beds. The more western exposures show that the sands * Bull. Washb. Coll. Lab., vol. ii, No. 10, p. 65, December, 1889. + Col, Coll. Studies, 5th Ann. Publication, p. 49, 1894. Vaughan— Outlying Areas of the Comanche Series. 45 are overlain by yellow clays, or dark-colored thinly laminated clay shales. In some instances the sands may be indurated so as to form a hard rock. Belvidere ¢ K AN? = A > { moyen? Medicine Lodge O aes AU Z Coldwater 3 \ Cctrtte,, Tay BARBER Slit ae PR eee ele ao ' Z2¢ PR = 5 | v—, ay ey ent ah 2°1 | 2°2 119°5 15 | 13°5 . |80°1 132-2 | | | | Resi|dual gas . | Resi dual gas). | 14) | 4) 121 Baesel eel | O58 | Sad Te Ni eset Eudiometer No. 3. | Eudiometer No. 1. | _ Pres- Obsohved| Reaneed Cee © 838! Reduced ‘Observed. Pres- Hours.|Temp. sure. | yolume.| volume. | ¢gm. com- | Volume. volume. | sure. |Temp- bined. bined. (14 | 224°5| 1565 | 44 | 48 151-2 226°8 14 ioe |i 204°8| 1536 | 39°4 | 4°6 || 4°97 38:3 148°4 |206°3 | 13°8 jee fas Be fe BPs ess: 1D 1:2 Sb ee ea) ae 34°2 145°9 |188°5] (5-7 1 [17 | 172 | 144-8 | 31-7 | 3°97 || 38-5 | 30-7 | 148-7 1172-5) 17 1 L7 158°4| 146°4 28-7 3 | 3 | 27°7 141°3 (158-2 | 17 fe al cla 141°1]| 143°1 25 3°7 fr 3°6 | 24°71 138°0 I4b1 17 ran WA VTS 24) SS | 2074 | 46 || 493 | 196 ioe ‘11T2) 17°4 Hr 47-9 97°4| 136:1 164 | 4 | SPQe) -dbry 131°6 | 96°8).179 1 | 18 74°5| 132°8 | 12-2 | 42 || 88 | 11-9 | 1286 | 748) 17-8 ag PB} HHehi) 1296 8°9 3°3 aia 8°6 125-6. | 653) 18 if 18 37°5 | 126°8 | ao 3 | 2°9 57 122°9 | 375! 18 1 16°6 20°5| 124°8 | 3°2 2°7 | 24 3:3 121 | 22°2| 16°6 —_——__ |—__——_ 40°S 39°7 | Residual gas. | - | Resijdual gas. 15 4:8 | 120°6 | 0-72 i | 0-70 | 116°4 | 4°8;) 15 —o * Passed the current through 3 only for a time to equalize the pressure, then through both for a few minutes and observed the volume later. W. G. Mixter—On Llectrosynthesis. 55 The eudiometers were filled with gas for the second experi- ment without removing the residual gas of the first, namely 0°61 and 0°58* and the increase of 0°1°° of residual gas in the second experiment shows that almost no ozone was formed. Moreover, the mercury was only slightly tarnished. During half of the time of the first experiment the current was reversed in the primary of the coil with no marked difference in the relative rate of combination in the two tubes. The direction of the current was not changed in the second experi- ment. The lack of uniformity in the results from hour to hour is only in small part due to errors of observation and is probably owing to leakage of electricity from the wires or its passage over the surface of the glass above the jacket tubes. The marked discrepancies during the first three hours of the first experiment show the liability to error in the method. Leaving out these hours, the results accord fairly and the total amount of combination is 20°6° and 20-4° respectively. It will be observed that the gases in the two tubes were under nearly equal pressures. This is essential, for the higher the pressure the more rapid the combination as shown by the following: the results in each horizontal line were by the same current acting on a hydrogen-oxygen mixture in two eudiom- eters. c.c. combined. Mean pressure. c.c. combined. Mean pressure. 6°22 ss Berar g 3°87 (hme y 5°42 160 4°39 110 21°95 186 13°3 91 14°43 81 11°25 76 The reason for these results is not apparent and the rate of | combination bears no simple relation to the pressure. Vapor of water, as already mentioned, is electrolyzed by the spark discharge, and it is also dissociated by the feeble glow discharge. Three experiments made with the vapor at low pressures in apparatus like that figured gave small volumes of permanent gas. Hence it may be that some of the water from the oxidation of hydrogen is decomposed, but it is probable that little if any is decomposed in a mixture of gases in which water is constantly forming and which contains on account of rapid drying a very small proportion of water. In order to determine the ozonizing effect on pure oxygen of the glow discharge, one eudiometer was filled with 36° (reduced to 0° and 760") of oxygen at 193™™ pressure and the other eudiometer with 30°6°% of hydrogen and oxygen. A saturated solution of potassium hydroxide and iodide was put into each eudiometer to dry the gases and absorb ozone. A current from two storage cells on the primary of the coil was used for an hour and a half. The oxygen contracted 0°3°, and 56 W. G. Miater—On Electrosynthesis. the hydrogen-oxygen mixture 11°2° (reduced to 0° and 760™"). The light in the oxygen was much feebler than in oxygen and hydrogen. The current was next passed through the oxygen only for two hours and the contraction was 2°2°. Carbonic Oxide and Oxygen. The carbonic oxide used was made by heating a mixture of formic acid and oil of vitriol. Two measures of the gas were mixed over water with one measure of oxygen from pure potassium chlorate. The mixed gases left after exploding and treating with potassium hydroxide less than 1 per cent of gas. The following table contains the observations and results of four experiments. Hydrogen, 2 volumes. | ‘Carbonic oxide, 2 volumes. ‘Oxygen, 1 # | Oxygen, 2 - c.c. of | c.c. of Pres- |Observed|Reduced | gas || gas |Reduced |Observed| Pres- | Hours. |Temp.; sure. | volume. volumes) Coury con volume. | volume. | sure. Temp. ined.|| bine 16 | 180°5| 144-9 | 32% | 33°2 | 14§-1 {1805} 16 2 |.145] 1475] 140-7 | 25-9 | 66 || 79 | 25:3 | 144-4 [140 | 145 | | | 1 15°8| 179°8 140 313 | 33:3 | 145 |184-7) 15-8 5 | 166| 69°5| 1243 | 10-7 (BOG |lgith | 12-2 | 198 [i975 ete 15°9| 186 | 1487 | 34-4 | 32 | 144-5 [1781 | 16-2 6 | 18 d.c94. | 1859 | 15:8 |18°6:|122-8-1—-9-7 | 121-3 eikonal ahs |e dcoo| tai 0-2 | | 05 | 118 35) 17 164 188 | 150 35 | | 392 11496 |211 | 164 2 | AG 0) WB ay 4 Toes 7 || 84 12308, | 146 CAND (| 165 2 | 14-7] 117-8| 140°8 | 20-7 | 7-3 ||9:2 | 21-6 | 188-4" ledges 2. | 158] 82) 185] 13-9 | ws | Peo]; Jae] fsa sre) ihe 2 | 16 | .282|obep 4:4 | 95 |102 | 4:2 | 122-7 | 27-2] 16 | 30°6 35 20 3-2 | 122°4 05 | | 0-6 | 119 4:2 | 18 In the last experiment the air in the eudiometers, 0°2 and 0-5°, was noted before filling with the gases, and also the residual gas, 0°5 and 0°6°%, when the electric discharge gave no further rise of the mercury in the tubes. The hydrogen-oxy- gen mixture was in one eudiometer in the first and third experiments and in the other eudiometer in the second and fourth; that is, the arrangement and filling of the apparatus was reversed each time after the first experiment. In all 76-4° of hydrogen and oxygen and 86°3° of carbonic oxide and oxygen combined, a ratio of 1 to 1:13. Glow Discharge in dry Carbonic Oxide and Oxygen. The eudiometers were filled with a mixture of two volumes of carbonic oxide and one volume of oxygen, the same mixture W. G. Mixter—On EHlectrosynthesis. 57 as used i in the preceding experiments, and phosphorus pentox- ide was put into the eudiometers to dry the gases. The appa- ratus was: allowed to stand for two days and then the glow discharge was passed for two hours. The contraction in vol- ume caused by the discharge was in each case 2°5°°, reduced to 0° and 760™™ pressure. The initial volames were 13:1% and 18°5° respectively. The results show that dry carbonic oxide and oxygen slowly combine when acted upon by the glow dis- charge. Methane and Oxygen. The methane was made from methyl iodide by the action of zine and alcohol. For the following experiments one volume of methane and two volumes of oxygen were mixed over water. Hydrogen, 2 volumes. Methane, 1 volume. Oxygen, 1 Oxygen, 2 be c.c. of ||\c. c. of Pres- |Observed|/Reduced | gas gas |Reduced |Observed! Pres- Hours.|Temp.| sure. | vOlume.| volume. | com- |} com- | yvolume.| yvolume.| sure. |Temp. bined.|| bined. 15 13 117 1°9 0°8 120 5 15 - (5 04s3 |. LG64°b | TAO 24°5 28°2 143 Pde) | 4:3 2 Tidsd) |, 129-5.) 11875 19°1 bod a | 21°1 139 LZk-d.|) hoe? 2 16°4); 90°5) 117 13°1 6 9 12°1 SRE 14:5 | 16 2 18 51 1165 ess 5°8 9°95 2°6 123 17 18 24 21 116 29 1:5 122 10 19 172 ||25°6 17 4:5 | 119°5 0-7 1 117 7 1 13°3 | 192°8 | 148-7 35°9 | 20°2 120 200°5 | 13°3 2 14 159°5 | 144°3 28°8 1 9°9 20°3 119 136°5 | 14°4 2 15°6 | 122°5 | 138°4 21-1 7 |All 9-2 118 63°5 | 16 17 4°8| 120 0-7 eT 117 19 18°8 14°8 | 21 14 1°5 | 120 0°2 0°4 116 3 14 16 203 129 32 6 34-7 | 144°5 1193 16 2 171| 161°5 | 126 25°2 74 |'10°3 DAc4do |) IDEA \143°6) 16:3 2 16°4| 111 122°5 16°9 8°3 |11 13°4 127 85 16°6 19 2 117 0°3 ae9 118°5 2G" S+hkg W597 121°3 The eudiometers in the first experiment contained 1:9°° and 0-8 of air and the residual gases at the end of the test were 2°9°° and 1:5° respectively when the battery gave out. The result shows that the methane and oxygen combined according to the equation CH,+20, = CO,+2H,0. In the second experiment the residual gas, after the discharge ceased to cause a diminution of volume in the methane-oxygen mixture, was 2°7°°, while in the last experiment the residual gas 58 W. G. Miater—On Flectrosynthesis. was 3°9°° and was found to be chiefly oxygen. This excess of oxygen may be due to leakage of the mixed gases from the gas- holder during the time intervening between the first and last experiment. In the three experiments 47-7 of hydrogen and oxygen and 67°9°° of methane and oxygen combined, or in the ratio of 1 to 1:42. The ratio in the successive experiments is 1 to 149, 1 to 1:48, and 1 to 1°36. The smaller ratios for methane and oxygen in the last two are explained by the presence of an excess of oxygen. Ethylene and Oxygen. The ethylene used was made from ethylene bromide by means of a zinc-copper couple and was nearly pure. - Hydrogen, 2 volumes. | Ethylene, 5°2 ¢. ¢. Oxygen, 1 5 : Oxygen, 19-E¢. c. | le. Cc. of c.c. of | | Pres- |Observed Reduced, gas | gas | Reduced |Observed Pres- Hours. Temp. gure. | volume. _volume.| com- || com- volume. | volume. | sure. nee bined. || bined. | | | | | 12°8| 1265} 138 | 22 | | 243 | 138 |140 | 13°3 2 | 137] 975| 134 | 164 | 5°6 || 124] 11:9 | 128 Rae: | ae 124 | 39 «18 Ethylen|e, 1 vol ume. | | Oxyge|n, 3 vol umes. ; LG 2> | lesa: 13% 223 |) | 20°38 140 | 145 | 16 2 ele STG Fo) a9 1233 (| 10° ||- 18:5 | 68.5 1262 | aeeieae | | | *5-2 | 125 | 33 | 14 | | 'Ethylenje, 1 vol'ume. | Oxygen,|} 2°5 vol umes. 16°6| 101°8| 1375 i Be a | 211 140 | :121°3) 16 1 17 80 134 92/133 Bi Sal hee 8°6 130°5 | 53 | 16°6 | | | *o-7 | 124 | 4-7} 20 | | 191 | 136 | 113 | 162 168| 82 | 131 -| 13-3 | I 8 | 35 (107 g-4 | 128 | 53° | 17-8 3 1 | 1v8| 62 | 128 | 9: ‘Three volumes of oxygen are required for the complete oxi- dation of one volume of ethylene, but in none of the experi- ments was the gas all oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. In the first experiment with an excess of oxygen 2°5 volumes dis- appeared to one of ethylene. ‘The residual gas, 5-2°°, of the second experiment was found to be oxygen. The combination of ethylene and oxygen in the third was very nearly in the proportion of 1 to 25 volumes. Doubtless some acetic acid was formed, as no oxalic or formic acid was found in an experi- ment made especially to determine whether these acids were formed. ‘The results of the second experiment except as above * Residual gas. W. G. Mixter—On Electrosynthesis. 59 stated are worthless, because the action of the discharge was not stopped until the ethylene was nearly all consumed and there was a large excess of oxygen present. The first experi- ment shows a ratio of the hydrogen and oxygen consumed in two hours to ethylene and oxygen of 5:6 to 12°4°° or as 1 to 2°2, while in the last two the ratio is 1 to 8. The slower rate of combination of ethylene and oxygen in the first case is to be ascribed to the excess of oxygen present. Acetylene and Oxygen. The acetylene used in the following experiments was made from calcium carbide and kept over water. It proved to be nearly pure. Hydrogen, 2 volumes. Acetylene, 4°8 c. c. Oxygen, 1 + Oxygen, 157 cc. P Ob d| Red al iof 32% pea d|Ob a| P res- ser u s | : < Hours.) Temp. Sarai teyolam al yaiume. | ear: | Conn om vane: sure. | Temp. bined. | bined. | 117-4] 121 | 139 | 20-8 | 205 | 1387 |121 | 17-4 P52 ol OT 135 17 38 11 9°5 129 59 | 15-2 | ao 123 22 19 | | Acetyle|ne, 6°3 | c. c. || Oxyge|n, 17-7 | cc. 10°5| 100 136 Lge | 24 140°5 | 135 10°5 ] 14 14:5 133 12°4 4°8 || 13°91 | 10°9 130°5 | 66°5| 14 | Acetyle|ne, 8:2 |c. c. Oxyge|n, 18°4 Ic. ¢. eae B22 LA A 2 EO 21.°6 26:6 142 151 16 1 162) 10)-7 137 Les 4°3 13°9 1257 132 fy (at Per Acetylene, 1 vo lume. | Oxygen, 2°5 vo lumes 16-3 | 133 139 22°9 26°7 142 152 LG 1 15°4| 108°7 135°4 18°3 4°6 14°6| 12:1 131 74 15°4 0°7 123 4°7| 18 In the first experiment the oxygen consumed was 15°7—3°3 =12°4 or 2°58 times the acetylene taken. In the last experi- ment the acetylene and oxygen were in the proportion required for complete oxidation of the former, and of the 26°7°° of gases taken only 0°7° remained. The results show that acetylene in presence of sufficient oxygen is all converted into carbon dioxide and water by the glow discharge. 2°9, 2°7, 3-2, and 3°2 cubic centimeters respectively of acetylene and oxygen combined to 1 of hydrogen and oxygen. ‘The lower results in the first two are evidently due to the excess of oxygen present in the mixtures. rT = f 60 W. G. Mixter—On Electrosynthesis. Lithane and Oxygen. The ethane used in the following experiment was made from ethyl iodide by the action of the zine-copper couple in alcohol. The ethane and oxygen were measured in the eudiometers. Hydrogen, 2 volumes. Oxygen, 18°8 c. ¢. Oxyeen, 3 | Ethane, 5. @¢ | | C7G= Of) C..G. Of! Pres- Observed Reduced gas gas | Reduced Observed Pres- Tem Sure. yolume.| yolume. com- com- | volume. volume. | sure. | Pp. bined.| bined.) Hours. Temp. LT. -415 136 | 19:4 | | 23° eealLG 93 133 15451 4 i ee A t 4.18 68 | 129 | 108 | 46] 6-41 139 |188 | 17 L182 eats Rae Als eh | 126 | 48 | 18 86 153 | | Oxygen, 16°6 c. (¢. | Ethane, 8 c. ¢ 15 lls dee ee | | 94-6 | 189 [143 |17 41 7%. | 103-3) > 186 173, | 4-8 ||. 26} 22.) 13am | aaeBp ay 1 | 15°6| 79:5) 132 1} ase) 7 | 15 | 132° (erie 1 | 166] 55 | 130 SOM abel 6.4 oo 127 | 57 | 166 | 1:2 | 120 | 8 | 18 10°22 15°6 | | | \Oxygen,| 135¢. |e | | | |Ethane,| 8°5 c¢. (c. 17°6| 128 |° 18% 21-7 | | 92 138 |129:| 17-6 1 16°8 106 132 8-6) ch aod S59] G1 || (Use eet T1461) 269~ | aes Steere ae 64} 97 | I3t | 59° | 148 eae | 4% |) 23 eae aes 81) 12:3) | a | One volume of ethane, C,H,, requires for complete combus- tion 384 volumes of oxygen. In the experiments, however, less than 24 were consumed. In the first, 5°° of ethane and 11°3°° of oxygen (188° less 7-5°° residual oxygen) combined, and in the second 8° and 15:-4°° (166—1°2). The oxidation was stopped in the third experiment when 9-7°° remained, and the oxygen in the mixed gases was found to be 5°, leaving 47° per cent ethane. Deducting these numbers from the volumes of gases originally taken, we find that 3°8°° of ethane and 85° of oxygen combined ; 1°8, 1°5 and 1°5 eubic centimeters respec- tively of ethane and oxygen combined to 1 of hydrogen and oxygen. The rate of combination was most rapid in the first with an excess of oxygen present, and during the first hour was 2°2 times that of the hydrogen-oxygen mixture, while in the second hour it was much less owing to the large excess of oxygen present. W. G. Miater—On Electrosynthesis. 61 Molecular Changes. The table below is based on the composition of the gases used and the ratio of the volumes combined to one volume of hydrogen and oxygen also combined under the influence of the glow discharge as before described. The ratio taken for ear- bonic oxide and oxygen is 1°13, the mean of all the results; for methane and oxygen 1°49, which appears to be the best result ; for ethylene and oxygen 3, the result of the last two experi- ments with these gases; for acetylene and oxygen 3:2; and for ethane and oxygen 1°5. The volume ratios also represent the relative number of molecules combining, and for con- venience these ratios are given in the table in whole numbers, and one volume of hydrogen and oxygen is assumed to con- tain 100 molecules. Molecules Molecules of oxygen Mixture of gases. combined. Molecules oxidized. consumed. Hydrogen and oxygen, 100 TH 67 33 Carbonic oxide and oxygen, 113 CO 75 38 Methane ci . 149 CH, 49 100 Ethylene “ iG 300 ©. 86 214 Acetylene oF a 320 CB 91 229 Ethane +3 Fs 150 C,H 50 100 The accuracy of the experimental work is by no means what is desirable, nevertheless it is evident that the same elec- tric current caused the oxidation of a different number of molecules of the gases, the variation being as 1 to 2, while the oxygen consumed varied as 1 to 7 molecules. Moreover, the numbers representing the relative proportions of the molecules oxidized fall into two classes, viz: 67, 49, 50, and 75, 86, 91. The former are the numbers of saturated and the latter of unsaturated molecules oxidized. Ethylene and acetylene differ but little in deportment, although the latter is the more endo- thermic in character. Both combine more rapidly than car- bonic oxide; methane and ethane combine at about the same rate but slower than hydrogen. If we calculate the amount of change in a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen on the basis that 3°6°° combine in one hour, we find that 1 cubic millimeter of the mixture unites ina second. The space occupied by the glow discharge in the apparatus was about 30°, and the volume of gas at jth of an atmosphere equals 3000 cubic millimeters at standard pressure, that is, the molecules combining during one second were mixed with 3000 times as many molecules. This slow combustion did not raise the mean temperature of the gases, as the heat evolved was constantly lost by radiation. Whether the energy of oxidation induced by the electric glow 62 W. G. Mixter—On Flectrosynthesis. also causes chemical union, it is impossible to say. It seems, however, safe to assume that the heat energy plays little part in effecting chemical change for the reason that the heat of combustion increases in the series tabulated much faster than the number of molecules combining. We shall be sufficiently accurate in assuming the heats of combustion to be proportional to the oxygen consumed. For example, the oxidation of three molecules of acetylene gives seven times as much heat as one mole- cule of hydrogen. Further, if the energy resulting from the union caused by electricity of two molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of oxygen causes other molecules to combine, we should expect the energy of this phase of combination to cause further combination and rapid combustion or an explosion. If then the chemical changes in the mixed gases tested were not caused in part by heat, it remains to consider the nature of the change caused by electricity. Oxidation was not effected by ozone nor preceded by its formation, as the discharge was too feeble to produce sufficient ozone to account for the amount of oxidation. Moreover, hydrogen, carbonic oxide and methane resist ozone. The hydrocarbons also were but slightly decom- posed by the glow discharge, as the following experiments show. 8'85°° of methane, subjected to the discharge for an hour and a half, increased in volume 0°28°° with formation of acetylene. The change may be expressed by the equation 2CH,=C,H, +3H,, That is, four volumes of methane yield eight volumes of gas. A similar test of 23°8°° of ethane for an hour gave 0-4° increase in volume; only a small quantity of acetylene was formed. The reaction is : C,H,=C,H,+2H.,. That is, two volumes of ethane yield six volumes of gas. The decomposition of the hydrocarbons by the discharge is, there- fore, too slight to account for the amount of change in the mixtures of oxygen. This fact and the non-formation of ozone indicate that the formation of water and carbon dioxide was not due to the union of ions, a view supported by the syn- theses by Losanitsch and Jovitschitsch* of organic compounds. If chemical union in the cases discussed is not to be explained by the ion theory, we may infer that the glow discharge of elec- tricity renders molecules chemically active and capable of inter- acting. We may thus consider the molecular changes involved in electrosynthesis to be analogous to those occurring in syn- thesis effected by heat or light where combination takes place at a temperature far below that at which the gaseous molecule dissociate. | * Loe. cit. . . W. Lindgren—Monazite from Idaho. 63 Arr. IX.—Monazite from Idaho ; by W. Lryparen. THE intermontane valley of ‘“ Idaho Basin ” is situated thirty miles north-northeast of Boise City, Idaho, in the great granite area of the southern part of that state. Its placer mines have been of extraordinary richness and still contribute a consider- able proportion of the gold production of Idaho. The gold- bearing gravels are of Pleistocene and Neocene age and, near Idaho City, there are also some Neocene lake beds containing only a slight amount of gold. 3 The sand of the gravels and lake beds of the Idaho basin is entirely derived from the granite and associated dike rocks. It consists of relatively angular and sharp-edged grains indicat- ing its manner of formation by extremely rapid accumulation from the deeply disintegrated rocks. In all parts of the basin a yellow or brownish yellow mineral forms a considerable quantity of the heavy substances remain- ing with the gold. The mineral has been shown to be mona- zite, this being the first time its occurrence has been noted from the western states. As well known, it occurs abundantly in the granite and gneissoid rocks and gold placer mines of the Southern Appalachians and in several of the northern Atlantic states, also in Brazil, the Ural Mountains and other places. There is no doubt it forms an original constituent of the gran- ite of the Idaho Basin. A sample washed from the lake beds near Idaho City con- sisted of the following minerals: ilmenite in sharp hexagonal crystals but no magnetite; zircon, also in extremely sharp crystals of a slightly brownish color; and abundant yellow cr greenish yellow grains rarely showing crystallographic faces ; the refraction and double refraction of this mineral were very high, the hardness not much over 5. The ilmenite was elimi- nated by the electro-magnet and the remaining powder, contain- ing about 70 per cent of the yellow mineral, was analyzed by Dr. W. F. Hillebrand. The result showed it to bea phosphate of the cerium metals, the approximate amount of the oxides of the latter being 48 per cent; in these approximately 1°20 per cent of thoria was found. This result identifies the mineral with monazite, the only other similar mineral being xenotime, which is mainly a phosphate of yttrium with but little cerium. Another sample furnished me by Mr. T. Smith of Placer- ville came from the alluvial gold washing in Wolf Creek near that town. Cleaned from quartz, etc., it appeared as a heavy dark sand consisting of a black iron ore (ilmenite), rounded crystals of red garnet, sharp crystals of zircon, and irregular 64 W. Lindgren—Monazite from Idaho. grains of a dark yellowish brown mineral with waxy lustre, sometimes showing crystallographic faces. It was found impossible to extract but a small part of the iron ore by the magnet; there was practically no magnetite present. This sand was examined by Dr. Hillebrand qualitatively with the result of finding phosphoric acid, cerium metals and thorium. The yellowish brown mineral is therefore in all probability monazite. Although the monazite occurs in considerable quantity, it is doubtful whether the mineral can be profitably extracted except possibly as a by-product obtained from the gold wash- ings. 3 Washington, D. C., May, 1897. Chemistry and Physics. : 65 SCIRNGELE LOC INTELLIGENCE I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. On the Viscosity of Mixtures of Miscible Liquids.—It has been pointed out by THorPE and RopGer that the properties of a mixture of liquids are rarely identical with those which the mixture should possess on the assumption that the influence exer- cised by each constituent is proportional to its amount; possibly because the effect of solution in some cases is to break down the complex molecular aggregates of which certain liquids appear to be composed, and in other cases because it leads to the formation of aggregates of the same or of dissimilar molecules. Hence these authors have continued their experiments on the relation of the viscosity of a mixture or two chemically indifferent and mis- cible liquids to the viscosity of its constituents ; with a view to determine whether the viscosity is related to the number of molecules per unit volume or per unit surface. The pairs of liquids used were carbon tetrachloride and benzene, methyl! iodide and carbon disulphide, and ether and chloroform. The results obtained afford additional evidence of the fact that the viscosity of a mixture of miscible and chemically indifferent liquids is rarely if ever, under all conditions, a linear function of the com- position. A liquid in a mixture ‘rarely preserves the particular viscosity it possesses when unmixed. As arule the viscosity of the mixture appears to be uniformly lower than the mixture rule would indicate, though no simple rule can yet be traced between the viscosity of a mixture and that of its constituents.—/. Chem. Soc., xxi, 360, April, 1897. | G. F. B. 2. On the Specific Heats of the Gaseous Hlements.—The known facts with respect to the specific heats of the gaseous elements have been summarized by BrertuEetot. He points out four dis- tinct cases: (1) where the ratio of the two specific heats is 1°66 and the molecules are generally believed to be monatomic; (2) where the ratio is 1°41 and the molecules behave as if they were diatomic and show no sign of dissociation into monatomic mole- cules, although at high temperatures there are indications that such dissociation is beginning to take place; (3) where the ratio is 1:30 (chlorine, bromine and iodine) and the diatomic molecules dissociate more or less completely at high temperatures. The ratio in these cases indicates that a considerable amount of internal work is done when the temperature of the gas is raised between ordinary limits; (4) where the ratio is 1:175 and the molecule is tetratomic, but becomes diatomic at high temperatures. The specific heats at constant volume in the four cases are 3°0, 4°8, 6°6 and 11°4, and the ratios of the three chief numbers are not far removed from 1:2:4. There is therefore some ground for Supposing that the specific heats of elementary gases at constant Am. Jour. Scl.—FourtH Srrizes, Vou. IV, No. 1.—Juzy, 1897. 5 66 Scientific Intelligence. volume are proportional to the number of atoms in their molecules, —C. R., exxiv, 119, January, 1897. G. F. B. 3. On the Synthetic Action of the Dark Electrie Discharge.— An extended series of experiments has been made by Losanitscu and JovirscHiTscu upon the action of the dark electric discharge in producing chemical synthesis. The apparatus used was the ozonizer of Berthelot, which the authors propose to call an “ elec- triser.” Connected with it was a lateral tube dipping in water or mercury, by means of which the change in volume during the reaction could be noted. * * +i PrP Oa AY rs : +s ued fi 5 Peary rg saa hes e f 5 ey ee Ao aURT, Is97. : “Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818. THE SOURNAL OF SOLRNCE Epiror: EDWARD S. DANA. ie ; | : ; ASSOCIATE EDITORS t a ]| Pxzorzssors GEO. L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, || 4H. P. BOWDITCH anv W. G. FARLOW, or Camprines, ' || Prorzssors 0. C. MARSH, A. E. VERRILL anv H. S. WILLIAMS, or New Haven, ‘ Prorzsson GEORGE F. BARKER, or Pamape.puia, | Proressor H. A. ROWLAND, or Batrimorz, a Mr. J. S. DILLER, or Wasurneron. ha eS FOURTH SERIES. VOL. IV—[WHOLE NUMBER, CLIV.| No. 20.—AUGUST, 1897. WITH PLATE I. NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. 1897. TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 125 TEMPLE STREET. ablished monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6.40 to foreign sub- rs of countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should be made either by y orders, registered letters, or bank checks. ' ee cea ke aes CERT hee ary peal ri cpa TF ASME, The Island of Flinders, off the north coast of Tasmania, is practically unknown ~ as a mineral locality except to a few Australian collectors. Yet a trip recently made to the Island by a gentleman collecting exclusively for us, yielded GMELINITE - In magnificent crystals whose size, perfection and beauty excel those of any known examples of this rare species. They occur in cavities in a hard basalt, often having a background of clear, gem-like Analcites. Associated with tufts of Natro- lite, they make rich and handsome specimens. They possess fine lustre and are sometimes ¢ inch across. ina SPHAEROSTILBITE Occurs in minute but bright balls, scattered over Natrolite, and also as a thin, transparent coating over primitive form Calcite crystals. NATROLITE AND ANALCITE in very pretty association. The clearness and brilliancy of the groups of the latter mineral are unrivalled. Prices are low, as with zeolites from other localities. 50c. to $3.00 for fine speci- mens, though the best of the Gmelinites are $6.00 to $9.00. COLLECTIONS OF MINERALS For Schools, Teachers, Students and Prospectors. Send for price list. (s- We make a specialty of preparing educational collections, and guarantee accuracy of labelling and strictly scientific arrangement. BOOKS On all subjects of Science and Medicine. Catalogues free. Please mention subject. The following titles are selected from recent lists: Boetius de Boot, A. Histoire des Pierreries, 1644_____---_--_-_.---. 33. Brown, T. Illustrations of the Fossil Conchology of Great Britain and Ire- land. . London, 1849) 2c (iste eS eee gee eee ke Busk, Geo. A Monograph of the Fossil Polyzoa of the Crag. London, 1859 22 Lo he PS ee hn ae te oe ge Conrad, Blake, et al. Geology of the Pacific R. R. Survey -...-------- Egleston, T. Metallurgy of Silver, Gold, and Mercury in the U.S. 2 vols.) New. York, 48822. 225 ees oe eee ne oka ee eee Greenwell, G. C. Practical Treatise on Mine Engineering. 1855-.__.-- Howe, H. M. The Metallurgy of Steel. “N: Y., }69122_ ee Karsten System Der Metallurgie, 5 vols., and Atlas. Berlin, 1831_-.-._- Kohn, F. Iron and Steel Manufacture. London, 1869_.....-..______-- Macfarlane, J. The Coal Regions of America, their Topography, Geol- ogy, ete. N.OY:, 1862 Soe ee ee ae ee ee ee Phillips, J. Figures and Descriptions of the Paleozoic Fossils of Corn- wall. Devon, and West Somerset. London, 1841 ___._-....--_-..--- Percy. Metallurgy of Gold and Silver. London, 1880_---_.-..-------. Richthofen, F. The Natural System of Volcanic Rocks. San Francisco, PSG8 >. oS ps Sa ee ee A. EK. FOOTE, WaARREN M. Foote, Manager. L617 AR Cowie a be eee. PHILADELPHIA, PA,, U.S. A. Established 1876. — » < 7 p ee io re % es re aay ear Oe NS OS ae ee et ee Ss oe eS eS , St ee ee eS mer oT . THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE [FOURTH SERIES. } + Oe Art. X:—TZamiobatis vetustus; a new Form of Fossil Skate ; by C. R. Eastman. With Plate I. THROUGH the kindness of Mr. F. A. Lucas, of the United States National Museum, the writer has enjoyed the oppor- tunity of studying a remarkable fossil belonging to the collec- tion under the charge of this gentleman. The specimen (Nat. Mus. Cat. No. 1717) was identified by Mr. Lucas as ‘‘the skull of a fossil skate,’ and is shown by the records to have been found in the eastern part of Powell County, Kentucky. Unfortunately, the exact horizon from which it was obtained is not affirmed by the original memoranda accompanying the specimen, but its history seems to leave no doubt that. it was derived from rocks occurring 27 s¢éw in that part of Kentucky. Characters of the matrix.—The fossil is embedded ina : weathered block of greenish-gray limestone having a slightly : taleose feel, and soft enough to be easily scraped with a knife. | The matrix was examined both macroscopically and in thin : sections* for traces of other organic remains; but beyond a * A thin section and fragments of. the surrounding rock were submitted recently to Dr. Charles Palache, who was kind enough to furnish the following note upon their mineralogical characters : “The rock is a very soft greenish-gray limestone, somewhat greasy to the touch. On the under surface it shows a concentric structure, the nodules being small and developed about many centers; but this structure is not sufficiently pronounced to enable one to decide from it either for or against a concretionary origin for the specimen. The rock dissolved readily in cold dilute acid, leaving a residue which amounted to less than one-fourth of the whole, and proved on examination under the microscope to be composed of fragments of feldspar and seales of a kaolin-like mineral. It is doubtless to these scales. of kaolin that the rock owes its greasy feel, for the proved absence of magnesia shows that talc is not present, as was at first suspected. Silica is also absent.” | AM. Jour. Sci1.—FourTH SERIES, Vou. IV, No. 20.—Avaust, 1897. lad 86 C. R. Kastman—Tamiobatis vetustus. few minute fragments of Bryozoa and Foraminifera, them- selves incapable of precise determination, no accompanying structures were observed. Hence, the only intrinsic evidence as to geological age is that afforded by petrographical charac- ters, and by a study of the fossil itself. But neither class of intrinsic evidence can be altogether relied upon in the present case, owing chiefly to insufficiency of material for comparison ; and beyond conceding that the specimen is undoubtedly Palzo- zoic, we must content ourselves with a statement of opinion that it belongs to such or another horizon. Professor N.S. Shaler, formerly state geologist of Kentucky, is inclined to believe it is from the Waverly group. Mr. Charles Schuchert, who is also familiar with the stratigraphy of the region, ven- tures the opinion that it was derived from the Corniferous or its equivalent. No other formations besides the Devonian and Carboniferous are represented in the eastern part of. Powell County; and this is far beyond the limit of transported mate- rial. We may therefore feel a reasonable amount of assurance in assigning our fossil provisionally to the Middle or Upper Devonian. | Description of the remains.—A very fair representation of the specimen is shown in Plate I, and also in the accompany- ing text-figure, both being of two-thirds the natural size. Obviously it is the cranium of a fossil Elasmobranch, seen from the dorsal aspect; and the characters which at once sug- gest affinities with the rays are the elongated rostrum, promi- nent nasal capsules, and antorbital processes for attachment with the pectoral fins. The general form of the skull is fiddle- shaped; there are evenly-rounded cavities for the eyes; the position of the hyomandibular and foramen magnum is indi- cated; and the median fontanelle as well as openings for the passage of nerves are perfectly distinct. A fontanelle proper does not occur in sharks, the cranial cavity being open in front ; and although the tegmen cranii now under discussion differs considerably from existing rays, the above enumeration of features shows that it is decidedly more skate-like than shark- like. The extreme length of the cranium is 16, and its width between the tips of the antorbital spurs is 11°. It is quite possible that the anterior portion of the rostrum is broken off, although an expansion occurs at the forward part which appears to have been symmetrical and normal. If the rostrum were actually as short, and terminated in the manner shown, a resem- blance is to be noted to the conditions existing in Zorpedo, Narcine, and others of the electric rays. But the cutwater is wider, heavier, and less tapering than in recent forms; and the median fontanelle does not appear to have extended forward as ©. R. Kastman—Tamiobatis vetustus. 87 an elongated cavity, nor is it flanked by the compact rods of rostral cartilage, usually so distinct in the skull of both fossil and living skates. In fact, the tegmen cranii would seem to be more completely closed than in either sharks or skates, such as exist at the present day, or are known from the Mesozoic and later rocks. It is scarcely necessary to remark that the sub- stance composing the fossil is calcified cartilage, and the bare spaces are where it has been weathered or worn away. The crust has in places a thickness of about 3™"; superficially it is E Tamiobatis vetustus gen. et sp. nov. x%. AO, Antorbital process; F, Fon- tanelle; #M, Foramen magnum; HWM, Position of hyomandibular; N, Nasal capsules; PO, Postorbital process; A, Rostrum. quite smooth and compact, but where partially abraded it is seen to be composed of small aggregations which represent the centers of calcification. No dental or integumentary structures are to be observed. ——————————eo — ~ oe reece 88 C. R. Hastnman—Tamiobatis vetustus. The olfactory capsules (VV) are slightly abraded along the anterior margin, and it is impossible to detect a suture between them and the antorbital spurs (AQ). On the other hand, there is a small cleft, which might easily be mistaken for a suture, ‘passing across each of the postorbital processes in a longitudi- nal direction. But these fissures have every appearance of being fortuitous, and moreover show tool-marks along the edges where they were probed into before reaching the hands of the present writer. Although of unusual size for post- orbital processes, we have no choice but to regard them as such ; for, if suturally united with the cranium, they can be homolo- gized with nothing else than the metapterygoid, an element with which they agree neither in shape, size, nor point of attachment. Again, if it were possible to detect sutures here, like indications ought also to exist where the antorbital processes are attached. Granted that they. are postorbital processes (“sphenotic” Parker), their size and distal expansion may be accounted for, perhaps, by supposing that membranes were attached to them for the support of the anterior gill arches or other structures. They slant outward and downward so as to occupy the same level, distally, as the tips of the antorbital processes. The hyomandibular was presumably attached along the sinus marked /J/. Bounded on either side by prominent occipital condyles was the foramen magnum (/’J/), and here the chon- drification was very dense. Just back of the capsules for the eyes on either side is to be seen a small reéntrant angle in the cranial wall. The cartilage is quite thick in this vicinity, and appears to have been eroded by natural causes in the first instance, and further pricked away with the needle so as to produce the effect indicated. It is rather curious that acci- dents of fossilization and weathering should have affected both sides of the object symmetrically in so many particulars. The nerve openings are readily identifiable, and have been lettered to correspond with the classic illustrations of Gegen- baur* and Parker.+ The superior opening of the ethmoid canal is at ce, that of the preorbital canal at cp’; cs marks the foramina supraorbitalia, present here in two pairs only ; and aq.v. is the aqueductus vestibuli. All of these openings are very distinct, and their walls densely chondrified. Probable relationships and systematic position.—lf remains of the dentition or dermal ossifications had been preserved in connection with the present specimen, or if skeletons of other | * Untersuchungen zur vergleichenden Anatomie der Wirbelthiere, Heft III. Das Kopfskelet der Selachier, 1872. + On the Structure and Development of the Skull in Sharks and Skates (Trans. Zool. Soc. London, vol. x, pt. iv), 1878. OU. R. Hastman—Tamiobatis vetustus. 89 Paleozoic Tectospondyli were known, we would not have so slender a basis for comparison; but as it is, we are singularly limited. True, evidence is not wanting to show that cartilagi- nous fishes with a much-depressed body, probably like that of existing rays, were plentiful in the Palwozoic. The teeth known as Psammodonts, for instance, belonged undoubtedly to ray-like Elasmobranchs; but no trace of their skeletons has yet been discovered. We should not expect them, however, to differ very widely from Mesozoic or even recent rays ; their bodies were more generalized, of course, partaking of the nature of both shark and skate; but the idea that the distine- tion between a shark-skull and a skate-skull was not brought about until the skates began to specialize markedly along par- ticular lines (i. e., since the Jurassic), cannot be entertained. In fact, it does not strike us as surprising that a Paleeozoic skull, such as has just been described, should present the resemblance it does to the crania of existing skates. The speci- men at hand merely proves what has long since been postu- lated,—that there were Paleozoic forerunners which were very like Mesozoic rays; and it is to be observed that a number of Mesozoic genera survive at the present day. So far material has been lacking to demonstrate the conservatism as well as remote antiquity of the ray tribe; bat as the paleontological record becomes more fully revealed, we shall probably find that this group diverged very early from the parent stem, and did not become Bey modified until comparatively late in time. Of existing ie the Rhinobatids and Myliobatids are generally believed to represent the most nearly ancestral form of ray, and it is natural to look to them first of all for fur- nishing points of resemblance to the present specimen. But as we have here nothing more than the skull to base com- parisons upon, and this is not sufficiently characteristic, it is manifestly impossible to single out any one genus or even family and declare that the fragment approaches it more closely than other living types. We can only affirm that the fossil skull indicates a very generalized condition; it presents some features that are shark-like, and differs notably from the skulls of existing rays. Doubtless the fin-structures and body-parts were also generalized ; the indications are that the skeleton of the pectoral fins was not continued forward to the snout; and the dentition was probably weak. In all these respects there is an agreement with hinobatus, obviously because it, too, pos- sesses a generalized organization ; but there are differences in detail which prevent it from being included under the same family. With still less propriety can it be assigned to any other recognized family; butas the group to which it belongs is imper- 90 O. H. Hershey—Florencia Formation. fectly definable, there seems to be no other course than to leave it under the head of incerte sedis, or to place it in an appendix to the Rhinobatide, or possibly the Myliobatide. A knowledge of the remainder of the organization of so ancient a fish could not fail to prove of exceptional interest. Where one stratum or concretion is capable of preserving a fragile structure like this, the chances are that more abundant and more perfect material will eventually be forthcoming ; and it is not without the hope of stimulating further research that the present contribution is put forward. As it becomes necessary to designate the above described individual by a special title, notwithstanding its imperfect con- dition it is suggested that the name Zamzobatis be employed for the genus, in allusion to its fancied resemblance to the body of Zamias. Specifically it may be known as Tamiobatis vetuUstus. Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass. Art. XI. — The Florencia Formation; by Oscar H. HERSHEY. Introduction.—Great progress has been made during the past decade in the study of American Quaternary deposits, and the literature on the subject is already voluminous; but the field is so extensive that many portions of it remain practically untouched. These obscure corners contain much of the evi- dence which in the future must be relied on to dispose of many of the unsolved problems now before the geologic public. It is by a gradual accumulation of a vast body of facts that we will finally be enabled to read the Quaternary history of America with great accuracy. Hence, every addition to our knowledge of the superficial geology of the continent, however trivial it may appear at the time, possesses some value as increasing our familiarity with the products of the era. On this account I feel it justifiable in placing on record this description and defi- nition of the formation whose designation forms the title of this paper. Description.—The Florencia formation is distinctly differ- entiated into two principal members. The lower is a moder- ately coarse subangular gravel. It is largely local in origin, in northwestern Lllinois, Galena limestone constituting often as O. H. Hershey—F lorencia Formation. on much as 90 per cent of the mass. This was derived by stream erosion from the Pleistocene rock gorges. There is also a cer- tain percentage of drift pebbles which were secured in the erosion of the till and gravel ridges of the district. The rock fragments are sometimes angular, but usually are as well rounded as the Galena limestone will admit by stream action. They are much stained by the hydrated sesquioxide of iron. Some of these stains are a dull earthy black in color, but the greater part are a reddish brown. Locally the iron ‘oxide is present in such amount as to cement the gravel into a soft conglomerate rock. There are rarely any shells or woody mat- ter in this lower or gravel division, as it formed an unfavorable environment for the animal life of the streams, and was depos- ited at so low a level as not to catch any of the driftwood. The structure of the Florencia gravel is not very distinct, but im places it is seen to be irregularly stratified. The sur- face is everywhere uneven or rapidly undulating. As it isa river deposit, we may presume that this irregularity of the sur- face is due to its having constituted the stream-bed and not the flood-plain deposit of the Florencia subepoch. The depressions between the ridge-like elevations of the gravel represent the deeper portions of the streams, while the higher portions of the deposit are the sites of the ancient gravel bars. Itisa curious circumstance that the subsequent erosion of this gravel has been so slight that the ancient gravel bars now form rapids in some of the present streams, as in the lower course of Yel- low creek. Indeed, the beds of all the larger streams of Stephenson county, Illinois, are nearly everywhere composed of this gravel, overlain in the deeper portions by a little brown silt and mud. That the gravel which forms bars in their beds is not the Modern river gravel except in a few instances, is known from its outcrop in the banks at one or both ends of the bars. The Florencia gravel is distinguished from the Modern stream gravel by its much greater rounding, a larger percentage of drift pebbles, and its peculiar ferr uginous stain- ing. Its stratigraphic relations, also, serve to distinguish it. The ancient stream gravel now under discussion outcrops in the banks of Crane, Yellow, and tributary creeks and just under the low-water level of the Pecatonica river. It is never exposed to a greater height than two feet, and its total thick- ness is unknown. Near Bolton a well was reported to have penetrated “‘ blue gravel and driftwood” to a thickness of ten feet. In the Pecatonica river valley it seems to be largely replaced by ferruginous sand, and to extend twenty or more feet below the present river level. It constitutes the main body of the Florencia formation ; but to the geologic student the upper division is of vastly oreater interest. 92 O. H. Hershey—F lorencia Formution. Resting upon the irregular surface of the bed of gravel there is a series of dark blue-green silt, light brownish gray sand, and dark brown carbonaceous clay or muck. The passage from the gravel to the finer sediment is usually quite abrupt, although they are sometimes slightly interstratified. The dark brown muck fills the depressions in the surface of the gravel and varies in thickness from six inches to several feet. It is horizontally stratified, and where the remains of herbaceous vegetation form thin layers, 1t may be said to be laminated. It contains some small shells, but is not the most fossiliferous member of the formation. What it lacks in the remains of the fauna it partly supplies in the inclusion of many semi- decayed branches and trunks of trees. These are quite numer- ous in the Crane creek outcrops, and appear to be of two main kinds, one of which is light brown in color and the other black. They are somewhat flattened by pressure, but the branches and trunks represented had an original diameter of one inch or less up to one foot. The blue-green silt and the light brownish gray sand are in lenticularly-shaped ‘“ pockets ” interstratified with each other and with the upper portion of the muck. The sand is of well- rounded grains, mostly of transparent quartz, with all the drift rock species represented. It contains a moderately abundant supply of shells, all of small species. But the blue- green silt is the great shell-bearing member of this formation. The species are of a great variety, as the lists later to be pre- sented will indicate, but the shells are all of small size. They are in such abundance that they often make up 10 per cent of the mass. Several hundreds may be separated from a single cubic inch of the silt. This fact constitutes this the most high- ly fossiliferous formation developed in northwestern Illinois. Each of the three lithologie types presented by the upper division of the Florencia formation is characteristically dis- tinct from any other of the district, and they together consti- tute a series of strata which can be readily identified in every outcrop. The blue-green silt is peculiar to this formation and seems to be coextensive with its distribution, as it has been detected in every outcrop which I have closely examined. The invariable stratification of the entire series, the close associa- tion of the most abundant ‘‘ pockets” of shells with certain lithologic features, and the fact that all the vegetable matter, including the semi-decayed logs or tree trunks, lies in a hori- zontal position, demonstrate that this division of the formation is not a flood-plain deposit properly so-called, but represents the sediment and driftwood laid down over the gravel in the stream bed, after the land area had begun to subside, thereby establishing a permanently flooded condition of the streams. O. H. Hershey—Florencia Formation. 93 Distribution.-—_Because of the very incomplete condition of the study of the Quaternary geology of northwestern Illinois, the Florencia formation is known to the writer in the Peca- tonica basin only. Here it is found, wherever the proper horizon is exposed, along nearly all the streams of Stephenson county, but has been studied mainly in the valleys of Crane and Yellow creeks and the Pecatonica river. Its outerops, although fairly numerous, never rise more than a few feet above the stream level, and are usually somewhat obscured by a talus from the bank above. For this reason, the formation has probably failed of investigation in other districts of this portion of the Mississippi basin; but as it represents condi- tions which were not limited to northwestern Illinois, its exist- ence in all the deeper valleys of this and neighboring states ean hardly be doubted. In Stephenson county, the most sig- nificant feature of its distribution is the fact that, unlike the drift and loess deposits, it is confined strictly to a certain level. Its upper surface forms a plane which scarcely varies from eighteen inches to two feet above the present low-water level of the streams. It is, therefore, a fluvial formation and can extend from the present streams only so far as the sides of the valleys which were excavated in the drift and rock after the Kansan epoch. In the Yellow creek and the Pecatonica river yalleys near Freeport, its width may vary from an eighth toa mile; and in western Winnebago county, its borders are probably two miles apart. It has been estimated that if that portion of the formation which is developed in Stephen- son county, were spread as a uniform sheet over the surface of the entire county, it would have a thickness of about six inches. Stratigraphic relations.—Because of the very interesting nature of the fossil contents, it is of the greatest importance that the age of the Florencia formation be definitely fixed, and this necessitates a careful investigation of its stratigraphic relations. It rests upon the Kansan drift sheet everywhere except where post-Kansan erosion has completely removed the till and other glacial deposits. It is, therefore, separated from the latter by an erosion interval of the length of which the interglacial rock gorges of this region* are the gauge. The Florencia formation passes through these rock gorges, com- pletely burying their flat bottoms. Its age is, therefore, not earlier than the practical completion of these gorges. Now the presence of the Iowan doess series at various places within them has demonstrated that in age they correspond mainly to the Aftonian epoch. This would seem to indicate that the * The Pleistocene Rock Gorges of Northwestern Ilinois, American Geologist vol. xii, No. 5, November, 1893. 94 O. H. Hershey—Florencia Formation. Florencia formation dates from about the time of the passage from the mild conditions of the Aftonian to the somewhat severer climatic¢ conditions of the Iowan epoch. The Florencia formation is overlain with perfect conformity by the basal member of the Lowan Joess series. The latter varies much in constitution from place to place, but in the Crane and Yellow Creek valleys is a highly ferruginous bright red clay, usually only a few inches in thickness. This ocherous layer derived its large constituent of iron oxide from the red Aftonian soil of the surrounding hills. The upper portion of the Florencia formation, as already intimated, presents evidence that the subsidence of the region had already advanced so far as to produce a general flooding of the streams. A little later, either through a sudden increase in the movement of land depression, or the obstruction of the mouth of the Pecatonica valley by the advancing Iowan ice-sheet, the flooded Florencia streams were converted into long narrow lakes which gradually deepened and eroded the red soil on the valley slopes, redepos- iting it at lower levels as a red and brown sand and the “ fer- ruginous layer” of our Crane and Yellow Creek sections. Almost immediately the extensive fauna and flora of the Flo- rencia streams and valleys were totally destroyed, so that the Iowan loess deposits are practically unfossiliferous. Several miles northeast of the village of Pecatonica in Win- nebago county, there is a section which displays finely the entire series of the lowan loess resting with perfect conformity upon the Florencia formation. The latter is exposed from the river level to a height of three feet, and is a bed of Jaminated and variegated clay which, by the erosion of the river, is made to simulate indurated shales. There are a great many black semi-decayed logs projecting from the bank into the river. They reach a thickness of one foot and lie in the position of driftwood. Over this Florencia clay comes, first, a stratified bed of brown sand, then a less distinctly laminated stratum of fine silt or typical loess, followed by the ordinary and easily recognized “main body ” of the loess series, or Upland loess, as I have previously denominated it. Each member of the series is distinct and they have a combined thickness at this locality of 30 feet. As I shall show presently, the climatic conditions at the time of the deposition of the Florencia formation in northwestern Illinois, as indicated by the faunal remains, were apparently nearly identical with those usually considered typical of the Aftonian epoch, while its physical relations to the rock gorges and to the overlying Joess series, together with a presumed presence of the ice, supported by some evidence, on the east O. H. Hershey—F lorencia Formation. 95 side of the Rock river valley, would seem to connect it with the Iowan epoch. Therefore, we cannot with full confidence refer its age to either epoch, but may perhaps more properly consider it as occupying a transitory stage between the Aftonian and lowan epochs.* Fauna.—Collections of shells have been made from two principal localities. The first is in the bank of Yellow creek about 100 feet east of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railroad bridge, and is referred to as the Indian Garden locality, the name having been derived from a popular designation of the peninsularly-shaped body of land enclosed by the creek in the great bend which it makes in the vicinity of the mouth of Crane creek. Great care was taken in securing the shells that they actually came from the Florencia formation and not from Modern silt and muck which might have been deposited on the former by the present stream. An excavation was made into the bank and the fossils secured from under the loess which appears higher in the section. No mistake can have been made, as the strata of blue-green silt, light brownish gray sand and dark muck which everywhere in this region form the upper division of the formation, were here present with all their characteristic features, and the shells were taken from undisturbed or originally stratified portions of them. This care was taken because it was early recognized that a fauna of a very similar facies occurs in the Modern alluvial deposits, and the two might easily be confounded. The second place from which collections were made is the Crane Creek locality. Here the same care was taken as in | making the other collection. I do not think there is a possi- bility of a mistake having been made, as the blue-green silt is typically developed and the loess appears in unmistakable form above it. These collections of Florencia shells were submitted to Dr. W. 4H. Dall of the U. 8. Geological Survey, who has identified them as in the following lists: *Since this discussion of the stratigraphic relations of the formation was written, I have become aware of the establishment of a new classification of the Illinois and Iowa drift. This applies the term ‘‘ Aftonian”’ to an interglacial stage preceding the formation of the Kansan drift-sheet. It, also, establishes a new sheet of drift intermediate in position between the Kansan and Iowan sheets; this is designated the Illinoian drift-sheet. As it is now doubtful which sheet is exposed in Stephenson County, Illinois, and what term should be applied to the long deglaciation interval following, my use of the words ‘Kansan’ and ‘“‘ Aftonian ” should be considered as tentative, and relative to the term ‘‘ Iowan.” This will not affect the “age” of the formation, which undoubtedly belongs immediately before that of the Iowan loess series. See editorial in American Geologist, vol. xix, No. 4, April, 1897. 96 Indian Garden locality. O. H. Hershey—Florencia Formation. Crane Creek locality. Fresh-water species. Pleurocera subulare Lea. Planorbis parvus Say. ie bicarinutus Say. Valvata tricarinata Say. Limneea humilis Say. _ Vivipara spec. ? juv. Ancylus tardus Say ? << reoularis Say. “ parallelus Hald. Pisidium spec. ? by walkeri Sterki. z: cruciatum Sterki. t Jallax Sterki. sf punctatum Sterki. - compressum Prime, 7 variabile Prime. Campeloma decisa Say, juv. ny (embryonic). Spherium staminium Con. ? 3 striatinum Lam. Physa heterostropha Say. Bythinella tenuipes Coup. Amnicola povata Say ? juv. ce cincinnatiensis Auth. Cypris (crustacean). Ostracod crustacean. Terrestrial species. Hyalinia radiatula Alder. ¢ minuscula Binn. Lelicodiscus lineatus Say. Pyramidula striatella Auth. Pupa contracta Say. “ corticaria Say. “ holzingeri Sterki. Succinea avara Say. Carychium exile Ad. ? s exiguum Say. Vallonia perspectiva Sterki. Strobilops virgo Pails. Pleurocera subulare Lea. Campelona decisa Say. Pisidium spec. ? 2 variabile Prime. es compressum Prime. “ virginicum Gmel. fallax Sterki. punctatum Sterki. Valvata tricarinata Say. Planorbis bicarinatus Say. ce parvus Say. Limnea desidiosa Say. Spherium solidulum Say ? es striatinum Lam. ce staminium Lam. : semile Say. Segmentina arnigera Say. Physa heterostropha Say. Somatogyrus depressus Tryon. Amnicola cincinnatiensis Auth. Bythinella tenuipes Couper. Terrestrial species. Vallonia costata Mull. Zonitoides arboreus Say. Hyalinia radiatula Ald. eS minuscula Binn. ¥ indentata Say. Pyramidula alternata Say. city striatela Auth. Helicodiscus lineatus Say. Succinea avara Say. Pupa ventricosa var. elatior Sterki. Pupa contracta Say. “ holzingert Sterki. “< armifera Say. Polygyra spec. ? as hirsuta Say. Vertigo indentata W olf. To the above lists of shells from the Florencia formation I will add Pistdiwm abditum Hald? which was ineluded in a small collection from this horizon made near Bolton several years ago. An analysis of the species contained in these lists shows that there are undoubtedly present at least fifty distinct varie- O. H. Hershey—Florencia Formation. 97 ties, of which thirty are of fresh-water forms and twenty air- breathing or terrestrial species. In comparing them with the lists of shells from the doess at Davenport, Muscatine and Lowa City, published by McGee in his memoir on “The Pleistocene History of Northeastern lowa,’’* some interesting differences are noticed. In the Lowa loess fauna the gasteropods are mainly pulmoniferous, only a few freshwater spezies having been discovered. In the Florencia fauna near Freeport, the larger number of species are of freshwater forms, but the Uniode, which appear in the loess, are absent from this forma- tion. The genus Helvx, which occurs in the Joess fauna of Iowa and is plentiful in the Modern alluvial deposits of [lh- nois, has not been identified in the collections made from the Florencia formation. Furthermore, many of the terrestrial species of the Iowan /oess are not present in the Florencia fauna as at present known. There is thus seen to be such a great difference between the fossil contents of the two forma- tions as to point to a great contrast in conditions. The pre- ponderance of freshwater species in the Florencia fauna indicates the fluvial nature of the formation just as certainly as do its physical features. The significance of the fossils of the Florencia formation lies chiefly in the evidence which they furnish of the nature of the climate of that time. Undoubtedly it was neither Arctic nor very cold temperate. I hereby submit the proposition that these fossils demonstrate that the climate was similar to the present. So far as | am aware, there is nothing about the shells which indicates the proximity of a glacier or the exist- ence of conditions favorable to the accumulation of land ice. On the contrary, the prevailing reddish color of the soil on the neighboring uplands as proved by its condition to-day (buried under the doess), and the ferruginous layer at the base of the doess series, points to a comparative mildness of the climate of that time. This is corroborated by the large amount of driftwood and the vast quantities of small shells enclosed in the Florencia formation, which indicate that organic life was more abundant in the valleys and streams then than it is at present. ‘This abundance of animal and vegetable life is in strong contrast with preceding and succeeding epochs. The Silveria formation contains a few shells of several terrestrial species and a few very small pieces of lignitiferons wood; the Lake Pecatonica formation is totally unfossiliferous; and the drift nowhere presents any evidence of organic remains. Throughout the Kansan epoch the climate in this region was undoubtedly severe. During the formation of the Lowan Joess * 11th Annual Report of U. S. Geol. Survey, pages 460 and 471 of Part I. 98 O. A. Hershey—Florencia Formation. series, the conditions were again unfavorable for organisms in northwestern Illinois, as the loess of this district is practically unfossiliferous. A few shells have been observed in the loess on the bluff at Freeport, and lately a small collection was made from the same formation on the top of the Oakdale esker, about four miles south of Freeport and 100 feet above Crane creek, which is several hundred yards distant. They are exclu- sively of Succinea avara Say. These are the only shells which I have observed in the loess of this district except that sometimes over the Florencia formation the shells of the latter have been disturbed and redeposited in the lower portion of the loess. From a study of the Florencia and Iowan Loess formations I have concluded that, in northwestern Illinois, the peculiarly mild climatic conditions of the Aftonian epoch continued almost unchanged into the earlier portion of the lowan epoch ; so that the Aftonian flora and fauna remained until long after the beginning of the great movement of depression which characterized the Iowan epoch in this region, and even until the Iowan glaciers had closed around the district on the east and west and were approaching the culmination of their advance. The destruction of the Florencia fauna was pro- duved less by the presence of the glaciers near by than by the rather rapid conversion of the valleys into lake basins through © the general subsidence of the region. : Nomenclature.—The name which I have applied to the formation discussed in this paper is a slight modification of a term once used to designate the basal or fluvial member, as it was then considered, of the Iowan doess series of this region. It was referred to as the Florence gravel, the name having been derived from the township of Florence, in Stephenson county. The great diversity of the Quaternary deposits in the Pecatonica basin has driven me, for the want of a sufficient number of important geographical names, to the necessity of applying township designations to some of the formations dis- criminated, and this is a case in point. But the term as origi- nally used is of such common occurrence in Europe and America, that I have considered it justifiable in the interests of convenience, definiteness, and euphony to modify the termi- nation of the word. Therefore, I desire that henceforth the deposit be referred to as the /lorencia formation. Freeport, Il., March 18, 1897. E. T. Allen— Native Iron in Missouri. 99 Arr. XII.— Native Iron in the Coal Measures of Missouri ; by E. T. ALLEN. THE occurrence of native iron of terrestrial origin has been until recently a mooted question with mineralogists. In the fifth edition of Dana’s Mineralogy bearing the date 1868, we read: “The occurrence of masses of native iron apart from meteoric origin is not placed beyond doubt.’ We now have on record, however, a considerable number of occurrences of terrestrial iron which such authorities as Dana and Tschermak admit to be genuine. ‘Terrestrial iron is claimed to have been found (1)* in eruptive rocks, (2)t in river sands, sometimes associated with gold or platinum, (8) in obvious connection witht carbonaceous matter, (4)§ in various other situations. A careful study of the literature of this subject does not convince one that a number of the specimens described may not have been meteoric, or in some cases, perhaps, artificial. Others, the origin of which is more probable or even estab- lished, were obtained only in dust, grains, or very small pieces, so that a study of the physical properties must have been difti- cult. In many cases we have no published analyses. The number of irons, which are undoubtedly terrestrial and con- cerning which we have full and satisfactory data, is still so small that new discoveries may possess some interest. During the past year we have received at this laboratory a number of such specimens of remarkable purity. These were obtained from different localities in Missouri, but proved on inquiry to have a similar origin and paragenesis and almost identical composition and properties. I. Natural Iron from Cameron, Clinton Co., Mo. This iron, which was received in December, 1895, was obtained in largest quantity and has been most fully examined. It was discovered in drilling out an old well on the land of Mrs. Mary E. Reed of Cameron. Twenty-five years before, the well had been sunk thirty-seven feet till a layer of sand- * Meunier, C. R., Ixxxix, 215, 1879. Smith, Ann. Ch. Phys., V, xvi, 402, 1879. Andrews, this Journal, II, xv, 443, 1853. Hawes, ibid., ILI, xiii, 33, 1877. Cooke, Ann. Rep. State Geol. N. J., 1874, p.56. Bornemann, Poge. Ann., Ixxxvili, 145, 1853. + Hussak, this Journal, III, vol. xliii, 177, 1892. Page, ib., xxv, 160, 1883. Daubrée and Meunier, C. R., cxiii, 172, 1891. Genth, Proc. Phil. Soc., Philad., xi, 443, 1870. + Shepard, this Journal, xl, 366, 1841. Bahr, ib., IJ, xiv, 275. Bornemann, 1. c. S Hayes, this Journal, II, xxi, 153, 1856; xxviii, 137, 1857. Genth, ib., xxviii, 246, 1859. Hoffmann, Proc. R. Soc. Canada, Sec. III, p. 39, 1890. Ann. Rep. State Geol. N. J., 1883, p. 162. Clemson, Trans. G. Soc. Penn., i, 358, 1834. Journ, Phys,, xli, 3. 100 E. T. Allen— Native Iron in Missouri. stone was reached. In 1895 it dried up for the first time. Accordingly the owner decided to deepen it. After drilling through fourteen feet of solid sandstone, the iron was struck at a depth of fifty-one feet. An eight-inch drill and a five hundred pound beater were employed, but so refractory was the vein (or pocket) that the workmen gave up the attempt to penetrate it. On learning from us the nature of the substance, small portions of which were brought to the surface, the work was continued, but it required over half a day to go through it. The workmen judged the thickness of the vein or pocket to be five or six inches. Solid sandstone was found again on the other side of the iron, into which the drilling was continued for twenty-three feet, when the water rose to the same height. We learned on inquiry that no coal or shale was found in the boring although the place is in a coal region and coal has been discovered within five miles. Examination of sandstone.—The sandstone matrix of this uatural iron was of a very light brown color and of moderately fine grain. It possessed a caleareous cement amounting to over thirty per cent of its weight, a little iron in the form of ferric oxide and small quantities of alumina. A microscopic examination of a small portion which had been treated with hydrochloric acid showed that the residue consisted almost entirely of quartz grains. An analysis yielded the following results : Insoluble in hydrochlomieacidt_. 2-5 a eae [Of this 63°52 per cent=SiO, | (CaCO) aes 30°90 | MeGO, 1 89 | 65 Soluble in hydrochloric acid_...- Pe “37: a ae | | ~ ( 99°85 The sample of sandstone was considerably crumbled when we received it. From the crumbled portion we extracted a large number of bits of metallic iron with the magnet. Lhe metal—The majority of these pieces, both those con- tained in the ernmbled sandstone and those received separately, were flattened and irregular in shape, often hackly around the edges and weighed about half a gram. When they reached the laboratory all were slightly tarnished or coated with a thin film of rust, but when first taken from the ground no rust was visible, we were informed, though none of the pieces were bright except where fresh fractures had been made by the drill. The resistance which the iron offered to the drill showed that there was a solid mass imbedded in the stone, and this mass was evidently beaten to pieces. The iron was so malle- able that it could be beaten out cold on an anvil to very thin plates, though not without cracking somewhat on the edges. Its hardness was just about that of fluorspar, the minerals E. T. Allen—Native Iron in Missouri. 101 scratching one another with difficulty. When filed the metal exhibited a color almost silver white and a high luster which remained permanent in a dessicator. While most of the pieces weighed about ‘5 gr., there were a number which weighed 2 germs. or more, one weighed 8-4 grms. and the largest 45-4 grms. The last was only a little darkened by tarnish when we received it. On the edge a layered structure was very notice- able. In the other pieces this was not so apparent, but they often separated along cleavage planes when hammered and by the aid of a pair of pliers, one layer after another, sometimes exceedingly thin, could be peeled off more or less perfectly. The surface between these layers was sometimes blackened, but often entirely fresh and metallic. Probably on account of this structure and perhaps also on account of unequal hammering by the drill, the specific gravity of different pieces varied con- siderably. That of the largest was only 7:48, while that of the smaller pieces varied (after the outer layer was removed) from 7°63 to 7°78. The layered structure also made it difficult to produce a: continuous polished surface, the boundaries of the layers showing in it as fine irregular lines at whatever angle the plane was cut. The action of dilute nitric acid was tried on such a surface, but it appeared to attack it evenly, developing no semblance to Widmanstitten figures. In the chemical examination of the iron we employed only the metal- lic core prepared by filing away the outer layers. This dis- solved in hydrochloric acid with the evolution of hydrogen which possessed comparatively little odor, and left a very slight residue of crystalline silica and a few minute fragments of carbonaceous matter. A careful analysis of a solution pre- pared from several grams of the iron, failed to reveal any traces of copper, nickel, cobalt or other foreign metals. With the exception of oxide of iron, silica, phosphorus and carbon in small quantities were the only impurities detected. The analyses made of different pieces gave nearly identical results. Irnon— 1. Metal taken = ‘2910 gr. KMn0O, required = 42°53°. 1° = 006785 gr. iron. Fe = 99°16 per cent. An examination of the iron taken, by means of a lens, showed small dots of rust in a few places that seemed to pene- trate deeply. Other determinations made on smaller pieces where the rust appeared to have affected the iron still more gave lower results. 2. Metal taken = -2147. KMnO, required = 31°31°%. Fe= 98°93. 3. Metal taken = 4611. KMnO, required = 66°88°. Fe = 98°40. . SILIca— 1. Metal taken = 3°1603 gr. SiO, obtained = °0117-gr. =:37 per cent. | 2. Metal taken = 5:2953 gr. SiO, obtained = -0196 gr. = ‘37 per cent. Am. Jour. Sor.—Fourta SERIES, Vou. IV, No. 20.—Auveust, 1897. 8 Sa. Fae 102 E. T. Allen—Native Iron in Missouri. The silica obtained was all in the form of minute crystalline grains, and since the iron was found imbedded in sandstone it appeared not unlikely that the grains were originally present as such in the metal. A microscopic examination of the interior of several pieces threw no light on this point. CaRBON— ae This was determined by dissolving the iron in potassium cupric chloride and collecting the carbon dioxide formed by burning the residue. 1. Metal taken=>. 2.) 2 S203 Geer, CO, obtained), ~- 2 2a Se 0038 gr. Opie Sisal ree 9) ae ae. SOT per Cent 2. Metal taken__ =)... S422 2820 CO obtained. 3°) s2s50 ase 0055 Oe aoe i ear Ee mp etRe elm PHOSPHORUS. Metal taken ..- -- Sad eS 3°1603 A Kegel eq @ Mibee Wann? is aa aa 0 S's 0237 gr. Bee a gilt. et) ee ee ee ‘207 per cent Heth o af teh eee ees 99°16 SiO) iuikisewae Geena 34 OP rete erp her un oc M 4 ‘065 Ear a ramen TeV np NA 207 99°802 Il. Natural fron from Weaubleau, Hickory Co., Mo. This iron was received from the firm of Butler & Whitaker of Weaubleau, who discovered it while digging for coal about five miles from that place. They drilled through twenty- seven feet of interstratified sandstone and clay, when they reached a thin seam (two or three inches in thickness) of poor lignite. Hight feet deeper, at a total depth of thirty-five feet, they struck a stratum of gray clay in which were a few pieces of metallic iron. Considerable coal seemed to exist in the vicinity, as they found it eighteen inches thick at the same depth, not far from this spot. The clay contained 79°32 per cent silica and 1°67 per cent iron. When the iron was first taken from the earth, it was dark with tarnish though not apparently rusted. Only a few pieces were obtained. We received but two, which after filing away the outer portions weighed respectively 3 grms. and 3°9 grms. Both physically and chemically the iron strongly resembled the Cameron specimens. The layered structure was not however so marked and the percentage of metallic iron was E.. T. Allen—WNative Iron in Missouri. 103 | a little higher, probably on this account. The specific gravity of the larger piece was 7:58. Of two small fragments of the other, weighing about half a gram each, we found the specific _gravities 7°83 and 7°88. Analysis. Iron— 1, Metal taken = ‘3919 gr. 59°57°° KMnO, required. 1° = 006530 gr. Fe. Ke = 99-27 per cent. 2. Metal taken = ‘3830 gr. 58°37°° KMnO, required. Fe= 99°52 per cent. 3. Metal taken =°1596 gr. Dissolved in hydrochloric acid, pre- cip. by NH,OH and determined as Fe,Q,,. He:O. a3heROy o25V32.-- 22697 gr. Dal vione Hels Over. ty. See "00047 Fé, Og as © og 22650 Fe = 99°34 per cent SILIGA— Metal taken = 3°2052 gr. SiO,=:0100 gr. SiO, = ‘31 per cent. PHosPHORUS— Metal taken = 3:2052 gr. Mg, P.O, =-0148 er. P=:'128 per cent. Analysis. Hegemony or Pare 99°39 Sis Gwe te Ben 31 d ery Paty hee peu tg hy vom ad Pree cane i3 WO) Pipe eM eee REY By Oe CLI Fe undetermined. Ill. Natural Iron from Holden, Johnson Co., Mo. This iron was discovered by Mr. G. W. Hills of Holden while drilling a well. The upper strata passed through con- sisted chiefly of fire-clay. At adepth of 21 ft. coal was struck. This continued for 18 in., and then followed fire-clay again until at a depth of 37 ft. the drill struck something hard which caused it to rebound. After some time, no headway being made, the drillings were examined. A few small pieces of metal about the size of lima beans were drawn up with the clay. The discoverer informed us that he drilled out alto- gether about as much of the substance as one could hold in the hand. As he was disappointed in his original object the well was eventually filled up. We received specimens of the drillings and one piece of the metal which weighed about 3 grms. The clay in which the iron occurred was compact and gray in color. It contained 65:25 per cent of silica and 3°63 per cent of iron. When first brought to the surface, the iron resembled tarnished silver, but showed no signs of rust. Its hardness was about the same as that of the two specimens previously described, sp. gr.= 7°49. 104 E. T. Allen—Native Iron in Missouri. After solution in aqua regia a considerable residue of silica, which was partly gelatinous, and some carbonaceous matter remained. Srrrca— . 2°9929 gr. iron taken. Silica = -0495 gr.= 1°65 per cent. Iron— The filtrate from silica was diluted to 500° and aliquot parts were titrated with permanganate solution. a. 25° sol. required 23°:08° KMn0O,,. OE) OES = 18°47 y 1° KMnO= :006292 gr. Fe. Iron = (a) 97:09 (6) 97°10 The specimen analyzed was not examined until several months after it was taken from the ground and, although all the outer portions were carefully filed away before the analysis, it was probable that the rust had penetrated deeply and that small portions were unremoved. The original percentage of metal was probably higher. PHOSsPHORUS— 405°° of the filtrate mentioned above was examined for phos- phorus. . Mg,P,0, obtained = -0155 gr. P=-176 per cent. Analysis. Tr Onieer 2 ee re ae eee Fema Rol ET Gy: Naeem cers Ooi eR Meg oe Ae 1°65 Phosphorus:3222 = 176 Carbon <2 Ce Oe ane ae undetermined. Conclusion.—All the specimens here described were found at such a depth from the surface and under such conditions that there can be no doubt of their terrestrial origin. That they were portions of the drill, is of course untenable, not only because the drills remained intact but because of the remark- able softness of the specimens, their peculiar structure (in the case of the Cameron specimens) and the remarkable resistance which two of them offered to the drill. The close connection of two of them with coal and the location of the third in the same geological formation (the Coal Measures) and in the com- paratively near vicinity of coal, is significant of their origin, though the minute quantity of carbon in the metal is notable. Whatever the process of reduction, the location of the irons in all three cases was very favorable to preservation. As regards composition, not only is the purity of these specimens remarkable, but it is interesting to note the absence of nickel, an element always found in meteoric irons, but rarely in those of terrestrial origin. School of Mines of the University of Missouri, Rolla, Missouri. Penfield and Foote—Bixbyite, a new Mineral, etc. 105 Art. XIII.—On Biabyite, a new Mineral, and Notes on the Associated Topaz ; by 8. L. PENFIELD and H. W. Foors. Bixbyite.—The mineral to be described in the present article was sent to us for identification by Mr. Maynard Bixby of Salt Lake City, Utah. Concerning its occurrence we are informed that the mineral is found very sparingly in one or two small areas on the edge of the desert about thirty-five miles south- west of Simpson, Utah. The crystals are implanted upon topaz and decomposed garnet and rhyolite and have Gaanily been formed by fumarole action. The mineral crystallizes in the isometric system, usually j in cubes, some of which measure over 5™™ on an edge. These are occasionally modified by the trapezohedron, 211, and on one > small specimen the cubes and trapezohedrons are developed with almost ideal symmetry as shown in fig. 1. When measured on the goniome- ter the crystals gave fairly good reflec- tions of the signal and 211,112 was found to be 33° 40’; calculated 33° 334’. The mineral breaks with an irregular frac- ture, and on one or two specimens traces of octahedral cleavage were observed. The color is brilliant-black with metallic luster, and the streak is black. The hard- ness is 6to6°5. The specific gravity of the material used for the quantitative analysis was taken on a chem- ical balance and found to be 4:°945. The mineral fuses before the blowpipe at about 4 and becomes magnetic. When very finely powdered, it dissolves with some difficulty in hydro- chloric acid with evolution of chlorine. Method of Analysis.—The material for analysis was sepa- rated in a nearly pure condition by the thallium-silver nitrate mixture. The mineral was treated with strong hydrochloric acid in a flask connected with a condenser, and the chlorine liberated was distilled over into a solution of potassium iodide. Free iodine was then determined volumetrically with standard thiosulphate and iodine solutions, from which the amount of available oxygen was calculated. After filtering off a small amount of insoluble material, iron, aluminium and titanium were separated from manganese and magnesium by the basic acetate method. The three oxides were weighed together, iron was then determined by titration with permanganate solution and titanium was twice precipitated by boiling the nearly neu- tral dilute sulphate solution for two hours in the presence of 106 Penfield and Foote—Bixbyite, a new Mineral, sulphur dioxide. It was weighed as TiO,. From the filtrate from the basic acetate precipitation, manganese was precipi- tated with excess of bromine water. The precipitate, after filtering, was dissolved in a solution of sulphur dioxide, pre- cipitated as phosphate and weighed. Magnesium was precipi- tated from the first manganese filtrate as phosphate. Following are the results of the analyses : J. II. Average. Ratio. Si0, S20 ie 1°24 1°19 124 Al,O, HEC ECT maT 2°48 2°53 Fe,O, DR ose 47°81 48°15 47°98 °300 iO. Ae DNL GZ eres 1°78 1°70 "022 MnQs eee 42°08 42°02. 42°05 = Oe MgO Ae RES foes O<12 0:09 0°10 "002 A vail Ose 24237, 4°39 4°38 O74. 99°81 100°10 99°95 The silica and alumina are regarded as impurities, as only a trace of them went into solution when the mineral was treated with hydrochloric acid. In preparing the mineral for analysis, a varlation in specific gravity was observed, owing to the fact that some of the dark particles were buoyed up by impurities, but in order to obtain sufficient material for analysis, it was necessary to include some of the lighter portion. It is prob- able from the results of the analysis that some topaz was present, for the ratio of silica to alumina is about 1:1 and topaz is intimately associated with the bixbyite. Leaving silica and alumina out of account, two formulas are possible. Considering the titaninm as Ti,O,, the oxygen derived from the Ti0,, 0°16 per cent, plus the available oxygen, 4°38, total 4°54 per cent, is about sufficient to convert the MnO into Mn,O,, the amount required for 42°05 per cent, MnO being 4-74. The composition therefore can be expressed as R,O, where R= Fe, Mn and a little Ti. The proportion of Fe to Mn is 1:0:99 or almost 1:1, so that disregarding Ti,O,, the composition is FeMnO,. If the mineral is an isomorphous mixture of Fe,O,, Mn,O, and Ti,O, we should expect it to be rhombohedral and to belong to the hematite, corundum and menaccanite group, and also it is not probable that the Fe and Mn would be present in the proportion 1: 1. As the mineral is isometric, it seems more reasonable to regard it as a compound having essentially the composition FeO.MnO, and related to the isometric mineral perofskite, CaO.TiO,. On this basis, the results of the analysis may be put in the following shape: and Notes on the Associated Topaz. 107 Ratio. He@h ciel OMB vetoes ISD. 43°17 600) _. Mn Ome ee toy ea bat 5s 0°10 002 as MuOMe Saget. at et ats 42°05 OZ Wrwiraas AG ios 2 cad penne Rene ne od | 02 Waly earns: Avail. O and O from Fe,O, 9°18 574. BLOM ere se sis hs Baus Joe 1:21 TNO) Se See eee ee 2°53 99°95 The ratio of Fe+Mg: Ti+Mn is -602: 613 or nearly 1:1, while the oxygen is almost sufficient to convert the MnO into MnO, as indicated by the ratio MnO:O ='592:°574. As oxygen was determined perhaps as accurately as any other con- stituent, it seems possible that a small amount of manganese may be present as protoxide, replacing FeO. If enough man- ganese be taken as protoxide to make the ratio of RO to RO, exactly 1:1, the results become: Ratio. BieQ) Gast iy WED ater Mae a 43°17 "600 | MEO teh ice ai so al Dey Oro 002 + 608 IM iO Ababetay ett. Gegus os 0°40 ‘006 FEUD) ch esi ti se Cte V7 021s): Mia) yaiet). 3 il jays tah pace AVES (> ari aoe Og ears ins pails os 8 9°18 BIO ee yd wrote lee): Aeo2 735 @ Saueaeene ee Beret SON eA Ge 2°53 99°95 The oxygen necessary to convert 41°65 per cent of MnO to MnO, is 9°38, which is only slightly in excess of that actually found in the analysis. It seems therefore probable that the mineral is essentially FeMnO,=FeO.Mn0O,, in which small quantities of MgO and MnO are isomorphous with FeO and a little Ti0, with MnO,. The mineral is therefore to be regarded as a ferrous salt of manganous acid H,MnO,, corresponding to braunite MnMnO,, which is supposed to be the manganese salt of the same acid. We take pleasure in naming this mineral after Mr. Bixby, who has generously supplied us with material for investigation, and has gone to a great deal of trouble and pains to secure the specimens. | Topaz.—On the topaz with which bixbyite is associated the following forms were observed : 108 Penfield and Foote—Composition of Llmenite. a, 100 m, 110 d, 201 y, 041 u, 111 ce, 001 1 220 f, 021 0, 221 2. 3. 4. The prevailing types of the crystals are shown in figs. 2, 3, and 4. Some of the crystals are more than 4°” long and are transparent and colorless; a few have a delicate wine color, and many are either opaque white or partially so. The opaque crystals, as shown by microscopic examination, are not pseudo- morphs but consist of fresh unaltered topaz containing minute quartz crystals, which evidently have been included during erystallization. Associated with the topaz crystals are rough trapezohedrons which apparently were once garnet, but which have suffered alteration. The garnet is wholly gone and the crystals consist of bixbyite with either quartz, topaz or both. The garnet was probably the manganese variety, spessartite, which has been observed by Cross* at Nathrop, OColo., associated with topaz in rhyolite, an occurrence similar to that in Utah. Art. XIV.—Wote concerning the Composition of Ilmenite ; by 8. L. PENFIELD and H. W. Foote. THE existence of a molecule R"O.R*%O, in bixbyite and perofskite brings to mind the views concerning the composi- tion of ilmenite. One of these is, that the mineral is RO. TiO, (R=Fe and Mg), as advanced by Mosandert and adopted by Rammelsbergt and Hamberg.§ The other, that it is R,O,, or an isomorphous mixture of Fe,O, and Ti,O,, as advanced by Rose| and adopted by Groth. * This Journal, xxxi, p. 432, 1886. + Pogg. Anny, xix, pale. t Pogg. Ann., civ, p. 497. ; Geol. Foren., i, Stockholm Forhandl., xii, p. 604. | Poge. Ann., Ixii p. 119. “| Tabellarische Ubersicht der Mineralien, 3 Aufl., Braunschw., 1889, p. 40. > ae Sa ot ae Penfield and Foote—Composition of Llmenite. 109 There are both crystallographic and chemical grounds for accepting Mosander’s formula. Hematite and artificial Ti,O, both crystallize in the rhombohedral division of the hexagonal system, and the lengths of their vertical axes are respectively 1:359 and 1316. Ilmenite, however, differs in its symmetry from the foregoing, for it crystallizes in the rhombohedral- tetartohedral division of the hexagonal system, and the length of its vertical axis, 1°385, is not between those of hematite and titanium sesquioxide, which would be expected if ilmenite were an isomorphous mixture of Fe,O, and Ti,O,. Moreover, if the two sesquioxides are isomorphous it would be expected that at times the Ti,O, would be in excess of the Fe,O,, which has never been observed, although in some cases the ratio of Fe: Ti is practically 1:1. The presence of the protoxide magnesia in almost all of the ilmenites that have been examined cannot be accounted for if the mineral is assumed to be an isomorphous mixture of the sesquioxides Fe,O, and Ti,O,. The quantity of magnesia is usually small, less than five per cent, but Cohen* has described an ilmenite from Du Toit’s Pan, South Africa, occurring in rounded grains which contain 12°10 per cent MgO, and Ram- melsberg+ a crystallized one from Layton’s Farm, Warwick, N. Y., containing 13°71 per cent MgO. Groth,t in comment- ing upon Rammelsberg’s analysis, points out that the material might have been impure. Having on hand in the Brush collection some excellent crystallized specimens from this locality, we thought it best to make a new analysis. The material was derived from a single crystal. This was rough so that accurate measurements could not be made, but the habit was that of ilmenite, and by means of the contact goniometer the forms c, 0001, 7, 1011 and s, 0221 were identified. The analysis (by Foote) is given below, together with that made by Rammelsberg: » : IE 1G Average. Ratio. Rammelsberg. Ratio. Si0,.-. 0°44 0°31 0°37 ‘006 | ra By ee TiO, e330 57°28 57°29 iG Dahle 72k FeO_ _ 24:08 24°23 24°15 835 ) 26°32 S37 2 BisO 6 16°01 9. 15°98. -15-97 399-749. 18°71. 342. \.-727 OA WO 9865 11s hsb? K0 -o15 J 0°90 -013 Me One (A905 Gel87 012 sete LOO:94 1007623 100875 99°14 Specific gravity __-..--- 4°345 4°303 * Jahrb. Min., 18717, p. 695. + Loe. cit. t Loc. cit. 110 = Penfield and Foote—Composition of Imenite. In the two analyses, the ratio of RO,: RO is very close to 1:1, thus indicating the existence of the molecule RO. TiO,, where R=Fe and Mg. It is thus definitely proved that in this erystallized variety of ilmenite there is a molecule MgO. TiO, or MgTiO,, and it seems most reasonable to suppose that the iron also is present as FeO. TiO,, isomorphous with MgO. TiO,, and not as an isomorphous mixture of Fe,Q, and Ti,O,. It cannot, however, be told by chemical means that all of the titanium exists as a tetravalent element, for on dissolving the mineral for analysis, Ti,O, if present would oxidize to TiO, at the expense of Fe,O, and the analysis would show an equivalent of FeO. (Fe,O,+ Ti,0,=2TiO,+2FeO). In the published analyses of ilmenite, where the ratio of TiO,: RO is very constantly 1:1, there is almost without excep- tion an excess of Fe,O,, amounting in some cases to a large per cent, as may be seen by examining the list of analyses in Dana’s System of Mineralogy, p. 218, and, as Hamberg has pointed out, it is reasonable to suppose that the hematite molecule Fe,O, or FeFeO, is capable of mixing with the ilmenite mole- cules FeTiO, and MgTiO,, just as CaCO, and NaNO, are practically isomorphous. : Laboratory of Mineralogy and Petrography, Sheffield Scientific School, New Haven, Conn., April, 1897. FS. Havens—Separation of Aluminum, ete. 111 Art. XV.—The Separation of Aluminum and Beryllium by the action of Hydrochloric Acid; by FRANKE S&S. HAVENS. [Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale University— LXIV.] In a former paper* a method was described for the determi- nation of aluminum in the presence of iron, based upon the fact that the hydrous aluminum chloride AlC],. 6H,O is prac- tically insoluble in a mixture of strong hydrochloric acid and anhydrous ether saturated with hydrochloric acid gas, while the ferric chloride is entirelv soluble in that medium. The work to be described in this paper is an extension of this process to cover the separation of aluminum from beryl- lium, with the subsequent determination of the beryllinm by weighing as the oxide after conversion to the nitrate and igni- tion. The aluminum chloride solution was prepared by dissolving the so-called pure aluminum chloride of commerce in as little ~ water as possible, precipitating and washing free from iron with strong hydrochloric acid, dissolving the chloride thus obtained in water, precipitating the hydroxide by ammonia, washing the precipitate free from all alkalies, and redissolving it in hot hydrochloric acid. From this solution, after cooling, gaseous hydrochloric acid precipitated the pure hydrous chloride. This prepared chloride was dissolved in water and the solution standardized by precipitating with ammonia the hydroxide from weighed portions and weighing as the oxide. The solu- tion of beryllium used was made by dissolving in water beryl- lium chloride found to be free from iron by the sulfocyanate test, and giving no precipitate when tested by the gaseous hydrochlorie acid process to be described later on. This was standardized by precipitating with ammonia the hydroxide from weighed portions and weighing the ignited oxide in the usual manner. In the experiments of Table I, weighed portions of the aluminum solution were mixed with portions of the beryllium chloride solution representing from ‘01 gram to ‘10 gram of the oxide, an equal volume of a mixture of strong hydrochloric acid and ether (taken in equal parts) was added to the solution of the mixed chlorides, and the whole was completely satu- rated with gaseous hydrochloric acid while kept at a tempera- ture of about 15° C. by immersing the receptacle in running water. Ether was added, equal in volume to the aqueous * Gooch and Havens, this Journal, vol. 1i, December, 1896. 112 F. S. Havens—Separation ef Aluminum and aluminum and beryllium solutions originally taken, and the current of gas again turned on until saturation was complete. By this treatment there is present at the end of the saturation a volume of ether equal to that of the aqueous hydrochloric acid introduced and generated. ‘The finely crystalline precipi- tate of aluminum chloride was caught on asbestos in a filter crucible, washed with a previously prepared mixture of hydro- chloric acid and ether in equal parts saturated at 15° C. with hydrochlorie acid gas, and dried for half an hour at a tempera- ture of 150° C. It was next covered with a layer of pure mercuric oxide, which had been tested and found to leave no residue on volatilizing, and the crucible was gently heated over a low flame under a ventilating hood and finally ignited over the blast. | TaseE I. Al,Os; taken in Final solution as the Al.O03 volume. chloride. found. em? Error. (1) 0°1046 0:1044 12 0°0002— (2) 0°1046 0°1038 ie 0:0008— (3) 0°1067 0°1066 12 0:0001— (4) 0°1071 0°1063 12 0°0008— (5) 0°1059 0°1054 30 0:0005 — From these results it is obvious that the aluminum chloride may be determined in the presence of beryllium chloride with reasonable accuracy. The beryllium may be recovered in the filtrate from the aluminum chloride by precipitation with ammonia after nearly complete evaporation of the acid. It was found, however, upon trial that the:conversion of the chloride to the oxide without precipitation and filtration may be easily accomplshed by treatment with nitric acid and ignition. The results of Table II indicate this clearly. In these experiments weighed portions of the beryllium solution were evaporated just to dry- ness on a radiator, care being taken not to heat to the volatili- zing point of the beryllium chloride, a few drops of strong nitric acid were added, the liquid was evaporated, and the residue heated—at first gently, to break up the nitrate safely and finally on the blast. It was found that this conversion of the beryllium to the nitrate can be carried on in platinum without attacking that metal appreciably, providing care be taken to remove thoroughly all excess of hydrochloric acid before the nitric acid is added to the dry residue. Beryllium by the action of Hydrochloric Acid. 118 Taste II. BeO taken in solution as the chloride. BeO found. Krror. (1) 0°04838 0°0481 0°0002 — (2) 0°04838 0°0483 0°0000 (3) 0°1076. 0°1085 0°0009 + In Table III, (1)-(9), are given the results of experiments in which both the aluminum and the beryllium were deter- mined—the former by precipitation as the hydrous chloride and weighing as the oxide after igniting with mercuric oxide: the latter by the conversion of the chloride, through the nitrate, into the oxide. In experiment (10) (made to get a comparison of the methods) the beryllium was recovered by precipitating the hydroxide with ammonia from the par- tially evaporated solution of the chloride after removing the aluminum. In experiments (1) to (5), inclusive, the aluminum was deter- mined exactly as previously described ; in (6) and (7) the solu- tions (being originally larger) were concentrated by evaporation previous to the addition of the ether and hydrochloric acid mixture. In experiments (8), (9) and (10), the treatment was varied advantageously by saturating the aqueous solution directly with hydrochloric acid gas before adding an equal volume of ether, and completing the saturation. Tasie III. ] i ; BeO taken in | tien ‘the Al.O3.| Error. Final Shs as BeO | Error. chloride. volume. || he chloride.| 2°U24- | (1) _ 0°1059 |0°1058|0:0001 —| 12°™* 0°0198 0-0204 0:0006 + (2) | 0°1053 |0°1044/0°0009—| 12 0:0194. 0°0196'0:0002 + (3) | 0°1065 |0°1059)0°0006—| 12 0°0197 (0°0205'0:0008 + (4) | 0°1068 |0:1060\0°0008—) 12 0°:0199 |0°0207/'0°0008 + (5) | 0°1049 |0°1047|0°:0002—) 12 0°0198 (0°0208,0°0010 + (6) 0°1060 |0°1057\0:0003—| 12 0:0977 |0-0969 0-:0008 — (7) | 0°1064 |0°1063/0°0001—) 12 0°1085 (0°1084/0:0001 — (8) | 0°1046 |0°1088/0:0008—| 30 071083 (0°1087'0:0004 + (9) _ 071051 |0°1048|0:0003—| 30 0°1071 |0°1078/0:0007 + (10) | 071076 0°1075|0°0001 — 30 0'1086 |0°1094/0:0008 + These results are plainly very good. The manipulation of the process is not difficult. The gase- ous hydrochloric acid is most conveniently produced by the well known method of treating with strong sulphuric acid in 114 FS. Havens—Separation of Aluminum, ete. regulated current a mixture of strong aqueous hydrochloric acid and common salt. A platinum dish hung in an inverted bell-jar, provided with inlet and outlet tubes through which the current of water for cooling is passed, makes the best con- tainer for the solution to be saturated with the gas. It is advantageous to arrange the filtration upon asbestos so that the filtrate and washings may be caught directly in the crucible (placed under the bell-jar of the filter pump) in which the subsequent evaporation is to be effected. The heating of the strong acid’ solution must be gradual and conducted with care to prevent mechanical loss by a too violent evolution of the gaseous acid. It only remains to thank Professor Gooch for kind sugges- tions and advice. W. Oross—IRgneous Locks in. Wyoming. 115 Art. XVIL.—Zgneous Locks of the Leucite Hills and Pilot Butte, Wyoming ; by WHITMAN Cross. [Published by permission of the Director. of the U. S. Geological Survey. ] CONTENTS. Introduction. Rocks of the Leucite Hills. The Rock of Pilot Butte. Chemical Composition of the Rocks Described. Classification and Nomenclature. Inclusions in the Leucite Hills Rocks. Introduction. In 1871, in the course of the geological explorations along the 40th parallel, S. F. Emmons found the first leucite-bearing rock to be discovered on the American continent in a small group of hills in southwestern Wyoming, which received on this account the name of the Leucite Hills. The description of the locality given by Mr. Emmons in the reports of the Fortieth Parallel Survey* is very brief, being based upon reconnaissance observations made before the unusual interest attaching to the rocks of the region had been ascertained. A petrographical description of- the leucite rock in question is contained in the report by Prof. F. Zirkelf upon the micro- scopical characters of the rocks of the 40th Parallel collection. As far as I am aware no further description of the leucite rocks of Wyoming appeared until J. F. Kemp’s communication upon them was presented to the Geological Society of Amer- ica, in December, 1896.t The material described by Kemp was much better illustrative of the variation existing in the Leucite Hills lavas than was that examined by Zirkel. He also had specimens of the singular rock from Pilot Butte, a point situated some miles west of the Leucite Hills. Zirkel does not describe the Pilot Butte rock, but a short account of it is given by Emmons.§ The specimens from Pilot Butte in the 40th Parallel collection, preserved in the National Museum, are like the material obtained by Kemp and myself, and Em- mons’s megascopical description clearly applies to them; but his statements of their microscopical constitution indicate that ano longer explicable confusion of thin sections led him to describe the rock of Pilot Butte as a. plagioclase-bearing trachyte, whereas it is entirely free from feldspar. Major John W. Powell also visited Pilot Butte in the course * Vol. ii, Descriptive Geology, 1877, pp. 236-238. + Vol. vii, Microscopical Petrography, 1876, pp. 259-261. Published in Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. v, 1897, pp. 169-187. Reports of the Fortieth Parallel Survey, vol. ii, 1877. 116 W. Cross—Igneous Rocks in Wyoming. of his geological explorations, and collected specimens identi- cal in character with those described by Kemp and in the course of the present paper. [or the opportunity of examin- ing Major Powell’s specimens I am indebted to Mr. J. 8. Dil- ler, in whose hands they had been placed for study. The observations communicated in the following pages are . based upon a trip to the Leucite Hills made a number of years ago. That their publication has been so long deferred is partly due to the pressure of other work, and largely to a desire— thus far not realized—to revisit the region before publication in order to greatly extend my observations. In view of the unusual interest attaching to the rock types to be described, I feel that an explanation of the inadequate character of my field observations in the Leucite Hills is not out of place. The visit to this locality was made late in the fall of 1884, with an - assistant, W. B. Smith, for the express purpose of collecting a large number of specimens of the leucite rock for the *: Educa- tional Series”’ then being assembled by the Geological Survey. No mineralogical variation in the rocks of the region was indicated by the descriptions of Emmons and Zirkel, and, as none could be detected by the naked eye, such variation was not suspected at the time of my visit. The weather became very stormy soon after our arrival, and snow covered the hills a part of the time. For these reasons my observations do not make plain the field relations of the types collected, whose differences were chiefly evident only after microscopical study. Pilot Butte was visited during one of the terrific sand storms for which this part of Wyoming is noted at certain times of the year, and I was only able to gather specimens of the rock: without determining definitely the manner of its occurrence. Oceurrence of the Rocks of the Leucite Hills. Inasmuch as Professor Kemp has so recently presented a general sketch of the Leucite Hills, together with illustrations from photographs and an outline map of the region, I shall in the main content myself in the following pages with some details in regard to the portions of the area visited in which the rocks to be described were found. The mesa.—The principal area of leucite-bearing rocks is in a low, irregular mesa of perhaps 15 square miles in extent, bounded by a scarp usually not more than 50 feet in height, representing the surface flow of the leucite rock resting, for the most part, on upper Cretaceous strata. On the north and northeast of this mesa are several isolated hills, flat-topped, with scarps, which were once connected with the principal. mesa. Of these outlying hills only two were visited, namely, Orenda butte and North Table Butte. W. Cross—Igneous Rocks in Wyoming. 117 This mesa, caused by the leucite-bearing lava, has a gently undulating surface of bare rock in many places, with scanty vegetation here and there, the sage bush being most common. Several small cones rise above the mean level. There are six of these cones, according to Kemp, who gives illustrations of some of them in his paper. On the eastern side of the mesa, in one of the indentations, is a spring, known to my teamster and to the stockman who lived there as the “15-mile spring.” Kemp refers to it as ‘the spring 10 miles from the railroad at Almond Station.” In the vicinity of this spring, which was my headquarters and where the specimens for the Educational Series were collected, the lava of the scarp is somewhat varia- ble in texture, the greater part being vesicular in some degree, with massive rock occurring here and there. It is in regard to the relation between this massive variety, which corresponds most closely to the type described by Zirkel, and the porous form, that my field observations are unfortunately so imper- fect. But little of the massive rock was seen, and then noth- ing was observed to indicate that the two types belonged to different flows. On this account, and from the chemical iden- tity of the two rocks, I am at present inclined to regard the leucitite of Zirkel’s report as a part of the same flow that is predominantly a more or less vesicular sanidine-leucite rock, described in succeeding pages as orendite. I did not explore the mesa except near the eastern end, where the rock of the surface was markedly porous and in places nearly a pumice. ‘Two of the cones were visited, and my notes record that these consisted mainly of pumice. This statement is at variance with that of Kemp that all these cones are of solid rock and due, in his opinion, to the welling-up of lava above volcanic conduits. It is of course possible that the cones are not all of the same character. Outlying buttes.—N orth-of-east and about two miles from the mesa is an outlier, known as Spring Butte to my local authorities, but described by Kemp as Orenda Butte, a name also found on the Land Office map. The inclusions noticed in the lava at this point will be specially described in a later section. A few miles north of the principal mesa is a remnant of the former sheet in what is known as North Table Butte. We visited this point, reaching the summit through a cleft in the scarp on the northern side. The butte rises about 750 feet above the valley at its northern base, but only some 50 feet of lava is present. The rocks of the scarp vary as in the mesa to the south, but are lighter colored. Pumiceous material was found on the top of the butte. Its summit is considerably above the level of the mesa to the south, but whether this is Am. Jour. So1.—Fourts Serizs, Vou. [V, No. 20.—Aveust, 1897. 9 118 W. Cross—Igneous Rocks in Wyoming. due to original unevennesses of the surface upon which the lava was poured out, or to subsequent faulting, was not ascertained. In the depression between this butte and the principal mesa two or three small cones were seen, each with a vertical column of rock rising from its apex. It is to be inferred that these are volcanic plugs, similar to the Boar’s Tusk, shortly to be described. Occurrence of potash nitre—QOn the eastern side of the gap through which the top was gained, a cavity or recess with overhanging roof, of irregular shape, several feet in length and depth, was found in nearly massive rock. It was fully exposed to the prevalent northwesterly breeze, and rain could penetrate to the inner wall only when driven by very strong winds. In this sheltered space was found a very unusual mineral in a rather coarse, granular aggregate, and of sufficient mass to allow collection of specimens several inches in diam- eter. It seemed to occur as a partial crust to the cavity and asa filling for irregular fissures which extended downward and backward into the body of the rock. A columnar mass several inches in diameter connected roof and floor of the recess at one point where they were not less than one foot apart. Frag- ments of rock were attached to the column, and its stalactitic shape is probably an accident. This white granular substance was analyzed by L. G. Eakins and found to be essentially nitrate of potash. The exact result is given below: Analysis of nitre, ete. K,Ouss 3 fo 2b ee 440) tees SA poms (oe s1a4y | = 96°40 nitre CaO 0-2 cs3 he. eee 1°09 BO et a 159 >= 3°31 gypsum. HQ) a 2 eee 63 Nia 2 oo a ee es ee 07 : - elaine US) ae 0°16 halite. 99°87 It is regretted that the nature of this substance was not recognized in the field, in order that closer observations of its occurrence might have been made. As far as known there is nothing to indicate the derivation of this nitre from organic substances of any kind, yet such an origin is either evident or assumed as probable for all other occurrences of natural nitrates of which 1 find mention in manuals of mineralogy. This occurrence is, however, entirely different from all others of which notice has been found in literature. While extended * N.O; calculated for K.O. W. Cross—Igneous Locks in. Wyoming. 119 discussion of the genesis of this deposit of nitre is at present useless, it may well be pointed out that ammonia gas is a com- mon exhalation product of volcanoes in their fumarolic stage, and that ammonium chloride, salammoniac, is deposited in clefts, fissures, or tubular cavities of lavas at Vesuvius, Altna, Solfatara, Hecla, and other volcanoes. The lavas of the Leucite Hills contained fluorine, chlorine, and sulphurous compounds, as will be shown by the rock analyses, and it is certainly a noteworthy coincidence, if nothing more, that one of the best known occurrences of salammoniac is in the leucitic lavas of Vesuvius, rich in potash. As regards the occurrence of North Table Butte, there is no special reason to assume a volcanic conduit at this point, yet this occurrence would seem to suggest such a channel at no great distance. Other minerals were not seen in this cavity, the nitre being deposited directly on the rocks. The presence of soda-nitre at the Boar’s Tusk, described below, renders this occurrence all the more interesting. Although the nature of the nitre was not definitely recognized at the time of its discovery, the peculiar astringent taste was noted then and the true character as a nitrate was speedily established. Specimens of this nitre may be seen in the National Museum. The Boars Tusk.—Northwest of the Leucite Hills, in the valley of Killpacker Creek, about 20 miles north of Rock Springs, there is an interesting voleanic plug known as the Boar’s Tusk, a column of leucite rock rising about 300 feet above the valley. Débris and the Eocene sandstones pierced by the plug form a cone reaching to nearly half the height on all sides. An outcrop of horizontal sandstone is to be seen near the base of the cone. Seen from the east or west the Tusk is broader and much less regular than in the view from the south. The mass of the column is partly a compact breccia and partly massive rock. On the southern and western sides is a breccia made up of the same rock type which in massive form reaches to the top of the column on the east and north, and is apparently separated from the breccia by fissures. The breccia is coarse or fine-grained, containing fragments several feet in diameter. The principal component is always the leucite rock, but mingled with it are numerous fragments of sandstones, clays baked very hard, oolitic limestone, shell limestone, and a coarse-grained feldspathic rock. In several places where the breccia was open and cavernous a scanty white coating was observed on protected rock faces. Unfortunately the character of this substance was not sus- pected, and only a single small specimen was with difficulty 120 W. Cross—Igneous Rocks in Wyoming. procured for analysis. It proves to be soda-nitre containing a little potash, as shown by the analysis below, made by L. G. Eakins: Analysis of soda-nitre. NON sc ae oa eee die 87-98 NaNO. KO x paiaae dea hal Leia: Ope 4°97 10°66 KNO : INTO ARS tre ee eee 61°58* mkt CRO ES A UIE, ae LN eee eee SO} tet ere ae ay net aE ie PSOE Ba Sean ‘68 ; Ol tog 2? Se LAS oe ees ulratee 99°89 The discovery of soda-nitre in anything resembling this occurrence has not been announced before, as far as I can ascertain. The similarity in the conditions of occurrence of the two nitrates described above adds to the strength of the hypothesis that both are intimately related in origin to the peculiar magna of this region. Yet it is possible that organic matter from clefts above inhabited by birds or small animals might have furnished the nitrogen for this nitre. The rock of the Boar’s Tusk is nearly identical with the massive variety of the Leucite Hills, and the conclusion seems unavoidable that the Tusk is a plug occupying one of the con- duits through which the potash-rich magna rose to the surface. Wyomingite. from the Leucite Hills proper. —The only rock type from this locality described by Zirkel or Emmons is, according to the experience of both Kemp and myself, much less abundant than the next variety to be discussed. From reasons to be more fully presented later on, I believe that this rock should receive a special name, and hence it is proposed to call it wyomingité, from the State in which it occurs. Although this original type has been described in some detail by others, it seems best to discuss it still more fully in this place in con- nection with the allied rocks, particularly since this special name is proposed for it. It is a massive rock, of a peculiar, dull reddish-gray tone, exhibiting a marked schistosity through the nearly parallel arrangement of the abundant, small, reddish mica flakes. This mica, which is the only megascopically recognizable constituent, is developed in very thin hexagonal or rhombic platest which, under a hand lens often show a * Calculated for Na.0+K,0. + Zirkel says that the mica does not occur ‘in six-sided or rounded plates, but in the form of remarkably long stripes and dashes, such as have seldom been observed.” In all the rocks of the Hills which I have examined the mica presents a more or less distinct crystal form. W. Cross—IRgqneous Rocks in Wyoming. 121 delicate play of colors. The largest leaves are only 2™™ or 3™™ in diameter, and while some are of microscopic size, none be- long properly to the groundmass, which consists of leucite and diopside, with but small amounts of apatite and other variable elements to be mentioned. The mica is of remarkably weak absorption and pleochroism, the latter ranging only froma pale salmon-pink to pale yellow. Basal sections show the exit of a negative bisectrix and an optic angle which is large for mica, reaching about 35° .accord- ing to a measurement made by Prof. L. V. Pirsson, who has described a very similar mica in one of the leucite rocks of Montana. Sections normal to the base often exhibit a poly- synthic basal twinning, and by this means one can readily establish the fact of a measurable angle, reaching as much as 3°, between a and ¢. Inclusions, excepting a.few of glass, are very rare in these mica plates, and pure material for chemical analysis was procured with the Thoulet solution by W. F. Hillebrand, who analyzed it with the result to be given later on. From the analysis it is plain that this mica is a phlogopite, and as far as I can ascertain it is the first definitely known occurrence of this variety in true igneous rocks. Both Zirkel and Kemp have alluded to the peculiar character of this mica, which they called biotite. The groundmass holding the phlogopite crystals is largely made up of leucite, with many very small pale-green or color- less microlites of diopside between them. In all the sections I have examined the number of leucites with distinct crystal planes is very small compared with the multitude of minute roundish anhedra. Those individuals with icositetrahedral form are slightly larger than the anhedra, and they are further distinguished by a zone of 1ninute inclusions and often by re- entering angles on the planes of the crystal, this being the nearest observed approach to a skeleton development. The roundish grains usually vary between :01™™ and :05™™ in diam- eter. No trace of double refraction has been seen. A variability in the development of leucite in different places is indicated by the description of Zirkel, who refers to the sharp crystal form of each of the minute individuals. From the comparatively low amount of sulphuric acid in the rock, it seems that but little noselite can be assumed to be present, although it must be developed quite abundantly in the similar rock of the Boar’s Tusk, and is there indistinguishable from leucite. The microlites of the typical wyomingite are for the most part too minute for certain identification except by comparison with the few larger ones and with the very distinct diopside of other rocks to be described. From the amount of phosphoric 122 W. Cross— Igneous Rocks in Wyoming. acid found by analysis, these rocks are shown to be richer in apatite than would be inferred from microscopical examination. The apatite is seen occasionally in rather large grains, but must be chiefly developed in small prisms difficult to distinguish from diopside needles. By the close crowding together of the leucites and the occur- rence of diopside needles between them, it would seem as if there could be very little glassy base present; but in places there is a filmy globulitic substance between the leucites, and as will appear from the discussion of the chemical analyses, there are grounds for supposing that there must be a highly siliceous residue in the form of a colorless glass forming a base for the minute crystals. Careful reéxamination of this rock, after the difficulties in interpreting the analyses were fully shown, convinces me that there is a much larger amount of residual glass between the minute leucites and the felt of diop- side and apatite needles than was at first suspected. The leu- cites do not often interlock with angular projections, and although the diopside needles fill in the gaps to a large degree, there is some glass undoubtedly present. The dense wyomingite of the above character undoubtedly grades with all intermediate stages into the rock containing much sanidine, but several specimens were collected showing no feldspar except in a somewhat questionable interstitial form. Probably all thin sections exhibit a few minute leaves of dark- brown biotite containing so much ferritic matter, seemingly a product of magmatic resorption, as to obscure the optical pro- perties. Kemp mentions a few grains of haiiynite: magnetite, titanite, pyrite, and other accessory minerals seem entirely wanting in the pure wyomingite. Both Zirkel and Kemp have represented the microstructure of this rock, and their descriptions agree with the above in most particulars. Chemical analyses of the wyomingite will be given in a later section of this article, together with those of the other types and a discussion of the systematic position of all the rocks described. from the Boars Tusk.—The specimens of massive rock from this voleanic neck are much like the type already de- scribed, with a slightly larger amount of phlogopite and a still more pronounced schistose structure than was observed at any point in the Leucite Hills proper. The groundmass is, as a rule, of a more or less distinct dull-greenish shade, and there are some flat, drawn-out vesicles, rarely containing any secondary minerals. The breccia in the southern part of the neck is chiefly made up of wyomingite fragments less than 2 inches in diameter, and they seem to all belong to the same variety as the massive W. Cross—Igneous Locks in. Wyoming. 123 rock. The matrix is a finer dust of the same origin, and it is generally pale-green in color. Fragments of sandstone, lime- stone, oolite, and some granular rocks rich in dark silicates were observed. Microscopical examination reveals leucite, diopside, and phlogopite as the important minerals, with a few small biotite leaves and apatite in unusually large prisms, with axial inclu- sions. Both leucite and diopside are developed in much more distinct crystals than in the preceding rock. A few large irregu- lar grains of augite and phlogopite intergrown seem probably to belong to some of the rocks appearing in fragments. Leucite is developed in well-formed crystals which include many minute diopside needles. They reach -05™" in diameter and are very abundant, exceeding all other constituents in amount. Diopside occurs in short, colorless prisms, seldom twinned, of hexagonal cross-section through the suppression of one pinacoidal plane. These constituents lie in a very subordinate cloudy-gray base, which obscures the leucites except in the thinnest places. By high powers a faint greenish color seems visible, and as there is some double refraction in the mass it appears probable that there is a microlitic development of diopside and a scanty glass base. No magnetite was seen in the rock. Orendite. The principal rock of the Leucite Hills, whose chief con- stituents are leucite and sanidine, with phlogopite, amphi- bole and diopside, seems to me worthy of a special name, and it is proposed to call this rock and its equivalents elsewhere orendite, after the prominent butte on the northeastern side of the Hills, where it is well developed. The reasons for this proposition and the scope of its suggested application are pre- sented fully in a subsequent section, after discussion of the chemical analyses. Megascopical description.—The orendite is characterized by the same dull reddish-brown or gray tones seen in the wyo- mingite, and its only distinct megascopic constituent is phlo- gopite. All the specimens collected were subordinately vesic- ular, but that is of course not an essential feature. On North Table Butte the rocks are much lighter in color than was observed elsewhere, being yellowish to straw-colored. Under a lens the mass of the rock seems almost saccharoidal in tex- ture, showing a white granular mass colored by a small amount of indistinct pinkish or yellowish matter. In most cases a few dull grains of orthoclase will be seen, but they are corroded and show the same character as the feld- spar of larger included rock fragments to be described later. These are therefore not regarded as phenocrysts properly 124 W. Oross—Igneous Rocks in. Wyoming. belonging to the rock. By close examination under a lens small glistening cleavage surfaces may occasionally be seen, which are interrupted by many minute particles, produc- ing a poikilitic structure. These surfaces belong to sanidine. The pores of the rock are always irregular in shape, ordi- narily not drawn out in any prevalent direction, showing diver- gent smooth-walled arms. They vary from 1™ in length downward, and are also developed in variable amount. In some places the cavities constitute half the bulk of the rock. With a hand lens of high power the walls of the cavities are often seen to be coated by a network of very pale-yellowish needles, and in rare cases they project free into the pores. These needles are of the amphibole described below. A far more common filling of the pores is hyalite, in its characteris- tic clear globular forms. With the hyalite, and generally embedded in it, is a white mineral in rude bundles, opaque, and so poorly developed that it has not been determined. Mineral constitution and structure.—On microscopical study it is found that this rock consists of leucite and sanidine in predominant amount as compared with the ferro-magnesian- lime elements, phlogopite, amphibole and diopside. Apatite and rutile (?) are accessory minerals, but no magnetite, ilmenite or pyrite occurs. Biotite is developed, as in the wyomingite, in a few much resorbed flakes. It is probable, from examina- tion of the chemical analyses, that free silica in the form of tridymite or opal is present, but aside from the filling of cavi- ties spoken of above neither substance has been identified. In quantitative development leucite and sanidine vary con- siderably, now the one, now the other seeming to predominate, but in general they are nearly equal in amount. Of the heavier silicates phlogopite is the most important, while the other two seem to vary with the leucite and sanidine. The amphibole is developed approximately in proportion to the sanidine, and diopside corresponds to lencite. No amphibole has been found in the sanidine-free wyomingite. The peculiar association of minerals in these rocks leads to several interesting microstructures. Phlogopite appears to have formed first and is almost wholly free from inclusions. Leucite and sanidine are as a rwe grouped in separate patches or areas, the former in swarms of minute anhedra exactly like those of the wyomingite. Sanidine occurs in aggregates of stout, square prisms, much larger than the leucites, but still seldom exceeding 1™™ in length. | Diopside is mainly developed in minute needles and micro- _ lites, a large share of which are included in the sanidines, pro- ducing a poikilitic structure which may occasionally be de- tected megascopically. The remainder of the diopside occurs W. Cross—Igneous Rocks in Wyoming. 125 between other grains, and the leucites are almost free from inclusions. ) The amphibole seems to be the last mineral to form, and it varies in development. In the angular spaces between the sanidines the yellowish amphibole occurs exactly as does augite in the ophitie diabases, while in the leucitic areas the same amphibole is developed in stout prismatic anhedra enclosing the leucites, just as egirine or egirine-augite does the nephe- lites in many phonolites. In occasional spots and adjacent to the pores of the rock the minerals are less intimately inter- grown. Leucite is sometimes found included in sanidine, but more frequently the separation is very sharp. There are thus in this rock two kinds of micropoikilitic structure, a curious separation of the analogous silicates, leu- cite and sanidine, and a porphyritic structure through the prominence of phlogopite leaves. Sanidine.—The glassy feldspar of this rock was mentioned by Kemp, who noted a rare development of simple twinning and an extinction reaching a maximum of 10° from the length axis. The rude crystal form renders accurate orientation difficult, but since my own observations agree with Kemp’s as regards the angle of extinction, and as it is always the axis a of elasticity which lies near the longer axis of the crystal, it seems proper to interpret these prisms as developed parallel to the clinoaxis. As the terminal faces of such crystals are com- monly domatic planes, the prevalent rectangular outlines are explained. The twinning observed must be after the Carlsbad law, as extinction is parallel to the twinning plane. No microscopic intergrowths with other feldspars have been seen, a natural consequence of the low soda contents of the magma. Cleavage is seldom well marked, a fact which may be due in part to the multitude of microlitic inclusions, serv- ing to hold the cleavage plates together as in the mica of the Pilot Butte rock (p. 128). Amphibole.—Kemp does not mention the presence of amphi- bole in the rocks described by him, which are otherwise like the orendite. It is indeed very variably developed in my sec- tions, some 40 in number, and is not often seen in prisms well adapted for study. In its optical characters this amphibole is unlike any of which I can find record. Its general determina- tion as an amphibole rests upon the strong cleavage parallel to a prism of about 124° and the observed habit of the mineral. While usually irregular in outline, a few cross-sections have been found which agree with amphibole in the angles of the prism, cleavage, and existence of pinacoidal planes. The ter- minal planes are very rarely developed, and then seem to be pyramid and dome. 126 W. Cross—Igneous Rocks in Wyoming. The optical properties are unlike those of any mineral with which I am acquainted. Extinction seems to be always par- allel to the length axis. The optical scheme is as follows: a=da, pale yellow; b=, red; c=c, bright yellow. The-red- dish tones are very similar to those of hypersthene and increase rapidly in intensity with increasing thickness. Absorption: Bess ebees 1 Needles scraped from the cavities have the same character as the embedded mineral. In the powder obtained from one cavity there was found a flake apparently representing a section normal to the prism as indicated by cleavage, prism angle, and pleochroism. Examination of this plate in convergent polar- ized light showed the figure of an almost uniaxial mineral, the arms barely separating in the 45° position. Other constituents.—Phlogopite and leucite are so identical in development with the forms described for the wyomingite that no further comment is necessary. Apatite appears in a number of clear, more or less irregular prismatic grains, with axial inclusions; but the analysis indicates a much larger amount of this mineral in the rock than one would infer from the sections. The mineral mentioned above as rutile (?) occurs in minute yellow needles of round prism outline, with strong single and double refraction and extinction apparently parallel to prism, though absorption in this direction is so strong as to obscure extinction. The Rock of Pilot Butte. Occurrence.—In the words of Mr. Emmons,* “ Pilot Butte is a curious little conical castle-like mound, rising about 400 feet above the surface of the plateau country, in the angle between Bitter Creek and Green River to the north of the [Union Pacific] railroad. It is a rudely circular mass, scarcely 1000 yards in diameter, having abrupt faces on all sides, and composed of a rather singular voleanic rock unlike any other found within the limits of the survey. It is evident that the soft Green River [Eocene] Tertiaries, which once surrounded and covered it, must have been eroded away. . . .” The plateau above which the butte rises is separated from the principal mesa of the Leucite Hills by the broad shallow valley of Killpacker Creek, and no other mass of volcanic rock is known nearer than the Leucite Hills, some 15 miles to the eastward. No observations are reported by either Emmons or Kemp indicating beyond question the character of this mass. No contacts seem to have been found. At the eastern’ base, where I gathered my material, talus effectually concealed the contact, and such may be the condition on all sides. * Reports of the Fortieth Parallel Survey, vol. ii, Descriptive Geology, 1877, p. 238. W. Cross—Igneous Rocks in Wyoming. 127 In view of the somewhat porous texture, the fluidal strue- ture, and the presence of a glassy base in the rock of Pilot Butte, it is most plausible to regard the mass as a remnant of a surface flow. Description. Megascopical appearance.—In general the megascopical descriptions of the Pilot Butte rock given by Emmons and Kemp in their cited publications apply to my own material. The rock is ashen-gray, yellowish, or greenish, and generally porous in a subordinate degree. As the pores of the gray rock are almost free from secondary minerals, while those of the yellowish variety contain white minerals of zeolitic character, the former seems probably the normal color of the fresh rock. The pores are small, very irregular in form, and are but slightly drawn out in any direction. The fractured faces are quite rough and uneven. To the unaided eye the rock is largely dull and felsitic, with numerous small reddish specks showing strong cleavage. These are somewhat less than 1™™ in diameter, and all belong to phlogopite. The uniform distribution of these mica grains is very noticeable in all specimens I have seen. Occasional smooth surfaces, when examined by a hand lens, show minute pale-green prisms in a network. These are doubtless diopside, the principal constituent of the rock. Constetution.—On microscopical examination it appears that colorless diopside, phlogopite, and probable perofskite, are the chief minerals of this rock, with a glassy base of brownish color, which according to the analysis must contain silica, alumina, and the alkalies in nearly the proper ratio to have caused the formation of leucite had the mass entirely erystal- lized. The development of diopside in this rock is very similar to that described for the same mineral in the wyomingite of the Boar’s Tusk. It appears in colorless, doubly terminated prisms less than 1™™ in average length, more or less markedly arranged in streams. Cross sections show common development of the prism and orthopinacoid, and occasional twinning parallel to this latter plane. An analysis of diopside is to be given later on. The next most important mineral is mica, which is very similar in many respects to that in the rocks of the Leucite Hills, but exhibits certain peculiarities of development worthy of notice. Instead of being well crystallized and free from inclusions, as in the other types, the phlogopite of the Pilot Butte rock occurs in roundish grains averaging 0°8™™ in diam- 128 W. Cross—Igneous Rocks in Wyoming. eter, holding the diopside microlites and perofskite grains in as great numbers as does the residual glass. The streams of diop- side prisms pass without any change through the phlogopite grains, and a very pronounced form of the micropoikilitic structure is thus produced. The anhedra of phlogopite have very uneven, ragged outer borders, and show none of the usual tendency to develop in plates parallel to the cleavage, and this parting is here much less strongly developed than in any other occurrence of mica known to me. The cleavage lines appear in this case like those in feldspar or amphibole, being sharp and clear, but by no means so numerous as is usual. That this peculiarly developed mineral is mica seems to me sufficiently established by the following data: The color is almost identical with that of the phlogopite. Sections showing strongest cleavage polarize very brilliantly and extinguish par- allel to the cleavage, as far as can be ascertained. The bril- liant polarization of most sections is very striking, but a few may be found where the maximum color is the pale-blue of melilite. Such sections show in convergent light the exit of a negative bisectrix, the optical angle being large. The plane of the optical axes is parallel to a sharp boundary line which was observed in one case. The pleochroism is even fainter than in the mica of the leucite rocks, but by comparing the sections showing best cleavage with those exhibiting the optical figure the following optical scheme was made out: a yellow, with pinkish tinge occasionally, lies normal to the cleavage, i.e. near ¢. 6 pink, parallel to 3. c straw yellow, nearly parallel to a. This orientation is the same as that of the phlogopite in the leucite rocks. Perofskite and magnetite are developed in minute crystals of 0°02™ to 0:08™", and the former is much the more abundant. The grains referred to perofskite are roundish crystals of very high index of refraction, yellow-brown color, isotropic, and only those included in the phlogopite are entirely fresh, the rest showing a dull white cloudy alteration product which causes them to stand out in marked contrast to the magnetites when the section is viewed by reflected light. Some very minute needles of apparently yellowish color may be seen in the phlogopite, with a high power. These seem most plausibly referred to rutile, though no regular arrangement was observed. The glass base of the rock is isotropic but not clear and transparent, being clouded by indistinct globulites and micro- lites which seem to have a yellowish-green color, or at least W. Cross—Igneous Rocks in Wyoming. 129 that is the tone of the mass where they are developed. Nearly one-third of the rock is amorphous, but the multitude of minute erystals embedded in it, the cloudy zone about the perofskites, and the globulitic particles mentioned, make this base trans- parent only in the thinnest sections. As will be shown later on, this glassy base contains silica, alumina, and the alkalies, in nearly the ratio found in leucite. For this rock, consisting of diopside and phlogopite in pre- dominant degree, and with leucite or a glassy base correspond- ing to it, 1 propose the name madupzte, from the Shoshone Indian madipa, meaning sweetwater,* the name of the County in which the locality is situated. A definition, with discussion of the relationships of madupite, will be found in a later sec- tion of this article. Chemical Composition of the Rocks Described. In the table below are given several anaiyses of wyomingite, orendite and madupite, of the phlogopite and diopside isolated from these rocks, and of a few related rocks for purposes of comparison. Under I is an analysis by Pawel, made for Zirkel+ and published in his German résumé of the 40th Parallel report; IL is by R. W. Woodward, and was published by Emmonst (I and II were presumably made on the same material); III is of wyomingite from the Boar’s Tusk; IV of wyomingite from the 15-mile spring; V is of orendite from the 15-mile spring; VI of orendite from North Table Butte ; VII of madupite from Pilot Butte; VIII of phlogopite from wyomingite of Boar’s Tusk; IX of diopside from wyomingite and madupite. The analyses III to LX, inclusive, are all by W. F. Hillebrand, whose many painstaking and _ reliable analyses of igneous rocks form a most important contribution to petrography. Analysis X, by H. N. Stokes, is of “ leucitite”’ from the Bearpaw Mountains, Montana, described by Weed and Pirsson (this Journal (4), vol. ii, 1896, p. 147). No. XI, by E. B. Hurlburt, is of missourite, also from the Highwood Mountains and described by Weed and Pirsson (this Journal (4), vol. ii, 1896, p. 321). * According to information kindly given me by Mr. W. J. McGee, of. the Bureau of Ethnology. + Ueber die Krystallinischen Gesteine lings des 40%" Breitegrades in Nord- west-Amerika. Berichte der k. sachs. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Jan., 1877, p. 239. ¢ Reports of the Fortieth Parallel Survey, vol. ii, Descriptive Geology, 1877, p. 237. ng. Wyome Cross —Igneous Rocks in r e } 130 10 0L GL. 90.99 TX “vue Oy ‘O}IINOSSII ‘JOO JO 9OVIY BV SMIBIMOD TA ON a | eee £1-66P "CULO, ‘9414 10Nno'T 91-66 wer = 9uou €0-60 98 0G ‘opisdoiq 41-66 €0-1 08-001 9V-6 90- —— TITA “oyidosoly ‘OIN FO. WIM ‘PO .OLT eA0qe =9 $9 .OIT Mojog = @ {*Q%qg pur FOr, ‘”? 16-66 06: IL-001 70-001 | 91-66 | 12-00L, OF-001| 77> ne Iz 61: ae ens 1Z-001 | 46-66 | OF-001| 29.001 | 89-66 GF: ane ee alice 9¢. GF: PP 0c. Sees 90. +0: 60. e0. nee 9T- 68. 90- the as 69-1 | Ge1 GL-L GGiicae tee 10:1.) Lez 19 Z aa ZG. Gl: 08: e6. 9h6 “ay ‘IY “14 “ay “1 Tee Gel 19-1 Neat QO 16-tl Ore OletT | S860. eior 29-9 | Fb9 VP-9 B0n a lero 6S. 19. Z9. Er lou eee gi. 03: 61: aa ae 6LP | 4Ge OP-€ 66-6 | 8&>F 90). G0. 0. G0. Tae G9. ©0-1 12-1 78-1 | 2G-8 ree | GLE OL-€ PEE | 19. G0. 10- P0- OL: ie ene i ouou €0. at as 9L-01 | 6F-6 Moe tare | Kay Ge aye tae Je fae? ae 19:2 | 80-% Z6-1 Mhefee a es LFS | 80-FS | O4€8 | €2-09 | ZPPE 10) file || Toytseo (Me) ale | Fev eran 669-2 | 989-2 | 429-2 | GLL-2 TA wie “AI ‘TIT Th “OV PUOIC, "OVLIULOOL AA. W. Cross—lgneous Rocks in Wyoming. 131 Discussion of analyses.—Ilt is interesting to note that the older analyses, in spite of the evident inaccuracies, indicate quite correctly the general character of the magmas of the Leucite Hills; but they fail to show the great complexity of constitution which makes these rocks so noteworthy. Few rocks have been shown to contain so many chemical elements in determinable amounts; and in this connection it should be stated that in all probability zirconia was present in all the rocks, but was not tested for in the older analyses, III, IV, V, and VII, which were made several years ago, while VI was made in January, 1897. From the analyses of phlogopite and diopside it is plain that TiO,, Cr,O,, BaO, and Fl are in very large degree contained in the mica, while the first is the only one of these oxides in the diopside. Tests showed that the sulphuric acid was always in the part of the rock soluble in HCl, hence it is certain that barite cannot be present, and the probability appears that noselite is developed to a varying extent in minute crystals not distinguished from leucite in the thin sections. There is an unusually large amount of P,O, in all these rocks, and while a few large apatites may be readily detected under the micro- scope, it seems probable that much of this mineral is developed with diopside in minute needles not easily recognized. The presence of such a large amount of phosphoric acid here con- trasts in a noteworthy manner with the very small amount ordinarily found in phonolites. It is noteworthy that the rock of the voleanic neck (III) is richer in almost all of the rarer constituents than any other except that of Pilot Butte. It is also higher in magnesia and lower in silica than the others. As for zirconia the suggestion is made that the peculiar amphibole of orendite is perhaps zir- conia-bearing, analogous to lavenite, wohlerite, and hiortdahlite. If that is the case it seems quite possible that the amphibole contains Ce,O, and Di,Q,. The most striking fact of petrographicai interest in these analyses is the almost identical constitution of two rocks, one rich in leucite and free from sanidine, the other with predomi- nant sanidine. The conclusion that chemical composition of a magma does not alone determine whether leucite or sanidine shall be formed, but that this is controlled by conditions of con- solidation is unavoidable., As the composition of the amphi- bole in the orendite is unknown, a satisfactory calculation of analyses V and VI is impossible, but those of the other types afford interesting results. Taking first the Boar’s Tusk wyomingite, the molecular ratio of its constituents is as below; and on assuming that lime is wholly in apatite and diopside, magnesia in diopside and phlo- a — 132 W. Cross—Igneous Locks in Wyoming. gopite, these elements may be calculated out, leaving only silica, alumina and the alkalis in considerable amounts. Alumina is found to be insuflicient to combine with the alkalis in leucite or sanidine, but if the SO, is present in noselite the alumina is almost exactly sufficient. There is a large excess of silica, enough indeed to have formed sanidine with all the alumina and alkalis. CALCULATION oF ANALYSIS III, | | Molec. ratio. Diopside. Phlogopite.| Noselite. | Leucite. | Apatite. |Residue. S10, 2202) S37 132 127 d4 i? BH2 272 HiOa 224-1 28 a | 5 | 19 P5O5 ee a3 13 | 0 SO 9 | 9 0 Al,O3 --| 110 | 20 | 27 63 0 Fe,Os _.| 21 1 | 2 | | 18 FeO ..:.| 26 dif ite al | 19 CaO e221 008 64 | | 43 0 MPO rier ier 68 |. £09 | 0 K,0__..| 104 23 14 63 = Na,O...| 22 | lew Boies S| | 0 1454 | 273 999 Tre ee 1 Aare 56 | | 19°374 866% | 26:14 Neglecting the small amounts of substances shown by analysis and not introduced into the above calculation, this rock consists of | Free silica: 222 ee ae 18°7 Leucite 12.12) eee eee oe 26°1 + 53°5 Noseélite: 22 cehaoee 3) eee Bey, Diopside,.ce =. oh te 18°8 Phiogopite :: #2275 ee ee 19°9 AGGESSOGICS #2 ae See te ee 7°8 100°0° The residual amounts form a little magnetite, and there is some titanic acid which may belong to silico-titanates or be present as rutile. The silica is more than enough to have formed sanidine instead of leucite if the conditions had been favorable. It is plain that a rock containing leucite, with diopside and phlogopite of the ascertained composition and in the observed proportions, cannot have so high an amount of silica without containing an excess of the acid radical unless some very acid silicate is present. The only possible explanation of the ascer- tained chemical composition, without assuming free silica, is in supposing that the apparent leucite is a regular mineral. of higher silica contents than leucite, with the ratio of alumina W. Cross—Lgneous Rocks in Wyoming. 133 to potash the same. By the calculation of the Boar’s Tusk rock it would seem necessary to assume that the hypothetical mineral had the composition of orthoclase. No such mineral being known, this hypothesis would quickly lose all suggestion of support were it not for the results derived from a calcula- tion of the analysis LV. CALCULATION OF ANALYSIS IV. Molec. ratio. | Apatite. | Diopside. |Phlogopite.| Leucite. Residue. SiO Coir hee 895) 76 VAs Mee Bae 327 MiG sees. 23 24 2 6 16 WG Og te cvs ors 109 22 87 0 Bean er. te 20 3 17 BEOR Seer. ger 2 3 12 Maes. Box Io: 71 39 37 0 MipO rete) sie. 161 39 1a 0 LOM 2 ane 119 25 87 7 Na,O SSepastos 27 27 PaOgee Seest. & 12 12 0 | 16-7 ¢ 29:3 357 & The calculation shows a marked excess of the alkalis and a very large one of silica. In this case the sulphuric acid is so low as to be of little effect upon the calculation in assuming it to represent noselite. Here, then, as before, there is an appar- ent excess of silica which cannot be discovered in the rock in the form of opal, tridymite, or quartz, and the excess of alkali is equally difficult of explanation. Alumina cannot be assumed as too low by error of analysis, as the analyses are quite con- sistent in this respect and repeated determinations have yielded almost identical results, as also in the case of SQ,,. Acting upon the suggestion that the apparent leucite of these rocks might possibly have a different composition from the normal, Dr. Hillebrand treated the powder of the wyoming- ite yielding the result under IV with dilute nitric acid (1 acid to 40 water) and found in solution the following: Molec. ratio. BIOy Yea Ue Al yak 6:08 101 Mi @ipas ogg) MEAN ce 21 3 PMO pe) Heys ener one “91 9 CDS abbey eB ye 50 (ONO aRe 2 he Sah ae ee 27115 38 SIO SPREE ale ES as ee 10 LE CS ORE et ee 14 ipl: erie gee ys. 4 151 38 reOwe Poa tak 1 aaa al 13 NPC eee ec 28 4 lean pera eers wees ROCA) LAT) 1°54 11 14°61 * All iron as FeO. Am. Jour. Sc1.—Fourts Suriss, Vou. IV, No. 20.—Aveust, 1897. 10 134 W. Cross—Igneous Rocks in Wyoming. The CaO is almost exactly what is required for P,O, in apa- tite, hence the soluble magnesian silicate must be phlogopite. But if the requisite amount of alumina be taken to form phlogopite on the basis of the magnesia, there remains but a trace of alumina to combine with the residue of the alkalis in leu- cite or any other mineral; and even if leucite should first be calculated out, assuming all the alumina to be in that mineral, there would remain a considerable residue of the alkalis. Silica is here, too, in excess of the requirements to form any known rock-making silicate with the bases in solution. | While a calculation of the analyses of*orendite is impossible without knowing the composition of the peculiar amphibole, yet the difficulty of accounting for the alkalis found is even greater than in the wyomingite, because both analyses show less alumina and more alkali than before. The relation of alumina to alkali is much less than 1:1, whereas in all the important alkali-bearing silicates of rocks that ratio holds good. A comparison of analysis VII with the preceding ones shows that the madupite is even more closely related to the type of the Leucite Hills than might be suspected from the similar developments of the pyroxene and mica in the two cases. This similarity alone led Kemp to correctly characterize the Pilot Butte type as “clearly a variant from the group of rocks of the Leucite Hills.” In the presence of the rarer elements, Ce,O,, Di,O,, Cr,O,, SrO, BaO, SO,, Fl, Cl, and in the ratio between potash and soda this magma certainly shows blood relationship —consanguinity—with the magmas of the Leucite Hills. CALCULATION OF ANALYsIS VII. | Perofskite | | Molec. ratio. | and Diopside. Phlogopite. Noselite. | Leucite. | Residue. | Apatite. | | SiO; ee alianitad B46 ed 20 AY? ol B03 0 TIO3 24s ee 21 | 0 Al,Os 90 17 21 | 52 0 Fe,0; a 32 | 2 2 28 FeO - Def, 10 2 5 CaO: | 221 sno 163 0 MgO 272 Le eye Neel 99 ; 0 KoOe 2 1) 185i | fae | 20 14 51 0 Na2O - 14 | | 14 ic} Ot ae yy Dh 0 SOsnsee. wa 7 0 1) Pee oes 25 | 2 ad 1506 | 90 | 694 285 98 306 33 From the character of the minerals developed in the madu- pite and the knowledge of their composition obtained through the analyses of the diopside and phlogopite, one may calculate W. Cross—ILgneous Locks in Wyoming. 135 very closely the composition of the glassy base. Assuming that the lime remaining after deductions for apatite and perof- skite is a measure of the diopside of the rock, and that the magnesia surplus after the formation of diopside is all con- tained in phlogopite, of the composition found in the analyses already given, there remains, after calculating out apatite, perofskite, diopside, and phlogopite, a residue of silica, alumina, potash, and soda which is almost exactly that neces- sary for leucite and noselite, calculating the latter from the sulphuric acid, as in the case of the Boar’s Tusk wyomingite. The result of these calculations is to indicate that if this magma had entirely crystallized, it must have had very nearly the following percentage development of the named constitu- ents : JNO Spots 5 Pee eee ee 461) 66.4 mnlosoprtelts ay er Die ciaraye 4 18°9 Weucitie ae Pa SPR A Vio. 20°3 i INGseliteyaseee Paty) foi atti 5 f 268 INCEEISORICS 7 ey WE BONE 8 82 100°0 The amounts of phlogopite calculated from the fluorine con- tents of the rock and from the magnesia after deducting for diopside agree very closely. While I have been unable to detect a single grain of leucite or noselite in my sections, Kemp refers to a few very minute particles of leucite seen by him. In the calculations I have disregarded the amounts of strontia and baryta in the absence of a good basis for assigning them, although it is known that a part of the baryta is in the phlogopite. By comparing the analysis of madupite with that of missour- ite, the granular augite-leucite rock recently described by Weed and Pirsson,* reproduced under XI of the table above, a marked similarity may be discovered. Missourite is richer in magnesia and poorer in lime than madupite, and it has 15 per cent of olivine with only 6 of biotite. As is well known, the quantitative relations of olivine, biotite, and leucite are quite variable in very similar rocks, and under slightly different con- ditions the missourite magma might have yielded more mica and less olivine and leucite. Each rock has about 50 per cent of augite or diopside, and while missourite has 37 per cent of olivine, leucite, and biotite, the crystalline madupite would have had 389 per cent of leucite and phlogopite. It is quite possible that the deep-seated granular equivalent of madupite is a near relative of missourite. *Missourite, a new leucite rock from the Highwood Mountains of Montana. This Journal, (4), vol. ii, 1896, p. 315. ge 4 136 W. Cross—Igneous Rocks in Wyoming. Classification and Nomenclature. In the foregoing pages new names have been proposed for three rock types described. It is now desired to explain as clearly as possible the grounds for adding three new names to the rapidly growing list of rock varieties, and this involves more or less discussion as to principles of classification. With regard to the present tendency to confer names upon many more or less distinct, newly recognized or more narrowly defined, rock types, it must be admitted that from several sources the protests against this course are most natural. Teachers, geologists with whom petrography is a side issue, and those to whom all rocks are merely accidental mixtures of various minerals,—to all these the new terms are abhorrent. But while a period of contusion is to be regretted, it appears to me that the recognition and naming of every truly distinct rock type may be a necessary prelude to the much needed reform of our present illogical and inadequate petrographical scheme. Igneous magmas must be classified on chemical grounds ; their crystalline equivalents principally upon mineralogical constitution, as the more or less evident expression of chemical composition and as the cause of the principal characteristics of rocks. It does not follow, as is sometimes asserted, that because rock-making minerals may be developed in infinitely varying proportions, that there are no natural rock types or groups. There is, for each prominent rock constituent, a con- siderable range in its development within which it places its own stamp upon the rock containing it. It may play the lead- ing role, or share the honors equally with others, or be subordi- nate. With a given structure the habit of the rock depends largely upon the minerals which are its leading constituents. Most new rock names of the last few years have been con- ferred, consciously or unconsciously, in recognition of this nat- ural law. But this law has not yet been fully recognized in the system of petrography, and until it is so recognized the system will be unsatisfactory. The character-giving relative abundance of nfinerals in rocks is not awarded proper weight in classification. The weakness of the present scheme in the direction alluded to lies in giving to the feldspars and feldspathoids far too much weight, and to the dark silicates far too little, in constructing the frame work. “ Rocks with feldspar,’—‘‘ Rocks without feldspar,’—these two divisions comprise all igneous rocks. Gabbro is mineralogically a rock composed of basie plagioclase and pyroxene, and within it are included everything from anorthosite to the vanishing point of the feldspar, and we are W. Cross—Igneous Rocks in Wyoming. 137 even told by Rosenbusch that peridotite and pyroxenite are annexes of the gabbros.* The fact that the names leucitite and nephelinite are cur- rently applied to rocks in which leucite and nepheline are not necessarily of much quantitative importance, also illustrates very well the inadequate and illogical character of our present petrographical nomenclature. The natural application of these terms would be to rocks so rich in leucite or nepheline as to derive their dominant mineralogical features from the charac- teristics of these species. But as a fact one must search very carefully with a microscope to detect any leucite in some of the so-called leucitites. The leucite rock described by Zirkel, to which it is here proposed to give the name wyomngite, has been placed in the group of the leucitites by both Zirkel and Rosenbusch in their latest systematic works, but with comments upon its exceptional character, removing it far from its nearest ally in the group. The new name is proposed for this rock in recognition of its peculiar character, and also as a part of a scheme for reclassify- ing the leucite rocks which it is hoped may find favor with those who have to deal with this interesting class of igneous rocks. As a first step, in spite of established usage, I should be glad to see the term leucitite reserved for the rock that has not yet been discovered, to my knowledge, consisting essentially of leucite, with all other minerals of subordinate importance. There is good reason to believe that such rocks are possible and will be found at no distant day. The same suggestion is made for nephelinite, on the same grounds. Following leucite would come the rock here called wyo- mingite, and its granular equivalent, in which leucite and its allies are of approximately equal importance with the ferro- magnesian-lime silicates, and then a rock of which madupite is deemed a vitrophyric representative. Leucite-sanidine, leucite- _ nepheline and leucite-plagioclase rocks are known, or will be found, in which these elements preponderate, and they are cer- tainly very different from the types from which the present nomenclature of leucite rocks has been mainly derived, where leucite is of secondary importance. Reviewing the chemical and mineralogical characteristics of the rocks under discussion, it is evident that they are notable for their high contents in the alkalis, and especially for the strong preponderance of potash over soda; and although wyomingite is one of the richest known rocks in leucite, it is not this fact alone which gives character to it. Prominence must be given to the fact, which is also true of the sanidine- bearing orendite and of the madupite with its glassy base, that * Massige Gesteine, 3d ed., pp. 344, 367. 138 W. Cross—Iqneous Rocks in Wyoming. the preponderance of potash has controlled the character of the ferromagnesian-lime silicates. Such rocks must be con- trasted with the tinguaites, derived from magmas rich in soda, producing nepheline and alkali-feldspar, with pyroxenes or amphiboles of characteristics due to the entrance. of soda and ferric oxide into the molecules. | The three rocks described belong to a series whose magmas were relatively so rich in potash that soda has not played any ~ perceptible role in the products of crystallization. It has been prevented from combining with lime in plagioclase or with ferric oxide in the «girine molecule. If it does, in certain rocks, go with sulphuric acid into noselite, it still fails to make itself noticeable. Wyomingite is essentially composed of leucite, a magnesia- potash mica, and diopside, all in large quantities. Its magma was characterized, as has been pointed out, by richness in potash with low alumina and considerable amounts of magnesia and lime. Should it be demonstrated by future experience that other leucite rocks actually contain more than enough silica to have made sanidine in place of all the leucite, it may be desirable to restrict the type to such acid leucite rocks; but it seems to me at present better to disregard this excess, in definition, as quite anomalous, for the rock does not derive any observable physical characteristic from the superabundant silica. The structure of this original wyomingite is rudely fluidal and porphyritic, but nevertheless of an intermediate, more or less confused character, best expressed, among existing terms, as hypidiomorphic. Geological occurrence is omitted from these definitions because it has to my mind no legitimate place in the purely petrographical classification of igneous rocks. The rock is known in surface masses and in a voleanic conduit near the surface. It is probable that the structure observed may extend to considerable depths. Its granular equivalent should receive another name. Orendite was derived from the same magma as the wyo- mingite. It has sanidine and leucite in about equal quantities, with magnesia-potash mica and diopside as the other essential constituents. The development of a peculiar amphibole in the type of the Leucite Hills can only be regarded as a local char- acteristic. Orendite has in this present case a still greater complexity in structure than the wyomingite, but much of it must be considered as of local importance only. According to the nomenclature of Zirkel, the rock would be classed with the leucite-trachytes, and by that of Rosenbusch as leucite-phono- lite. While agreeing with Dr. H. S. Washington* in his criticism of the term leucite-phonolite, I think that the same * Italian Petrological Studies, I; Journal of Geology, vol. iv, 1896, p. 555. W. Cross—Igneous Rocks in Wyoming. 139 objection applies with somewhat lessened force to the other name. If a nepheline-sanidine rock is to be called phonolite, an independent name is also appropriate and desirable for analogous leucite-sanidine rocks. As Washington remarks, a leucite-phonolite should be a leucite-nepheline-sanidine rock. And it seems to me that compound names of this character should always be used for the mineralogical varieties of a given species. Madupite may be defined as consisting essentially of diop- side and a magnesia-potash mica with leucite in decidedly subordinate amount. Its magma was low in silica, alumina and iron, rich in potash, and contained so much lime and mag- nesia that silicates of these bases are the principal constituents, yet controlled in their development by the strong potash element. The calculation of the analysis of madupite from Pilot Butte shows so clearly what must have been the products of its crystallization that this rock may be considered the vitrophyrie equivalent of the type so defined. As to the systematic relationships of these rocks, there is not very much to be said bevond what has already been presented in discussing their relationship to each other. No other rocks known to me approach very near to the types described. As leucitic rocks their nearest allies are some of the Italian ‘“ leu- cite-trachytes,” in which, however, soda plays a more important role. As pyroxene-mica rocks the relation to the minettes and vogesites is most striking. In fact I think that the rocks may be effectively characterized as surface equivalents of lampro- phyres containing leucite instead of feldspar, rich in potash, lime and magnesia, and poor in alumina and iron. It is to be noted that leucite-bearing camptonites and tinguaites are now known. | It is not possible to say with certainty what mineralogical composition the deep-seated portions of these magmas may have. As the recent investigations of Doelter* have clearly shown, the influence of physical conditions and of accompanying mineralizing agents, such as fluorine, is very great in just such magmas as those of the rocks under discussion. The Leucite Hills magma has very possibly yielded a sanidine rock in depth, yet the Boar’s Tusk conduit, where exposed, is occupied by a leucite rock. It is difficult to see how the madupite magma, consolidated in the lower parts of its eruptive channel, can fail to contain much leucite, and if only that portion of the geolog- ical body were known, there can be little doubt that the rock would be called a lamprophyre by the German school of petrog- raphers. If coarsely granular, it might be nearly related to missourite, as already pointed out. *C. Doelter: Synthentische Studien; Neues Jahrbuch fir mineralogie, etc. 1897, Bd. i, p. 1. ad 140 W. Cross—Igneous Rocks in Wyoming. Of course to call these surface rocks lamprophyres is to dis- regard the fundamental conception of Rosenbusch as to the geological significance of this group of “ dike-rocks.” But I fully agree with Iddings,* who has discussed this question at some length, that the lamprophyres are abundantly represented at the surface by lavas differing in structure and mineralogical composition from the dike rocks, as a result of differing condi-- tionsof consolidation. The Boar’s Tusk wyomingite has, more- over, a decided resemblance to minette in habit, making due allowance for the different roles played by leucite and sanidine as a result of contrasting crystal forms. | It is with great regret that I confess my inability to state the existing relationship in occurrence between wyomingite and orendite. The former is massive, the latter always vesicu- lar, and I believe them to be merely different parts of one flow. The pumice contains neither leucite nor sanidine. Inclusions in the Leucite Hills Rocks. There are many inclusions of foreign rocks in the lavas of the Leucite Hills and in the Boar’s Tusk. These were also noted by Kemp, who found them especially abundant in the southwestern part of the principal mesa, and who mentions sandstone as the most common type. The fragments occur in all parts of the Hills visited by my party, and many different rocks were observed : sandstone, limestone, oolite, granite, and some peculiar mineral combinations to be mentioned. The most noteworthy feature of these included fragments is the very distinct caustic action of the lava displayed in most cases. Some quartzose sandstone inclusions are vitrified in considerable part, and certain granitic rocks have also suffered partial fusion. It is noticeable that a rounded form is common among these inclusions, but there is little or no evidence that this rounding is the result of fusion. 7 Rocks composed of pyroxene and plagioclase feldspar seem quite abundant, and some were found consisting almost wholly of plagioclase rich in ime. Still others are basic combinations of augite and biotite with but little feldspathic material. The action of the magma upon these inclusions may be illus- trated from a few instances. One small inclusion of rounded form appears megascopically to be a medium-grained rock of green pyroxene and feldspar, but it is noticeable that the feld- spar grains are not distinct and cleavage can not be distinctly made out. Microscopical examination shows the feldspar to have been plagioclase, but it has been acted upon by the magma and partially destroyed. Along cleavage lines and on * The Origin of Igneous Rocks, Bull. Phil. Soc., Washington, vol. xii, pp. 172— 178, 1892. W. Cross—IRgneous Rocks in Wyoming. 141 the planes of albitic twinning the feldspar is in part replaced by cloudy isotropic matter leaving remnants of feldspar with somewhat weakened double refraction here and there. In some parts where no optical action can be discerned, the former twinning planes may be traced by the varying cloudi- ness. On the contact with the orendite containing this inclu- sion, the cloudy mass gives way to a clear glass. In it are apparently colorless rounded or irregular granules which seem to be diopside, though not developed in determinable form. The contact between inclusions and rock is sharp and no change in the character of the latter can be made out which ‘might be referred to assimilation of the fused inclusion. Augite is much tess attacked than feldspar; it is often entirely unaltered in contact with the cloudy product from the feldspar. In some places the diopside grains have a rim of apparent resorption origin, comparable with those so common about hornblende. This zone has a granular appearance and is usually not resolvable into distinct mineral constituents, but where the grain affected is in contact with the surrounding rock reddish-brown mica, magnetite, and a predominant pale green pyroxene seem to be the resulting minerals. In the rock of Orenda Butte numerous pebble-like inclusions were found which belonged principally to two types, one con- sisting almost entirely of labradorite with a few specks of ferro- magnesian minerals, and the other a granular mixture of quartz and alkali feldspar. In the former a cloudy alteration of the plagioclase penetrating between the grains and on cleavage planes is like that already described. The quartz-alkali feldspar rock shows much greater altera- tion. Megascopically these inclusions are seen to be very irregularly porous, the feldspar dull and the quartz grains much cracked. Under the microscope the feldspar presents various intermediate stages of alteration from the normal min- eral to a glass. The progress of alteration is marked by the appearance of a cloud of minute dark bodies along basal and pinacoidal cleavage planes and on chance fractures. These seem under high powers to be gas pores and to be connected by irregular arms where most numerous. The optical action of the feldspathic substance is often distinguishable but much weakened. ¥ 4 Geology and Mineralogy. te region in Sweden. It is characterized by containing 6°9 p. c. of Mn,O,. In its pleochroism it differs from ordinary andalusite. Fueerritre. A mineral closely related to gehlenite, described by E. Weinschenk. It occurs as a contact mineral in the Mon- zoni region of the Fassathal. It crystallizes in tetragonal prisms with perfect basal cleavage; color white and greenish; specific gravity 3°18. An analysis by Mayr gave: SiO. Al,O; Fe.0; MgO CaO Ma.2.0 34:04 17-97 3°49 489 37°65 2°04 K,.0,MnO ¢.=100°20. Named after Prof. EK. Fugger of Salzburg.—Zeitschr. Eryst. xxvi, 577, 1896. MonxrorssitE. A mineral of uncertain character from the Ransat parish, Wermland, Sweden, imperfectly described by Igelstrém. It occurs with cyanite in white bladed forms; hard- ness—=5. Analysis shows the presence of SO,, P,O,, Al,O,, CaO, but little confidence can be placed in the numbers given. A rela- tion to svanbergite is suggested.—Zeitschr. HAryst., xxvi, 601, 1896. BIsMUTOSMALTITE. A variety of skutterudite from Zschorlau near Schneeberg, peculiar in its large percentage of bismuth. Described by Frenzel in Min. petr. Mitth., xvi, 525, 1896. 6. The Bendegé Meteorite—Dr. O. A. Drersy has recently published (Archivos do Museu Nacional do Rio de Janeiro, vol. ix) the results of a highly interesting and exhaustive study of the remarkable meteoric iron of Bendeg6, in the province of Bahia, Brazil. The accounts of the early history of this wonderful mass are most interesting. It was discovered in 1784 and a year later a rude truck was built with the idea of removing it. This work proved to be of great difficulty, and after the mass had been dragged about 100 yards along the bed of the rivulet called the Bendego, it was finally abandoned. It was visited again in 1811 by Mr. Mornay in company with Signor Botelho, the discoverer, who made measurements of its size, from which its cubic contents were estimated to be 28 cubic feet and its weight 14,000 pounds. It was again visited by Spix and Martius in March, 1818, who estimated the volume at 31 to 32 cubic feet, and the weight at 17,300 pounds. They removed some fragments, the largest of which was deposited in the Munich museum. Many years later, the extension of the railway brought up again the question of its removal, and finally in 1888 it was deposited in Rio Janeiro. The work of removal involved great care and called for much engineering skill. Of the original fall of this great mass nothing is known, but the author concludes that it certainly antedated by a long period the time of its discovery. Some interesting local traditions in this connection are recorded. The weight of the mass, after the removal by cutting of a piece of 62 kilos, is stated to be 5,300 kilos (11,660 pounds) ; this is somewhat less than first estimated, but still gives it the first place among the meteorites of the great 160 Scientifie Intelligence. museums of the world. The author describes with all necessary fullness the external appearance of the mass, certain portions of the surface of which seem to correspond in direction to the inter- nal crystalline structure. The Widmanstatten figures are finely developed by etching; and numerous nodules of troilite were observed. These last have left by weathering a number of hem- ispherical and cylindrical cavities, which are a characteristic feature of the iron. In connection with Dr. Hussak and Dr. Guilherme Florence, a minute study, leading to many interesting results, has been made of the different forms of nickel, iron and associated minerals pres- ent, namely: Kamacite and tzenite ; also cohenite, rhabdite; and further troilite, schreibersite, chromite and hypersthene. In addi- tion to these species identified, a peculiar feature are small black spherical globules obtained from the rhabdite, which range from 0°1 to 0:2™" in length and from 0:004 to 0:005™™ in thickness. Some of these are hollow spheres and others are developed in suc- cessive layers, like an onion. They have a fused appearance, and it is suggested that they may have resulted from the fusion of the phosphides, which are evidently the first mineralogical element to be individualized in the metallicmagma. These metallic globules sometimes show cubic or octahedral crystalline faces. The presence of fine etched lines, resembling file markings, is noted in the kamacite, especially in the vicinity of the troilite nodules. Also associated with these are raised lines, similarly arranged; these are called Bendego lines. They consist of exceedingly delicate, perfectly regular plates of brilliant white metal resembling taenite, that stands out in relief on the etched surface. The various observed direction of these lines are explained as due to twinning, and Dr. Hussak finds evidence of — polysynthetic twinning lamelle parallel to the faces of the hexoc- tahedron (421). III. MiscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. American Association for the Advancement of Science.— The forty-sixth meeting of the American Association will be held at Detroit, Michigan, from August 9th to 14th. Dr. Wolcott Gibbs of Newport is the President-elect. The scientific sessions are to be in the Central High School and the hotel headquarters at “The Cardillac.” The local Secretary, who has charge of transportation, hotel accommodations, ete., is Mr. John A. Rus- sell, 401 Chamber of Commerce, Detroit. The Permanent Secre- tary is Prof. F. W. Putnam of Salem, Mass. The interest of the coming meeting will be largely increased by the fact that the British Association is to meet this summer at Toronto, and it is expected that the members of the A. A. A. S. will go in a body to Toronto to join in welcoming the members of the B. A. A. S. to America. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 161 2. The Development of the Frog’s Egg, an Introduction to Haperimental Hmbryology ; by Tuomas Hunt Morean, pp. 192. New York, 1897 (The Macmillan Company).—Although the frog’s egg has long been a favorite subject of investigation in both normal and experimental embryology, this book by Prof. Morgan is the first to give a summary of the experimental work of many investigators. Marshall, in his Vertebrate Embryology, has given a good and fairly well illustrated account of the normal development, particularly of the later stages, but in the work here noticed we have, especially for the earlier stages, a full account of the normal development followed by the results of numerous experiments by various investigators, including those | of the author himself. Prof. Morgan’s book gives us a much needed text-book for both student and instructor, and it should stimulate and greatly aid investigation by pointing out the wide field the frog’s egg still offers for embryological research. S. I. 8. OBITUARY. ALFRED Marsuatt Mayur, Professor of Physics in the Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J., died on the 13th of July, in the sixty-first year of his age. He had been in failing health for some months, but had continued to discharge the duties of his professorship until February, and later increasing weakness and exhaustion caused his retirement to his country residence, Maplewood, South Orange, N. J., where his life came to a close in consequence of an attack of an apoplectic nature, from which he did not rally. / Professor Mayer was born in Baltimore, Md., Nov. 13, 1836, and received his education at St. Mary’s College, Baltimore. After leaving this institution, in 1852, he spent two years in the office and workshop of a mechanical engineer, where he acquired a knowledge of mechanical processes and the use of tools, for which he had a natural aptitude. His experience here was of great service to him in his subsequent career. This was followed by a course of two years in a chemical laboratory, where he ob- tained a thorough knowledge of analytical chemistry. In 1856 he was made Professor of Physics and Chemistry in the Univer- sity of Maryland, and three years later he entered upon a similar position in Westminster College, Mo., where he remained two years. In 1863 he went abroad, and entered the University of Paris, where he spent two years in the study of physics, mathe- matics and physiology. While in Paris he was a pupil of the distinguished physicist Regnault. After his return to this coun- try he occupied a chair in Pennsylvania College, Gettysburg, and later in Lehigh University, Bethlehem, where he was in charge of the department of astronomy, and superintended the erection of an observatory. In 1869, an expedition was sent by the U. S. Nautical Almanac office to Burlington, Iowa, to observe the 162 Scientific Intelligence. eclipse of Aug. 7. Professor Mayer was placed in charge of the expedition, and made a large number of successful photographs. In 1871, he was called to the professorship of Physics in the Stevens Institute of Technology, which position he held until the close of his life. : Professor Mayer was an enthusiastic and active investigator, and a prolific writer upon scientific subjects. He had the com- mand of a clear and graceful style, and possessed in a remarkable degree the power of presenting scientific subjects in a per- spicuous and interesting manner. He made numerous contribu- tions to various journals, cyclopsedias, and other scientific publi- cations, but the memoirs in which he embodied the results of his own researches were chiefly published in the American Journal of Science.. His papers published in this Journal, since 1870, number forty-seven titles, covering nearly four hundred closely printed pages, not counting various notes and minor contributions. While embracing a great variety of topics in physics, his studies were more actively pursued in the. departments of electricity and electro-magnetic phenomena, in optics, especially photometry and color-contrasts, but more particularly in acoustics, which was a favorite field of research, in which his discoveries gave him the prominence and authority of a specialist. His acoustical researches form a connected series of papers, in ten numbers, amounting to nearly one half the total volume of his contribu- tions. The following somewhat abbreviated titles will indicate their purport :—The translation of a vibrating body causes it to give a wave-length differing from that produced by the same vibrating body when stationary (1872): a method of detecting the phases of vibration in the air surrounding a sounding body ; and thereby measuring directly in the vibrating air the length of its waves and exploring the form of its wave-surface, resulting in the invention of the topophone (1872): a simple and precise method of measuring the wave-lengths and velocities of sound in gases; and on an application of the method in the invention of an acoustical pyrometer (1872): the experimental determination of the relative intensities of sounds; the measurement of the powers of various substances to reflect and to transmit sonorous Vibrations (1873): experimental confirmation of Fourier’s theorem; experimental illustration of Helmholtz’s theory of audition; experiments on the supposed auditory apparatus of. the mosquito, in which it is shown that the fibrils of the antenne of the male mosquito vibrate sympathetically to sounds having the range of pitch of sounds emitted by the female mosquito; suggestions as to the function of the spiral scale of the Cochlea; six experimental methods of sonorous analysis; curve of musical note formed from six sinusoids of the first six harmon- ics; curves for various consonant intervals; experiments in which motions of a molecule of air are derived from these for six elementary vibrations of a musical note (1874): determination of the law connecting pitch of sound with the duration of residual Miscellaneous Intelligence. 1638 sensation ; determination of the numbers of beats throughout the musical scale which produce the greatest dissonances; applica- tion of these laws by means of rotating perforated disks, and quantitative application of them to musical harmony (1874) : experiments on the reflection of sound from heated flames and heated gases (1874): obliteration of one sound by simultaneous action of a more intense and lower sound; discovery that a sound even intense cannot obliterate sensation of a sound of lower pitch (1876) : acoustic repulsion (1878): determination of the smallest consonant intervals among simple tones, and application to deduce the duration of residual sonorous sensations (1894): variation in the modulus of elasticity with change of temperature determined by transverse vibrations of bars at various temperatures; the acoustical properties of aluminium, showing that the metal is unsuited for musical instruments on account of the rapid and large changes in its elasticity by change of temperature (1896). In an elaborate paper published in the third volume of the Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, 1884, he gave a method of precisely measuring the vibratory periods of tuning- forks and determining the laws of their vibration, with. their applications in chronoscopes for measuring the velocity of pro- jectiles. ; Among other papers published by Professor Mayer in this Journal may be mentioned: Researches in electro-magnetism, showing the changes in dimensions of iron and steel bars by magnetization; method of measuring electrical conductivity by means of two equal and opposed electrical currents (1870, 1873) : on the electro-tonic state; on a method of fixing mag- netic spectra (1871): new form of lantern galvanometer; mode of tracing the boundary of a wave of conducted heat (1872): on_ the composite nature of the electric discharge (1874): method of delineating the isothermal lines of the solar disk (1875) : experi- ments with floating magnets (1878): the well-spherometer (1886): the pendulum electrometer; electric potential as measured by work; the spring balance electrometer; experimental proof of Ohm’s law; cubical expansion of solids, by vessels or hydrometers made of the material of these solids (1890): illu- minating power of flat petroleum flames; physical properties of hard rubber (1891): simultaneous contrast-color; photometer for lights of different color (1898): researches on the Rontgen rays (1896) ; equilibrium of forces acting in the flotation of disks and rings of metal, with determinations of surface tension (1897). He also published ‘‘ Lecture Notes on Physics” (Philadel- phia, 1868) ; “The Karth a Great Magnet” (New Haven, 1872) ; “Light” (New York, 1877); ‘‘Sound” (New York, 1878) 3 “Sport with Gun and Rod in American Woods and Waters” (1883). Professor Mayer received the degree of Ph.D. from the Penn- sylvania College in 1866. During the year 1873 he was one of the associate editors of this Journal. In 1872 he was elected a 164 Scientific Intelligence. member of the National Academy of Sciences, and was connected with many other scientific societies, among which may be men- tioned the American Philosophical Society, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the New York Academy of Sciences, the American Metrological Society. He was also a corresponding member of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, and a Fellow of the American Association of the same name. Professor Mayer’s scientific work was marked by strongly characteristic traits. He possessed great ingenuity and skill in construction, and a remarkable degree of delicacy and precision as an experimenter, which enabled him to obtain results that will have a high and permanent value in science. Beyond his scien- tific accomplishments he was a man of wide and refined culture, with a genial presence, and social qualities which made him a delightful companion and endeared him to his friends. He leaves a wite and one son. A. W. W. Proressorn A. Des CroizEaux, the eminent French Mineralo- gist, died at Paris on the 6th of May, at the age of seventy-nine years. His contributions to Mineralogy, especially on the crystal- lographic and optical side, were very numerous and all of the highest character. The development of the methods for the study of the optical characters of crystals is largely due to him, and his three classical memoirs devoted to this subject and giving the results of the optical examination of a very large number of minerals and artificial salts, will always hold the first place in the literature; they were published in 1857, 1858 and 1864. The Manuel de Minéralogie is also a profound work containing the results of his own original observations. The first volume of 572 _pages, devoted to the Silicates, was published in 1862; two por- tions of the second volume were issued much later, namely in 1874 and 1894 respectively. Professor Des Cloizeaux was a man of noble character and of charming personality; he was honored not only by those who had the privilege of his acquaintance but by the much larger number who knew him only through his scientific work. JuLius Sacus, Professor of Botany at Wiirzburg, died on May 29, in his sixty-fifth year. Notice.—The Director of the Imperial Museum of Natural History has the honour of notifying that Mr. Aristides Brezina has ceased to be the chief of the mineralogical and petrographical section and that all letters, specimens and other consignments, especially those concerning meteorites, are to be addressed in future to the mineralogical and petrographical section of the Museum or to the chief of the same, at present Professor Pitz Berwerth, Vienna I Burgring 7. MIDSUMMER MINERALS. Ny! : How refreshing it is in midsummer to turn from ugly meteorites. or obscure crystals revealed only by the lens, to the cooling verdure of Utah Variscite! The charms of such beauty even the most scientific mineralogist can- not resist. When you are showing your collection what new enthusiasm your companion manifests! How his eye brightens as it rests upon the gorgeous polished slab of Variscite in your drawer! Jt reminds you ofthe first rays of golden sunshine after a week of storm. While we have recently received an unusual number of remarkably rare minerals, we will reserve mention of them till another time, and present this month only min- erals thoroughly attractive to everyone. ! RICH UTAH VARISCITE! Our recent large purchase of this mineral is being rapidly finished up into pol- ished sections of extraordinary beauty. Over 100 choice polished sections, large ‘and small, will be received from our lapidary during August. The combination of colors is most pleasing ; rich greens, delicate yellows, pale grayish blue, brown and white are often seen in the same specimen, Wardite and Amphithalite are common associates, the curious little pisolitic nodules of the former adding no little to the interest of the specimens. Excellent polished specimens, $1.50 to $10.00; rough specimens, 25c. to $5.00; Wardite in choice specimens, 50c. to $5.00. GRAVES MT. RUTILES. While the recent work at the old Georgia Rutile locality has yielded a splendid large lot of choice specimens, all of which have come to us, but very few of the grand, heroic-size crystals remain in stock, and no more have been found. Few midsummer luxuries could give more pleasure to a true mineralogist than one of _ these noble erystals, unless, indeed, he were to select a suite of the smaller, more brilliant crystals on the matrix of which our splendid stock is a marvel to every beholder. Loose crystals, 25c. to $20.00 (a few still higher); superfine matrix specimens, 25c. to $12.50. JAPANESE STIBNITES. A few excellent specimens were received during July. One fine group of large, terminated crystals, $15.00; loose crystals, well terminated, 50c. to $2.50. COLEMANITES. A fine, large lot at lowest prices ever known in New York; 10c. to $1.50. UNRIVALLED GOLDEN CALCITES. Some idea of our great success in distributing fine specimens may be formed by noting that we sold some 500 golden calcites within three weeks. No other estab- Jishment of the kind in the world handles such large quantities of fine minerals. Our shipments from Joplin (chiefly golden calcites) during six months aggregated 163 boxes, many of which were of large size (200 to 500 lbs. each), and the total of our freight bills alone has doubtless exceeded the aggregate payments made by all other dealers for Joplin minerals within a year. Fine Joplin calcites were found last summer, but if you have not bought during 1897 any of those which we alone secured from the great cave, you have no idea of how incomparably superior these latest crystals are to all other finds. Our stock is still replete in erystals of the very best quality at 10c. to $10.00, the prices being far lower than they were a few months since. _ GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists, 64 East 12th St.,. New York City. a ie Satin Teh ieee nan ia ‘es eee sy CONTENTS. Page. Art. X.—Tamiobatis vetustus; anew Form of Fossil Skate ; by C. R. Eastman. (With Plate L)._.5-. .. .. ae XI.—Florencia Formation; by O. H. HersHey-_-_-_-___-_- eae XII.—-Native Iron in the Coal Measures of Missouri; by E. a. ALLEN | ~ oo. See eo ee ee ee 99 XIII.—Bixbyite, a new Mineral, and Notes on the Associated Topaz; by 8S. L. Penrietp and H. W. Foorr__----- 105 XIV.—Composition of Ilmenite; by 8. L. PenrFr=evp and H. Wi Poorm: 2. 20. SU Seer Ae ee eee ee SES XV.—Separation of Aluminum and Beryllium by the action 2 of Hydrochloric Acid ; by F. 8. Havens -_-_--_--_-- 111 XVI.—Igneous Rocks of the Leucite Hills and Pilot Butte, Wyoming; by: W.. Cross. 2 2") 2a a ee 115 XVII.—Stylolites; by T. C. H6pxins__-..-..-_-.-22_22- 142 XVIII.—Extinet Felide; by G. L Anams, ._-, 220 238 145 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Electrical Convection of certain Dissolved Substances, Picton and LINDER, 150.—Phenomena of Supersaturation and Supercooling, OstwaLD: Thermochemical Method for determining the Equivalents of Acids and Bases, BERTHELOT, 151.—Action of Potassium and Sodium vapor in color- ing the Haloid salts of these metals, GizsEL: Action of the Silent Electric Dis- charge on Helium, BERTHELOT, 152.—Further Note on the Influence of a Mag- netic Field on Radiation Frequency, LopGE and Daviss, 153. Geology and Mineralogy—Recent publications of the U. 8S. Geological Survey, 155. —Pleistocene Features and Deposits of the Chicago Area, F. LEVERETT, 157.— A new fossil Pseudoscorpion, H. B. Gzwyitz: Catalogus Mammalium tam viven- tium quam fossilium, EK.-L. TRouEssART: Brief Notices of some recently described Minerals, 158.—The Bendegé Meteorite, O. A. DERBY, 159. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—American Association for the Advancement of Science, 160.—Development of the Frog’s Egg, an Introduction to Ex- perimental Embryology, T. H. Moreay, 161. Obituary—- ALFRED M, Mayer, 161.—A. DES CLOIZEAUX: JULIUS SACHS, 164, . Walcott, fea \\: F S. Geol. Survey. Aj al Mawr eran "ss < SEPTEMBER, 1897. Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818. TILE , Epiror: EDWARD S. DANA. | | aie ASSOCIATE EDITORS | > Prorussors GEO. L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, ae H. P. BOWDITCH anp W. G. FARLOW, or Camprines, + an [| Prorzssons 0. C. MARSH, A. E. VERRILL ann H. S. a, | WILLIAMS, or New Haven, | eh Prorzssor GEORGE F, BARKER, or PariaDELPHIA, Bes Prorgssor H. A. ROWLAND, or Batrimors, ey Mr. J. 8. DILLER, or Wasutveroy. eat ; a's FOURTH SERIES. VOL. IV—[WHOLE NUMBER, OLIV.) Bh ne No. 21.—SEPTEMBER, 1897. a WITH PLATES U-x. _ « NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. a8 Poe: TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 125 TEMPLE STREET. ished monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6.40 to foreign sub- £ countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should be made either by Peper ca letters, or bank checks. TASMANIA. The and of Flinders, off the north coast of Tasmania, is practically unknown © ee as a mineral locality except to a few Australian collectors. Yet a trip recently = made to the Island by a gentleman collecting exclusively for us, yielded GMELINITE In magnificent crystals whose size, perfection and beauty. excel those of any : known examples of this rare species. They occur in cavities in a hard basalt, often having a background of clear, gem-like Analcites. Associated with tufts of Natro- lite, they make rich and handsome specimens. They possess fine lustreand are sometimes ~ inch across. ; SPHAEROSTILBITE Occurs in minute but bright balls, scattered over Natrolite. and also as a thin, transparent coating over primitive form Calcite crystals. NATROLITE AND ANALCITE in very pretty association. . The-clearness and brilliancy of the groups of the latter mineral are unrivalled. Prices are low, as with zeolites from other localities. 50c. to $3.00 for fine speci- mens, though the best of the Gmelinites are $6.00 to $9.00. COLLECTIONS OF MINERALS ~ For Schools, Teachers, Students and Prospectors. Send for price list. We make a specialty of preparing educational collections, and guarantee accuracy of labelling and strictly scientific arrangement. BOOKS ae On all subjects of Science and Medicine. Catalogues free. Please mention subject The following titles are selected from recent lists: N ey ¢ I he Boetius de Boot, A. Histoire des Pierreries, 1644______--_- os eee $3.50 : Brown, T. Illustrations of the Fossil Conchology of Great Britain and Ire- | land: . London}2 1849 2S see SUNS Se gE iy en cena ere Oi 5.00. ¥ Busk, Geo. A Monograph of the Fossil Polyzoa of the Crag. London, 1859 2 peak a Se ae peterpan ere eee 4.00 Conrad, Blake, etal. Geology of the Pacific R. RB. SUINCY 6 e/a 3.00 Egleston, T. Metallurgy of ‘Silver, Sed, and Mercury in the U.S. 2 vols. “New “York, 1880 lc 22 aes Bie ko i 8 oe 9.00 Greenwell, G. C. Practical Treatise on Mine Engineering. 1855.__._- 2.00 Howe, H. M. The Metallurgy of Steel. N. Ya, (60-2 es Se eee 6.00 i Karsten System Der Metallurgie, 5 vols., and Atlas. Berlin sle3i0 sear 7.00 Gey Kohn, F. Iron and Steel Manufacture. London, 1869____._..-__._.__. 3.50 pee Macfarlane, J. The Coal Regions of America, their Topography, Geol- i ogy, ‘ete. IN. Yi, D813 ie ee 2 ey eae st el ee 3.00 Phillips, J. Figures and Descriptions of the Paleozoic Fossils of Corn- wall. Devon, and West Somerset. London, 1841 ___.._--.-.---2--1-- 3.50 ' Percy. Metallurgy of Gold and Silver. London, 1880 222352 en ee 5.00 } Richthofen, F. The Natural System of Volcanic Rocks. San Francisco, ; L868 ose. 5 2 Le Se arg ~ =) (eS | Rosenbusch, Mikroskopische Physiographie. Stuttgart, 1873_.._.---- 3.50 b | A. EK. ROOTEH, WarRREN M. Foote, Manager. 1317 ARCH STREET, PHILADELPHIA, PA., U.S. A. Established 1876. ae cS See a og et ae eae ee THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE [FOURTH SERIES. ] +® Art. XIX.—Principal Characters of the Protoceratide ; by O. C. MarsH. Part I. (With Plates JI-VII.) THE genus Protoceras, described by the writer in 1891, from the Miocene of South Dakota, is now known to inelude some of the most interesting extinct mammals yet discovered. It likewise represents a distinct family, and thus deserves care- ful investigation and description.* Before this discovery, no horned artiodactyles were known to have lived during Miocene time, and Protoceras is thus the earliest one described. The type specimen, moreover, had a pair of horn-cores on the parie- tals, and not on the frontals as in modern forms of this group. The animal was apparently a true ruminant, nearly as large as a sheep, but of more delicate proportions. The first skull found, the type specimen of the genus Proto- ceras, belonged to a female, as later discoveries demonstrated. The skull of the male proved still more remarkable, and espe- cially resembles the male skull of the Eocene Dinocerata in having several pairs of horn-cores or protuberances upon the head, a feature hitherto unknown among the Artiodactyla. It is an interesting fact, moreover, that one pair of these horn- cores of Protoceras is on the maxillaries, as in Denoceras, while the posterior pair, as in that genus, is on the parietals. * This Journal, vol. xli, p. 81, January, 1891; and also, vol. xlvi, p. 407, November, 1893. Am. Jour. Sct.—FourrH SERIES, Vou. 1V, No. 21.—Szper., 1897. ee 166 Marsh—Principal Characters of the Protoceratide. The resemblance in the two skulls is further enhanced by the absence of upper incisors and the presence of large canine tusks, forming together a striking similarity in impor- tant features, between skulls pertaining to animals of two dis- tinct orders, and from widely different geological horizons. The skull of the male Protoceras is shown in Plate II, and that of Dinoceras in the text below. Ik FIGURE 1.—Skull of Dinoceras mirabile, Marsh; type; seen from the side. One-seventh natural size. Kocene. It is a noteworthy fact, that in still another order of ungu- late mammals, the Perissodactyla, horn-cores in pairs early made their appearance, although none are known in the recent forms. One of the earliest instances is seen in the genus Colo- noceras from the middle Eocene, which had rudimentary pro- tuberances upon its nasal bones, as represented below, in figure 2. The gigantic Brontotheride of the lower Miocene all had prominent horn-cores on the maxillary bones, somewhat like those of the male Protocerus. One of the most unexpected examples, however, in this order, appears in the Miocene genus Diceratherium, the type specimen of which is shown in figure 38. This animal, although a true rhinoceros, had a pair of horn-cores on the nasal bones, while all other rhinoceroses, living and extinct, are either without horns or have them on the median line. In short, horns in pairs are unknown in exist- ing mammals, except in the artiodactyles, an order of later devel- opment, but now the dominant group of ungulate mammals. : Marsh—Prineipal Characters of the Protoceratide. 16% The Male Skull. The skull of the male Protoceras, in addition to the marked characters above mentioned, has others of equal interest, if not of still greater taxonomic value.* The general appearance of the adult male skull is well shown in Plate II, accompany- ing the present article, and the special anatomical characters are represented more clearly in the different views on Plates MOE. Vy and VI: FigurE 2.—Skull of Colonoceras agrestis, Marsh; type, with brain cast; seen from above. About one-half natural size. Eocene. FIGURE 3.—Skull of Diceratheriwm advenum, Marsh; type, with brain cast; seen from above. One-sixth natural size. Miocene. Aside from the various horn-cores and protuberances upon the skull, the next most notable feature is the very large, open nasal cavity, a character which pertains to both sexes, and to the entire family of the Protoceratidw. This peculiar feature is of even more importance than the horn-cores, judging from its functional significance, and its rarity In more recent forms of artiodactyles. It indicates clearly in the living animal a * Osborn and Wortman, Bulletin, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. iv, p. 351, 1892. See also Scott, Jour. Morph., vol. xi, p. 303, 1895. 168 Marsh—Principal Characters of the Protoceratide. long flexible nose, if not a true proboscis. The only existing ~ ruminant thus equipped, known to the writer, is the rare Saiga antelope (Sazga Zartarica, Gray) from the steppes of Siberia. A comparison of a Protoceras skull with that of the Saiga antelope plainly indicates, in the nasal region, an iden- tity of function doubtless accompanied by a similar nasal appendage, and it is of interest to find such evidence of this feature in a representative from the Miocene of North America. The general form of the male skull of Protoceras is long and narrow, with the facial portion much produced. The prom- inent horn-cores, however, serve to obscure its real shape, which is more apparent in the female skull. Seen from the side, as in Plate ILI, it appears unusually low, with the orbit well behind. Its greatest width is in the posterior region, as shown in Plates V and VI. The premaxillaries are small and edentulous. Their anterior extremities are depressed, and more or less expanded trans- versely, as in typical ruminants. The outer suture between the premaxillary and maxillary is short, and persistent even in adults, as indicated in Plates II and IIJ. Seen from below, the premaxillaries form together the palatal surface in front of the maxillaries, each sending backward a narrow process which is inserted between the divergent maxillary plates. The anterior palatine, or incisive, foramina are situated on the sutures © separating the two bones, as represented in Plate V. The maxillary bones are greatly developed, being much the largest elements of the skull, as is well shown in Plate Il. The anterior extremity supports the large descending canine tusk, - and is hollowed out to contain its base. The high anterior horn-cores are formed entirely of the maxillary bones, which are greatly strengthened to support them... These horn-cores are more or less recurved, and in the type species, their sum- mits are triangular in outline, as seen in Plates II and III, and in the cut below, figure 4. In a new species, Protoceras nasutus, the summits of the maxillary horn-cores are oval in section, as shown in cut 5. Another characteristic feature of the genus Protoceras, which is seen in both sexes, is a strong lateral ridge extending nearly -horizontally across the outer face of the maxillary bone, and continuing backward to the orbit. It is also present in the other members of this family. In the male skull here described, this ridge begins near the base of the maxillary horn-core, and, expanding into a prom- inent tubercle, just above the antorbital foramen, continues backward by an upward curve, and passes into the ridge of the malar bone extending beneath the orbit. In both sexes, the anterior portion of this lateral ridge, with its characteristic tubercle, forms the lower border of a deep, well-marked Marsh— Principal Characters of the Protoceratide. 169 depression, which probably contained a gland. In Plate I], this cavity is well shown behind the maxillary horn-cores, just below the point where the superior border of the skull is lowest. The nasal bones join the maxillaries above, and complete the posterior border of the large narial opening. They are of moderate length on the median line, and their free anterior extremities are quite short. These bones are much expanded transversely, and at their widest part articulate with the lachrymals. All the sutures surrounding the nasals are dis- tinct, and this is true, also, of their median suture. Their upper surface is convex, both transversely and longitudinally, and is marked by two deep grooves, which lead backward to the supra-orbital foramina in the parietals, as shown in Plate LY,. FigurRE 4.—Front of skull of Protocerus celer, Marsh; seen from the left side. Figure 5.—Front of skull of Protoceras nasutus, Marsh; seen from the left. Both are male skulls, and drawn one-half natural size. Miocene. h, maxillary horn-core; h’, section of same. The frontals, which bound the nasals behind, are large mas- sive bones, much wider than long. The suture which unites the two frontals is distinct, and cuts the naso-frontal suture nearly at right angles. At the lateral junction of the frontal and nasal, there is on each side a low tuberosity, resembling a diminutive horn-core, and these form the third pair of eleva- tions on the skull. At the postero-external angle of the frontals, above the orbits, another pair of much larger protu- berances is seen, and the summits of these are widely expanded transversely, as shown in Plate [V. The upper surface of the frontals is rugose, and the deep grooves already mentioned are characteristic features. 170 Marsh—Principal Characters of the Protoceratide. The parietal bones are much smaller than the frontals, and are separated from them by a distinct sigmoid suture. These bones support the posterior pair of horn-cores, as shown in PlateIV. The general form and position of these elevations on the male Protoceras skull are represented in the accompanying plates, but they differ in each species. Behind these horn- cores, there is a low sagittal crest separating the deep temporal fossee. Back of the parietals is the short supra-occipital, which forms a weak lambdoidal crest bounding the temporal fossz behind. The inferior portion of each fossa is formed by the squamo- sal, which covers the lower half of the brain case, and joins the parietal above by adistinct suture, as shown in Plate III. The squamosal sends forward a short zygomatic branch, which fits into a notch in the posterior part of the malar. There is a dis- tinct postglenoid process. The tympanic bone is not dilated into a definite bulla, but below the auditory meatus forms a short descending process. The periotic is behind the tym- panic, separated from it above by the post-tympanie process of the squamosal, and below by an open suture. It is wedged in between the latter bone and the strong and elongate parocci- pital process of the exoccipital. } The orbit is closed behind by a descending process from the frontal, which meets the upper branch of the malar. Its lower border is bounded by the malar, which in front joins the lachrymal above and the maxillary below, as shown in Plates IT and III. The lachrymal is bounded in front by the maxillary, above by the nasal and frontal, and below by the malar and maxillary. The lachrymal foramina are two in number, well within the orbital border. The orbits are large, suboval in outline, and widely separated from each other. Their posterior position is a characteristic feature of the genus Protoceras. The Base of the Skull. The lower surface of the male Protoceras skull is repre- sented in Plate V. The narrow occiput, surmounted by the supra-occipital, is a noteworthy character. The widely expand- ing orbits greatly increase the width of the skull in this region, and from here forward, its wedge-like shape is a striking feature. The large foramen magnum and the narrow diverg- ing occipital condyles are well seen in this view. The basi- occipital and the basisphenoid bones are firmly codssified, the suture between them being indistinct. In front of the latter bone is the parasphenoid, separated from it by a well-marked suture, and passing forward above the vomers, which are here distinct. The pterygoids are attached to the posterior border of the palatines, and above to the alisphenoids. There is no distinct alisphenoid canal. Marsh—Principal Characters of the Protoceratide. 171 The palatine bones are narrow, and bound in front the posterior nares, which extend forward to near the middle of the penultimate molars. The maxillary plates form the roof of the palate forward to the premaxillaries. At their nar- rowest portion, they are deeply grooved for the approaches of the palato-maxillary foramina, which are situated somewhat in advance of the second premolars. The maxillary plates are separated in front along the median line, to receive the posterior branches of the premaxillaries, and on the suture between the two elements, the anterior palatine foramina are in their usual position. The turbinal bones were apparently quite small. The Lower Jaw. The lower jaw is weli represented in Plate II. It is long and slender, especially in front, thus corresponding to the skull. The condyle is broad and strongly convex above. The coronoid process is very short, and its summit is but little higher than the condyle. The angle is rounded and well devel- oped. The ramus expands downward and is thickened beneath the molar teeth, and has a sharp upper edge along the diastema between the first and second premolars. It again extends downward at the symphysis, becoming more robust to support the front teeth. The Dentition. The dentition of Protoceras is of the early ruminant type, as shown by the short-crowned, selenodont molar series. The dental formula is as follows: A 0 : 1 + 3 Incisors a) Canines ct Premolars mae Molars 3" In the male skull, the upper canines are well developed, as shown in Plate IJ. They are compressed and somewhat tri- hedral in transverse section, and in life formed efficient weapons of warfare. ‘The first upper premolars, a short distance behind, are small compressed teeth, each with two roots; and after a still longer diastema, the second premolars begin the con- tinuous series. The second and third upper premolars each have a large outer cusp and an inner cingulum, while the fourth has a distinct inner crescent, as shown in Plate V, which also represents faithfully the superior molars. These have all short crowns and the double crescents of true seleno- dont dentition, with a well-developed inner basal. ridge on each. The accurate drawings of the accompanying plates render unnecessary a detailed description of these teeth and most of the others here figured. This is true, also, of various minor points in the structure of the skull. 172 Marsh—Principal Characters of the Protoceratide. The teeth of the lower jaw of Protoceras are indicated in Plate II, and the full series is shown. The three incisors are directed well for ward, and diminish in size from the first to the third. The still smaller canine is situated close to the last incisor, and is similar in form. A long diastema follows, and gives the upper canine freedom of motion. The first premolar is somewhat similar to the corresponding one above, but is larger and directed more forward. A. still longer interval separates the first and second lower premolars, the latter begin- ning the continuous molar series. The second premolar has the crown much compressed, while the third and fourth are triangular in form. The three true molars have the usual cres- cents corresponding to those above, but no inner cingulum. The upper molar teeth of the female skull are shown in figure 7, below, which represents the type of the genus. On Plate WAL floure 2, the upper dentition of Protoceras comptus is represented, the type specimen figured being the skull of a female not yet adult.* The last three deciduous teeth are here still in use, the first and second true molars are in position, while the last had not yet come into place. The Brain. The brain in Protoceras was of good size, not diminutive as in the early ungulates. It was, moreover, well convoluted for a Miocene mammal, and forms an interesting addition to our knowledge of the brain development in Tertiary Jammalia. The natural brain cast figured in Plate VII, figures 3 and 4, is from an adult female skull, and represents accurately the brain cavity of this individual, except the small space occupied by the olfactory lobes. The latter were well developed. The Female Skull. The type species of the genus Protoceras, as already stated, was the skull of a female, and it may be well to repeat here its essential features as given in the original description already cited. In figures 6 and 7 below, most of the main characters of this type specimen are represented. “Jn general form and proportions, this skull is i: the rumi- nant type. Its most striking feature is a pair of small horn- cores, situated, not on the frontals, but on the parietals, immedi- ately behind the frontal suture. These prominences were thus placed directly over the cerebral hemispheres of the brain. * This Journal, vol. xlviii, p. 93, July, 1894. Marsh—Principal Characters of the Protoceratide. 173 ‘The frontal bones are very. rugose on their upper surface, and this rugosity extends backward on the parietals, and to the summit of the horn-cores, as well as between the latter, and along the wide sagittal crest. The horn-cores are well separated from each other, and point upward, outward, and backward, overhanging somewhat the temporal fosse. They are conical in form, with obtuse summits. “‘ Between the orbits, the frontals are depressed, and marked by two deep grooves leading backward to the supra-orbital foramina. behind these, halfway to the horn-cores, is a median prominence resembling in shape the corresponding elevation on the skull of the male giraffe. The brain cavity is unusually large for a Miocene mammal. The occiput is very narrow, indicating a small cerebellum, and the occipital erest is weak. The occipital surface slopes backward. iN i : qe ? ML VAN! SS SS — FIGURE 6.—Back of female skull of Protoceras celer ; type; seen from above. FIGURE 7.—Front of same skull; seen from below. . Both figures are one-half natural size. Miocene, j, frontal; h, horn-core; m, first molar; m, posterior nares; , orbit; p, parietal; pm, second premolar; s, suture between frontal and parietal. “The facial region of the skull is narrow and elongate, On the outer surface of the maxillary, just above the antorbital foramen, there is a deep depression, which probably contained a gland. The usual ruminant fossa in front of the orbit appears to be wanting. The orbit is large, and completely closed behind by a strong bar of bone. 174. Marsh—Principal Characters of the Protoceratida. “The dentition preserved is selenodont and brachyodont, with only three premolars and three molars.* The first premolar is much compressed transversely, and has but a slight inner lobe. -The second premolar is triangular in outline, the inner lobe being much more developed. The last premolar has this lobe expanded into astrong cusp, and the crown thus becomes broader than long. The true molars have two inner cusps, each with a basal ridge. The outer crescents have a median vertical ridge. The enamel of the molar series is more or less rugose. There was a wide diastema in front of the premolars. | - “The posterior nares are situated far forward, the anterior border being opposite to the posterior cusp of the second true molar. The glenoid facet is large and convex, but the post- glenoid process is quite small. The paroccipital processes were well developed, but there were apparently no auditory bulle.” A number of other female skulls, some of them in excellent - preservation, have since been obtained from the same region in which the type was found, and a study of these makes clear the main points of their structure. It is not quite certain to which of the three species of Protoceras now known some of these skulls should be referred, but further investigation will doubt- less determine this point, as the present material in the Yale Museum is apparently sufficient for this purpose. The Skull of Calops. The small artiodactyle described by the writerin 1894, under the name Calops cristatus, is from essentially the same geologi- cal horizon in South Dakota in which Protoceras was found. As stated in the first description, Calops possesses characters indicating a near ally of Protoceras, and as the resemblance has proved even closer in more perfect specimens since discovered, denoting that the two genera belong to the same family, it may be well to quote here the main points of the original description.t “The type specimen is a skull in fair preservation, indicating a fully adult animal, which when alive was about half as large asa goat. In its general form and in most of its characters, this skull agrees so closely with the type of Protoceras as to suggest at once some affinity between the two. The dentition preserved in the premolar and molar series is essentially the same. The high maxillary plates joining the short, pointed nasals; the deep lachrymal fossa; and the posterior orbit * More perfect specimens since discovered prove that there were four premolars, the first being absent in the type. + This Journal, vol. xlviii, p. 94, July, 1894. Marsh—Principal Characters of the Protoceratide. 175 strongly closed behind, all suggest an ally of Protoceras, but the parietal ridges are here elevated into distinct crests, and are without horns. “This skull when complete was about six inches in length. The distance from the front of the nasals to the junction of the parietal crests is about four inches and a half. The space occupied by the last three premolars and the true molars is about two and one-half inches.” In a later notice, a second more perfect specimen from the same horizon was described,* the main points stated being as follows: “The brain was comparatively well developed, and an unusually large part of the cerebral lobes was covered by the parietals. The frontal region of the skull between the orbits was more or less concave. The antorbital depressions extend well forward. There is a diastema between the upper canine and the first premolar, and between the first and second pre- molars. The canines above and below are small. The first lower premolar appears to be wanting. The second and third premolars have secant crowns, much elongated fore and aft. The postglenoid process is quite small, but the paroccipital is large and robust. The lower jaw has a very short coronoid process, and the condyle is sessile. The angle of the jaw is well rounded and somewhat dependent.” This second specimen proves to be distinct from the type, and is here recorded as a new species, Calops consors. The skull, which is in good preservation, is represented on Plate VII, figures 1 and 2. These two views exhibit the main features of the skull in the genus Calops. The most striking difference between this specimen and the type is the position of the orbit, which in the latter is entirely behind the molar series, as in Protoceras, while in the specimen here figured, as shown in Plate VII, nearly half the orbit is in front of the posterior end of this series. The Dentition of Culops. The teeth of Calops correspond essentially with those of Protoceras, being of the same early ruminant type, with the characteristic, short-crowned, selenodont molar series, and apparently the same dental formula. In the female skull represented on Plate VII, figure 1, most of the teeth are seen in position. There were no upper incisors. The canine was of moderate size, and placed well back of the premaxillary suture. The first premolar is small, with a compressed crown and two roots, and is situated somewhat behind the middle of the * This Journal, vol. xlviii, p. 273, September, 1894. 176 Marsh—Principal Characters of the Protoceratide. interval between the canine and second premolar, as shown in the figure cited. The remaining upper premolars correspond closely with those of Protoceras in form, and this is true, also, of the molars. The lower incisors of Calops are small and pro- cumbent. The canine also was small, and probably similar in form to the incisors. The first lower premolar is caniniform in shape, with a single root, and a sharp compressed crown, which came nearly in apposition to the superior canine. The remaining lower premolars and molars agree closely except in size with those of Protoceras. | The remains of Calops now known all appear to have per- tained to females, and this naturally suggests the question—what the male skull was like, and especially whether it was provided with horns. The probabilities at present are in favor of the latter view, but it must be left to future discoveries to settle that point. All the known remains of Protoceras and Calops are from. the upper Miocene of South Dakota. The horizon, which is a definite one, has been appropriately called by Dr. Wortman the Protoceras beds. They appear to be identical with the series in Oregon which the writer had previously named the Miohippus beds, as that genus and several others are common to both regions. Yale University, New Haven, Conn., July 24, 1897. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. PuaTE II, Male skull, with lower jaw, of Proioceras celer, Marsh; oblique side view. Three-fourths natural size. : PLATE III. The same skull; seen from the left side. Three-fourths natural size, PLATE IV. The same skull; seen from above. Three-fourths natural size. RVArE V7 The same skull; seen from below. Three-fourths natural size. PLATE VI. FIGURE 1.—The same skull; seen from in front. FIGURE 2.—Front of skull of Protoceras comptus, Marsh; seen from below young female, showing deciduous dentition. Both figures are three-fourths natural size. PLATE VII. FIGURE 1.—Skull, with lower jaw, of Calops consors, Marsh; seen from the left. FIGURE 2.—The same skull; seen from above. FIGURE 3.—Natural brain cast of Protoceras celer; female; side view. FIGURE 4.—The same; seen from above. The figures are all one-half natural size. [To be continued. ] H. V. Giul—Theory of Singing Flames. 177 Art. XX.— The Theory of Singing Flames; by H. V. GILL, 8. J. L. THE phenomenon of a jet of gas burning inside an open tube, emitting a musical note, is one of those facts which, although known for very many years and although much written about, have never been fully explained. It is not our intention to go into historical details on the subject, but a glance at the chief explanations which have been proposed will be interesting. De la Rive supposed the sound to be due to a periodic conden- sation of the water vapor produced in the combustion of hydro- gen gas. T'araday showed this theory to be false by the fact’ that he obtained a musical note by means of another gas which does not form water as a product of combustion. Faraday explained the sound as being produced by successive explosions of quantities of an explosive mixture of gas and air which suc- ceed each other at certain intervals. Tyndall accepted this explanation. Another theory which has been proposed is that the sound is produced by vibrations maintained by heat, the heat being communicated periodically to the mass of air con- fined in the sounding tube, at a place where in the course of vibration the pressure changes. This explanation, although it takes into consideration the extinction of the flame at periodic intervals by the changes of pressure, is not satisfying, and indeed this very intermittent character of the flame presents in this theory certain serious difficulties. Sondhauss performed a series of experiments in which he made use of a flame of hydrogen issuing from a gas-generating flask. His chief conclusion was that the condition of the column of gas in the supply-tube had an important influence on the phenomenon; for example, if the supply-tube be plugged near the jet with some wool the flame will not sing, though in appearance it is the same as a flame that will sing. This result is a proof that it is impossible to explain the sing- ing by considering merely its effect in heating the air, as in the case of a wire gauze which has been heated. Rijke was able to produce a continuous musical note by means of a wire gauze placed in a tube and kept heated by means of a strong electric current. Now if the note produced by a gas flame were owing to the same cause, the flame, even when the supply-tube was plugged, ought to produce a note if placed at the same position as was the hot gauze when it was sounding, but no such result is observed even when the tube is narrow. 178 AW. Gill—Theory of Singing Flames. We have performed many experiments to verify the con- clusions of Sondhauss, but we did not make use of a gas- generating flask to produce the gas. We employed ordinary coal gas, which passed into a flask* which was provided with two other tubes (fig. 1), one being in connection with the sing- ing flame; the other had one extremity below the level of some water in the flask, the other end being open to the air, thus providing a means of ‘measur- ing the pressure in the gas. With this arrangement we were able to ob- tain all the conditions of a gas-gener- ating flask, with the additional advan- tage that we could regulate the size of the flame, ete., with perfect facility. It is evident that with a flame proceed- ing from a flask in which hydrogen is generated in the ordinary manner, it is almost impossible to regulate the gas supply with any exactness. All our experiments tended to show that the influence of the supply-tube came not from its length, but from the facility with which it allowed the gas to pass to the flame. For with the same sup- ply-tube we were able to obtain any note, either high or low, which we desired, by modifying the size of the flame, its position in the tube, and the length of the tube in which it sang. 3 In this paper we shall, we think, make it clear that the cause which plays the important part in the production of a musical note by the flame, is one whose effect has not been taken into account by those who have examined this question. A brief review of the principal facts hitherto observed will be useful to us in what follows: | 1st. The note produced depends on the length of the tube inside which the flame sings, on the size of the flame, and on its position within the tube. Zd. ‘The notes are those proper to the tube, account being taken of the temperature of the air inside it. 3d. The flame must be smaller when it begins than when it is singing well. 4th. The spontaneous commencement does not seem to be an essential part of the phenomenon. 16 * There is no advantage gained from this arrangement in producing the sing- ing flame. The supply-tube may be connected directly with the gas main of the house. A H. V. Gill—Theory of Singing Flames. 179 5th. When the flame is of such a size, and placed at such a position that it is on the point of beginning to sing, it may be made to begin by sounding the note proper to the tube; a sudden noise such as the clapping of the hands will sometimes suftice. 6th. The singing may be made to cease by closing one end of the tube, and sometimes by a sudden noise. 7th. Viewed in a rotating mirror the image is composed of a series of tongues, each tongue being separated from the others by a dark space. 8th. When the flame is too large to begin easily, it will respond to the note proper to the tube, but will only sound while the external note is sounding. 9th. The flame becomes blue and somewhat longer when it sings. oth. Less gas is used when the flame sings than when it remains silent. 11th. If the flame be too small it will be extinguished in a few seconds by the violence of the action. These are the chief facts which have been recounted by Tyndall and others; there are other facts known which may be looked on as deductions from those enumerated. In the explanation we propose it will be seen that the theory of explosions, which is admitted by some even at the present time, is not the correct one. All the facts we rely on have been proved by actual experiment, and we make no hypothesis which has not experimental as well as theoretical corroboration. As the spontaneous commencement is not an essential part of the phenomenon, we shall first examine the flame in the actual state of sounding, and shall then show how it begins. A consideration of the conditions of pressure of the column of air in a sounding tube is the first step in our explanation. When a tube, open at both ends, emits a musical note, the column of air divides itself up into nodes and loops or ventral segments. The position of the nodes depends on the note emitted, 1. e., whether the tube emits the fundamental note, its octave, ete. At anode there is a considerable variation of the pressure, produced by the longitudinal vibration of the column of air. The pressure varies from its maximum during a con- densation to its minimum during a rarefaction; these two conditions occurring in each complete vibration. Various methods are in use for demonstrating this fact, the best known being the manometric flames of Koenig. When such a flame is placed at a node, and its image observed in a rotating mirror, a band of light is seen from which arises a series of tongues, separated by dark spaces, each tongue corresponding to a con- densation and each dark space to ararefaction. Sometimes the 180 H. V. Gill—Theory of Singing Flames. violence of these changes of pressure is so great that it extin- guishes the flame altogether. Though this method shows us that there is a considerable change of pressure, it does not give any numerical measure- ment. Such measurements have been made by Kundt and others. Kundt employed a water manometer for this purpose. As the changes of pressure follow each other very rapidly it is clear that an ordinary manometer would be useless, and hence he used one which, by means of a valve, could only be acted upon by changes of pressure of a given sign. With such an apparatus he found that, at a node of an open pipe sounding loudly, the increase of pressure during a condensation was equivalent to that exerted by a column of water about 15™ high, and a diminution of equal amount during a rarefaction. Others have found lower values. 3 We have next to examine another pressure which comes into play in the case of the singing flame, one which has been alto- gether neglected by those who have proposed explanations of this phenomenon, but which we shall show to be an essential element in the production of the musical note. The pressure of the gas which produees a flame of suitable size for a singing flame may be easily determined by means of the apparatus we have described. We have only to extinguish the flame which has been singing and close up the aperture. The water will then rise in the pressure-tube. This pressure is one, or two, or even more centimeters of water, according to the note which the flame produced. One might be inclined to think that the pressure under which the gas of the flame issues is always that on the gas supply of the house, but it is easy to show that when the tap which connects the flask to the main pipe is turned so as to let a small quantity of gas issue, that the pressure is proportional to the passage thus modified, the reason being the friction and viscosity of the gas. The figure will assist us in our explanation: I represents the column of air during a condensation, IJ during a rarefaction (fig. 2). The flame is situated at a node. We shall suppose the maximum pressure of either sign to be 5™ of water, since a singing flame does not produce a very loud note, and will take 2™ as the pressure on the gas. Here is roughly what happens when the flame sings: During a condensation the air is being compressed in the direction of the small arrows with a pressure represented by 5. As the burner of the singing flame is not in communication with the air in the tube except at the small aperture from which the gas issues, this pressure acts in the direction A on the gas. But the gas is issuing from this aperture under a pressure 2 in the direction G. Therefore the resultant of H. V. Gill—Theory of Singing Flames. 181 these is evidently a pressure (5—2)=38 acting on the gas in the direction R. This pressure forces the gas back some little distance into the gas pipe, and thus the flame is either made very small, or forced back into the burner with the gas, or extinguished altogether. But this state of things only lasts a small fraction of a second. The condensation changes into 2. I Il. 5 | R 5 NI a2 ‘ R a le TTT G2) rt I . 2 Z nN dis 2 2 a rarefaction, and the air expands in the direction of the small arrows (II); when the pressure is taken off the gas it rushes forth. By the same reasoning as before we see the resultant pressure is (5+2)=7, and that the gas issues forth under this pressure. This pressure, so much greater than the normal gas pressure, causes the gas to escape with great rapidity, the flame lights up again with a slight shock (as one remarks when he lights a gas jet), this shock gives an additional impulse to the expanding air, but again comes the condensation, the flame is again extinguished and so on. Thus we see how the note is kept sounding, a very small periodic impulse being sufficient to keep a note sounding once it has begun. There is a point to be noted. We said the gas issued forth under a pressure of 7, but it is evident that the gas will come out as soon as the rarefaction is so far developed that the pres- sure of the air is a little less than 3. From this it is clear that the gas issues forth under a pressure considerably greater than its normal pressure, and that the lighting up of the flame comes at such an instant that it assists the expansion during the rarefaction. Am. Jour. Sci1.—FourtH Suriss, Vou. IV, No. 21.—Sept., 1897. 13 q 182 H. V. Gill—Theory of Singing Flames. This explanation will be found to account for all the facts which have been observed regarding the singing flame. From it we see that the chief cause to be taken into account is the pressure on the gas, although the flame also plays its part. The following facts prove the correctness of this explana- tion. We stated that the gas was forced back into the burner dur- ing a condensation, and that it may happen that the flame is forced back with it. With an aperture of such a size (0°5™™ in diameter) as is usually employed no such result could be observed. With a glass tube drawn to a point having an aperture of about 2™™ diameter, singing inside a tube 70° long by 25“ in diameter, we noticed clearly that this result actually took place. The image of this flame as seen in the rotating mirror was like that roughly represented in fig. 3. This experiment is rather difficult to make, and the note only continues for a short time owing to the size of the aperture. The following experiment shows the same thing in a more simple manner. As we have seen, the rapid increase of pres- sure during a condensation in the sounding-tube produces a downward compression on the gas. It ought, therefore, to be possible to detect this by means of a manometric flame. Fig. 4 explains itself. When the manometric flame is observed in a rotating mirror the ordinary appearance of a Koenig flame is seen, as is repre- sented in the lower part of fig. 5. In this figure the tongues - are somewhat exaggerated in distinctness. We can use this same arrangement for another interesting experiment. From what we have seen it is clear that the tongues of the image of the manometric flame ought to coincide with the dark spaces of the image of the singing flame, if both images could be perfectly superposed. Since the little shock on the gas is practically transmitted instantaneously throughout the H. V. Gill—Theory of Singing Flames. 183 gas near the jet, the following experiment is of value. The flames, as in fig. 4, were arranged so as to be as near as _possi- ble to each other, the point of the mano- metric flame just reaching the base of the other. ‘The axis of the rotating mirror was in the same plane as these two flames. On viewing the two images in the mirror, an eye placed in the plane of the flames sees the images as in fio. 5. The top row represents the image of the singing fame. It will be seen that what we had anticipated actually takes place. The appearance of the flame also supports our theory. When gas issues under pressure the flame drags in the air which surrounds it, thus presenting the aspect of the flame of a Bunsen burner. The following facts show the impor- tance of the pressure of the gas in the | phenomenon. We have seen that if the supply pipe be plugged near the jet that the flame will not sing. This is clearly because the reaction between the two pressures is interfered with. Tyndall re- marks that, with a tube 15 to 20™ long, he was able to obtain, by varying the size of the flame and its position in the tube, 4, 5. LACMMMA a series of notes represented by the numbers 1, 2, 3,4,5. He says also that this experiment shows why it happened that various experimentalists, who did not change the position and size of the flame, had difficulty in obtaining desired notes in their public lectures. We see clearly from our theory why i 184 AV GUL heory of Singing Flames. this is so, for the size of the flame depends on the pressure of the gas which feeds it. We see also why a gas-generating apparatus is disadvantageous, because, as we have before re- marked, it is impossible to regulate the gas pressure with suffi- cient exactness. With the flask we have above described, we were able to see that the notes produced depended in great measure on the pressure, and that also the intensity of the sound depended on the same cause. We_also noticed that, immediately on the note beginning to sing, the water rose a few mm. in the pressure tube, thus showing that less gas was used when the gas was singing than when silent, a fact which was also noticed by Count Schaffgotsch, from a different ex- periment. ~ Thus far we have considered a flame singing under the most favorable conditions. Often, however, if the size of the flame (i. e., the pressure of the gas) and its position in the tube be carefully regulated, the note produced, though continuous, is faint, and does not develop into a full, loud sound. The image of the flame in this case does not present a series of distinct tongues as in the former case, but resembles that of a mano- metric flame. On considering what we have hitherto said, this case presents no difficulty. Itis only necessary to remark that the pressure of the gas and its position being such, the reactions just described are not sufficiently marked to pro- duce the full result. If the flame be distant from the node to which its size is well adapted, it is clear, since the changes of pressure are less intense the farther we go from the node, that the flame cannot sing as it would do if under more favorable conditions. In the same way is to be explained the fact that the note is not always that which would require a node at that part of the tube where the flame is placed, for it may happen that the size of the flame corresponds better to the period of a note which has a node farther from it, which note it will rein- force rather than the one which has a node nearer to it. So also is easily explained why the flame may emit two notes simultaneously—1. e., if it be placed so as to be near both nodes. It may be said that the limit of pressure required for a given note is fairly wide. We think we have thus sufficiently shown the importance of the pressure on the gas in maintaining the sound. We have now to show how the flame begins to sing. The flame may begin to sing without any apparent external cause, or may be put into action by an external cause. We hope to show these two cases may be reduced to the latter. Tyndall, in his usual graphic way, describes in his “ Heat” how a flame, too large to sing continuously, will respond to the note proper to the tube inside which it is placed, if this note H. V. Gill—Theory of Singing Flames. 185- be sounded by a siren or other means. He says that this is an example of the propagation of sound, by vibrations through the air, and its reception by a body extremely sensitive to such influences. If the flame is smaller, it continues singing once it has begun to respond. That is to say, the flame takes up the vibrations of the air inside the tube, reacts on them in the way we have described, and thus the sound is strengthened into the continuous note with which we are familiar. If we examine the flame in a rotating mirror before it has begun to sing, we see of course a continuous band of light. Now, if we sound the note of the tube, regarding the flame in the rotating mu- ror while doing so, we see the image as represented in fig. 6. 6. From this we see clearly the mutual reaction between the flame and the column of air. If the flame be so smail that it is just on the point of beginning to sing of itself, a sudden noise, such as clapping the hands, will cause it to begin. Always, however, the gradual development as shown in fig. 6 takes place. Again, a small flame may be made to sing by blowing gently across the top of the tube, and as before shows the gradual development. These facts are sufficient to show how the pressure due to the vibration of the column of air and the pressure of the gas react on each other. It is scarcely neces- sary to add that in reality this “ gradual development” takes place in a very short interval of time, especially in the case of a small plane inside a short tube. From what we have seen we are led to the conclusion that, when the flame begins spontaneously, in reality the cause is to be found in some change of pressure taking place in the column of air. If we slowly lessen the flame, before it begins to sing, regarding it as before in the rotating mirror, we notice, at a certain point, that gentle undulations appear on the border of the band of light, which follow the cause of gradual develop- ment above described. Is there any such external cause at work? We think we shall be able to show that there is. We have seen that the slight changes of pressure due to a note sounded at some distance from the tube produce changes in the pressure sufficient to cause the flame inside the tube to sing (Schaffgotsch put a small flame into action by the noise caused 186 H. V. Gill—Theory of Singing Flames. by displacing a chair in the room next that in which the flame was placed). We have seen, too, that the slight changes of pressure produced by blowing across the end of the tube were sufficient, even when the flame was not sma!l enough to begin of itself; therefore a lesser cause will suffice when the flame is still smaller. The air inside the tube is at a higher tempera- ture than that of the atmosphere; this causes a current of air to pass upwards through the tube with a velocity which we can calculate.* This current as it passes the edges of the tube pro- duces a faint note. The variations of pressure caused by this note are sufficient to put the flame in action. This conclusion is justified by the following facts: (z) A flame begins much more easily in a long tube than in a short one, and we know the current due to the temperature of the air is proportional to the length of the tube, so that the note produced in a long tube is more intense than in a short one. (6) On placing the ear near the lower extremity of a tube 60™ long, inside which a silent flame burns, one hears the note produced by the current of air passing up. (c) A consideration of the various ways in which a flame may be caused to sing leads to this conclusion. Although this reaction is the chief one which canses the flame to begin to sing, we must bear in mind that there are innumerable other minor ones which, in certain cases, may play a part. Thus in the case of a very small flame inside a short tube (8:0 or 10:0) the expansion of the air near the flame, and accidental changes of the pressure of the gas, may be of importance. We think we have made it clear that the pressure on the gas plays the important part in this phenomenon, and that a con- sideration of the reactions we have described will be found to explain the many facts noted in the case of a singing flame, some of which we have alluded to. We look therefore on the- chief cause as a mutual reaction between the pressures in the tube and on the gas; the energy necessary to sustain the note being supplied by the pressure on the gas and the action of the flame. We may compare the singing flame to the siren, in which the current of air causes the disk to rotate, the note being produced by the reaction of the disk on the current of air. * Dr. Everett investigates in his ‘ Natural Philosophy.” part II, the condi- tions for a good draught up a chimney and applies the formula of Torricelli for the efflux of liquids from orifices. This formula for the velocity of the air current is yo ghe (¢—V) 1+at in which g=gravity; h=length of chimney (or tube); a=the coefficient of expansion for air; t=the temperature inside the chimney, and ? that of the exterior air. H. V. Gill—Theory of Singing Flames. 187 II. There is another case of singing flames which we shall briefly explain by a reasoning similar to that we have just employed. If a tube, say 30™ long by 3 or 4™ in diameter, be placed on a piece of wire gauze, the whole 5™ above a Bunsen burner, and if the gas be lighted inside the tube, a high note of great intensity is produced. This experiment was first made by Lissajous, who called it a “ whistling flame.” As we have never seen any explanation offered, we think the following will be found interesting. We have determined the following facts: Ist. The note depends on the length of the tube and the volume of the flame. 2d. The gauze need not be outside the tube, but if placed inside, the note is also produced. 3d. If the gauze be more than a certain distance below the base of the tube, no note is produced. 4th. The image in a rotating mirror shows periodic disturb- ances at the base of the flame. _ Just as a node is the position most favorable for the singing flame, a loop is that favorable for the whistling flame. There is a loop at the end of an open pipe, and hence the flame sounds when at this position. As every note which an open pipe can produce has a node at the base, we see that each can be produced by the flame at this position, and hence it is that the note is so high and shrill, for, as we shall see, a great num- ber of tones are produced simultaneously. At a loop, or ventral segment, there is considerable motion of the air, as is shown by placing a small tambourine with some sand on it at a loop; the sand is violently agitated by the air currents due to the vibration. The motion of the air at the extremities is sensible for some distance outside the tube. Mach studied this movement, and found that for a pipe four feet long the amplitude at this point was 4™™. We can easily calculate the velocity of these air currents if we know the amplitude of vibration and the period of the note. However in the general investigation this will not be necessary. Let us call this velocity z. We have seen that the draught, or current due to the flame inside the tube, can be calculated from the formula ye 2qgha(t-—t’) l+aét For a certain tube we have calculated that the current due to the vibrations was 2 meters per second, the draught 1 meter per second. Let us suppose the velocity of the current due to the vibration is x, that due to the draught y. 188 H. V. Gil—Theory of Singing Flames. As before, let us first consider the flame actually sounding. At the node nearest the base (it is only necessary to consider one of the notes) there are alternately condensations and rare- factions. When the condensation is changing into a rarefac- tion there is a current of air which issues from the tube; this is the first stage. When the rarefaction is becoming a conden- sation this current enters the tube. During the first stage the current due to the draught tends to cross the gauze with a velocity y ; but the current due to the vibration is in the oppo- site direction with a velocity «: therefore at this moment the resultant current has a velocity z—y. This current is less than if the flame had been silent, so that a smaller amount of gas enters into the flame. But after a very small fraction of a second the rarefaction at the node changes into a condensation. During this second stage the current due to the vibration goes up the tube and is in the same direction as the draught. There- fore the resultant current has a velocity «+y. This current, much more rapid than when the flame was silent, and than that during the first stage, causes a greater quantity of gas and air to enter into the flame than before. This sudden augmen- tation of the flame gives an impulse to the vibrations already taking place, and thus the note continues. This explanation is proved by several experiments. We have stated that the gauze may be a certain distance below the base of the tube. We have seen that the vibrations of the air column extend a certain distance outside the end of the tube. Many researches have been made to determine the exact law which this distance follows, but though in individual cases it is easy to determine the amplitude, it is difficult to formulate a general law. It has been determined that this distance depends on the diameter of the tube, and that when the wave length of the note is great in comparison, this distance is somewhat greater than two-thirds the radius of the tube. We have made many experiments with the gauze in various positions, and find — that the gauze must be inside the limit assigned by this law, or no note will be produced, which shows that the note depends on these air currents. A second proof is that the note produced is not pure, but is composed of a number of different ones. We have seen that all the notes of the tube may be produced together and that thus the resultant note is composed of tones proportional to 1, 2, 3, 4,5. ... If the gauze be-placed at the middle or the tube the note is much higher. We see at once why this must be so if the whistling flame is proper to a loop. For the only tones which have a loop at the middle of an open pipe are those proportional to 2, 4, 6, 8,ete. Therefore since so many of the lower tones are absent the resultant tone is higher than in the former case. H. V. Gill—Theory of Singing Flames. 189 We have made experiments analogous to those described in the case of the singing flame to determine the manner in which the note begins. Our experiments lead to the conclusion that it is the same as in that case, and that the original note caused by the draught is strengthened by the reactions we have de- tailed. As the arguments used in the case of the singing flame apply with even greater force in the present case, it is not necessary to repeat them. EET. There is, finally, one other case of a note caused by a flame which we shall consider very briefly. An experiment was sug- gested to test the theory in which the singing flame is explained as if it were a heated body. If so, a taper flame ought to sing if placed in a favorable position. An ordinary taper flame remains perfectly silent. On dividing up the wick so that the head of the taper stretched over the tube, a note was produced which lasted several minutes. This is merely a case of Rijke’s experiment of the heated gauze above alluded to. MRijke’s experiment has been explained already, and is easily under- stood if we consider the action of the pressure and various air currents in a sounding pipe, and bear in mind that the most favorable moment for the air to receive an increase of tempera- ture is when a condensation is changing into a rarefaction. The following passage from a lecture by Lord Rayleigh will make this clear (“ Nature,” vol. xviii, p. 320, 1878): ‘“ Perhaps the easiest way to trace the mode of action is to begin with the case of a simple vibration without a steady current (i. e. the draught). Under these circumstances the whole of the air which comes in contact with the metal in the course of a com- plete period becomes heated; and after this state of things there is comparatively little further transfer of heat. The effect of superposing a small steady upward current is now easily recognized. At the limit of the inward motion, 1. e., at the phase of greatest condensation, a small quantity of air comes in contact with the metal which has not done so before, and is accordingly cool; and the heat communicated to this quantity of air acts in the most favorable manner for the maintenance of the vibration.” “ Both in Rijke’s and Riess’* experiments the variable transfer of heat depends on the motion of vibration, while the effect of the transfer depends upon the variation of pressure. The gauze must therefore be placed where both effects are sensible, i. e. neither near a node nor near a loop.” (We have found the same in the case of the * Riess’s experiment consists of a note produced by a current of hot air passing through a cool gauze. 190 J. Trowbridge—Electrical Discharges in Air. taper flame.) ‘ About a quarter of the length of the tube, from the lower or upper end, as the case may be, appears to be the most favourable position.” When the gauze is near the top a slight modification is required, but the theory is essentially the same. We have, then, three kinds of singing flames; one depend- ing on changes of pressure; another on air currents; a third depending at once on both changes of pressure and on air currents. In the above paper we have explained the general causes of the phenomenon, but it is evident that in so complex a subject it would be impossible to enter into more explicit details in the limits of a simple article. It is hoped that these ideas will attach a further interest to this old fashioned but interesting experiment. Louvain. Art. XXI. — Electrical Discharges in Air; by JOHN TROWBRIDGE. THE flaming discharge from a large accumulator with its nucleus, consisting of a dazzling white spark, is evidently a form of voltaic arc; and I was interested to discover if pos- sible the mechanism, so to speak, of the voltaic are. Does it follow Ohm’s law in respect to resistance, and is there an oscillatory phenomenon? It is well known that electrie sparks can be greatly increased in length by interposing a gas flame between the terminals of a Ruhmkorf coil, or by moderately rarifying the air between such terminals. The conditions in the voltaic are favor a greatly increased length of a disruptive spark between the positive and negative carbons. This can be seen in the photograph of the are produced by a high tension accumulator; and doubtless the same phenomenon could be observed in the ordinary voltaic are if 1t were not so exceed- ingly brilliant. I have lately studied the apparent resistance of the voltaic arc in the following manner. In the circuit B, fig. 1, of forty large storage cells, giving 80 volts, was placed a low resistance choking coil, L, or coil of large self-induction. To the carbon terminals, A, between which the voltaic are was produced, were led the terminals of a condenser, C. The latter was charged by a step-up transformer, T. The oscillatory discharge of the condenser was thus passed through the voltaic are; and a spark in a gap in the circuit of the condenser was photographed by the aid of a revolving mirror. The photographs gave the J. Trowbridge—Llectrical Discharges in Air. 191 number of oscillations in the circuit containing the are and the condenser. A curve was then plotted with the number of oscilla- tions as ordinates and the ohmic resistance of the circuit as abscissas. It was thus found that the anparent resistance of the voltaic are was equivalent, in the case I considered, to a resistance of eight-tenths of an ohm (‘8 ohm). It was found, moreover, that an are one-quarter of an inch long did not present more resistance than one, one-half an inch long. The apparent resistance, therefore, of the voltaic are does not fol- low Ohm’s law. Iam led to believe that the mechanism, so to speak, of the voltaic are is as follows: A disruptive discharge accompanies a flaming discharge, and serves aS a species of pilot spark. a variable difference of potential is neces- sary to sustain the disruptive discharge ; and this variable difference of potential makes itself evident as an apparent change of resistance; the are shortens or length- ens In obedience to the mechanism of the lamp which is employed. A family resemblance may be said to exist between all forms of electrical discharges in air. Thus in the voltaic are we have a disruptive discharge combined with a flaming discharge. In general the disruptive spark is oscillatory even in the case where the voltaic are is produced by a dynamo machine. When we extend our studies to the forms of electrical dis- charges which are free to a great extent from the flaming dis- charge, such as the disruptive sparks from electrical machines, Tesla and Thomson transformers and the Planté rheostatic machine, we are struck by their close resemblance to the ordi- nary forms of lightning discharge. I have lately employed, in connection with five thousand Planté cells, a Planté machine with thirty condenser plates made of glass, one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness, with a coated surface of 15x18 inches. Sparks nine to ten inches long can be very conveniently studied by means of this apparatus, for a close estimate of the difference of potential is possible and the exciting apparatus does not change its sign during the experiments. “To the eye each spark seems to be surrounded by a bright radiance or aureole of which it appears to be the nucleus. In order to ascertain whether this radiance was an actual phenomenon. I employed a portrait lens of large aperture, and some of the results are exhibited in the accompanying reproductions, which fail, however, to give the details of the negatives. Fig. 2 isa 1. B 192 J. Trowbridge—Llectrical Discharges in Air. photograph of a spark taken with a Euryscope lens, such as is commonly employed for landscape work. This does not show any detail. Figs. 3,4 and 5 are photographs taken with a Dallmeyer portrait lens, without a diaphragm, and show on the negatives what may be considered an aureole accompanying the spark its entire length. Furthermore, the oscillatory nature of the sparks is shown by forked discharges which diverge from the main path of the spark and which point in opposite directions on the same spark. If a photograph of lightning could be obtained which would show a similar phe- nomenon, there could be no doubt of the oscillatory nature of lightning. Since one can, with a large number of Planté cells in con- nection with a rheostatic machine, control the sign of the elec- tric charges on the spark terminals, I was interested to test the question whether the eye can detect any direction in electric sparks. One observer, looking through an opening which con- cealed the spark terminals and only revealed the central portion J. Trowbridge— Electrical Discharges in Air. 193 of the sparks, noted down his impression of the apparent direc- tion of each spark, while another observer reversed the poles which charged the rheostatic machine. On comparing the notes of the two observers, it was found that there was no agreement in regard to direction. This result was to be expected from the oscillatory nature of the discharges. It may be that in the case of lightning the eye is forcibly impressed by the greater brightness of the positive terminal in the cloud, and the observer concludes that the flash has a unidirectional movement. When oscillating sparks of the nature represented in figures 2, 3 and 4 are passed through Crookes tubes of the focus tube pattern, it was found that photographs could be taken on plates exposed to the inclined surface of the platinum, both when it was made the anode and when it formed the cathode. No dit- ference in definition could be noticed. There was, however, a great difference in actinic effect. Under the oscillatory nature of the Leyden jar discharge the electrodes become alternately pos- itive and negative. Possibly some of the want of definition noticed in Rontgen photographs, taken even with the aid of electrical machines, may be due to the fact that the oscillatory discharge does not always emanate from the same point on the anode surface. A small anode should therefore give sharper images than one of a large surface. What is supposed to be a resistance in the case of the voltaic are, and in the modifications of this are seen in discharges from high tension transformers, and in powerful electric sparks, and presumably in lightning discharges, is a polarization which pro- duces a variable difference of potential at the spark terminals. The inconstancy of spark potentials has been shown by Jau- mann.* In working with a revolving mirror, it is found that the spark terminals have to be brightened in order to preserve . the same spark length. I was interested also to observe the effect of the surrounding medium upon the spark potentials. Platinum terminals in sodium vapor showed the polarizable condition: but there did not appear to be an appreciable change in resistance, apart from this polarization. The same was true when bromine vapor surrounded the spark terminals. In the case of Crookes tubes, it is customary to apply heat if the discharge will not pass through the tube: and some makers provide a connecting receptacle which contains a substance which, on being volatilized, modifies the internal conditions of the tube. This modification is often spoken of as a diminution of resistance of thetube. It should be more properly termed a method of modifying the state of polarization of the electrodes. Jefferson Physical Laboratory, Harvard University. * Wied. Annalen, lv, p. 656, 1895. 194 J. Trowbridge — Oscillatory discharge Art. XXIJ.—The Oscillatory discharge of a large Accumu- lator ; by JoHN TROWBRIDGE. THE discharge from a large number of Planté cells is char- acterized by a sibilant fame which, by quickly separating the spark terminals, can de drawn out toa length of several feet. It closely resembles the light produced by passing an electric spark through iycopodium powder. When a photograph of 1s this flaming discharge is examined, it is seen to have an in- tensely bright spark as a nucleus. On account of the flaming discharge it is difficult to examine its character by means of a revolving mirror. By employing, however, two spark gaps it seemed possible to ascertain whether the discharge is oscillatory | or not. In my experiments the circuit was made at the instant the revolving mirror was in the position to reflect an image of the discharge of the battery upon a sensitive plate. The photo- graphs obtained in this way showed disruptive discharges superimposed upon a continuous discharge. The latter, how- ever, masked any appearance of an oscillatory discharge. It of a large Accumulator. 195 was evidently necessary to blow out the flaming discharge in order to see if oscillations followed the pilot discharge. ~The first experiment was made with 2500 cells arranged in series; and the flaming discharge was much lessened both by the reduction in the number of cells and by a suitable arrangement for blowing it out. On developing the photographs it was found that the discharge was an oscillatory one; for as many as five or six clearly defined oscillations followed the first, or pilot discharge. The number of cells was then doubled; and, although more difficulty was experienced with the flaming dis- charge, oscillations were again obtained. On the supposition that each cell of the battery can be regarded as a leaking condenser; and that it is equivalent in capacity to a condenser shunted by a resistance equal to that of the electrolyte, we can treat such a cell as a conducting condenser under the influence, during discharge, of a periodic current. The analysis of this well-known case is as follows.* Let ABC and AEC be two circuits, the circuit ABC being a shunt to the cireuit AEC, which contains a condenser E. Let L be the coefficient of self-induction of ADC, i. its resistance, C the capacity of the condenser in the ¢ireuit AEC and ¢ the resistance of the wires leading to the plates of the condenser. Then if ¢@ is the current through ABC and @ the charge on the plate nearest to A dt dt Since each of the quantities is equal to the electromotive force between A and C. If ¢=cos pt, «L? Za R)2 1 z then «=~ Lp where a = tan~! — + tan7! R rpC Dy Rk Hence BE = Walia Te cos (pt + a). ie 2 ai ie p y Thus the maximum current along AEC is to that along ABC as Nilipe 2 he is 60 Vagte a if we neglect the ae r of the leading wires, as ee R VL? + R’ : or neglecting L, as —. 1 Op * See Elements of Electricity and Magnetism, Prof. J. J. Thomson, p. 431. on 196 J. Trowbridge—Oscillatory discharge, ete. In the case of one cell of the battery the polarization capac- ity is undoubtedly very large. OC. M. Gordon* finds that the polarization capacity of two surfaces of platinum 0:65°™ sepa- rated by an interval of 2™™ amounts to more than 50 miero- farads. The cells of my battery consist of lead plates of about 10° surface separated by about 6™™. The layer of peroxide of lead undoubtedly gives a large polarization capacity. The resistance of each cell is about one quarter of an ohm. Even with this small value of R, oscil- lating currents such as my experiments show arise when the battery discharges through air or gases. A large portion of the oscillating currents pass through the condenser circuit, and the electrolyte acts as a semi-insulator. With a very high value of p, no current would pass through the electrolyte and the cells would therefore act like Leyden jars. In the case I am considering the Planté cells evidently act like leaky Ley- den jars coupled in series. If C is the apparent capacity of one cell “ would be the capacity of 7 cells. An examination of the photographs of the oscillations pro- duced by 2500 cells, showed an apparent capacity of about 1000 electrostatic units. Five thousand cells gave an apparent capacity of about 500 electrostatic units, as should be the ease. The small apparent capacity OC results from the leaking of the condenser due to the conduction through the electrolyte. Since the discharge from an accumulator of a large number of cells is, in general, oscillatory, I am led to the belief that the discharge from any primary battery is also oscillatory, for in all cases we have to deal with capacity and self-induction. It is evident that a galvanometer in circuit with a Geisler tube or a telephone cannot detect the oscillatory discharge, since it is of high period. Moreover when a Geisler tube is lighted by a large battery with no resistance save that of the Geisler tube and the battery in the circuit, and the light is examined in a revolving mirror by the eye, no oscillations or intermit- tance of light can be perceived on account of the flaming dis- charge through the rarified gas. The oscillatory discharge may be said to be the common occurrence of nature in the case of electrical discharges and the one direction discharge the uncommon. This has been expressed by the remark that electricity takes the path of least resistance; this common belief, however, must be modified under certain conditions of resonance. In general nature avoids a unidirectional discharge. Jefferson Physical Laboratory, Harvard University. * Wied. Ann., No. 5, 1897, p. 28. * J. Marcou—Jura and Neocomian of Arkansas, etc. 197 Art. XXIIIl.—Jura and Neocomian of Arkansas, Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico and Texas; by JuLES Marcov. Historic geology, or stratigraphic classification, is a very difficult and at the same time a most important part of the history of our globe. Without exact classification, all becomes confusion, geologic periods are confounded, and we are con- fronted by the same sort of errors that would occur if some historian were to place the time of Cromwell after the time of Washington. | In all other sciences, like chemistry, physics, anatomy, ete. each new fact can be verified in laboratories, after a period of time relatively short. Not that criticism, and strong and even passionate opposition, are not found in these sciences; we re- member well the protest against the experiments made to dis- prove spontaneous generation. It required much persistency and courage on the part of Pasteur to maintain the truth he had discovered. The chemist Berthelot published in the Revue Scientifique some incomplete investigations of the late Claude Bernard, which he found in loose notes after the lat- ter’s death, without even taking the polite precaution to make known to Pasteur his intention of attacking his observations on the non-existence of spontaneous eeneration. Numerous dis- cussions followed at the meetings of the Academy of Science of the French National Institute, until Pasteur, excited by the incessant attacks of two adversaries, bravely turned towards them and said to one, ‘‘Savez-vous ce qui vous manque? vous ignorez lart dobserver ;” and to the other, “ Et vous, celui de raisonner.”’* The controversy against my observations on the geology of Texas, the Indian Territory and New Mexico, has lasted much longer than the opposition made against Pasteur, for it is now forty-four years since I made them and they have been and are still the subject of constant criticism. | In science, discussion must be based on the nbeersthion of facts; in geology, these observations must be made on the or ound and at the precise locality under discussion. For years the two localities discussed were not only far distant from civilization, but also situated in a part of the country which, . on account of hostile Comanches, Kiowas and Apaches, it | was impossibie to visit without a large military escort. Con- sequently my contradictors discussed my observations without a practical knowledge of the stratigraphy ; and with a want of * Discours de M. Joseph Bertrand, directeur de l’Académie Frangais, séance du 28 Janvier, 1897. Am. Jour. Scr.—Fourta SERIES, Vou. IV, No. 21.—SeEprT., 1897. i ee ae” . 198 J. Marcou—Jura and Neocomian of Arkansas, the most elementary kind of knowledge of the genus Gryphwa, uniting into a single species six or eight entirely distinct spe- cies. It was to be hoped that when, in about 1880, Indian Territory and the Tucumeari region were finally opened for settlement and civilization, my opponents would examine the two localities; one called Comet Creek, now in G. County, » Oklahoma, and the other Pyramid Mount in the Tucumeari region of New Mexico. But not at all; to this day, Comet Creek has not been visited by any other practical geologist* ; and Pyramid Mount of the Tucumcari area was systematically left out of the route of exploration by the three persons who were there, since 1888. The curious part of it is that the section at Pyramid Mount is most complete, without any ob- scurity by vegetation, practically a bare wall, and unique in the Tucumeari region for its beauty and perfection from a geologic point of view. I shall not imitate the frankness of my friend Pasteur, and contest the capacity of my adversaries as stratigraphists and paleontologists, but I owe it to science to maintain what I consider to be exact and true; and how- ever tired and wearied by years, by my infirmities and the exceptional length of the discusston—lasting almost half a cen- tury—lI shall continue not only to affirm the correctness of my observations, but also to ask my numerous adversaries to visit Comet Creek and Pyramid Mount, and beg them to publish the sections accompanied by good figures and descriptions of all the fossils they may gather an situ. Jam happy to remark, that they will have the great privilege and immense advantage of remaining there as long as they please, to observe and col- lect specimens, while I was enabled, on account of the rapidity of the march of my military escort, to remain at Comet Creek only one hour and at Pyramid Mount only three or four hours. The question of the existence of the Jura and the Lower Cretaceous (which I call briefly Neocomian) has taken, thanks to the opposition, such great proportions, that one of my oppo- nents said lately: “There are reasons for suspecting that no marine Jurassic formations of Atlantic sedimentation have as yet been discovered north of Argentina (South America) on the present Atlantic slope of the American hemisphere.” (Science, vol. iv, No. 103, p. 920.) A clean sweep of the marine American Jura. ; Let us review the main localities in the United States, west of the Mississippi River and east of the Rio Grande del Norte. Arkansas.—For the sake of brevity, and not to burden the * Lately the locality of Comet Creek has been visited by Mr T. W. Vaughan, who finds the same beds of limestone containing G. Remeri (called G. forniculata). His description does not differ from the one I have given as far back as 1853. ‘“‘ Outlying areas of the Comanche series”; this Journal, vol. iv, July, 1897, ts Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico and Texas. 199 reader with too many details, I shall speak only of the Trinity formation, of the locality in Pike County, Arkansas, close to the boundary line of Texas. Mr. Hill, the inventor of the name Trinity formation, has published in the Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Arkansas, for 1888, vol. ii, Meso- zoic, two chapters, xii and xiii, in which are described the strata and the fossils, the latter with figures. It is useless to reprint what I have said on each species of fossil; I need only say, that I have shown with aceuracy and details, in the American Geologist, Dec., 1889, pp. 8357-867, that the whole fauna, with- out a single exception, is composed of Jurassic fossils, and con- eluded that instead of being Lower Cretaceous, the strata near Murfreesboro represent in Arkansas and Texas the superior Jura from the Oxfordian upward, including the Purbeck formation. As an example of carelessness, not to use a stronger word, in quoting a plain paleontological fact, I call the attention of thereader to a quotation of Mr. Hill, at. p. 128. In the description of Ammonites Walcottii, we read: ‘“‘It resembles . also Ammonites Yo, dOrb. of the Lower Cretaceous.” Turning to the great work of the Paléontologie Francaise by d’Orbigny, in order to examine and verify the resemblance of the two Ammonites, I naturally took up the volumes entitled : “Terrain Crétacé.” But there is no trace of Ammonites Yo in those volumes. As I know the species well and that the form is undoubtedly Jurassic, I took the volumes entitled: “Terrain Jurassique,” and there in vol. 1, pp. 545-546, is the Ammonites Yo with the special location of “ Etage Kimmerid- gien, Boulogne-sur-Mer.” Instead of belonging to the Lower Cretaceous, according to the extraordinary alteration of Mr. Hill, it is an Upper Jura species. Why Mr. Hill took upon himself to change the age of the Ammonites Yo, cannot be explained otherwise, than that he wanted to sustain his classi- fication of the Trinity division in the Cretaceous, quoting in his favour the great authority of d’Orbigny. This case shows how unreliable Mr. Hill is, when he writes on paleontology. Kansas.—As long ago as 1888, I corresponded with Profes- sor F. W. Cragin of Topeka, in regard to a Cycadoidea found in Maryland, for the purpose of comparing it with a specimen of the same genus of fossil plant collected in Kansas. On reading Professor Cragin’s first two papers on the geology of a part of southern Kansas comprising Barber, Pratt, Kiowa and Comanche counties, south of the Arkansas River, in the upper region of Medicine Lodge River, I thought that the Jura existed there, and wrote so to him. He sent mea small box of specimens, all Cretaceous fossils. After an exchange of a few letters on the subject, the correspondence was dropped. 200 =F. Marcou—Jura and Neocomian of Arkansas, Lately there came into my hands two publications on these Kansas counties. One is a detailed description of them by Professor Charles 8. Prosser, in vol. ii of The University Geo- logical Survey of Kansas, Topeka, 1896; and the other is a paper entitled: On Outlying Areas of the Comanche Series in Kansas, Oklahoma and New Mexico, by Mr. R. T. Hill, this Journal, vol. 1, pp. 205-234, issued in September, 1895, but which entirely escaped my notice until one week ago, on account of my time having been completely occupied for sev- eral years by the writing and printing of the Life of Louis Agassiz. I have studied with interest all the part of vol. ii, Kansas Survey, entitled “ Cretaceous-Comanche series of Kansas,” pp. 96-181. The author gives carefully observed sections, and an important geological map of “Southwest Comanche area.” He is clear and exact, but the paleontological part is not only very meagre, but also incorrect so far as relates to the princi- pal and very important fossil found, a rather large Gryphea, collected on the top of one of the Belvidere sections. As he follows and uses the classification of Mr. Hill, my answer will apply to both memoirs. According to two lists of fossils determined by Mr. T. W. Stanton, at pp. 216 and 219 of Mr. Hill’s paper, the Gryphea Tucumcari Marcou has been found at Blue Cut Mound, four miles southwest of Belvidere, above the Gryphewa fornicu- lata ; and Mr. Stanton adds: “It is interesting to note that this form (G. Zucumcari), supposed by Prot. Marcou to be Jurassic, here occurs above G. forniculata, which he consid- ered Neocomian, though there is only a few feet difference in the beds and they seem to be connected by intermediate forms. The geographic distribution of the two species is about the same” (Hill’s paper, p. 216). At the beginning of the controversy by Mr. James Hall in 1855, continued afterward by Dr. B. F. Shumard, Dr. J. 8. Newberry, Mr. R. T. Hill, and others too nnmerons to name, I realized that a misuse of paleontology had been made, and ever since paleontological misrule has held complete and unchecked sway in regard to the numerous Gryphea found in the whole region south of the Arkansas river. After receiving specimens now and then from Texas and Kansas, I saw clearly that about eight or ten Gryphea existed there at different levels, and that the confusion of species by Messrs. Hall, Roemer, Shu- mard, Gabb, Charles A. White, Hill, Cragin and Stanton, was sure to result in a complete revision and exact description of all the Gryphea found in the region. I know, and I have repeatedly said, that the identification of the numerous Gry- phea Pitchert was wrong in almost every case, my own Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico and Tewxas. 201 included. Professor Ferdinand Reemer made the mistake in 1849 and 1852 in referring a New Braunsfelds and Red River species of Gryphea to the G. Pitcherit of Dr. Morton. Fol- lowing Roemer, and on account of a complete lack of specimens for comparison, I referred the Gryphwa of Comet Creek to the G. Pitcheri, although I was in doubt as to the correctness of the determination, for my specimens differed considerably from those figured by Remer, and from the one figured by Morton. But at the same time I took the precaution to pub- lish excellent and exact figures, in my two works, issued in 1855 and 1858. For several years, after my hasty visit to Comet Creek, I was convinced that the G. Pitchert found there was a different species from the one published by Roemer and the one published by Morton; and in 1861, I called the Comet Creek species *G’. Yamerz, and have even since used that very appropriate name for the G. Ptcherd published with figures by Roemer and myself. (‘ Notes on the Cretaceous any lexas.’?). Proc; Boston, Sec... Nat... Hist., Jan.,..1861,. vol. vill, p. 95.) Dr. C. A. White did not make use of the name G. f0wmeri and without explanation he many years after called the species Lxogyra forniculata, changing the generic and the specific name.* This is the way that erroneous paleontology has been con- stantly used by my adversaries. We read in Mr. Hill’s paper, pp. 225-226: “The species called throughout this paper Gryphea forniculata White, is the same as the one from Comet Creek, Oklahoma, first figured by Prof. Marcou as Gryphea Pitchert Morton, and later called by him Gryphea Remeri. The nomenclature of the Grypheata oysters of the Comanche series will be thoroughly revised in a separate paper which the writer has in print. Prof. Marcou’s name G. /?wmeri probably has precedence over G. forniculata White, but it rnay be shown neither of these will stand.” “This Gryphea so abundant at Belvidere is likewise found in great numbers in the Kiamitia clays, not only about Denison and Fort Worth, but also along a persistent line of 300 miles from Goodland, Indian Territory, to south of the Brazos in Texas. Its hemera (szc) in Texas is exclusively confined to the Preston beds, and Prof. Marcou has always held that it is a Cretaceous form; it is the species upon which he established the existence of the alleged Neocomian in America.” * The Exogyra Texana Roem. or Exogyra flabellata Goldf. is also a sort of poly- morph fossil like the so-called Gryphea Pitcheri. The only way to put an end to the confusion created by calling almost every Exogyra, Hx. Texana and every Gryphea, Gr. Pitcheri, is to make a complete revision of all the Exogyra and Gryphea existing, with very careful study of each species and the exact location of each stratum. 1 . ' 202. J. Marcou—Jura and Neocomian of Arkansas, “An interesting fact in the Black Hills and Blue Cut sec- tions is that the large Grypheea which comes in near the top of the shales is identical with the form collected by Prof. Marcou and is the species called Gryphea Tucumearia by him (later called Gryphea dilatata var. Tucumeari).” “ Prof. Marcou insisted that the beds from which this species came were of Jurassic age, and upon its occurrence he main- tained the existence of the Jurassic system in this region. It occurs at Belvidere, as on the original plains of the Kiamitia near Goodland, in Indian Territory, where it was last year col- lected by Mr. i. Wayland Vaughan* of my division, and at Kentt in Trans Pecos, Texas, stratigraphically above and inti- mately associated with the species which he calls Gryphea Pitcherr. Thus we have in Kansas and Indian Territory Prof. Marcou’s alleged Jurassic species occufring stratigraphically above species he called Cretaceous, which facts forever remove any previous doubt, if any existed, in favor of his theory of the existence of the J urassic formation in Texas, Indian Ter- ritory, New Mexican region.’ There is only a little difficulty in accepting the conclusion drawn by Mr. Hill with such confidence,— the Gryphea col- lected in great numbers at the top of the section of Blue Cut Mound, near Belvidere, is not the Gryphea Tucumcari ! I have had in my possession, ever since 1888, beautiful and perfect specimens of that Gryphwa, and the idea that a paleon- tologist of the U. 8. Geological Survey and a chief geologist of that Survey should call it G. Tucumcari./ was far from my thoughts. When such discoveries were made, as those claimed by Messrs. Hill, Stanton and Vaughan, their first duty was to give good figures and exact descriptions of the Gryphea and put it side by side with the figures and descriptions given by me in 1858 (Geology of North America, ete., plate [TV and pages 43 and 38, Zurich, 1858). But as it is asimple assertion, presenting no basis for discussion, the reader of Mr. Hill’s paper cannot judge from the paper itself. The Gryphea found on the top of the Belvidere section, above the beds con- * In Science, April 2, 1897, vol. v, No. 118, p. 559, Mr. T. W. Vaughan says that he found in the vicinity of Arapaho (Oklahoma and Indian Territory) the Gryphea Tucumcarit of Marcou, a fossil asserted by him to be Jurassic, which often occurs imbedded in the same matrix (as the Gryphea Pitcheri of Marcou or forniculata of White). Thus he extends the error of Messrs. HI1ll and Stanton farther south than Belvidere (Kansas). Figures and description of the so-called G. Tucumcari are entirely wanting, and Mr. Vaughan merely makes an assertion without paleontological proofs —Note by J. M. + At Kent the Gryphea Tucumcarii, which there is the true species, is not. above the Gryphea Pitcheri (G. Remeri) but below. And the pretended G. Pitcheri of Messrs. Dumble and Cummins belongs to two new species entirely distinct from the G. Remeri or Pitcheri (see ‘‘ The Jura of Texas,” loc. cit., p. 153). —Note by J. M. Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico and Texas. 203 taining the Gryphea Ramer: of the Neocomian of Comet Creek, is an entirely different species from the G. Tucumcari, it is a new species which I propose to call Gryphea Kansana. It possesses all the main characters common to all the Gryphwa of the Neocomian or Lower Cretaceous of America and Europe. As for Mr. Hill’s announcement that ‘The nomenclature of the Grypheeta oysters of the Comanche series will be thor- oughly revised in a separate paper which the writer has in print,” almost two years have passed and the paper is not yet distributed. I hope that it will soon be out; and then, I shall publish figures and description of the large Gryphoa Kansana,n. sp. Messrs. Hill and Stanton do not seem to realize that if their identification of the Grypheeas at Belvi- dere and at the Tucumearii region were correct, their discovery of one above another at one place and the reverse at the other place, in the same geological basin, among almost horizontal strata, would go far towards destroying the paleontological character for classification of strata, discovered almost one cen- tury ago, by William Smith, the author of “ Strata identified by ' Organized Fossils” (4to, London, 1816). Happily their identi- fication of the Gryphea Tucumcari with the G. Kansana is incorrect and their classification is based on paleontological mis- rule. There seems to be a sort of fatality, after the numerous false identification of half a dozen and probably more different species of Gryphwa, with the G. Pitcheri, to have now the same difficulty of incorrect identification of two, distinct species of Gryphea. It is discouraging in the extreme to see such a succession of blunders during more than forty years. Now a few words on the age and classification of the Belvi- dere section and other outcrops in Kansas. Professor Chas. 8. Prosser gives a very good account of the strata under consideration, in vol. ii of the Kansas Geological Survey, although he also falls into the error of calling the new Gryphea Kansana, of the top of the Belvidere section, Gryphea Tucumcari. Above the New Red sandstone forma- tion of the plains south of the Arkansas River, lies in dis- cordance of stratification a sandstone, called by Professor Cragin “the Cheyenne sandstone,” of a thickness of about 50 to 60 feet. No characteristic fossils have yet been found in it. In fact fossils are very rare, only a few shells referred with doubt to Avicula and Cucullea having been found, and these so poorly preserved that Mr. Stanton has declined “ to identify them even generically.” In the upper part of the Cheyenne sandstone, a small flora, eight species, has been determined by Professor Knowlton, who says: ‘“‘ That up to the present time the dicotyledons from the Cheyenne sandstone are not known outside of the Dakota formation,” that is to say the base of the 204. = =S. Marcou—Jura and Neocomian of Arkansas, Upper Cretaceous or Cenomanian of Enrope. No conclusion can be drawn from such a meagre florula. A Cycade, called Cycladoidea munita by Cragin, recalls the Cycade of the Purbeck beds of the island of Portland in England. As to the impossibility of having dicotyledonous plants in the Jura, as has been insisted upon by my adversaries, it is a very haz- ardous supposition without any solid basis to rest upon. The great number of species of dicotyledonous plants of the rich flora of the Dakota formation, indicates that we must expect to find dicotyledonous plants far below that formation; and to say that dicotyledonous plants did not exist during the Jurassic period, is merely a supposition, based on negative proof; a very uncertain, questionable basis to rest upon in our time of belief in evolution as well of plants as of animals. After the ill success of the great paleobotanist Oswald Heer, in the use of negative proof, to deny the existence of dicotyledonous plants in the Cretaceous of America, it is rather strange to see paleobotanists in America falling into the same error. As the Cheyenne sandstone does not exist everywhere in Kansas, where the Neocomian, called Kiowa shales, is seen, as in Central Kansas, McPherton and Saline Counties; and as at Comet Creek, the Neocomian, with G. Rameri, rests in such places directly on the New Red sandstone rocks, it is most prob- able that it belongs to the Jurassic period, and is an eastern prolongation of the yellow and white sandstone of Pyramid Mount. It has the same lithology with brilliant colors, as noted by Professor O. C. Marsh, and future researches will decide its real and exact geological age. A great desideratum is the careful examination near Belvidere of the contact of the Cheyenne sandstone with the first three or four beds resting on it. Some sort of discordance, due to erosion and denuda- tion, and perhaps also some little difference in the dip of the strata—a difference which can be only very small considering the almost horizontality of the strata of the plains—may be detected. Of course it will require prolonged research and a very acute practical geological mind, to discover such discord- ance. But I hope that some day the work will be undertaken. For me such a discovery is only a question of time. So far the discordance may be looked for between No. 6 and No. 7 of Mr. Hill’s section. The Kiowa shales of Professor Cragin, so well described by Messrs. Cragin and Prosser, represent the Neocomian or Lower Cretaceous in Kansas, from No. 7 of the Belvidere section up; below they may be Jurassic. Oklahoma.—The Comet Creek bed, as it is called by Mr. Hill, is not composed “of a single stratum of Grypheza lime- stone, five feet thick,” as he says (this Journal, vol. 1, p. 228); but of five strata or beds, which are described in my “ Field Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico and Texas. 205 notes,” published in vol. ili, Pacific Railroad Explorations, p. 131. Another example of want of exactness in quotation in Mr. Hill.* ! The Tucumeari region.—lt seems superfluous for me to speak again of my researches; but Mr. Hill’s paper obliges me to state more forcibly, if possible, all the facts on which I have founded my conclusions that the Jura exists in this region. The only section I was able to see and make during my very short stay of only 24 hours, the 21st and 22d of Sept., 1853, owing to the rapidity of our military march, was at an isolated peak west of the Big Tucumeari Mount, which I have called Pyramid Mount. Since the name has been used in the map of Lieutenant A. W. Whipple’s expedition, and on my geolog- ical map of New Mexico, its geographical position is well established. I chose that hill on account of its complete isola- tion, and also because,. after looking carefully through a spy- glass at the whole surroundings of Plaza Larga, I thought that the beds seemed better exposed to view and would afford me a good section. In this I was not disappointed, for as soon as I reached the foot of the hill, I had before me a most perfect geological section, almost like a wall; with every bed finely in view and accessible. I took the right side of the wall section, and carefully noted every thing I saw. As I have repeatedly published this section, I shall not give it again, only I would say that I did not see any mark of discordance of stratification by break or erosion between the beds of the New Red sand- stone and the Jurassic formation. The bed of blue clay, above the yellow and white sandstone, containing near its base the Gryphea Tucumcarw and Ostrea Marshii, is fully in view. Before reaching the bed of Gryphea, I failed to find in the sandstone a single fossil. Above the blue clay with Gryphea Tucumcari, 30 feet thick, there is 52 feet of yellowish and white limestone. In this limestone a few G. Tucumcari were seen, also one or two not well preserved shells of lamelli- branchiee. I nowhere found the Ammonites (Schlanbachia) Shumardi, even the smallest fragment. And from the nature of the rubbish (débris) at the foot of the wall of that section, which I examined with great care, I can say, that it is my conviction * To finish with misquotations, I give the following foot note of Mr. Hill’s paper, entitled: ‘‘ A question of classification ” (Science, vol iv, No. 103, p. 918, Dec. 18, 1896): ‘‘ With the exception of Prof. Jules Marcou, who originally maintained that the Middle and Lower Cretaceous of Texas and the Plain Tertiary were Jurassic, and who still maintains the Jurassic age of the Middle Cretaceous beds of New Mexico and the Lower Cretaceous of Texas. This position has been disproved by research.” It is sufficient for me to give it without comment, for seldom has an adversary been cited so inexactly or his researches so incorrectly used. 206. JS. Marcou—Jura and Neocomian of Arkansas, that the A. Shumardi does not exist anywhere at Pyramid Mount; therefore its stratigraphic position in the Tucumeari region must be above the last bed of white limestone, seen at the top of Pyramid Mount. This remark is of great impor- tance, for Professor A. Hyatt, in his exploration of another part of the Tucumcari region, insists that he has found the A. Shumardi in company with Gryphea Tucumeari. However great may be my respect and sympathy for Professor Hyatt, and though I fully acknowledge his great authority on cephal- opods, regarding him as one of the few masters on everything touching Ammonites, Nautilus, Lrtuites, etc., I cannot refrain from expressing my doubt in regard to his finding A. Shumardi is the same layer, side by side with G. Tucumcari. That Professor Hyatt saw the Ammonites very near the Gryphea, I have no doubt; but i am sure the Ammonite must be above, even if only a few inches separate them. If the G. Tucumcaria exists above the A. Shumardi, and this is a well established fact, which can be easily proved by a careful and exact strati- graphist ; then A. Shumardz, as I have said, is a Jurassic species, notwithstanding that it belongs to the genus Schlen- bachia, which in that case made its appearance in America earlier than in Europe.* That beds found «at other parts of the Tucumcari region, lying above the two feet of white limestone of the top of Pyramid Mount, belong to the Lower Cretaceous or Neoco- mian is very probable, but [ am not to be criticised for not find- - ing them, for they do not oceur at my section of Pyramid Mount. I found there only the Jura and I followed all the rules of stratigraphic classification, in referring the strata of Pyramid Mount to the American Jurassic formation. I saw clearly when I was on the top of Pyramid Mount, that on the mesa or plateau of the Llano Estacado, more especially toward the east, at Monte Revuelto, there was another series of strata capping the Jura of Pyramid Mount and consequently * In my paper, ‘‘The Jura of Texas” (Proceed. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 27, p. 155), I say that Professor A. Hyatt has found at the Tucumeari region the Ammonites (Schlenbachia) Shumardi with the Gryphea Tucumcarii, “and there is therefore no doubt possibie in regard to the contemporaneity of the A. Shumardi and the G. Tucumcari.” Messrs. Dumble and Cummins in their Kent section (American Geologist, vol. xii, 1893, pp. 309-314), also regard the . Iodie Acid, in the absence of Potassium Iodide. NaSe203 taken. HIO; introduced. Mean value. Variation. em’, cm?, em?, em?. ( 1) 6 28°13 | 0°19— ( 2) 6 27°79 | 0°53— ( 3) 6 28°08 0:29— 4 6 98°32) «| ) 0°00 6 28°32 r Boe 0°00 ( 6) 6 A Sil Soa 0°39 + ( 7) 6 28°83 | O°s1+ ( 8) 6 28°43 J O°-ll + ( 9) 4 18°94 i] 0°26+ 10 4 18°67 | } 0:01— an 4 18°50 r Lobe 0°18— (2) 4 18°60 y} 0:08 — These experiments indicate that the constancy of the end reaction in different titrations of equal volumes of the same solution depends to a certain degree on the volume of sodium thiosulphate taken. The results in the case of the maximum amounts vary within a range of 1:04, which corresponds to ee & ~~ 240 C. F. Walker— Titration of Sodium 0:0035 grm. of iodic acid, while the average variation is 0:25, corresponding to 00009 grm. The variation in the analyses of the smaller amounts is less, the range being 0:44°™*, correspond- ing to 0:0015 grm., and the average variation being 0°13°™*, or 00005 grm. The probable error which these irregularities — would introduce in any series of practical analyses by this method is obviously greater than can ordinarily be permitted in iodometric work. The experiments detailed in Table IV were performed exactly similarly to those of the last series except that two grams of potassium iodide were added to the sodium thiosul- phate before the titration was commenced. TABiE ITV: Variation of the End Reaction between Sodium Thiosulphate and = lodic Acid, in the presence of Potassium Iodide. Na.S.03 taken. HIO; introduced. Mean value. Variation. em3, ems, em?, em?, ( 1) 6 32°58 | 0°05 + ( 2) 6 32°45 | 0°03 — 3) 6 S201 pe O19 + 4) 6 32°37 f teas O11 — ( 5) 6 32°36 | 0°12— ( 6) 6 32°50 J 0°02 + ( 7) 4 22°30 | O°ll+ 8) 4 21:98 |! . 0°21— 9) 4. Paps a | r aoe 0:02— (10) 4 22°30 J O:ll+ These experiments indicate plainly that in the presence of potassium iodide the end reaction of different titrations of equal volumes of the same solution is practically independent of the amount taken for analysis. The results in the case of the maximum amounts vary within a range of 0°31°™*, or 00011 grm. of iodie acid, while the average variation is 0-09", corresponding to 0:0003 grm. The variation in the analyses of the smaller amounts is practically the same as that of the larger, the range being 0°32°"*, corresponding to 0:0011 grm., and the average variation being 0°11°™’, or 0:0004 grm. It is therefore evident that the presence of potassium iodide in the sodium thiosulphate to be titrated will bring the variation of the forma- tion of the reading tint within permissible limits. A series of experiments was made to determine the nature and effect of the “after coloration” observed to take place when a solution of sodium thiosulphate, free from potassium iodide, was titrated with iodic acid to blue coloration, and then bleached with sodium thiosulphate. The titrations were per- Thiosulphate with Iodic Acid. 241 formed in the usual manner except that the volume was adjusted just before the addition of the iodic acid, and the iodine that was set free after the formation of the first reading tint was destroyed at fixed intervals with measured amounts of sodium thiosulphate.' The results are given in Table V. TABLE V. Liffect of Dilution and Lapse of Timeon the “ After Coloration.” Na.S.20; HIO; taken. introduced. Na.S.0s3 introduced. Volume. em, em?, em?. em?, -———— OOOO OS ee OO 1iMay 2h. 15min. 45min. 45min. 45min. 20h. Total. ( 1) 6 27°68 0°25 0°13 0°08 000 0:03 0°49 50 ( 2) 6 21-70 0°20 0°10 0°03 O03 0:03) sur39 50 ( 3) 6 28°17 0°16 0°10 0°03 001 none. 0°30 50 ( 4) 6 27°03 0°60 0°26 0:09 U:039 Hone. F0:98a 6150 ( 5) 6 27°60 0:93 0°28 0 06 0:04 004 1:35 . 150 ( 6) 6 28°60 1°34 0°46 0-17 003 O14 214 200 (0) 6 28°85 1°20 0:50 0°28 COG OVS 23 200 ( 8) 6 31°63 1°46 0-74 0°10 OFZ O23 i 2a 250 G9) 6 29°90 1°04 0°60 0°23 O15 0°46 248 250 (10) 6 36°09 1°60 1°23 0°63 0349 0:18". 3:98" e500 (11) 6 37°59 1°65 1°33 0°72 O27 IOs LOLA OT? 2 300 (12) 6 37°23 1:92 1:05 0°64 0°33 a 300 In the experiments with small volumes the evolution of iodine in any considerable quantity ceased after two or three hours, although the solution would become recolored as often as it was bleached for a number of days. The traces of iodine thus set free, however, were seldom equivalent to more than one or two drops of sodium thiosulphate. The larger volumes, however, continued to separate iodine in abundance for a very long time. The amount of iodine thus liberated after the first coloration evidently varies with the amount of iodic acid required for the titration, although not strictly proportional to it. Both of these quantities increase at a regular rate with the volume of the solution. To show with what accuracy the reaction between sodium thiosulphate and iodic acid may be applied to the direct esti- mation of one of these substances by the other, the averaged results of a large number of titrations are compared in Table VI. The operations were conducted as directed by Riegler, equal measured volumes of standardized sodium thiosulphate being titrated with iodic acid of known strength, in the presence of starch and under different conditions of time, dilution and mass, the volume of iodic acid required to pro- duce the blue coloration being in each case compared with the volume theoretically required by the terms of Riegler’s equation. * No observation. o> ~—— Ar — 4 Sa aie See: | 242 O. F. Walker—Titration of Sodiwm Thiosulphate, ete. TasiE VI. Titration of 7. Sodium Thiosulphate with ~ Iodie Acid. ; HIO; ) Na.S.03 HI0; required KI taken. cmigroclaee, by wee Error. Error. present. Volume. em?, cm?. em®. percent. grm em?. (211) + ( 18°68 S, 39 164— 80—- — 50 ( 2) 6 28°32 30°48 216— 70— — 50 ( 3) 6 y 27°32 30°48 316— 70— — 150 ( 4) 6 | 28°73 30°48 175— 60—- — 200 , ( 5) 6 nc Oval 30°48 029+ oO014+ — 250 ( 6) 6 | 36:97 30°48 649+ 21°0+ — 300 (a) 6 (2746 3048 3:02— 100-- — 50 (as) 6 | eI 30°48 4°33—.14:0— — 150 (9) 6 ps 26°50 30°48 3°98— 13:0— — 200 (10) 6 el eel G 30°48 3°32— 100— — 250 (11) 6 | 32°93 30°48 2°454+ 80+ _— 300 (12) 4 ye §.122219 20°32 187+ 90+ 0:2 50 (ie) eG (82:48 80:48 2-004" 70 02 ap These results show plainly that the amount of iodie acid required to decompose a given amount of sodium thiosulphate may be considerably above or below that required by the terms of Riegler’s equation. Thus, with small volumes, and in the absence of potassium iodide, the thiosulphate is destroyed and the separation of iodine commences when only 938 per cent of the theoretical amount of acid has been titrated. At higher dilutions the action is retarded, so that at 250° very nearly the theoretical amount of acid is required to produce the first blue color, and at 300% an excess of 21 per cent over the theoreti- cal amount must be added. If the “after separation ” of iodine is considered to be a measure of the excess of iodic acid, and if its amount is accordingly applied as a correction, it appears that for all volumes below 300° the original thiosulphate i is completely destroyed when about 90 per cent of the theoretical amount of iodic acid has been added. The presence of potas- sium iodide in the system retards the action, so that at small volumes an excess of about 8 per cent of iodie acid must be added to completely destroy the thiosulphate and commence the separation of iodine. It is obvious from the preceding experiments that the reaction between iodic acid and sodium thiosulphate is so indefinite in its nature, and so dependent for its completeness on conditions of time, dilution and mass, that its direct application as a means of standardizing solutions must remain impracticable. The author is indebted to Professor F. A. Gooch for many valuable suggestions during the course of this investigation. * HIO; added to first blue color. + Calculated by subtracting from the. amount of iodic acid originally titrated, the volume of thiosulphate of equal strength required to bleach the solution after standing twenty hours, W. L. Robb—Solarization Lffects, ete. 243 Art. XX VI.—Solarization effects in Rontgen Ray Photo- graphs ; by Wm. LIsPENARD Ross. (With Plates VIII-X.) It has long been well known, that in photographing with ordinary light, in cases of over-exposure, the picture upon development may be a positive instead of a negative. This phenomenon is known as solarization, as it is usually produced by over-exposure in strong sunlight. Also, in case of over- exposures not sufficiently long to produce a reversal of the image, the photographic plate may be so affected as to prevent satistactory development. Some experiments that I have recently made show that sim- ilar effects are produced by the Rontgen rays, and that they have a very important bearing upon the distinctness of photo- graphs taken with these rays, and offer a very simple explana- tion of the halos that so often appear in such photographs. The followmg: apparatus was used in these experiments : The induction coil used was a “Thompson Inductorium ” as manufactured by the General Electric Co., except that a rotary break was substituted for the one furnished with the coil. The rotary break consisted of a solid brass ring 25°" in diameter and 5™ thick. ‘Two slate quadrants, 2°5°" thick, were counter- sunk in the ring. Two copper brushes were arranged so that one was always in contact with the brass and the other alter- nately with the brass and slate sectors. The ring was mounted on the shaft of a 1h. p. motor, making 1800 revolutions per minute, and consequently the primary circuit of the induction coil was made and broken 3600 times per minute. A con- denser having a capacity of six microfarads was connected with the two brushes. This was the largest condenser available ; and it was found that the sparking at the brush, where the cir- cuit was alternately made and broken, was very great, being sufficient to cause great unsteadiness in the illumination of the | screen of a fluoroscope. A very simple method was found for overcoming this unsteadiness. A third brush made of mica was placed so as to be in contact with the break and to form an obtuse angle with the brush at which the sparking occurred. This additional brush prevented the sparking ; and after it was adopted, the illumination of the Huorescent screen was entirely free from flickering. The current in the primary was adjusted in the following experiments so that the coil would give a spark 25°" long. Single focus vacuum tubes were used. The tubes were spherical in form, about 14° in diameter, and the distance between the anode and cathode was about 8°. The tubes used were made by Green & Bauer of Hartford, Con- 244 W. L. Robb—Solarization Hffects in necticut, and by the General Electric Co. at their lamp works at Harrison, N. J. In the absence of any exact method of expressing for any given set of apparatus its power of produc- ing Rontgen rays, the statement that the photograph of a por- tion of a hand reproduced in Plate VIII, fig. 1, was taken with the apparatus just described, will serve to show its character. The time of exposure was 5 seconds and the distance of the hand from the anode 25. Solarization effects were first noticed by the author in connec- tion with the halos surrounding the Rontgen ray photographs of pieces of metal. These halos were in general similar to that shown in Plate VIII, fig. 2, which is a reproduction of the photograph of an aluminum cube, the edge of which was 25. Surrounding the portion of the photographic plate directly under the cube is a band in which the plate was some- what affected by the rays. Just outside of this first band isa second one, in which the effect upon the photographic plate was greater than upon any other part of the plate. This halo is easily explained when we consider that in a single focus tube the Rontgen rays come from a considerable area of the anode and that consequently the shadow of the object is surrounded by a penumbra in which the intensity of the radiation increases from the object outward. If the exposure is sufficient to pro- duce solarization, we should have a band in the penumbra where the effect upon the photographic plate would be a maximum exceeding even the effect upon the part of the plate entirely beyond the shadow. The photograph reproduced in Plate VIII, fig. 2, was taken with fifteen minutes’ exposure at a distance of 15. 3 The experiment was repeated with cubes of iron, copper, paraffin, and glass, all of which gave similar halos. In general, the image on the photographic plate was visible to the eye before being placed in the developer—a phenomenon that accompanies solarization when produced by ordinary light. The following experiments were made in order to prove the correctness of the above explanation and to demonstrate the possibility of a photographic plate becoming solarized by the Rontgen rays. Portions of several plates were covered with pieces of com- mercial tinfoil and then exposed in succession for different times to the action of the Réntgen rays. It was found that with short exposures a negative was obtained, and with long expo- sures the image was reversed; the long exposed plates giving a positive when developed. Plate IX, figs. land 2, and Plate X, fig. 1, are reproductions of photographs obtained when a por- tion of the photographic plate was covered with one layer of commercial tinfoil about 5° square and 0-0015™ thick, and Leéntgen Lay Photographs. 245 the central portion of this layer was covered with thirty-two _additional layers of the same foil about 2°8°™ square. Plate IX, fig. 1, shows the result when the plate was exposed for 2°5 minutes; fig. 2, when exposed for 5 minutes, and Plate X, fig. 1, when exposed for 15 minutes. These photographs show that with a short exposure, the portion of the plate covered with a single layer of tinfoil was less affected than the uncovered portion of the plate. When the time of exposure was increased, the shadow of the single layer of tinfoil would only be noticed on the negative by careful inspection, and might easily escape detection. In the case of the longest expos- ure, where the portion of the plate covered with the single layer of the tinfoil is most affected, we have a reversal of the image and a clear case of solarization. Experiments were also made with photographic plates par- tially covered with an aluminum cone having an altitude of 1:25" and a base 5°" in diameter. When the exposure was short, the uncovered portion of the plate was most affected. When the plate was placed ata distance of 15° and exposed for 5 minutes, the effect reproduced in Plate X, fig. 2, was obtained. In this case, the portion of the plate under the edge of the cone was most affected. When the time of exposure was increased to 15 minutes, all of the plate covered by the cone was affected more than the uncovered portion, and again we have a rever- sal of the image and a clear case of solarization. Seed, Kramer crown, and Carbutts’ special X-ray plates, and various developers were tried and found to give similar results. Carbutts’ X-ray plates and Carbutts’ tabloids for developer were used in making the photographs for the accompanying illustrations. These experiments seem to prove conclusively the possibility of photographic plates becoming solarized by Rontgen rays. This is interesting as adding one more to the properties possessed in common by these rays and ordinary light. Solari- zation offers a simple explanation of many of the halo effects observed in Rontgen ray photographs. The most important conclusion to be derived from these experiments is the neces- sity of carefully timing exposures if we are to obtain good con- trasts, much of the indistinctness in Rontgen ray photographs being due to over-exposure rather than to under-exposure. I desire to express my obligation to Columbia University for the very material assistance given me in carrying on these experiments by placing at my disposal the income of the Barnard Fellowship. Jarvis Physical Laboratory, Trinity College, Hartford, Conn., July 24th, 1897. Am. Jour. Sc1.—Fourts Serizs, Vou. IV, No. 21.—Sept., 1897. : Wi «1 246 J. B. Hatcher—Cape Fairweather Beds. Art. XX VIIl.—The Cape Fairweather Beds ; a new marine Tertiary Horizon im Southern Patagonia; by J. B. HATCHER. In July, 1896, the writer discovered near Cape Fairweather, in south latitude about 51° 31’, a series of marine beds with a fairly abundant invertebrate fauna, overlying the fresh water Santa Cruzian beds, which are well represented in this vicinity and contain abundant remains of fossil mammals. _ It is pro- posed to call these deposits the Cape Fairweather beds from the name of the cape near which they were first observed. Going north along the shore, from the mouth of the Gallegos river, the Cape Fairweather beds are first seen at a distance of about two and a half miles, capping the summit of a high tableland on the north side of a rather deep cafion, which empties into the sea from the west. From this point these beds were traced six or eight miles farther north, along the bluffs of the coast; and were seen to extend for some distance westward into the interior, constituting the summit of the higher tablelands. In most places, where present, they are easily recognized by the remains of a large oyster, frag- ments of which may be seen in great abundance near the sum- mit of the more precipitous bluffs in this vicinity. They are best represented on Rudd’s farm, but are also to be seen on the bluff southeast of Mr. Jose Monte’s farmhouse, some six miles inland, though not well displayed. The Cape Fairweather beds have been deposited upon the eroded surface of the Santa Cruzian beds, as shown by the accompanying section, which was drawn from asketch made in the field, and represents very accurately the section of the two series of strata on the north side of the cafion above referred to from the top of the tableland, which is reached at z, to the level of high tide represented by the line a—d. The bluff here, as almost everywhere along this coast, is quite perpendicular, and the color, composition and relations of the various strata are easily seen. The irregular line c—d is the line of contact between the two series of beds and shows well the eroded surface of the lower series upon which the upper beds were deposited. These new marine deposits are of no very great thickness, so far as observed, only 30 to 40 feet. They consist below of a fine-grained, incoherent sandstone; and above, of a rather coarse, usually loose, but in places, extremely hard conglomer- ate which passes insensibly into the overlying great Pata- gonian Shingle formation, from which it can only be distin- J. B. Hatcher—Cape Fairweather Beds. 247 guished by the fossils it contains. Both the sandstones and conglomerates are fairly continuous, but the latter are frequently intruded into the former, and the sandstones some- times entirely replace the conglomerates. In both, marine invertebrates are quite abundant, and according to Professor Henry A. Pilsbry they point to a Pliocene age for the beds. wena es Bea a ee BS Sa CS ee Fresh -water 33IO~ = S550 ONT TT 98 85 85 eS eS eo ee Te +s SS SS ES OO OO eee Oe ee oe ee SS = Soo oe oO a a so a a as 8S OS Oe eo ee oo asta => S232 2S SS SS 38 OS These beds are of interest as being the first instance of a marine formation overlying the fresh water Santa Cruzian formation, in regard to the age of which there has been so much doubt; unfortunately, however, they promise to be of little service in determining the age of the latter. It is quite probable that they may aid in correlating certain marine beds of Parana, discovered long ago and referred by Darwin, D’Orbigny and others to the Patagonian beds, but now known to be of much more recent origin. At present I believe them the equivalent of those beds discovered by Dar- win in northeastern Tierra del Fuego and provisionally referred by him to the mammalian beds (Santa Cruzian beds) 248 J. B. Hatcher—Cape Hairweather Beds. discovered by Captain Fitzroy at the mouth of the Gallegos river and believed by Darwin to be more recent than the Patagonian beds. As evidence in favor of correlating the Cape Fairweather beds with those reported by Darwin in Tierra del Fuego, I may mention that in the former there are fragments of crab legs very similar to those found in the bluffs of San Sebastian bay; also the fact that all the Tertiary strata in this region dip very gently to the southeast, so that in going from north to south along the coast the different horizons appear at the level of the sea in chronological order. Near the Mt. of Observation, south of the Santa Cruz river, we find at sea level and for some distance above the Patagonian beds overlaid by the Santa Cruzian beds. Farther south, at Coy inlet, the Patagonian beds entirely disappear under the sea, and the Santa Cruzian beds are at the water level, and still farther south at Cape Fairweather they are overlaid by the Cape Fairweather beds; while at San Sebastian bay on the east coast of Tierra del Fuego the Santa Cruzian beds have disappeared below the sea and the Cape Fairweather beds alone are represented. A study of the Cape Fairweather beds may also afford important evidence as to the origin of the numerous salt water lakes in southern Patagonia; and as to the age, origin and distribution of the great Shingle formation of this region. These and other questions will be considered in a more exhaustive paper on the general geology of the country visited. Princeton University, Aug. 2, 1897. Natural History. 249 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. NAtTuURAL HIsToRY. 1. The New Series of Contributions from the Gray Her- barium of Harvard University, No. XJ, by Mr. J. M. Green- MAN, deals with the Mexican and Central American species of Houstonia, being a revision of these. It contains also a Key to the Mexican species of Ziabum, and Descriptions of more than forty new or little known plants from Mexico. Two new genera are added. G. L. G. 2. Synoptical Flora of North America, Vol. 1, Part I, Fas- cicle II, contains critical descriptions of the North American species from Caryophyllacee to the Polygalacee ; by Asa GRay, LL.D., continued and edited by Bensamin Lincotn Roprnson, Ph.D., Curator of the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University, with the collaboration of Witt1Am TRreELEAss, Se.D., Director of the Missouri Botanical Garden; Jonn M. Couurer, Ph.D., Pro- fessor of Botany in the University of Chicago; and L. H. Bairey, M.Sc., Professor of Horticulture in Cornell University. A succinct statement which accompanies this welcome publica- tion, shows exactly how the work stands at present. From this we learn that “of the Synoptical Flora, Professor Gray pub- lished in 1878 and 1884, two parts including all the Gamopeta- lous Orders. These parts were reissued by the Smithsonian Insti- tution in 1886, and amount to nearly 1000 imperial octavo pages. For some time before his death Professor Gray, continuing the work, was engaged in monographing the earlier Polypetalous Orders. After the death of Professor Gray the preparation of the Synoptical Flora was carried on by Dr. Sereno Watson, and then by his successor, Dr. B. L. Robinson. “Following the original plan of the Flora, the treatment of the Polypetalous Orders will form, when completed, Volume I, Part I. Of this portion of the work the first fascicle, comprising the seventeen Orders from Ranunculacee to Frankeniacee, inclu- Sive, was issued Oct. 10,1895. The second fascicle now before us carries the work up to Polygalacez, and a third, to include the Leguminose, is now in preparation by Dr. Robinson.” Botanists appreciate sincerely the careful work which char- acterizes this joint treatise. Dr. Robinson has spared no pains to keep the Flora on the high plane of Professor Gray’s critical investigations, and he has received valuable aid from his distinguished collaborators. We think that the editor has been wise in adhering to the lines laid down by his predecessors. The limitations are here and there occasionally felt perhaps to be rather too strict, but the result has been on the whole far more satisfactory than would have been a complete or even partial overturn. Dr. Robinson and his coadjutors are carrying out the plan in a manner which must commend itself to all who know the circumstances of the case. G. L. G. ts 250 Scientific [ntelligence. 3. An Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States, Can- ada, and the British Possessions, from Newfoundland to the Parallel of the Southern Boundary of Virginia, and from the Atlantic Ocean westward to the 102d Meridian; by NatTHantIEL Lorp Britron, Ph.D., Emeritus Professor of Botany i in Colum- bia University, and Director in Chief of the New York Botanical Garden, and Hon. Appison Brown, President of the Torrey Botanical Club. The descriptive text chiefly prepared by Pro- fessor Britton, with the assistance of specialists in several groups ; the figures also drawn under his supervision. In three volumes. Vol. II. Portulacaceze to Menyanthacee. Portulaca to Buck- bean. Charles Scribner’s Sons. 1897. The first volume of this work has been already noticed in this Journal. To what was then said, nothing need now be added in regard to the second volume, except further congratulations to the authors on their success in giving to Botanists a useful treatise at a very reasonable price. They maintain in the present volume the high character of typographical execution which made the first volume so attractive. The work is progressing steadily ; the final volume being promised for early winter. G. L. G. 4. Guide to the Genera and Classification of the North Ameri- can Orthoptera found north of Mexico ; by Samurt H. ScuppER. (Cambridge, Edw. H. Wheeler), pp. 1-89, 1897.—This conve- nient little set of tables for the identification of Orthoptera was prepared for the use of students, and.is but preliminary to a fuller general work on the classification of the group. Although containing references only to data already published or about to be published, the tables include nearly two hundred genera. 5. Das Tierreich. Eine Zusammenstellung und Kennzeichnung der rezenten Tierformen. 1 Lief. Aves. Redakt., A. Reichenow. Podargide, Caprimulgide u. Macropterygide ; bearb. von Ernst Harrert, pp. 1-98, figs. 1-16. Berlin, 1897. (R. Fried- lander & Sohn.) Il. MIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. American Association for the Advancement of Science.— The forty-sixth meeting of the American Association was held at Detroit, from August 9 to 14. The President of the meeting was Dr. Wolcott Gibbs of Newport. The senior vice-president, Prof. Theodore Gill of Washington, who took the place of the retiring president, the late Prof. E. D. Cope, delivered an able address upon Prof. Cope’s life and work. Addresses were also delivered by the vice-presidents of the several sections. Nearly three hun- dred members and associates were in attendance. The list of papers was considerably larger than at the last meeting. The fact that the British Association was to assemble at Toronto on August 18 gave especial interest to the occasion. The place selected for the next meeting of the Association—its fiftieth anniversary—is Boston and Prof. F. W. Putnam was Miscellaneous Intelligence. 251 elected President. The Vice-Presidents chosen for the several sections are as follows: Section A, EK. E. Barnard, of Chicago ; Section B, Frank P. Whitman, of Cleveland; Section C, Edgar F. Smith, of Philadelphia; Section D, M. E. Cooley, of Ann Arbor; Section E, H. L. Fairchild, of Rochester; Section F, A. §. Packard, of Providence; Section G, W. G. Farlow, of Cambridge; Section H, J. McKeen Cattell, of New York City; Section I, Archibald Blue, of Toronto. Mr. L. O. Howard, of Washington, D. C., was elected Permanent Secretary. The following is a list of the papers accepted for reading : SEcTION A. Mathematics and Astronomy. R. S. WoopwaRD: Modification of Eulerian cycle due to inequality of the equatorial moments of inertia of the earth. Integrations of the equations of rota- tion of a non-rigid mass for the case of equal principal moments of inertia. A. MACFARLANE: A new. method of solving certain differential equations that occur in mathematical physics. The theory of quadratic eq uations. T. H. SArrorD: Psychology of the personal equation. G. A. MILLER: The simple isomorphism of a substitution group into itself. ARTEMAS MARTIN: On rational right triangles. No. I. VIRGIL SNYDER: Condition that the line common to n-1 planes in an x-space may lie on a given quadric surface in the same space. J. B. Saw: Communicative metrices. H. B. Newton: Continuous groups of spherical transformations in space. A. G. GREENHILL: Stereoscopic views of spherical catenaries and gyroscopic curves. F. H. BigELow: The importance of adopting standard systems of notation and coordinates in mathematics and physics. L. A. BAUER: On the secular motion of the earth’s magnetic axis. Simple expressions for the diurnal range of the magnetic declination. R. D. BOHANNAN: Remarkable complete quadrilateral among the Pascal lines of an inscribed six-point of a conic. J. W. GLOVER: General theorems concerning a certain case of functions deduced from the properties of the Newtonian potential function. W. H. METZLER: Compound determinants. W.S. AUCHINCLOSS: Waters within the earth, and laws of rainflow. E. O. Lovett: The theory of perturbations and Lie’s theory of contact trans- formations. JAMES McMauon: Some results in integration expressed by the elliptic inte- grals. W. F. Duranp: The treatment of differential equations by approximate methods. SEcTION B. Physics. F, P. WHITMAN and Mary C. Noyrss: Effect of heat on the elastic limit and ultimate strength of copper wire. A. L. FoLey: Arc spectra. C. F. Brush: Transmission of radiant heat by gases at varying pressures. Measurement of small gaseous pressures. D. C. Minter: Electrical conductivity of certain specimens of sheet glass with reference to their fitness for use in static generators. W. A. Rogers: Final determination of the relative lengths of the Imperial yard of Great Britain and the métre des archives. S. J. Barnett: Influence of time and temperature on the absolute rigidity of quartz fibers. C. D. Cuitp: Discharge of electrified bodies by X-rays. F. P. WHITMAN: On the brightness of pigmented surfaces under various sources of illumination. 252 Scientific Intelligence. H. S. CARHART: The design, construction and test of a 1250-Watt transformer. K. E. GutHe: Electrolytic action in a condenser. H. T. Eppy: Graphical treatment of alternating currents in branch circuits in cases of variable frequency. A. MACFARLANE: On simple non-alternating currents. L. A. BAUER: Magnetic survey of Maryland R. L. Lircu: New method of determining the specific heat of liquids. G. L. Mover and F, BEDELL: Instruments for determining the frequency of an alternating current. W. J. HuMpHREYS: Effect of pressure on the wave-lengths of the lines of the emission spectra of the elements. C. L. Norton: New form of coal calorimeter. C. R. Cross: Notes on the recent history of musical pitch in the U. 8. F. A. Laws: New form of harmonic analyzer. N. E. Dorsey: Determination of the surface tension of water, and of certain aqueous solutions, by means of the method of ripples. F. H. BigeLow: Series of international cloud observations made by the U.S. Weather Bureau, and their relation to meteorological problems. C. F. Marvin: Kites and their use by the Weather Bureau in explorations of the upper air. B. B. BRACKETT: Effects of tension and quality of the metal upon the changes in length produced in iron wires by magnetization. K. W. Moruey and D. C. MILLER: On the coefficient of expansion of certain gases. K. F. Nicnous: Note on the construction of a sensitive radiometer. E. L. NicHous and EK. Merritt: Photograph of manometric flames. G. W. PATTERSON, JR.: Electrostatic capacity of a two-wire cable. C. P. STEINMETZ; Screening effect of induced currents in solid magnetic bodies in an alternating field. CaRL Barus: Rate at which hot glass absorbs superheated water. Method of obtaining capillary canals of specified diameter. F. BEDELL, R. E. CHANDLER and R. H. SHERWOOD, JR.: Predetermination of transformer regulation. W. R. WuHitney: An electrical thermostat. W. O. ATWATER and E B. Rosa: Apparatus for testing the law of conserva- tion of energy in the human body. EK. B. Rosa and A. W. Smita: Electrical resonance and dielectric hysteresis. MARGARET EK. MAutTBy: Method for the determination of the period.of electrical oscillations and other applications of the same. C. P. MATTHEWS: Two methods of measuring mean horizontal candle power. SECTION C. Chemistry. A. B. Prescott: Alkyl bismuth iodides. Kola tannin. J. U. Ner: Chemistry of methylene. P. C. FREER: Action of sodium on methylpropylketon and on acetophenon. Constitution of some hydrazones. A. W. BURWELL: Decomposition of heptane and octane at high temperatures. F, J. Ponp and F. F. Beers: Derivatives of euganol. EK. W. Moruey: Determination of the volatility of phosphorus pentoxide. L. M. DENNIS: Recent progress in analytical chemistry. New form of dis- charger for spark spectra of solutions. A. L. GREEN: Qualitative analysis: a point in teaching that was not a full success. ELLEN H. RicHarps: A new color standard for use in water analysis. Contri- butions from the laboratory of water analysis. L. M. DENNIS and C. G. EpGar: Comparison of methods of determining carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. EK. D. CAMPBELL and F, THOMPSON: Preliminary thermo-chemical study of iron and steel. EK. D. CAMPBELL and §. ©. Bascock: Influence of heat treatment and carbon upon the solubility of phosphorus in steel. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 253 K, H. 8. BAtLEY: Chemical composition of cement plaster. KH. A. DEBAR: Decomposition of halogen-substituted acetic acids. H. Pooue: Determination of fat and casein in feces, ©. BASKERVILLE and F. W. MILLER: Reactions between mercury and concen- trated sulphuric acid. Harry SnypDeEr: Position in the periodic law of the important elements found in plant and animal bodies. L. KAHLENBERG and A. T. Lincotn: Solutions of silicates of the alkalies. H. P. Capy and EH. H.S8. Barney: Electrical conductivity and electrolysis of certain substances dissolved in liquid ammonia. A. A. Norges and W. R. Wuitnry: The rate of solution of solid substances in their own solutions. W. R. WHITNEY: Stereometric measurement of the velocity of a reaction. R. C. KEDZIE: Some contributions to methods of testing flour. Leon LABONDE: Distillation in general. M. D. Sonon: An electrical laboratory stove. H. W. Witey: Recent progress in agricultural chemistry. H. W. Witey and W. D. BicgeLow: Calculations of calorimetric equivalents of agricultural products from chemical analysis. W. H. Krue and H. W. WILEY: Solubility of pentosans. C. B. CocHRaANn: Detection of foreign fats in butter and lard. F. D. Stmons: Action of certain bodies on the digestive ferments, EK. A. DE SCHWEINITZ: Bacteriological products of hog cholera and swine plague. Wm. MoMourtriz: Recent progress in industrial chemistry. H. C. Botton: Annual report on indexing chemical literature. K. EH. EwELu: A continuously revised compendium of chemistry. Section D. Mechanical Science and Engineering. W.S. Aupricu: Development of engiveering industries by scientific research. F. P. Spaupine: The cement Jaboratory as a field for investigation. R. C. CARPENTER: Effects of temperature on the strength of steel Properties of aluminum alloys. F. R. Jones: Theories of some planimeters without the aid of calculus. D. P. Topp: Engineering conditions connected with the mounting of in- struments used in eclipse expeditions. D. 8. JAcosus: Flue gas analysis in boiler tests. H. 8. CaARHART: Universal alternator for laboratory purposes. W. HE. GoLtpsBorRouGH: Calculation of energy lost in armature cores. W. A. Rogers: Production of X-rays by means of Planté accumulator. J. B. Jounson: Definition of elastic limit for practical purposes. M. EK. Cooutny: New apparatus for testing indicator springs. W. F. M. Goss: Effect of spark losses on the efficiency of locomotives. THOMAS GRAY: Machine for measuring friction under heavy pressures. J.J. FLATHER: New formula for determining the width of leather-belting. Graphical solution of belting problems Section E. Geology and Geography. F, W. Simonns: The Granite Mountain area of Burnet County, Texas. W.H. SHerzer: Exposures near Detroit of Helderberg limestones and asso- ciated gypsum salt and sandstones. R. T. Hitt: Nomenclature of the Carboniferous formation of Texas. BAILEY WILLIS: Stratigraphy and structure of the Puget group, Washington. J. U. UNDEN: The loess as a land deposit. EDWARD ORTON: Ice-transported bowlders in coal seams. W.S. GREsLEY: Clay-veins vertically intersecting Coal Measures. J. W. SPENCER: Analogy between declivities of land and submarine valleys. Great changes of level in Mexico and the inter-oceanic connections. An account of the researches relating to the Great Lakes. H. F. Osporn: The geological age and fauna of the Huverfano basin in southern Colorado. 254 Scientific Intelligence. FRANK LEVERETT: Lake Chicago and the Chicago outlet. F. B. Taytor: The lower abandoned beaches of southeastern Michigan. Some features of the recent geology around Detroit. G. K. GinBeRT: Recent earth-movements in the Great Lake region. H. L. FArrRcHILp: Pre-glacial topography and drainage of central-western New York. T. C. CHAMBERLIN: Supplementary hypothesis respecting the origin of the American loess. F. H. NEWELL: Progress of hydrographic investigations by the U. S. Geologi- cal Survey. T. C. HopKins: Stylolites. W.N. Rice: Suggestion in regard to the theory of volcanoes. H. P. PARMELEE: Ores and minerals of Cripple Creek, Colorado. R. P. WHITFIELD: Observations on the genus Barrattia. M. A. VEEDER: Ice jams and what they accomplish in geology. A. C. LANE: Notes on the geology of the lower peninsula of Michigan. Lower Carboniferous of Huron County, Michigan. . Section F. Zoology.* THEODORE (tILL: On the relationships of the Nematognaths. H. 8. OsBory: Skeletons and restoration of Tertiary Mammalia. Reconstruc- tion of Phenacodus primevus. Modifications and variations and the limits of organic selection. H. C. OBERHOLSER: Geographical distribution of the golden warblers. W. KE. HOYLE: Collection of the Cephalopoda from the Albatross expedition. B.T. Kixcssury: Characters ofthe brains of Nematognaths and Plectospondyls. C. S. Minot: Notes on the embryology of the pig. Harvard embryological col- lection. H. G. HUBBARD: The insect fauna Cercus giganteus. C. C. Nuttine: Sarcostyles of the Plumularide. F. M. WEBSTER: Study of the development of Drasteria erecta. Brood XVI of Cicada Septendecim. W. G. JoHNxson: Notes on some little known insects of economic importance. P. H. Rotrs: Fungus diseases of the San José scales. H. K. KikKLAND: On the preparation and use of arsenate of lead. C. P. GILLETTE: Vernacular names of insects. A _ successful lantern trap. An unusual outbreak of certain plant-lice in Colorado. The peach-twig borer (Anarsia lineatella Zell.). C. L. MarLAtt: Notes on insecticides. F. M. WEBSTER and C. W. Matty: Insects of the year. F. H. CHITTENDEN: The bean-leaf beetle (Cerotoma triturcata. Forst.) Notes on certain species of Coleoptera that attack useful plants. On insects that affect asparagus. . T. D. A. COCKERELL: An experience with Paris green. F. W. Gopine: Ledra perdita versus Centruchus Liebeckit. J. M. AuprIcH: The pine butterfly of the Pacific Northwest. W. B. Barrows: The present status of the San José scale in Michigan. The malodorous carabid Nomius pygmeus. C. L. MARLATT: The peach-twig borer (Anarsia lineatella.) L. O. Howarb: Temperature experiments as affecting received ideas on the hibernating of injurious insects. ‘A valuable coceid. Additional observations on the parasites of Orgyia leucostigma. Remarks on the distribution of scale insect parasites PavuL MArcHAL: Notes on injurious insects in France during the season of 1896-7. Notes on injurious insects observed in Algeria and Tunis, in 1896-7. N. M. ScHoron: Notes relating to some of the more important noxious insects in Sweden. C. P. Lounspury: Notes on a few injurious insects which have attracted special attentuon at the Cape of Good Hope during the year. * Including papers read before the Association of Economie Entomologists. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 255 Section G. Botany. C. A. Davis: Trilliwm grandiflorum (Michx.) Salisb.; its variations, normal and teratological. B. J. Durand: Discussion of the structural characters of the order Pezizine of Schroeter. K. EK. WIEGAND: Taxonomic value of fruit characters in the genus Galium. C. EK. Bessey: Report upon the progress of the botanical survey of Nebraska. Some characteristics of the foothill vegetation of western Nebraska. Are the trees receding from the Nebraska plains? B. T. GALLOWAY: Changes during winter in the perithecia and ascospores of certain Hrysiphew. The Hrysiphee of North America. A preliminary account of the distribution of the species. L. R. Jones: Some contributions to the life-history of Haematococcus. A. K. Woops: Bacteriosis of carnations. K. F. SmitH: Walker’s hyacinth bacterium. G. F. ATKinson: Notes on some new genera of fungi. Comparison of the pollen of Pinus, Taxus and Peltandra. C. A. PETERS: Reproductive organs and embryology of Drosera. J. O. SCHLOTTERBECK: Development of some seed coats. J. H. ScHUETTE: Contributions on wild and cultivated roses of Wisconsin and bordering States. Fanny EK. Lanapon: Morphology of the flower of Asclepias cornuti. BoHUMIL SHIMEK: On the distribution of starch in woody stems. J. B. Pottock: Mechanism of root curvature. R. H. TRuE and C. G. HunKeEw: The toxic action of phenols on plants. F. C. NewcomBe: Cellulose-ferment. C. P. Hart: Is the characteristic acridity of certain species of the arum family a mechanical or a physiological property or effect ? W. J. BEAL: How plants flee from their enemies. A. P. ANDERSON: Stomata on the bud-seales of Abies pectinata. Comparative anatomy of the normal and diseased organs of Abies balsamea (L.) Miller, affected with Aecidiwum elatinum (Alb. et Schwein). New and improved self-registering balance. C. O. TOWNSEND: Correlation of growth under the influence of injuries. W.W. ROWLEE and K. EK. WIEGAND: The botanical collection of the Cornell Arctic expedition of 1896. EK. F. Smita: Description of Bacillus phaseoli n. sp., with some remarks on related species. On the nature of certain pigments, produced by fungi and bac- teria with special reference to that produced by Bacillus solanacearum. D. H. CAMPBELL: Notes on Jamaica. Section H. Anthropology. ZELIA NUTTALL: Superstitions, beliefs and practices of the ancient Mexicans. W. MattHews: The study of ceremony. Anita NeEwcomsB MoGze: Koreshanity: a latter-day cult. S. D. Pent: Comparison of Cherokee and European symbolism. Serpent sym- bols in Nicaragua and Yucatan. R. J. Fuoopy: Origin of the week and holy day among primitive peoples. STANSBURY HAaGAR: Micmac mortuary customs. F. W. Putnam: Recent researches, by George Byron Gordon, on the banks of the Ullva river in Honduras for the Peabody Museum. lHarly man in the Dela- ware valley. The Jesup expedition and the Asiatic-American problem. W. H. Houmes: Surveys of ancient cities in Mexico. Archeological researches in the Trenton gravels. M. H. Savitue: Ancient figure of terra cotta from the valley of Mexico. Geo- graphical distribution of a certain kind of pottery in Mexico and Central America. Decoration of the teeth in ancient America. G. N. Knapp: On the implement-bearing sand deposits at Trenton, N. J. H. B. KumMEt: Implement-bearing sand deposits at Trenton, N. J. 256 Scientific Intelligence. G. F. WrigHT: Discussion of the relics from the sands deposits on the Lalor farm. H..C. Mercer: Report of an examination of the trenches dug on the Lalor farm, July 25-29. THOMAS WILSON: Investigation in the land deposits of the Lalor field. Origin of art as manifested in the work of prehistoric man. R. D. SALISBURY: Geologic age of the relic-bearing deposits at Trenton, N. J. F. H. CusHiné: Genesis of implement-making. H. P. PARMELEE: Prehistoric implements from Charlevoix, Michigan. W. K. MorewEAD: An archezologic map of Ohio. Alice C. FLETCHER: The import of the totem—a study of the Omaha tribe. Right of adoption as practiced by the Osage tribe D. C. WorcestEeR: The Tagbanuas of the Philippines. The Mangyan of the Philippines. W. W. Tooker: The significance of John Eliot’s Natick. A. HrpiicKAa: Anthropologie work of New York State pathological institute. Description of an ancient skeleton found in adobe-deposits in the valley of Mexico. H. I. SmitxH: Ethnologic arrangement of archzeologic material. Popular anthro- pology in museums. LIGHTNER WITMER: Experimental analysis of the relations of rate of move- ment to certain other mental and physical processes. J. McK. CATTELL: Statistical study of eminent men. CarRL LuMHOLTZ: Case of trepanning in northwestern Mexico. O. T. Mason: Artificialization of animals and plants. SECTION I. Economic Science and Statistics. W. iH. HAte: Civil service reform. (1) Conflict with the spoils system in the State of New York. (2) Relation of the system to the question of the State and municipal ownership of the quasi-public works. Mary Forster: The competition of gratuitous workers. Economic position of women. C. P. Hart: Labor restrictions as potent factors in social evolution. L. IRwELL: Racial determination: The increase of suicide. HENRY FarQquHar: Wheat consumption in the United States. H. W. Witey: True meaning of the sugar schedule of the new tariff. Marcus BENJAMIN: Contributions to the development of the meterology by the Smithsonian Institution J. P. Rogerts: The promotion of agricultural science. C. P. GILLETTE: Weights of bees and the loads they carry. W.R. LAazensy: Annual growth of forest trees. C. C. JAMES: The municipal system of Ontario. ARCHIBALD BuLue: Note on the silver question. B. W. DECourcy: The U.S. idea in laying out the public lands and the evils resulting therefrom. 2. The Transactions of the American Microscopical Society, volume xvili.—This volume contains the report of the nine- teenth annual meeting held at Pittsburgh in August, 1896, and gives in full a large number of papers with the discussions which they called out. The presidential address by A. Clifford Mercer discusses the experimental study of aperture as a factor in microscopic vision, and is accompanied by a series of plates giv- ing reproductions of photomicrographs. FALL OPENING: SEPT. 4th. At 2p. ot. on Saturday, September 4th, we shall place 7 on sale a number of very large and fine lots of minerals, among which we would call special attention to the fol- lowing: ICELAND ZEOLITES!! On May 22d one of our collectors sailed from New York for Iceland, and his long trip, taken exclusively for minerals for our Company, has been recently successfully completed, and the large collections which he secured are now in our store. Over 300 choice specimens will be offered to our customers September 4th, as a result of this trip. ‘No such large or magnificent lot of Iceland mincrals has ever before crossed the Atlantic; no such fine museum specimens of Iceland Heulandite - ‘and Stilbite have ever been seen in this country; no such Scolecites, and but few such Ptilolites, while the wealth of extra fine, cabinet-size specimens z of Stilbite and Heulandite will amaze every collector. The small lots of Ice- - land Zeolites heretofore obtained have only whetted the appetites of collectors for _~___ our present magnificent offering. * SPLENDID ENGLISH MINERALS. Our collector returned home via England and visited all of the important locali- ' ~~ ties in the North of England, buying at the mines and from the miuers and local ' __ collectors. We may safely claim that our present offering of English minerals - has not been equalled for six years. It includes 248 small ereen aud purple _ Fluorites, many of best quality and some showing water bubbles; 36 groups of pellucid Aragonite crystals, some of them exceedingly fine; 183 Barites of -_varions rich colors, including some of the exquisite blue, most beautifully asso- ciated with Calcite, a lot of ‘‘shadow” Barites, etc ; 100 cabinet-size specimens of Kidney Ore, of exceptional quality; 167 Specular Iron and Quartz, y large and small and thoroughly attractive; 93 gorgeous Scarlet Quartz, all ___ that could be obtained; 120 Bigrigg Mine Calcites, nearly all superior and _ —-_—s some surpassingly fine: about 60 richly tinted and very beautiful Stank Mine _ Calcites; 17 new type, charming milky Calcites; 35 Egremont Twin ‘4 . Calcites, which we will sell at lowest prices ever known: etc, etc. 4 PORRETTA CAVERNOUS QUARTZ CRYSTALS. a ; A large and exceedingly fine Jot at remarkably low prices,—5c. to 25c. SIPYLITE, THE RARE NIOBATE OF ERBIA. By far the finest and largest lot of specimens of this excessively rare mineral we have ever had, and all that are likely ever to be obtained. GEORGIA RUTILES. A new and surprisingly fine lot of matrix specimens, showing crystals of un- rivalled brilliancy and beauty. UTAH VARISCITE. - A lot of polished slabs just finished up by the lapidary, embracing many of marvelous beauty. A SMALL COLLECTION OF JAPANESE MINERALS, Including Axinite, Ilvaite, Sanukite, Vivianite, Hyalite, Rhedochrosite, Stibnite, Topaz, Orthoclase, Olivine crystals, Andesine crystals, Anorthite crystals, etc. All of the above, and other Brand New Things at our Fall Open- ing Sale, September 4th, 2 P. M. GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists, 64 East 12th St., New York City. are = SEE a ie ahs Re ee, Sys ae, ES a + fe : h CONTENTS. : Art. XIX.—Principal Characters of the Protoceratidee ; by O. C. Marsu. Part Il (With Plates H-VIL) XX.—Theory of Singing Flames; by H. V. Giz XXI.—Electrical Discharges in Air; by J. TRowBRipGE-.. XXII.—Oscillatory discharge of a large Accumulator; by J. TROWBRIDGE - XXIUJ.—Jura and Neocomian of Arkansas, Kansas, Okla- homa, New Mexico and Texas; by J. Marcou , XXIV.—Pithecanthropus erectus; by L. Manovuvrimr. Translated by George Grant MacCurdy.. ..-----.--- XXV.—Titration of Sodium Thiosulphate with lodic Acid ; by Coke Warker ss XXVI.—Solarization ane in Rontgen Ray Photographs; by W. L. Ross. (With Plates VIII-X.) KVL —Cape Fairweather Beds, a new marine Tertiary ~ Horizon in Southern Patagonia by J. B. Harcnmr _.- SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Natural History—New Series of Contributions from the Gray Herbarium of Page. : 243 — 246 | Har- vard University, No. XI, J. M. GREENMAN: Synoptical Flora of North Ameri- ea, Vol. 1, Part I, 249.—TIllustrated Flora of the Northern United States, Can- ada, and the British Possessions, N. L. Britton and A. Brown: Guide to the Genera and Classification of the North American Orthoptera found north of Mexico, 8. H. ScuppER: Das Tierreich, E. Hartert, 250. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—American Association for the Advancement of Science, 250.—Transactions of the American Microscopical Society, 256. ws. VY. VV AlCOUL, U. s. . Geol. Survey. q { era at 1 . a mayer me mS BA, WALL « “THE AMERICAN Epitor: EDWARD S. DANA. ee ASSOCIATE EDITORS , || Prorzssors GEO. L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, co ee poe rer Anp W. G. FARLOW, or Campripes, > ROFESSORS 0. ©, MARSH, Bie Hy, VERRILL AONE Le en tL EYAMS, oF NEw Haven, _ Prorsssor GEORGE F. BARKER, oF ‘Pawsuurea sy - Prorussorn H. A. ROWLAND, or Baurimorz, Mr. J. S. DILLER, oF Wasnineron, FOURTH SERIES. VOL. [V—[WHOLE NUMBER, CLIV, No. 22.OCTOBER, 1897.- NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. LS Ot: TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 125 TEMPLE STREET. rders, registered letters, or bank checks. Published monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6. 40 to foreign sub- ribers of countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should be made either by — ES = ro « Sp eas =f te SA ne ¥ Lo = . yy SL ote Sie, te in t at eens = eee eS peo me ee ing: IX. General Classification of all known minerals, according — bs ao ea eee! = = P “WW he see ¢ oe iy y wet : ‘ - , ! iy) ~ ¢ < A Are + ae . ht #, vs x 2 _? pS ee . > 3 > ead See 3 A oe Ste 43 . ¥ , 2 ne Sy 4 Pe = - ws pak a4 = : pene r . i | N, i ? ia. i : . wlaRee S 5 ° Sd x COMPLETE CATALOGUE | MINERALS. Nearly 150 pages with over 40 8 splee photo- eneravings of eam new and interesting minerals. Se ContTents.—I]. Recent additions to our stock ; IL. Collections of Minerals, both Economic and Scientific ; TT. Complete Price List of minerals sold by weight for Chemical and Technical pur- poses ; IV. Meteorites; V. Gems and Polished Specimens; VIL. ~ Books, Geol. and Min.; VII. Supplies; VIII. Alphabetical Price List of specimens in siobl: serving also as index of list follow- to Dana, to which is added an important and valuable supple- — ment, compiled from recent mineralogical literature. - pee Sample Plates. in Advertising Pages of this Journal. X. A Metallic Classification of all important minerals: e. g. under the heading “Cerium” -— Silicate-—Cerite, Mosandrite, — Johnstrupite, Allanite. Minerals are arranged under sub-head- = ings, in order of the per cent of metal contained. The most complete table of the kind ever published. } ae Bound in an odd and handsome cover, abounding in the finest — - examples of the photo-engravers’ art, it makes an attractive vol- ume and an invaluable work of reference. oe Price, postpaid: Cloth, 50c. Half calf, interleaved, $1.00, — a (These figures barely cover cost of paper, binding and postage.) Catalogue of Collections, single specimens, etce., free. A. E. FOOTE. =a WaRREN M. Foore, Manager. a 1817 ARCH STREET: PHILADELPHIA, PA., U.S. A. Established 1876. tubo ie, | THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE [FOURTH SERIES. ] eOoe ArT. XX VIII.—Hractional Crystallization of Rocks ; by GEORGE F. Becker. AMONG the phenomena most often appealed to in support of the theory of magmatic segregation or differentiation is the symmetrical arrangement of material in certain dikes and lac- colites. This separation seems to me readily explicable in cer- tain cases without resort to the hypothesis of the division of a homogeneous fluid into two or more distinct fluids. I have already called attention to the process in brief terms ;* though very well known it has not otherwise been invoked, so far as I am aware, to explain rock differences. If the suggestion has previously been made, it seems time that it should be repeated. If we suppose a dike in cold rock filled with mobile lava which does not overflow, or has ceased to overflow, the mass will be subjected to convection currents, because the liquid near the walls will be cooler than that near the median plane of the dike. A circulation of lava will then take place, the descending flow at the sides being compensated by ascending flow near the central surface. The conditions are roughly rep- resented in the diagram below. If the lava is a homogeneous mixture of two liquids of different fusibility, then the crusts which first form upon the walls will have nearly the same com- position as the less fusible partial magma. If one follows mentally a small portion of the liquid in its cireulation, it will clearly deposit at each of its early contacts with the growing * This Journal, vol. iii, 1897, p. 39. Am. Jour. Sci.—FourrH SERIES, Vou. 1V, No. 22.—Oct., 3897. 258 Becker—Fractional Crystallization of Locks. walls a part of its less fusible component, and at each com- pleted revolution it will have a different composition. This composition will always tend towards that which represents the most fusible mixture of the component compounds. When this composition is attained, the magma will no longer undergo change by circulation and partial solidification; and the residual mass will gradually solidify as a uniform material. Unless then the injected magma happened to be a mixture of maximum fusibility, the dike would exhibit a gradation in composition from the sides towards the center. In a very nar- row dike solidification might take place before an opportunity was afforded for the complete elimination of the less fusible material ; while in wide dikes solidified from mobile magmas one might expect the central sheet to approximate to maximum fusibility. It is evident that the process of. solidification in a laccolite closely resembles that in a dike, particularly if the section of greatest area is not absolutely horizontal. Convection will then be set up and solidification from the walls must tend to the evolution of a residuum of extreme fusibility. Convection in dikes and laccolites. The process sketched is one of the most familiar in chem- istry and is usually known as fractional crystallization. It has been employed in the purification of compounds ever since chemistry was pursued, and indeed before; for the preparation of salt from sea water or brine depends upon it. It can be and has been employed also to strengthen solutions. A familiar instance is the freezing of weak alcoholic liquids. A bottle of wine or a barrel of cider exposed to a low temperature deposits nearly pure ice on the walls, while a stronger liquor may be tapped from the center. If a still lower temperature were applied the central and more fusible portion would also solidify. Such a mass would be, so far as I can see, a very perfect ana- logue toa laccolite. A similar concentration is effected in the Pattinson desilverization process. Though fractional crystallization is said to have been familiar to Parcelsus and even to Aristotle, the process has been studied most thoroughly by Mr. F. Guthrie.* As is well known, he * Phil. Mag. (5), vol. xvii, 1884, p. 462. Becker—Ffractional Crystallization of Rocks. 259 names the property of maximum fusibility in mixtures eutexia and the bodies which exhibit this property he calls eutectic. The phenomena are not always so simple as is supposed in the illustration given above, especially when masses, as_ they approach the temperature of solidification, divide into immis- cible fractions. In such cases one has to do with two or more eutectic mixtures. Supersaturation may also intervene to com- plicate matters and change of pressure probably influences the composition of the eutectics.* Thus it is at least conceivable that very complicated cases should arise, while if the process plays a part in lithogenesis the simplest case is probably the most frequent. The fractional crystallization process depends essentially upon convection currents. That it is not incompatible with convection is clear, while convection is the mortal enemy of any process of separation involving molecular flow. The only function of diffusion in this case would be to preserve the homogeneity of the residual fluid or mother liquor, so that the eutectic state could not be attained by any sensible part of the fluid until the whole mother liquor was reduced to this condition. The effect of the solidification of crusts on the walls of a dike or laccolite is to liberate heat. This liberation does not raise the temperature, for otherwise the crusts would remelt ; but the liberated heat must be conducted through the walls before the dike as a whole can congeal, and it therefore delays the process of solidification, giving additional time for the evo- lution of an eutectic magma. There appear to be some conditions under which eutectic action could not be expected. Unless an intrusive rock pos- ' sesses considerable mobility, chilling would proceed more rap- idly than convection, and eutectic separation would be very imperfect if not completely obscured. Viscosity of the mass would also interfere seriously with the uniformity of composi- tion of the mother liquor. If the mass cooled very slowly indeed, this uniformity might be established even in a very viscous mass; but very slow cooling would also mean very slight convection. In viscous lavas, therefore, fractional crys- talization is not very probable. There is seemingly no exact way of defining the degree of viscosity compatible with frac- tional crystallization, but enough mobility must certainly be present to maintain uniformity in the melted mass when diffu- sion and convection codperate. I have shown that, in some solutions at any rate (all for which I could find appropriate experimental data) diffusivity is inversely as the square of vis- cosity.t If any such law holds for magmas, a moderate amount * Ostwald, Allgem. Chemie, vol. i, 1891, p. 1027, + This Journal, vol. iii, 1897, p. 284. 260 Becker—Fractional Crystallization of Rocks. of viscosity would preclude the formation of eutectic mother liquors. Eutectic mixtures by definition would have no tendeney to fractional crystallization however fluid they might be and how- ever strong the convection currents. Where dikes represent the last remnant of magma in a solidifying mass, one would expect to find them of eutectic composition, as has been pointed out by Mr. J. J. H. Teall.* Convection being needful to frac- tional crystallization, it would seem essential that the cooling magma should be surrounded by masses of a lower tempera- ture.t In the case of dikes this condition is ordinarily ful- filled. On the other hand, if laccolites ever form and solidify without ejection at great depths and in contact with rocks of high temperature, it seems improbable that convection and partial crystallization would come in play to a sensible extent. It is difficult to see how so simple and natural a process of solidification as fractional crystallization can fail to be carried out in at least some rocks. Dikes and laccolites assuredly chill from their external surfaces and (barring either an original eutectic composition or insuperable viscosity) there seems no way of avoiding fractional crystallization. It has often been noticed that there is an accord between the order of consolida- tion of minerals as observed under the microscope and the arrangement of minerals in dikes, the compounds of early secondary crystallization being most abundant near the walls. This is of course what would be expected from a process of fractional crystallization. Observation would no doubt throw further hght on the compositicn of eutectic rock mixtures. Narrow stringers from a so-called “basic” dike would repre- sent the mean composition at the time they were filled; and ' unless the composition of the magma changed during flow, the stringers should represent the average dike rock. The middle portion of the dike, on the other hand, should tend to display eutexia. Dikes which are homogeneous ought to be eutectic. Many experiments have already been made on eutectic mix- tures of salt both in the dry and the wet way. It does not seem impossible that experiments on eutectic mixtures of rock components should give results of an approximation sufficient — for the purposes of lithology. Few, I believe, will maintain that any great progress has been made in explaining the theory of the segregation of magmas into partial magmas. Mr. H. Backstrom,t{ for example, * British Petrography, 1888, p. 401. +Dr. W. F. Hillebrand reminds me that the changes in density of the mother liquor during crystallization will of themselves induce convection, though perhaps not powerful currents. t Jour. of Geol., vol. i, 1893, p. T73. Becker—Fractional Crystallization of Rocks. 261 denies the applicability of the Ludwig-Soret law. In this he seems to me correct, but I fail to see that he gives adequate reasons for the rejection. He resorts to the separation of magmas into immiscible fractions for a working hypothesis, but without showing how the necessary variations of tempera- ture are to be accounted for. Mr. Alfred Harker* also regards the Ludwig-Soret law as inapplicable to magmatic segregation, which he seeks to explain by the molecular flow attendant upon crystallization. The maximum rate of molecular flow is - thus provided for, but I have shown that even under these most favorable circumstances the time required for the separa- tion of considerable masses of material from one another would be practically infinite in any solutions of known prop- erties. Mr. Michel-Lévy again, whose researches in physics give his opinions on the segregation of magmas the greatest weight, has reviewed the hypotheses of Messrs. Brogger and Iddings. He points out the enormous time required for the process and, as others have done, the impeding influence of viscosity. The results of experiment, he thinks, are more favor- able to the old theory of superposition of magmas in the order of decreasing density. He finds many objections both to the hypotheses and to the evidence in their favor, and the only point which he regards as certain is that there are some con- sanguineous rocks. These, he thinks, probably came from a reservoir in which the initial magma has undergone only such modifications as were consistent with the preservation of its distinct individuality.t It seems needless to enlarge further on the unsatisfactory condition of the theory of differentiation. On the other hand, the simple principle of fractional crystal- lization, which is the very opposite of magmatic differentiation, is in most respects thoroughly well understood, it is known to be practicabie by hundreds of thousands of experiments, many of them on a fairly large scale, and its action is so rapid as to bring abont in days diversities of composition which it would take centuries to bring about by processes depending on molec- ular flow. In dikes and laccolites of mobile lavas fractional crystallization seems inevitable, while the convection attend- ing it is inconsistent with segregation by molecular flow. Surely it is worth the while of lithologists to consider in how far differences in such rocks as are beyond a doubt genetically connected can be accounted for by a process which is almost inseparable from consolidation. Washington, D. C., June, 1897. * Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 1, 1894, p. 311. + Bull. Soc. Geol. de France (3), vol. xxiv, 1896, p. 123. I should have been ' glad to reinforce some of the reasoning in a paper printed in this Journal, vol. iii, p. 21, by reference to Mr. Michel-Léevy’s paper cited above; but it did not come under my eyes in time. 262 Wieland—Eopaleozoic Hot Springs and the Art. XXIX. —Eopaleozorc Hot Springs and the Origin of the Pennsylvania Siliceous Oolite; by GEO. R. WIELAND. In seeking for more direct evidence as to the origin of the siliceous odlites occurring near the Pennsylvania State College in Center County, Pennsylvania, I have been led to the con- sideration of certain associated flint bowlders of unusual regu- larity of structure. Before describing these, however, it may be well to mention that this siliceous odlite is the most perfect and beautiful of all the odlites, and that its description* was the first given of a characteristic siliceous odlite. Previously several occurrences of cherts merging into odlite had been mentioned. Since then, siliceous odlites of more or less distinct structure, and undoubt- edly of various origin, have been reported from widely sepa- rated localities, and geological horizons, though none are known to be more recent than the Paleozoic. The cherts of Missouri which often merge into a semi-odlitic structure have been studied by Hovey.* But the oodlites containing a large percentage a silica not only vary much in etr ucture, but much too greatly in compo- sition to prevent any general statement as to their origin. This is shown by the following analyses, made by the writer while a student in the laboratory of the Pennsylvania State College : 1B LT, Ill DlOMsess 2 sao et 96°13 99°10 Bea assess 5k 1°13 4: AliOce bee seetes ete ast 1G CaQ yi pau ee 10°35 atte 39 {MC O igtiha sree 791 97 Je KO. eee a ee 58 : COng eee 15°24 &: e | (© peas age ean en 2 AI 93 25 100°69 99°74 100°02 No. I is an odlite of granular texture, and in fact consists of spherules of silica with a gangue of dolomite. This rock was observed by the writer in a stratum of some twenty feet in thickness near Rockwood, Tennessee. It was only casually examined. A mile away on a lower horizon the iron odlite of the Clinton was being mined. II is from the same locality. IIL is the remarkably regular spheruled variety from * Barbour and Torrey: Notes on the Microscopic Structure of Odlites with Analyses, this Journal, September, 1890. Origin of the Pennsylvania Siliceous Oblite. 263 the Pennsylvania State College locality. A smaller spheruled rock occurring in greater quantity contains about a half per cent less of SiO, with more iron, alumina and magnesia. Without attempting to take up the origin of odlites in gen- eral, however, I merely mention that two writers working independently of each other have from the microscopic study alone assigned the Pennsylvania odlite as due to direct deposi- tion from the silica-laden waters of hot springs.* This con- Built-up chalcedony bowlders of the Pennsylvania siliceous odlite locality.— sz actual size. Figs. 1, ?, 3, 4, 5, supposed actual rim bowlders. Fig. 6, sup- posed core bowlder. celusicn is no doubt correct. A hand specimen found recently consisting of spherules of small size up to pisolitic inter- mingled with chalcedony-coated pebbles points to its truth. But probably the most convincing testimony to the existence in the OCalciferous of a limited area of hot springs from whose silica-laden waters these siliceous odlites were deposited, lies in the fact that in the limited odlite area and nowhere else in the entire region are found in considerable number bowlders of a built-up structure which may have formed the rims of hot springs or geysers. Types are shown in figures 1-6 * H. O. Hovey, Geol. Soc. of Am., vol. v, 1893. Dr. W..Bergt, Ges. Isis in Dresden, 1892. 264 Wieland—EHopaleozvic Hot Springs, ete. above. The most distinct of these bowlders are found within an area of less than one square mile, and this is exactly the area of the best marked odlite. It should be stated that neither odlite nor bowlders have ever been observed except as surface debris. This may be due to the fact that the odlite probably never formed a very continuous stratum, as well as to the fact that there is neither rock exposure nor excavation within the odlite area. . Both bowlders and odlite no doubt belong to the underlying rock, which I suppose from its position and the character of exposures of the same horizon at another point to be Calciferous. There occur associated with the odlite at one or two points, certain bowlders showing only traces of odlite which contain nearly obliterated traces of numerous fossils. I would say that brachiopods, cyathophylloid corals, a gasteropod, and numerous orthoceratites are represented. The cuts of the bowlders illustrate their form and cleavage fairly, but do not show the pitting of the surface due to weath- ering. The bowlders are much iron-stained and somewhat granular in texture, though breaking most readily along the cleavage planes which radiate from the inner edge of the circular rims of which they may be regarded as segments. The direc- tion and position of these planes are best shown in figs. 2, 4, and 5. What was probably the upper surface is roughly but regularly grooved, as best shown in fig. 1. These groovings mark more or less nearly the emergence of the cleavage planes just men- tioned. The bowlder shown in fig. 6 lacks the built-up strue- ture, and may have formed within an already formed rim. There are occasional small rhombohedral cavities as in the odlite itself,—a pseudomorphism after calcite. Under the microscope the material is found to be chalee- dony, with small erystal inclusions which were too minute to determine. I suspect these crystals to be biaxial, and they may be from their shape hornblende. | The rims which these bowlders formed had an inside diam- eter of from two to six feet. The inner edge is always pre- served, while the outer is often irregular or broken away. We may readily conceive the bowlders as having formed the rims of a number of hot springs or geysers near a low-lying shore of the Calciferous. The dissolved silica first deposited would have formed rings, that deposited while in more rapid motion the small spheruled odlite, which is most plentiful near the best marked of the rim bowlders. Lastly would be formed large grained odlite, the compact and pure quartzite, which is the handsomest odlite known. That in accounting for the origin of this odlite hot springs or geysers of the Calciferous may actually be located is an interesting consideration. While the writer has not had an opportunity to examine a geyser region, he believes that further investigation will sustain his view. Chester, Pa. = Wadsworth—Determination of Specific Heat, etc. 265 Art. XX X.—On the Conditions required for attaining Mami- “mum Accuracy in the Determination of Specific Heat by the Method of Mixtures; by F. L. O. Wavsworts, Introductory Note.—In the last volume of the Proceedings of the American Academy, which has just been received at the Observatory, I find a paper by Professor Holman* discussing metbods of making the “cooling corrections” in determining specific heat by the method of mixtures. In this paper the author has suggested that this correction may be simplified by a modification of the usual method which “is supposed to be new.” This suggestion is of the same nature as one which I made some years ago and embodied in a paper which formed part of my report in laboratory work at the Ohio State Uni- versity for 1888-89, but which was never published. The investigation was undertaken as preliminary to an accurate determination of the specific heat of the metal of one of Professor Rogers’ standard bars, a sample of which had been sent to Professor Thomas for that purpose. No opportunity was given at that time to put the suggested method to actual test, as 1t was subsequently decided to use the ice calorimeter instead. — : The method differs from that snggested by Professor Holman in that it goes further and eliminates the necessity for the cool- ing correction entirely. Except for that part of the paper (pp. 274-277) which deals with the conditions for securing this result, there is nothing novel or particularly original in the treatment. But as the whole discussion is more or less linked together and as it will serve to supplement to some extent Professor Holman’s paper, which deals only with the cooling correction (the most important but not the only source of error in calorimetric determinations), it has been decided to let the paper stand as it was first written (except for a slight rearrange- ment of the order of the paragraphs), supplementing the orig- inal text with footnotes where it seemed necessary. At the end will be found a few general notes relative to the arrange- ment and use of apparatus in the determination of specific heat by both the method of mixtures and the method of the ice calorimeter. These notes did not form part of the original paper, but have been added from time to time as suggested in my laboratory experience. The method of discharging the hot body from the heating vessel and receiving it in the ealori- meter, and of maintaining the jacket of the latter at a con- * «« Calorimetry: Methods of Cooling Correction,” Proc. Amer. Acad., vol. xxiii, p. 245, 1896. 266 Wadsworth—Determination of Specific stant temperature will, I think, be found especially reliable and convenient. In the method of mixtures the body whose specific heat is to be determined is first raised to a known temperature, then immersed in a known quantity of water and the rise of temper- ature of the water noted. In the operation it is of course necessary that the water be held in some form of vessel which will be heated in common with the water, and which in turn will heat the surrounding air by radiation. However, taking first the theoretical case and supposing no heat lost by radia- tion, but all used in raising the temperature of the water, the containing vessel and the thermometer used to indicate the rise in temperature, we have the well-known equation sx (T—6) Xw = Mc(@—t) + M'c'(6—t) + M’c’ (6-2) (1) where s _. is the specific heat of the body under experiment ; 66 ww.) “weight % ij T 33 (a temperaiunenc. “‘ before immersion ; M.. “ weight of water in the calorimeter ; ce .. ‘“ mean specific heat of the water for the interval 6—t; t.. ‘“ temperature of the water before the body w is added ; 6.. “ temperature of water, vessel and body after equalization has taken place ; M',c’ .. are the weight and specific heat of the vessel contain- ing the water, i. e., the calorimeter; M",c’.. “weight and specific heat of the thermometer. This formula is generally simplified by putting m’c’+M’e"= We, where W is the water equivalent of the calorimeter, viz : the amount of water which for a given rise in temperature, 6—¢, will absorb the same amount of heat as the calorimeter and the thermometer will absorb. Making this substitution and solving for s we get _ (M+ W)c(6—2) a w(T—6) (2) Now in practice the quantities M, W, w, 0, ¢ and T, must all be observed (c, we have determined for us with great accuracy); it is therefore necessary to consider the causes and the magni- tude of the error involved in each of said operations. first, w. This ean be observed with great accuracy because it is generally so small that it can be determined on a delicate balance. It is moreover practically a constant for most bodies, viz: (unaffected by oxidation, heat, etc.), so that no correction is necessary.* * A mean of two weighings, one taken before, the other after the determina- tion, should be used to avoid any error due to loss by oxidation, ete. Volatile liquids or substances otherwise affected by heat and contact with hot air are, of course, placed in suitable bulbs of metal or glass for the determination. Heat by the Method of Mixtures. 267 Second, W. This may be determined in two ways. (a) By calculation from the formula w — M'c’ + M"c" c where M’ and M” are determined by weighing, and c’ and c’ either determined by experiment (best) or taken from tables. (6) By experiment in the usual manner (introducing known quantity of hot water). Its effect on s and the limiting error will be discussed under effect of M. Third, M. To find the error in s, due to error in observing the weight, M, we have, by differentiation, ds mrc(o—th ). *s adM+W) w(T—0) M+W Suppose M+ W = 300 germs. Then in order that the error of sshould be within 0-1 per cent, the weight must be taken to 0°3 erms.; with 200 germs. to 0'2 grm. But with the degree of accuracy ordinarily obtainable in reading temperatures to 3° (see below), the weight need not be taken closer than 0°5 grm. . for a weight of 200 grms.; so that unless the error in observ- ing temperatures can be reduced there is no necessity for cor- recting for evaporation, for loss of weight in air, ete., ete. For the same reason it is not necessary to obtain the weight of w closer than 05 grm. for a weight of 50 grms. : d d Fourth, c. Likewise to find _ we have = = Ota ot Myo 80") AG == 00047 = ats Conversely, if we read @ to only »,° we get Ags = 0°0024 = 4 of one per cent for the Ist case. Ags = 0°00425 =24+ “ & ot easel 2OrCanes ree, 270 Wadsworth— Determination of Specific 2d. There is another class of errors in 0, not due to errors of reading, but which are even more important than these, viz: errors due to @ never reaching its maximum value required by theory because of the heat received or lost by radiation. Hence 9@,, as observed, will not be the true value suitable for use in (2), but some value lower than this; unless indeed, we start with a temperature so low that the final temperature @ is less than that of the air; in which case @, will be too high. To eliminate this error, due to radiation, several methods have been proposed. : (a) Those methods which take account of the temperature of the external air. The simplest of these is that of Rumford (compensation method). This is to determine by preliminary calculations the rise of temperature in the calorimeter while the body is cool- ing and make the initial temperature of the water as much lower than that of the surrounding air as the final temperature is higher. The fallacy of this method lies in the fact that the time required for the last part of the operation is much longer than that required for the first. If we make the initial tem- perature of the water %(@—7) lower than the external air, we will come nearer to “ compensating ” for radiation. (0) Methods of Jamin and Regnault. Both of these methods depend on a series of observations begun four or five minutes before and continued as long after the introduction of the heated body into the calorimeter. Radiation is proportional to three factors,—time, excess of temperature, and surface. For any given calorimeter, then, the loss per unit of time is a constant x(@—£), where 8 is the temperature of external air or calorimeter jacket. The lower- ing of temperature due to this loss is, therefore, A (@—£), dur- ing each unit of time for which 0—8 is the mean excess of temperature. } Let a series of readings be taken at intervals «,, x,, &,, ©, etc., from the instant of immersion to the time when the reading of the thermometer becomes steady, giving a series of temper- atures 0,, 0,, 0,, @,, etc. Then during the intervals 7,—#,, 7,— x,, etc., the mean excess of temperature Is ae oun B, eee ar B, ete. And the loss of temperature then is ies ee i B) (e,—,)A for the interval (v7,—2,) AO =(“ — B) (a,—a,)A for the interval (7,—~,), etc., ete. Feat by the Method of Mixtures. 271 Then if we take the algebraic sum of these variations we obtain 2A@ as the total correction for the observed tempera- ture @, at the end of the experiment, which added to this observed temperature gives the correct value of @ to use in formula (2). This method requires us to know both the tem- perature of the external air and the quantity A. The first is known from observation; the second can be determined from the formula for loss of heat by radiation, which is given on p. 91, vol. i (Jamin’s Physique), as iI Q = loss of heat per see = 7, kS(6—B) ead 66 6¢ Suse I kS(6—) hence A@= temp. = 4900 (M+W)e where te S_. is the surface of the calorimeter. k&:. “ value of a (small) calorie. Hence . S * A = :00025 sea (6) ¢ being taken as unity. Method of Legnault.t—To render the observation of the ex- ternal temperature (a temperature always hard to determine with accuracy) unnecessary, the readings are taken at intervals as before, but commenced before and extended after the time during which equalization is taking place. The whole opera- tion comprises three periods, the first a short period just before the introduction of the body; the second beginning with the introduction of the body into the calorimeter and ending with the maximum temperature; the third, during which a few additional observations are made on the rate of cooling. Let a be the interval between successive readings, a, n, and 6 the number of readings in the three periods respectively, and @,, @,, 0,...to@,, the readings of the thermometer during the second period, the body being introduced at the beginning of the @+I1nth interval, (@=@,). Also let ¢,, ¢, equal the mean tem- peratures during the first and third periods, and A,, A, the mean loss of temperature for these periods for the time, x, and 6,+0 6,+6 lene, = — halt 7 Ai eo _ 2, etc., and A,’, A,”, etc., be the mean temperatures and corresponding losses of temperature due to radiation during the successive intervals of the middle period. *The value of the constant term in this formula will of course depend on the nature of the radiating surface of the calorimeter. + This method of correction is essentially that described in Professor Holman’s paper, in which a somewhat different method of reduction is adopted. 272 Wadsworth— Determination of Specific Then the maximum observed temperature @, at the end of the second period will be less than the true maximum by an amount Ad=S - Ortmann—Linuparus atavus. 291 four different families. Only Palinurus and Palinustus on the one hand, and on the other Panulirus and Puerulus are more closely related to each other: the other genera differ so widely that they indicate as many lines of development within this family, which. are separated since very old geological times. It may be possible to trace back the separation of these lines of development into the earlier Jurassic or even into the Triassic period. There are three chief groups, namely: 1, that of Palinu- rellus and Jasus,; 2, that of Palinurus, Palinustus and Lin- uparus ; 8, that of Panulirus and Puerulus. According to the morphological characters the first may be called the more primitive, the second the typical, the third the more advanced group. But perhaps it would be well to place Palinurellus and Jasus in separate groups, since both— although agreeing in some characters not found in the other genera—are so widely different, that no closer genetic relation seems to be present. The most striking character of Palinuride is the connec- tion of the frontal parts of the carapace with the so-called segment of the antennule as well as with the epistoma, and, on the other hand, the fusion of the basal points of the stalk of the antenne with the epistoma. The frontal part of the carapace is always united with the segment of the antennulee outside of the eyes, on either side, but in the two genera first named there is a median connection besides: the rostrum is bent downward and covers completely or partially the bases of the eyes, thus reaching and joining the segment of the anten- nule. These two genera—Palinurellus and Jasus—are further characterized by the lack of a stridulating apparatus, formed by the first free joints of the antennz rubbing against the seg- ment of the antennule, which seems to be present in all the other genera. The second and third groups are more closely related to each other, but they are distinguished by one important character : in the second the epistoma is divided longitudinally by a deep furrow, which no doubt indicates the former separation of the basal joints of the antennz: fused into the epistoma. This furrow is wholly wanting in the third group, the epistoma being smooth and even medially. The disappearance of this indication of the primitive separation of the basal joints of the antennz stamps the third group as a more advanced one than the second. Besides, there is another difference: in the second group the flagella of the antennulz are always short, while in the third group they are very much longer. Examining our fossil form, we see at once that it belongs to the second group. The larger specimen shows plainly the con- nection of the carapace with the epistoma and with the seg- ment of the antennule, outside of the bases of the eyes, while pa wa 292 Ortmann-— Linuparus atavus. no median connection is present. The epistoma shows the median longitudinal groove characteristic of the second group. The flagella of the antennule, however, are not preserved. There are three genera in the second group. The first is the type genus of the family, Palenurus (containing two liv- ing species); the others are Palinustus and Linuparus (con- taining only one species each). Palinustus was proposed by A. Milne-Edwards* for a deep-sea form from the West Indies. The description of it is very poor and even incorrect in some respects, and no figure of it has been published... I am, how- ever, enabled—through the kindness of Professor Alexander Agassiz, who lent me the type specimen for examination—to state, that Palinustus comes very near to Palinurus, and differs only in the weaker “frontal horns,” which are placed on the outer edge of two very peculiar plates projecting horizontally from the frontal margin and truncated squarely at the apex. In Palinurus these projecting frontal plates are wanting and the “frontal horns” are formed by two large, compressed, nearly falciform spines placed close to the frontal margin on either side of the rostrum. In all other respects Palinurus differs only slightly from Palinustus. The differences of both genera from Linuparus are the following. In Palinurus and Palinustus the carapace, especially the part behind the cervical groove, is evenly arched from side to side, i. e. of sub-cylindri- cal shape, and it is covered by a multitude of spines and spiny tubercles, becoming scaly in the hinder part. The frontal horns are compressed and separated by a wide space. In Linuparus the hinder part of the carapace is distinctly ecari- nate, three keels being present, a median one and two lateral ones. ‘The surface is covered with granules, and a few small spines placed chiefly on the anterior part, thus differing strik- ingly from the spiny appearance of the carapace of the first two genera, and, further, the frontal horns of the living Linu- parus lie close together and are depressed (not compressed), forming two broadly triangular plates projecting from the middle of the frontal margin. Our fossil form comes very near to Linuwparus in the shape and armature of the carapace. ‘There are three distinct longi- tudinal keels on the hinder part of the carapace, and only a few short spines distributed in a similar manner as in the living Japanese form. But there is a difference in the frontal horns. The latter are compressed, as in Palinurus, bnt nearer to the median line. The horns are smaller than in Palinurus and a little inclined, diverging from the bases outward, and thus they are exactly intermediate in shape and position between the living Palinurus and the living Linuparus: the distinct lateral compression comes near to that of the former genus, but the inclining direction looks like an incipient depression, and in * Bull. Mus. Compar. Zool., vol. viii, 1880, p. 66. Ortmann-—Linuparus atavus. 293 their closer position to the median line, the horns approach also the condition seen in Linuparus.* There is no doubt that we are to place the fossil form in the genus Linuparus, and although the frontal horns form in some degree a connection with Palinurus, there are a couple of other characters of minor importance exhibited by our fossil which occur only in the Japanese Linuparus trigonus, as will be pointed out in the following detailed description of the new fossil, which I propose to name Linuparus atavus, spec. nov. The two specimens of the Princeton Museum, both males, were collected by Mr. H. F. Wells in the Niobrara group (Upper Cretaceous) at the head of Cotton- Wood Creek, Mead Oo., South Dakota. They were broken into numerous pieces, but have been put together again very skilfully by Mr. Gidley. The matrix being extremely hard, it was deemed dangerous to try to work out some parts of the body more completely ; thus some parts in either specimen are still imbedded in the inatrix : but luckily the specimens supplement each other in an admira- ble manner, so as to leave only a few details of minor import- ance unknown. See figures 1-4, p. 297. & MEASUREMENTS. Of larger specimen (a). From anterior frontal margin to hinder lateral corner of Cali Pace eee Co NM Gel Ne os io EL ei Rate Aone Length of 4 posterior abdominal segments +telson (hinder part of the latter imbedded in the matrix) .__-.--- ---- 77 Length of the three free basal joints of the antennz (outer Menge Pee ee ee he ke ns) OO cer MMeOmemeOMualeMOAGONM St 8 yt 2 8 Ses en meen SO Distance between tie trontal horns, __..--..-+------.----. 8 breadun Ol eakapace, posterior end" ___._».%...---.--. 36 Of smaller specimen (0). Weonauhmonmennapace ua se SLL 4 LS yo 8 Gon Length of 4 anterior abdominal segments.--------------- 31 Allowing, in the larger specimen, for the first two abdom- inal segments one and a half of the length of the third seg- ment (14™"), the approximate total length of the body would ey deere. * This intermediate shape of the frontal horns settles the question, whether the triangular frontal processes of Linuparus are a bilobed rostrum (as de Haan be- lieves) or the homologues of the frontal horns found in other genera of Palinuridz. They are frontal horns. le TV 294 Ortmann—Linuparus atavus. Specimen (a) shows beautifully the frontal margin, the seg- ment of the antennule, the stalks of the antenne and parts of the flagella, the basal joints of the antennule, the epistoma, and the hinder part of the abdomen. The upper surface of the carapace is much crushed, and the place of the sternum is occupied by a large hole. Of the abdomen, the four last abdominal segments and the telson are present ; of the first and second segments only a few pieces are recognizable. In speci- men (d) the upper surface of the carapace is nearly complete, there is only a hole occupying the gastrical region and a few smaller ones; the frontal horns are better than in the first specimen. The anterior part of the abdomen and the sternum are complete in specimen (6), but the anterior part of the body ‘(beyond the frontal margin) is imbedded in the matrix, and the posterior part of the abdomen is wholly absent. Parts of the max- illipeds, pereiopods, and pleopods are visible in both specimens. Description. — Carapace nearly rectangular in outline. Frontal margin truncate, nearly straight, connected with the segment of the antennule on both sides of the eyes. Frontal horns approaching each other, compressed, but diverging from the bases outward, their anterior margin with a few small teeth, no median rostral spine being visible. Antero-lateral angles formed by spines. Cervical groove distinct. Anterior part of carapace (in front of the cervical groove) with two spines just behind the frontal horns, which are a little more distant from each other than the latter, and with three tubercles forming a triangle. A curved, longitudinal series of three spines between the median line and the lateral margins. Hinder part of cara- pace tricarinate, each keel bearing a number of small spines. Otherwise the surface of the carapace is only granulate and punctate. (The arrangement of the spines on the anterior part is very like to that of the hving Linuparus!) Abdominal segments in the median line provided with short, conical spines. (Similar spines are found in Linuparus tri- gonus on the anterior segments, but are wholly wanting in all other genera of Palinuridee, except in one species of Puerulus: here, however, they are of a different character!) The first segment has only one spine, the second has two simple spines, on the third segment the posterior one is provided, in specimen (a) with one, in specimen (6) with two additional tubercles, one behind the other. The fourth segment has two double- spined tubercles; the tips of the spines are placed one behind the other. The fifth segment has two simple spiniform tubercles. On the sixth segment, however, are two low double spines, placed side by side each near the median line, and on the posterior margin are two small spines placed close to the median line. The segments from the second to the fifth have each two sharp tubercles on each lateral part; the sixth has only one. The epimera are spined on the margins, but the Orimann—Linuparus atavus. 295 exact number of the spines cannot be determined. Each abdominal segment has a transverse furrow passing across the back between the anterior and the posterior median spines ; these furrows are very distinct on the second, third and fourth segments, while they are obsolete on the first, fifth and sixth. Of the telson only a small part of the anterior portion is exposed ; the posterior end, which was probably—as usual in this family—soft, is imbedded in the hard matrix. The segment of the antennule is very like that of Palinurus or Linuparus. It is narrow, elongate-triangular ; the lateral borders form a blunt, elevated ridge. The epistoma has a deep median longitudinal furrow, which is bordered anteriorly by a strongly elevated, oblong tubercle on both sides. The phyma- cerite (opening of the green gland) is visible only on the left side of specimen (a). The sternwm, exposed beautifully in specimen (0), is elongate-triangular in outline. ‘The lateral borders have three spiniform tubercles near the insertions of the second, third and fourth pereiopods, and a similar median tubercle a little in advance of the level of insertion of the fifth pereiopods. Of the antennule only parts of the basal joint are preserved. The antenne show the stout and enlarged form usual in the family. The stems have three free joints, the basal one being greatly enlarged and dilated on the inner margin, thus form- ing, with the segment of the antennule, that peculiar “ stridu- lating apparatus ” found in the genera of group 2 and 3 of the family. The two other basal joints of the antenne are nar- rower than the basal one, but still large and powerful. All three joints are furnished with a number of smaller and larger spines. Of the flagella only a couple of fragments are pre- served, but these show a very peculiar feature only found, among the living genera, in Linuparus: there exists dorsally and ventrally a distinct longitudinal furrow, so as to render the cross section oval with a constriction in the middle. Of the mouth parts, traces of the strong and powerful man- dibles are seen in specimen (a), of the second maxillipeds in specimen (0), and of the third maxillipeds in both. Of the latter the distal joints, carpus, propodus, and dactylus, are broken away. The interior margin of ischium and merus is spiny. No traces of an exopodite have been discovered, but it is probable that it is broken away or still imbedded in the matrix. / Of the pereiopods (thoracic legs) the first seems to be the stoutest, the second the longest. In specimen (6) all the joints of the latter are preserved on the right side (but partly cov- ered by the matrix). The dactylus reaches as far as the end of the stalks of the antenna, and it is long and slender. The dactylus of the first periopods is nowhere visible, but in both specimens the propodus of the left sides, showing plainly that 296 Ortmann—Linuparus atavus. i no chele were developed, as required by the diagnosis of the family. The following pairs of pereiopods decrease in size and thickness. The fifth pair shows plainly in both specimens the male sexual opening. ‘The distal parts from the merus onward are not present in the fifth pair. Traces of abdominal appendages ( pleopods) are discernable in both specimens; the right one of the fourth segment in specimen (@) is the dest preserved, consisting of an oval plate, which is finely striated. Sexual appendages are wanting. Thus we see that the position of this fossil form with the genus Linuparus is warranted not only by the tricarinate cara- pace, but also by other characters of minor importance, such as the distribution of spines on the carapace, the armature of the abdomen (which in its general plan is exactly like that of Linuparus trigonus, and differs from Palinurus as well as from the other genera of the family), and the peculiar shape of the flagella of the antenne. Only the frontal horns differ from those of the living species, but, as I have shown above, they are intermediate between that species and the condition seen in Palinurus, and this difference should be regarded as of only specific value: I do not think the shape of the frontal horns justifies the creation of a new genus, and this would be the only way left, if we do not wish to unite this fossil generically with the living Japanese species. Altogether, there is no doubt that the fossil described above is the nearest relation of the living Linuparus trigonus, none of the other living species coming so near to that Japanese Crustacean. This fact is extremely interesting, since it proves that the genus Linuparus only slightly modified existed as far back as the Upper Cretaceous time, and, indeed, one might be induced to regard Linuparus atavus as the din ect ancestor of the living species. In conclusion, this new fossil gives a hint as to the origin of the geographical range of the genus Linuparus. Linuparus is not—as might be supposed from its present exclusive distribu- tion in the Japanese seas—a form indigenous to that part of the world: the Japanese seas are not the “ center of origin ” of this genus, but the living species is to be regarded as the only “ relict” left from a former wider distribution. Probably this genus (like most of the other Mesozoic marine animals) possessed formerly a more or less cosmopolitan distribution, but it has been restricted gradually, and the only remnant left at the present time is the Japanese Nes trigonus, which is to be regarded, accordingly, as a very ancient type among the living Decapods. Princeton University, February, 1897. yyy)! Wy yy PEE Ti) ww) rT wie wind Nh) = ~ ‘ {ns - VA a Gre! spt Dp 4 ye = & 0° iS ue a, BES ES EXPLANATION OF FIGURES. Linuparus atavus. FIGURE 1 —Upper view of largerspecimen. 4 nat. size. (Some details of struc- ture of the carapace are supplemented f:om the smaller specimen.) FIGURE 2.—Frontal parts of carapace and base of antennz, viewed from above, and showing stridulating apparatus. Nat. size (large specimen). Figure 3.—do., viewed from below. Nat. size—a. Longitudinal groove, divid- ing the epistoma; 6. Phymacerite; ce. Basal joints of antennule. Figure 4.—Linuparus trigonus (dH.), living Japanese form, the same parts as in fig. 3, copied from the ‘‘ Fauna Japonica” for comparison. 4 nat. size. ‘7 SUC —— ee) SS Oe SS —— ss —— ee Se! | ,- - o/h « -_— = ee Se Ue. ek on ae | wa A om > Pee GH 6 298 Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. Art. XX XITI.—Studies in the Cyperacee ; by Tuo. Houm. VI. Dichromena leucocephala Vahl, and D. latifolia Baldw. THE genus Dichromena was established by Michaux (I. e. xiii) upon the plant which he named LD. leucocephala, on account of the snow-white inflorescence, while the generic name, derived from 6/5 and ypamua, should merely refer to the partly discolored involucre. No other name could be more suitable for this singular species, but our plant has, neverthe- less, met with the same fate as so many of the other North American plants, viz: to get its name changed and to become confounded with totally different species. Professor N. L. Britton, for instance, changed its name to Dichromena cepha- lotes, while Professor A. 8. Hitchcock (1. ¢. ii) suggested the name L). colorata, since he thought that Linneeus had this plant before him when he described his Schanus coloratus (1. ¢. vii). It is not, however, likely that this last change of name will hold good either, for two reasons: first, that Linneeus would hardly have called our discolored Dichromena “ colored ;’ and second, because the Linnean diagnosis does not prove that these two plants are really the same. In regard to the specific name “coloratus,”’ Linneeus did not use this term for discolored organs, but he used “ variegatus,” for instance (I. @ v) ‘‘Arundo indica variegata,”’ ‘“ Gramen paniculatum aqu. phalaridis sem. folio variegato,” and ‘‘Agri- folium foliis ex albo variegatis,’ which plants exhibit the same discoloration as our Dichromena. Furthermore, in his Phil- osophia botanica (I. c. ix) Linneeus employed the terms “albicans” and ‘“ pallescens”.for such organs as are whitish or pale green, viz: “Abrotanum cauliculis albicantibus,” etc., besides that he named a species of Schewnus “niveus” (1. ce. x) in contrast to his Schenus “coloratus”! These two species are now generally recognized as Ayllinga triceps and K. mon- ocephala, of which the first one is described by Kunth (1. ¢. iv) with *‘ squamis hyalino-albidis ” (nzvews), while the other species, K. monocephala, has the same organs ‘“ purpureo-punctulatis ” (coloratus). There are, furthermore, if we examine the diagnosis of Schenus coloratus, some points which seem to show that Lin- neeus did not intend to describe our Dzchromena ; he says, as follows: “ Schenus coloratus, culmo triquetro, capitulo subro- tundo, involucro longissimo plano variegato.” This last char- acter may suit very well for a Dichromena, although the involucre of some species of Ayllinga is known, also, to show a Holm— Studies in the Cyperacee. 299 similar discoloration. But the very long involucre (“involucro longissimo”’) does not fit as well for a Dichromena as for a Kyllinga, and our K. monocephala has, as we remember, the involucral leaves very long, much longer than in any species of Dichromena. The character ‘capitulo subrotundo”’ is, also, without doubt meant for the Ayllinga, since Linneus would surely not have overlooked the several spikes in Dichro- mena with the flowers and bracts almost “biseriate.’ We really feel assured that if Linneeus had seen our Dichromena, he would rather have referred it to Cyperus, on account of its biseriate bracts, etc. It is, furthermore, difficult to detect any organ in Dichromena which Linnzus observed to be so con- spicuous in order to name the species “ coloratus.” The inflor- escence of Dichromena leucocephala is, as its name indicates, snow-white, while that of Ayllinga is purplish-dotted. The later editors of Linneeus’ works, for instance Murray (I. c. xii), refer Schwnus coloratus and S. niveus respectively to K. monocephala and K. triceps, and Giseke (1. ¢. x), in accordance with Rottbeell (1. ¢ xiv), makes the following state- ment: “Ayllinga Rottbeelli adeo similis est Schwno, ut due ejus species a Linnzo patre sub illo comprehensee fuerint, nomine ‘colorati et nivel’ que jam Kyllinga monocephala et triceps vocantur.” Finally, Willdenow (1. c xi) reached to the same conclusion as Giseke and Rottbcell, and it must be noted that this author, Willdenow, states that he had seen specimens of Ayllinga monocephala, a fact that perhaps will be sufficient to decide the identity of the Schenus with the Kyllinga, instead of with our Dichromena. In considering now our plants, they are of a very singular aspect with their partly discolored involucre and white spikes, but an examination of the details will soon show that our plants are not different in any essential particular from most of the other genera of the Scirpew. The genus Dichromena, for instance, has three characters in common with Cyperus, viz: the almost biseriately arranged bracts and flowers, the lack of bristles, and finally the development of one of the internodes of the stem into a long scape with the bracts and inflorescences crowded at the apex. But it is at the same time readily dis- tinguished from Cyperus by the achene, which in Dichromena is crowned with the persistent base of the style. Let us pass to examine the internal structure of our plants, beginning with the species lewcocephala. This species shows the general features, which are known to be character- istic of the Cyperacew, besides that there are a few points in which it seems to differ from all the others which, so far, have been examined. The stem-leaf has a long flat blade, which is perfectly smooth like the other parts of the plant, and green B fee 300 - Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. in contrast to the partly discolored involucral leaves. The epidermis of the upper face consists of very large cells, which cover the entire surface, excepting near the margins, where a relatively large group of stereome is located, above which the epidermis-cells have become very small. The upper face of the blade is thus covered with bulliform-cells, in which respect our plant reminds us somewhat | of Cyperus fuscus, which has been described and figured by Duval-Jouve (I.¢. i). The cells of the epidermis of the lower surface are much smaller, and their walls Ce lip ce of the are slightly undulate; we find, BC. the bulliform-cella, 75x 2/80, here the internal cones, which natural size. seem to be constantly developed in the epidermis, which covers the stereome. Stomata are to be observed on this, the lower sur- face; they are not very prominent, and they form longitudinal bands underneath the mesophyll. This last tissue oceupies a very large part of the blade and consists of rather closely packed palisade-cells on the lower surface, while it shows a more open tissue on the upper face, just underneath the bulli- form-cells. We notice, therefore, that the palisade-tissue and the stomata are exclusively restricted to the lower face of the leaf-blade, a fact which seems due to the extraordinary develop- ment of the upper epidermis. The palisade-cells are mostly arranged vertically upon the leaf-surface, but we have, also, observed an approximately radial arrangement around the mestome-bundles. The cells of the mesophyll near the upper surface are polyhedric and leave room for numerous, but small, intercellular spaces. While only a few cells of the lower epidermis contained tannin, the mesophyll was observed to possess quite a number of such reservoirs. Very distinct and well differentiated from the mesophyll is the colorless par- enchyma-sheath, which borders on the mestome-bundles and partly surrounds these. We have seen from previous studies that this parenchyma-sheath is generally interrupted by the stereome in the large mestome-bundles, while it forms a closed ring around the smallest ones, which as a rule are not in con- tact with the hypodermal groups of stereome. Dzichromena forms, however, an exception to this rule, since, as we shall see later, the colorless parenchyma-sheath does not surround even the smallest mestome-bundles, but is, also, here interrupted by small stereome-elements, widely separated from the epider- mis of both faces of the leaf-blade. Inside the colorless parenchyma-sheath is the usual mestome-sheath, which is here = aoe eae ¥ Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 301 composed of equally thickened cells, those on the leptome-side being smaller and with narrower lumen than the others. The mestome-bundles seem to represent three different forms in the leaf of Dichromena, but not so much in regard to the development of the leptome and the hadrome as in regard to the difference in their mechanical sup- port. The largest bundles have the leptome and hadrome well developed and not separated from each other by thick-walled mes- tome-parenchyma; these bundles are supported by large groups of stereome on both faces, both groups extending from the corresponding epidermis. The mestome-bundles, which may be designated as those _of second degree, have, also, a well differentiated leptome and _ had- rome, besides two groups of stere- ome, but this tissue does not here extend to the epidermis of the lower face. The smallest bundles - contain mostly leptome, and their mechanical support consists only of a few stereome-cells on both Fic. 2. Transverse section of faces of the bundle, thus interrupt- a mestome-bundle from the leaf- ing the parenchyma-sheath, but pee le oe sets: without coming in contact with the , stereome; PS, parenchyma- 6 4 Sighs sheath; JM mestome-sheath: f @Piderrais. The general distribu- tannin reservoir, indicated with tion of the stereome has, thus, black in four cells of the section. already been indicated, and it may 400 x natural size. : be added that no isolated groups of this tissue were observed in the leaf of our plant, not even in the margin, where, although present, the stereome was in con- nection with asmall mestome-bundle. The leaf of Dichromena shows, therefore, a rather firm structure in regard to the dense mass of mesophyll, which is entirely destitute of any openings large enough to be designated as lacunes. It has, also, been stated that tannin was observed in the epidermis, and quite abundantly in the mesophyll, besides that it was, also, traced in the hadrome of most of the mestome-bundles. If we now examine the leaves of the involucre, we find a very singular structure, corresponding to that which Lager- heim (1. ¢. iv) has observed in D. czlzata Vahl from Ecuador. The discolored part, the base of the involucre, has the epidermis of the upper face developed as a stratum of large papillose i? iii a», I — hi & om Be ~_daea = 302 Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. cells, while the lower epidermis consists of somewhat smaller cells. The mesophyll is in this part of the involucre composed of rather long, loosely connected cells, all destitute of chloro- phyll, giving the leaf the peculiar white aspect in contrast to the upper part, in which the mesophyll is of usual structure and well provided with chlorophyll. The mestome-bundles are small, but represent, nevertheless, the same forms as we have described as characteristic of the proper leaves; cells containing tannin were observed in the mesophyll and in the hadrome. Stomata were observed, but confined to the lower surface of the green part of the involucre. As to the aerial stem: this is perfectly smooth, terete, slightly furrowed and hollow. It contains a bark rich in chlo- _ rophyll and composed of about eight layers of very regularly arranged palisade-cells, which are closely packed, except underneath the stomata, which are well represented in the epi- dermis. The palisade- tissue does not form closed rings in the he ae Wiel: a v1 Waite Q a A Ve ee BeoGe ah {| ae a a ee ee ae ee ane ts IN OES Fie. 3. Transverse section of the stem of D. leucocephala. Ep, Epidermis ; S, Stereome; V, vessels; F, fundamental tissue. 320 x natural size. stem, but is interrupted by the stereome which support the mestome-bundles. There are three concentric bands of mes- tome-bundles in the stem, and they are very regularly arranged and represent three degrees of development. Those of the outer- and inner-most band show exactly the same development in regard to the mestome; the leptome and hadrome are very Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 303 highly developed, but there is a difference in regard to their mechanical support. Those of the outer band have a large group of stereome all around the bundle, and especially on the leptome side from where the stereome extends outwards to the epidermis. The mestome-bundles of the innermost band are but a few in number and their mechanical support is very insignificant, there being only a few stereomatic cells on the leptome- and the hadrome-side of these bundles. The third form of mestome-bundles are in regular alternation with those of the outer band; they are very small, round and are merely supported by a small group of mechanical tissue on the leptome- side, which group is widely separated from the epidermis by the bark-parenchyma. The leptome and hadrome are, how- ever, well differentiated in these small bundles. (Compare figure 3.) In considering now the stereome, this forms, as already stated, groups of various strength for the support of the mestome-bundles, and it forms besides an uninterrupted ring inside the two outer bands of mestome-bundles, thus encircling those of the inner band. The innermost part of the stem is occupied by a fundamental tissue, which is composed of large, thin-walled cells, bordering on the rather wide central cavity. Tannin-reservoirs were only observed very scarce in the stem, and they seemed to be confined to the bark, besides that one cell of the hadrome between the two large vessels in all the mestome-bundles was observed to contain this matter. The rhizome of our species is well developed, creeping and of a comparatively firm. structure. It contains a huge bark- parenchyma of roundish cells, which forms a circle all around the central-cylinder. Very conspicuous are the numerous tannin-reservoirs, which abound in the bark, increasing in size towards the epidermis. While no typical endodermis is dif- ferentiated, there is, however, a closed ring of stereomatic tissue, just inside the bark, but the cells of this stereome are rather open and with thin walls. It surrounds the entire sys- tem of mestome-bundles irregularly scattered in the funda- mental tissue, and it is, also, represented as supporting groups on both faces of the mestome-bundles, especially on the inner- most face of these. There are two distinct forms of mestome- bundles observable, viz: the ordinary collateral and the so-called concentric, the last of which occur here as perihadromatic ; these two forms do not, however, show any special arrange- ment, but are to be observed scattered among each other. We stated above, that tannin-reservoirs were abundant in the bark ; they are again to be observed in the fundamental tissue, where they are quite numerous, besides in the stereome and the 304 folm—Studies in the Cyperacee. hadrome of nearly all the mestome-bundles. The rhizome shows thus a dense and solid structure with no trace of lacunes or even ducts, the cells of the bark-parenchyma leaving only very narrow intercellular-spaces. The root shows a very sim- ple structure, which agrees in all respects with that of the Cyperacee in general. The epidermis becomes thrown off by age, but is then substituted by a thick-walled hypoderm, which surrounds the very open bark - parenchyma, showing numerous lacunes, which have arisen by the tangential col- lapsing of the bark-cells. The innermost bark is differentiated as a very thick-walled and por- ous endodermis (nd in figure 4) which surrounds the peri- Fig. 4. Transverse section of a root. B, the bark-parenchyma. End, Endo- dermis: P, Pericambium; PL, Proto- leptome; PH, Protohadrome. 400x cambium; this last is as usual in the Cyperacee (with the only exception of Carex Fra- natural size. t : serv, so far as is known) inter- rupted by elements of protohadrome, which therefore lie close up towards the endodermis. In alternation with the proto- hadrome are to be observed small groups of protoleptome, while the center of the root is occupied by a huge vessel, sur- rounded by a few layers of conjunctive tissue. This is the general structure of Dichromena leucocephala, and if we now institute a comparison of these structures with the corresponding organs of LD. latifolia, we may be some- what surprised to find exact uniformity rather than any dif- ferences. Both plants have long been unanimously recognized as distinct species, although the differentiation seems to have been based on so slight a character as “ the tubercle of the achene being decurrent down the margins.” This character did not, however, seem sufficient to Kunth for separating them as two species, and he therefore did not accept the species latifolia without a certain reservation and doubt: ‘‘ Dichro- mene leucocephale aftinis, sed major. Mihi adhuc dubia.” A comparison of their structural characters may simply be expressed in this way, that the mechanical tissue is somewhat more strongly developed in D. latifolia, but otherwise no dif- ference was to be detected. That this uniformity in anatomical structure, as observed in the most important organs of the li folm—Studies in the Cyperacea. 305 plants, should be considered sufficient to unite these supposed species is more than probable. There seems always, even in closely related species, to be at least a few distinct anatomical characters to be observed, which in connection with similar morphological ones may prove the species to be valid; but we have, so far, been unable to trace any such divergences as war- rant the separation of Dichromena latifolia Baldw. from D. leucocephala Vahl. Washington, D. C., February, 1897. XII. XIV. Bibliography. . Duval-Jouve: Etude histotaxique des Cyperus de France. Mém. de Acad. d. se. de Montpellier. Paris, 1874. Plate XXI, figure 12. . Hitchcock, A. 8.: Plants of the Bahamas, Jamaica and Grand Cayman. Fourth Ann. Report Missouri Botanical Garden, 1893, p. 141. . Kunth, Carl Sig.: Enumeratio plantarum, vol. 2. Stuttgart, 183.7, p.129 and, 133, . Lagerheim, G.: Note sur une Cypéracée entomophile. Journ. de Bot., May, 1893. . Linné, Carl: Critica botanica Leyden, 1737, p. 178 and 244. . Linné, Carl: Hortus Cliffortianus, Amsterdam, 1737, p. 495. . Linné, Carl: Species plantarum, Stockholm, 1753, p. 43. Linné, Carl: Species plantarum, Stockholm, 1762, p. 64. . Linné, Carl: Philosophia botanica, Wien, 1763, p. 250. . Linné, Carl: Prezelectiones in ordines naturales plantarum. P. D. Giseke ed. Hamburg, 1792, p. 132. . Linné, Carl: Species plantarum. C. L. Willdenow ed. Berlin, 1797, vol. 1, p. 256 and 264. . Linné, Carl : Systema vegetabilium. J. Andr. Murray ed. Gettingen, 1797, p. 103. Michaux, A. Flora Boreali-Americana, 1803, vol. 1, p. 37. Rottbell, Chr. Fr.: Descriptiones et Icones plantarum. Kjcebenhavn, 1786, p. 12. Schwendener, 8.: Das mechanische Princip im anatomis- chen Bau der Monocotylen. Leipzig, 1874, p. 82. Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH Series, Vou. IV, No. 22.—Oct., 1897. 306 A. G. Mayer—Improved Heliostat. Art. XXXIV.—On an Improved Heliostat invented by Alfred M. Mayer; by ALFRED GOLDSBOROUGH MAYER. In 1885 my father, the late Professor A. M. Mayer, invented a heliostat which is superior in many respects to all forms of this instrument at present existing. As far as I am aware, my father never described his invention, and believing that an — 110 a Ne account of its construction may be of service to science, I here- with present a description of the instrument. A. G. Mayer—Improved [Heliostat. 307 The common forms of heliostats consist of one or more plane mirrors carried by a driving clock so as to maintain a solar beam continuously in one direction. The plane mirrors have to be of considerable size, and for accurate work are costly, moreover it 1s a matter of much difficulty to insure a constant direction of the reflected light owing to the com- plexity of the mechanism of the driving apparatus. The heliostat here described avoids these difficulties, is of very simple and cheap construction and possesses the unique advantage that it will maintain a parallel, convergent, or divergent solar beam in one direction with perfect steadiness, and will produce a highly illuminated field of uniform intens- ity with an amount of heat much less than that given by the forms of heliostats hitherto used. The essential and characteristic parts of the instrument (fig. 2) consist in a biconvex lens (J) which receives the sun’s light and produces a convergent beam that is rendered parallel by the small biconcave lens (K). The beam is then reflected in some desired direction by means of the totally reflecting prism (f). The two lenses, J and K, and the prism, /, are all 308 A. G. Mayer—Improved Heliostat. arranged upon a common axis, and mounted equatorially in a suitable frame-work adjustable to the sun’s declination by means of the graduated are (S, fig. 1). This frame work is controlled by a driving clock (A, fig. 1) of the type commonly used in other heliostats. The beam of light which is reflected from the prism (7) may be thrown in any direction by means of the reflecting prism, L (fig. 2), which is placed somewhere near but forms no essential part of the instrument. This heliostat is especially well adapted to microscopic and spectroscopic work and to projection with the lantern. By its means a very intense beam of sunlight may be obtained, which is so remarkably free from heat that it may be passed with perfect safety through microscopic slides containing the most delicate objects. In this manner beautifully well-defined images of microscopic objects were thrown upon a screen under a magnification of 3800 diameters. Harvard University, August 1st, 1897. CO. H. Smyth, Jr.—Pseudomorphs from New York. 809 Art. XXXV.—Pseudomorphs from Northern New York ; by C. H. SmytuH, JR. ) Pyroxene after Wollastonite. WHILE studying the mineral deposits of contact origin in the town of Diana, Lewis County, the writer collected several _ specimens which presented the appearance of pseudomorphs ; and such, upon further examination, they have proved to be, The surfaces of these specimens are rough and rounded, as is so commonly the case with pseudomorphs, while fractures show the erystals to lack homogeneity of structure, the mineral of which they consist having a pronounced cleavage, which has different directions in different parts of the crystal. The specimens are pale greenish-gray, becoming colorless in thin splinters and in sections. While the rough and curved faces and rounded edges make it impossible to determine the origi- nal form with absolute accuracy, the approximate measure- ments afforded, together with the habit of the individuals and of the aggregates, can hardly be explained except as inherited from wollastonite, an abundant mineral of this locality. Thin sections show each erystal to be made up of a number of individuals of monoclinic pyroxene, in irregularly bounded plates, variously oriented with reference to each other and to the external form derived from wollastonite. The pyroxene shows the usual optical and pyrognostic characters, is colorless, and free from inclusions other than calcite, which occurs as rounded or sinuous patches in and between the plates of pyroxene. This calcite seems to be an infiltration from the surrounding limestone, rather than a product of the alteration of the original wollastonite, though part may be of the latter origin. | In the hope of obtaining further evidence as to the nature of the mineral replaced by pyroxene, a number of specimens of Diana wollastonite have been examined, and, in several of them, grains and strings of pyroxene have been found. While these grains look rather like inclusions, it seems quite certain that in reality they mark the initial stages of the process which finds its completion in the specimens above described. This is even more strongly indicated by thin sections in which the pyroxene may be seen filling cleavage cracks and irregular fissures and cavities in the wollastonite. The chemical changes involved in the alteration of wollas- tonite into pyroxene are much simpler than in the case of scap- olite and mica, described below. Yet, nevertheless, the former alteration seems to be much less common,. This is not surpris- 310 CO. H. Smyth, Jr.— Pseudomorphs from New York. ing, however, as wollastonite is a metasilicate of simple consti- tution, while scapolite belongs to the less stable class of ortho- silicates and has a very complex molecular structure. The change of wollastonite into pyroxene is an illustration of the rule, referred to below, that, throughout this region, the addition of magnesia is very common in the formation of pseudomorphs. Mica after Scapolite and Pyroxene. Several years ago the writer described* briefly a variety of crystalline limestone, characterized by the presence of abundant crystals of scapolite, which occurs near Gouverneur, N. Y. Since that time the rock has been quarried to some extent for road metal and a supply of material favorable for study has been afforded. The exposure is beside the highway leading from Gouverneur to Hailesboro, and about half a mile south of the former village. The scapolite is rather uniformly disseminated through the limestone over an irregular area of several acres, projecting above weathered surfaces, and appearing as dark patches on fresh fractures. With it are associated a light-gray pyroxene, brown amphibole, titanite, a little pyrite, and an abundance of rich brown mica. While this association of species is sug- gestive of contact metamorphism, the irregular diffusion of the minerals over a considerable area, together with the absence of all zonal structure and of any exposure of igneous rocks, necessitates the correlation of the minerals with the general metamorphism of the region, by whatever cause or causes that may have been produced. None of the minerals show perfect crystal form, but the scapolite and pyroxene, with which the present communication is particularly concerned, are often distinctly prismatic and _ sometimes bounded by fairly good planes in the prism zone. The crystals range in size from very small up to a maximum length of about three inches. The color of the scapolite is a dull grayish-black and in most cases it appears to be, at least slightly, decomposed and softened. Some specimens are, how- ever, quite tough and lustrous. Close to many of the erystals the enclosing limestone shows a greenish or yellowish zone which looks almost like serpentine. The interesting feature of the scapolite is the relation it bears to the associated mica. The latter mineral occurs in pris- matic forms which, at first glance, might be taken for simple crystals of phlogopite. But, on closer examination, it is seen that each prism is a complex aggregate of mica plates, the per- * Trans. N. Y. Acad. of Sciences, xii, p. 213. CO. H. Smyth, Jr—Pseudomorphs from New York. 311 fect basal cleavage having the greatest variety of orientation in different parts of the crystal. The obvious conclusion, that the mica is pseudomorphous, is entirely substantiated by occa- sional specimens of unusual perfection showing the crystals composed wholly of mica, but having eight, instead of six, faces in the prism zone, and thus reproducing the form and habit of the scapolite. The intermediate stages in the production of the pseudo- morphs of mica after scapolite are abundantly shown. Indeed, ‘ most of the scapolite crystals are partially changed. As a rule, the alteration proceeds from the margin towards the center, but there are many exceptions, and the operation shows much irregularity. In thin sections, the scapolite shows a strong double refrac- tion and the species is probably near wernerite. Very abund- ant black inclusions, probably carbonaceous, account for the black color of the mineral. These inclusions often show a per- fect zonal arrangement, and there is nearly always a surface layer which is quite free from them. In the growth of the pseudomorphs this regularity of distribution becomes obscured, and there seems to be a tendency for the inclusions to become somewhat segregated. As alteration proceeds, the double refraction becomes very weak, the mineral takes on a rather fibrous structure and the fibers have a positive optical charac- ter. In this condition the mineral behaves like serpentine, yields water and has a decidedly serpentinous appearance. Whether this is a step towards the formation of mica, or an entirely independent alteration representing different condi- tions, is not evident. The latter alternative, however, seems much more probable, and harmonizes better with the facts observed. , The mica, as seen under the microscope, is quite pale in tint with moderate pleochroism, and shows the very low axial angle of biotite, of which it is doubtless the phlogopite variety. As indicated by examination of hand specimens, the mica scales grow into and through the scapolite quite irregularly, with every variety of orientation. The pyroxene associated with the scapolite has, also, a decided tendency to pass over into mica, and the change is shown in several sections. But, as a rule, the pyroxene has a less regular form than the scapolite, and it is doubtful if any of the more perfect pseudomorphs are to be referred to the former species. It must be admitted, however, that a positive conclusion upon this point can hardly be based upon such crude forms as the pseudomorphs present. The intimate mingling of scapolite and pyroxene in several sections makes it probable that some of the pseudomorphs are of composite origin, in which case the ee ee 312 C. H. Smyth, Ir— Pseudomorphs from New York. form might be derived from either one of the minerals involved. Among the large variety of pseudomorphs after scapolite, mica holds an important place, and many instances of its oceur- rence have been described, particularly in Europe. Neverthe- less, as so often happens in phenomena of this kind, it is by no means easy to account for the details of the process of altera- tion. The necessary magnesia is readily afforded by the sur- rounding limestone; indeed, magnesian pseudomorphs, notably tale and serpentine, are abundant throughout the limestone - belts of Northern New York. But the sources of the iron, potash and fluorine, together with the precise nature of the chemical reactions involved, remain a matter of great uncer- taint Te aoneeone with this alteration of scapolite, two specimens of the same mineral in the Root collection of Hamiton Col- lege are of interest. On one of these, from Edwards, minute erystals of pale yellowish-green epidote partially coat the sur- face of, and penetrate cracks in, the stout light-gray crystals of scapolite. While this cannot be classed as a clear case of pseu- domorphism, it can hardly be questioned that the epidote has grown at the expense of the scapolite, and would have entirely replaced the latter mineral had the process not been checked by changing conditions. As is the case with mica, epidote is a not uncommon pseudo- morph after scapolite, occurring in a number of European loealities.* ) The second specimen, above referred to, comes from Pierre- pont, and consists of more slender crystals of scapolite asso- ciated with dark-green pyroxene. Some of the scapolite crys- tals are coated with a thin layer of garnet, and this mineral penetrates the scapolite in sinuous threads and bands. As in the previous case, the relation between the two minerals can hardly be accidental and is such as to suggest that the garnet has derived a part of its constituents from the scapolite, and might, ultimately, have entirely replaced the latter mineral. The alteration of garnet to scapolite is described by Cathrein,t but the opposite change, above indicated, the writer has not found treated. | It is unfortunate that the very limited supply of material interferes with a more thorough study of both these latter eXx- alnples of alteration. Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., May, 1897. * Roth, Allg. Chem. Geol., i, p. 391. + Zeitschr. f. Krystall., x, p. 433. Penfield—Chemical Composition of Hamlinite. 318 Art. XXXVI.—On the Chemical Composition of Hamlinite and its Occurrence with Bertrandite at Oxford County, Maine; by 8. L. PENFIELD. In the summer of 1890, Mr. W. E. Hidden and the author published a short description of a rhombohedral phosphate occurring with the rare minerals herderite and bertrandite at Stoneham, Maine. Only a single specimen, showing a few minute crystals, was ever found at the locality, and the inves- tigation was therefore incomplete, being confined to determina- tions of the crystallization and physical properties and the identification of phosphorus, aluminium, fluorine and water, while from its association it was supposed that it would also contain beryllinm. | The mineral was named hamlznite in honor of Augustus C. Hamlin of Bangor, Maine, who has always taken a keen interest in collecting and studying the minerals of his State and espe- cially the beautiful tourmalines from Mt. Mica and vicinity. As stated in the original article, the incomplete description was published for the purpose of calling attention to a mineral which would probably prove to be interesting, and also in hopes that others would be led to look for the mineral and find it. This hope has not been in vain, for Mr. Lazard Cahn of New York had the good fortune to discover among a suite of minerals from Oxford County, Maine, some specimens showing rhombohedral crystals of a mineral, unknown to him, which he gave to the author, suggesting that they might prove to be the rare mineral hamlinite. It is hoped that additional informa- tion may be obtained concerning the exact locality at which the mineral is found, so that a supply of specimens may become available for distribution. The mineral was readily identified as hamlinite by its rhombohedral crystallization, basal cleavage, positive double refraction, and blowpipe reactions. The crystals are implanted upon feldspar and muscovite and are associated, lke the ones from Stoneham, with apatite, herderite ne and rarely bertrandite. The crystals present two prominent habits: One a combination of the rhombohedrons 7,1011 and 7, 0221, de- veloped as shown in the accompanying figure. On these crystals there are occasionally small basal planes and slight horizontal striations on the rhombohedral faces near their junc- ture with the base. The other habit is essen- N tially a combination of the hexagonal prism of the first order, 1010, with the base, but, owing to a vicinal 314 = Penfield—Chenical Composition of Huamlinite. development and rounding, the prismatic faces have a tendency toward a steep rhombohedron, and the basal planes are marked by triangular prominences. The crystals attain at times a diameter of 3 to 4™™, but are not well adapted for measurement owing to the vicinal char- acter of the faces. The following measurements can claim to be only approximations, since there were usually several reflec- tions of the signal of the goniometer from each face, and it was impossible to tell upon which one the cross-hair of the tele- scope should be placed. The calculated angles are those derived from measurements of the hamlinite from Stoneham, e=1-135, but the crystals from that locality showed a vicinal development of their faces, and the values can not, therefore, be considered as very exact. Measured. Calculated. HAT, WOUL A ILO) 88 e4 1 87° 2 Fads 02212 202 == 109 ia) 108 2 raf, LOLLAOQ2Z1= 54 44 and 54°47’ 54 1 It was found to be practically impossible to select by hand- picking a sufficient quantity of the pure hamlinite crystals for an analysis, and, therefore, a number of specimens upon which the crystals were observed were pulverized, and the hamlinite separated from the other minerals by means of the heavy liquids. Apatite, however, could not be thus separated, but, owing to the fact that hamlinite is almost insoluble in boiling dilute hydrochloric acid, it was possible by treatment with successive portions of acid until the solution gave no test for calcium to remove the apatite completely. All possible pre- cautions were taken to make the separation and purification of the mineral as complete as possible, and the mineral, when examined with the microscope, showed no visible impurity. The specific gravity of the hamlinite varied considerably, that portion which was taken for the chemical analysis being between 3°159 and 3-283, while some of the mineral was still a trifle higher and some a little lower. A qualitative analysis indicated the presence of aluminium, strontium, barium, phosphorus, fluorine and water, and the absence of calcium and beryllium. In the quantitative analyses the strontium and barium were weighed together as sulphates and subsequently separated as recommended by Fresenius,* by a double precipitation of the barium as chromate. The fluorine was weighed as calcium fluoride, and the latter was tested and found to be pure by conversion into sulphate. Water was determined in two ways; first by fusing with dry sodium ear- bonate and weighing the water directly,t second by loss on * Zeitsch. fiir anal. Chemie, xxix, p. 413, 1890. + This Journal, xlviii, p. 37, 1894. ae ae Sr Penfield— Chemical Composition of Hamlinite. 315 ignition, using a weighed quantity of lime to retain the fluorine.* The air-dry powder lost only 0°16 per cent by heating to 100°, and the water was not expelled until the min- eral was heated nearly to redness, thus indicating the presence of hydroxy]. The results of the analysis are as follows: . Average. Ratio. | EA Paes 28 92 28°92 204 1°00 AVGOs 2... 32°29. 32°30 32°30 316. 1°55 Fe.03.-_- ‘90 ‘90 Ob) LScoo 18°53 18°43 facia ( BaO .... 410 3°89 4-00 026 erase Bo: 11:93. 12°07 = 12°00 +9= 1°333).. a. ee 1°93 1-93 102 i es onala SiO. 238 ae "96 ‘96 K,0 Sees 34 By! Na.O _.. ‘40 AO 10°18 Oxygen equivalent of fluorine, “81 99737 The ratio of P,O,: Al,O,:(Sr+Ba)O : (OH+F) is very nearly 1:1°5:1:7, which gives the formula Al,Sr(OH),P,O, or better [Al(OH),],[/SrOH]P,O,, where strontium is partially replaced by barium and hydroxyl by fluorine. By the method of preparing the mineral for analysis traces of adhering feldspar and mica could not be wholly avoided, and, although the small quantities of Fe,O, and alkalies may belong partly to the hamlinite and partly to impurities, these have been neglected in making the calculations. If the alka- lies together with their equivalent of Al,O, (1:06 per cent), the Fe,O, and the Si0O,, in all 3°62 per cent, are deducted from the analysis and the remainder calculated to one hundred per cent, the results are as given below, where they are compared with the theoretical composition, where Sr: Ba = 7:1 and OH: F= 2 L | Found. Calculated. 16) ae oe nee a 30°20 30°31 Ha pease sty SU Se iS 32°67 32°65 ROM he Ne Prete 19°25 19:29 Bae) fF oie ry ee 4°18 4°08 121i (0) AS 8 Ma to 12°53 12°48 RGR pee ee Ee 2-01 2°04 100°84 100°85 Ora Fees. SG ae 84 85 * This Journal, xxxii, p. 109, 1886. 316 Penjield—Chemical Composition of Hamlinite. ‘In its chemical composition hamlinite holds a unique posi- tion among minerals, as strontium and barium have never before been observed as essential constituents of a phosphate and this is the first time that a pyrophosphate has been recorded. Note concerning Bertrandite Crystals from Oxford County, Maine. Associated with the hamlinite just described there was one specimen show- ing prismatic crystals averaging about 2-™ in length and 1™™ in diameter, which proved to be the rare mineral bertrandite. The habit is shown in the accompanying figure and the forms are as follows: @, 100... -€,001Y 26011. hte 6-010, 470130) e-03M The crystals are in reality twins, two hemimorphie individuals being united by their basal planes, and occasionally the line of twinning may be traced horizon- tally across the a, f and 6 faces. The specific gravity was found to be 2571. The measured angles are given below, together with the calculated values derived from the axial ratio @:b:¢ =0°56885: 1: 0°5978. Measured. Calculated. Measured. Calculated. fxf) 130. 2180 = 119% 207" 119° 76" ee, 001% 0314 == "G0 tote eee Cj 001 A011 = 80 50 30 51 cak, 001 ,0°12°1= 82 20 82 4 In closing the author desires to express his thanks to Mr. Cahn for calling his attention to this new occurrence of ham- linite and bertrandite. Laboratory of Mineralogy and Petrography, Sheffield Scientific School, May, 1897. Chemistry and Physics. 317 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysIcs. 1. On the Properties of Highly Purified Substances.—In con- sequence of recent experiments showing that many chemical changes take place only in the presence of some substance, pre- sumably water vapor, going to establish the general rule that all chemical changes depend on the presence of this vapor, SHEn- STONE has been led to study the apparent exceptions to this rule more carefully. His first experiments were directed to determine the influence of moisture (1) upon the production of ozone from _ oxygen by means of the electric discharge, and (2) upon the sta- bility of ozone. The apparatus used was quite elaborate, built up entirely of glass and sealed before the blowpipe. It was filled with oxygen, generated within the apparatus from a mixture of potassium and sodium chlorates mixed with a little solid potash, the ozonizer was set in operation and the resulting ozone carefully dried with phosphoric oxide; this operation being repeated several times. Finally water vapor free from air was admitted to the exhausted tube, and then oxygen, the apparatus being cooled to 0°. The ozonizer was then put into operation and the amount of ozone generated deduced from the resulting contraction. The maximum yield of ozone was 13°6 per cent and the minimum 13°3. Repeating the experiment with the oxygen dried so that the pressure of the aqueous vapor present was assumed to be not over 0°0001™™, the yield never exceeded 11:1 per cent. Moreover, the ozone obtained appeared to be singu- larly instable. Direct experiment showed that moist oxygen well ozonized, could be maintained at 26°4° for 9 hours with a loss of only 2 per cent, the loss during the last 4 hours being only 0°4 percent. Dry oxygen, on the other hand, when strongly ozonized and kept at 0° for 33 minutes, lost 1°6 per cent of its ozone. Hence it appears that moderately dry ozone at 0° undergoes decomposition about 30 times as rapidly as the damp gas at 26°4°. On drying the oxygen still more completely (so that the water: vapor pressure had been reduced to °000,000,001™™) only 0°2 per cent of ozone was formed; showing that well-dried oxygen scarcely ozonizes at all. In a second series of experiments, the behavior of carefully dried chlorine, bromine and iodine with well-dried mercury was studied. The chlorine was generated by the electrolysis of fused silver chloride within the apparatus, a large Fleuss pump and two five-fall Sprengels being used to pro- duce the exhaustion. The bromine and iodine used were also purified with great care. The mercury was prepared from mer- curous nitrate or mercuric oxide, and repeatedly distilled. All the materials were dried with the greatest care. On introducing the mercury in a glass bulb into a tube and then filling this with the chlorine, bromine or iodine, it was observed that on breaking 318 Scientific Intelligence. the bulb, there was immediate and rapid action in the cold, the chlorine and bromine being absorbed very soon, the iodine more slowly. Hence the author concludes that the action between chlorine, bromine and iodine on the one hand and mercury on the other does not depend on the presence of water vapor. Addi- tional experiments were made to determine the effect of the silent discharge and of direct sunlight upon highly purified chlorine, but with negative results.—/. Chem. Soc., |xxi, 471, May, 1897. | G. F. B. 2. On the Liquefaction of Fluorine.—From the properties of the known compounds of fluorine, the conclusion readily follows that fluorine itself can be liquefied only with great difficulty. Advantage was taken therefore of the lecture upon fluorine given by Morssan at the Royal Institution in May, to combine the ap- paratus for its manufacture which he had brought from Paris, with the unequalled facilities possessed by Dewar at the Institu- tion, for producing low temperatures, in order to attempt its liquefaction, the results of which are given in a joint paper. The fluorine was prepared by the electrolysis of potassium fluoride dissolved in anhydrous hydrofluoric acid. The fluorine gas was freed from the vapors of hydrofluoric acid by means of a bath of alcohol and solid carbon dioxide. ‘The liquefying apparatus con- | sisted of a small cylinder of thin glass having a platinum tube fused into its upper portion, within which was a second tube also of platinum. The gas entered through the annular space between the tubes, passed into the glass envelope and escaped through the inner tube. Liquid oxygen was used as the refrigerant, several liters of it being required. The apparatus being cooled down to the temperature of quietly boiling liquid oxygen (—183°), the current of fluorine gas passed through it without liquefaction and without attacking the glass at this low temperature. On making a vacuum above the oxygen, a rapid ebullition took place and a liquid collected upon the interior of the glass envelope, no gas now escaping from the tube. On closing this tube with the finger, the glass bulb soon became filled with a clear and very mobile yellow liquid, having the same color as the gas in a stratum one meter thick. Hence fluorine liquefies at about —185°. On removing the apparatus from the bath of liquid oxygen, the temperature rose and the liquid fluorine began to boil, evolving abundance of the gas. Hxperiments were made upon the action of this gas upon substances cooled to very low temperatures. Sili- con, boron, carbon, sulphur, phosphorus and reduced iron, cooled in liquid oxygen, did not become incandescent when placed in an atmosphere of fluorine. Nor at this temperature did fluorine dis- place iodine from iodides. But it still decomposed benzene and turpentine with incandescence at 180°. When a current of fluor- ine gas is passed through liquid oxygen a white flocculent precipi- tate is rapidly formed. ‘This thrown on a filter deflagrates violently as the temperature rises.—C. &., cxxiv, 1202, May, 1897; Chem. News, \xxv, 277, June, 1897. “pi GoEee. ee Chemistry and Physics. | 319 38. On Normal and Iso-pentane from American Petroleum.— By means of a dephlegmator devised by them, Youne and Tuomas were able in 1895 to isolate normal hexane from petroleum ether in a nearly pure state. By using a very short water condenser at the top of this dephlegmator, and by combining with it a reg- ulated temperature still-head, the authors have now succeeded in separating normal pentane from iso-pentane. The material used was a complex mixture of butanes, pentanes, and hexanes with some benzene and a little hexanaphthene. ‘Three fractionings suf- ficed to eliminate the butanes, hexanes, benzene and hexanaph- thene for the most part. Then the residues, of about 1030 grams, were shaken first with concentrated sulphuric acid, then with a mixture of strong nitric and sulphuric acids ; being finally treated with caustic potash and dried with phosphoric oxide. The details of the eleventh fractionation are given in a table in which the lowest fractions are mainly iso-pentane and the highest normal pentane; the intermediate ones being mixtures of these. The fall in temperature of the vapor during its passage through the still-head is greatest for the middle fractions and least for the highest and purest fractions. After 13 fractionings the middle fractions had become very small and the two pentanes were sepa- rately fractionated, the normal pentane 8 times and the iso-pen- tane 11 times. In this way 175 grams of pure normal pentane and 101 grams of iso-pentane were obtained. The former boiled constantly at 36°1° under a pressure of 754°5™™ (or 36°3° at 760™™) and the latter at 27:95° at 760™™. The constants of the iso-pen- tane thus obtained were compared with those of the synthetically prepared substance and showed a close agreement. The properties of the normal pentane thus obtained are given in a separate paper by Youne. ‘The boiling point remained abso- lutely constant at 36°3° at 760"". The specific gravity, deter- mined in the Perkins form of Sprengel tube, was 0°64536 —0°64541 at 0° and 063313 at 12°91°. The volumes at different tempera- tures agree closely with those of Thorpe and Jones. The criti- cal temperature was found to be 197-2° and the critical pressure 25100" ; one gram having a volume of 4:303° at the critical temperature. From his results the author shows that the densi- ties of liquid and saturated vapor become equal at the critical temperature and hence defines the apparent critical temperature therefore as the temperature at which the densities of liquid and saturated vapor become equal. ‘Chis temperature was found to be the same whether the temperature had been previously raised or lowered and whether the volume was constant or variable.— J. Chem. Soc., |xxi, 440, 446, April, 1897. G. 'F. B. 4, On the Heat of Combustion.—The formula of Dulong which gives the heat of combustion of solid and liquid fuels as a function of their composition is as follows: O p=B8le “e345 (»—§) 320 | Scientific Intellegence. in which c,h and o represent the percentages of carbon, hydro- gen and oxygen respectively. If a general expression p= Ac + Bh — Co be taken, the numerical value of the coefficient, A = 81, must be maintained, since it corresponds to pure carbon, and all known data (from 8060 to 8140) prove that the figure 81 must really be taken for each per cent unit of carbon in the fuel (the accuracy of the measurements being within the limits of from 1 to 2 per cent of the total heat of combustion.) For hydrogen, however, the coefficient B = 345 cannot be maintained, because it has been obtained from data relating to the burning of gaseous hydrogen, while in ordinary liquid or solid fuel the elasticity of the gas is lost. Its hydrogen must be considered as if liquefied and consequently B must not exceed 300, supposing as usual that the resulting water is in the liquid state. In order to find the true coefficients suitable for practical purposes MeNDELEEFF takes the value of g = 4190, which is the correct value for cellu- lose within one per cent, and is also the average of 79 most com- plete determinations for fat coals (by Maler, Alexeyeff, Damski, Diakonoff, Miklaschewski, Schwanhéfer and Bunge) and the aver- age for naphtha fuel. From this he finds P= 81le + 300A — 26(0-s) (s being sulphur). This formula represents with an accuracy of trom 1 to 2 per cent the heat of combustion of pure charcoal, coke, coals, lignites, wood, cellulose and naphtha fuels. It applies of course to the best determinations only; especially to those which have been made in a calorimetric bomb where the error is less than 1 or 2 per cent. This formula of course is only an approxi- mate empirical expression of facts; but it corresponds at the same time to the numerical value of the coefficient B for hydrogen which theoretical considerations would lead us to expect.—J. Chem. and Phys. Soc. Russe, xxix, 144; Nature, lvi, 186, June, 1897. G. F. B. 5. The capillary constants of molten metals.—This is the sub- ject of an inaugural dissertation (Gottingen, 1897) by Henry SrEDENTOPF. The author has employed Quincke’s method of ob- taining the capillary constants by means of falling drops (1868). Whereas Quincke, however, depended upon the determination of the weight of the drops, the present author has based his results upon the measurement of the curvature of their surface and their size. The metals experimented upon were cadmium, tin, lead, mercury and bismuth. For each the surface tension and specific cohesion were determined at a temperature near that of fusion. The results are given in the following table: Temperature Surface Specific of fusion. tension. cohesion. Cadmium = "aes te 84°85 Pah ras Mbineted A. eee 226° 62°43 17°87 Wears is Mae or OS ~ 51°94 9°778 Merenry 2.2 2.222) 4 S38 46°29 6767 Bismuth 22 2.5 2. 264° 43°78 8'755 Chemistry and Physics. . 321 6. Relations between the Geometric constants of a Crystal and the Molecular Weight of its Substance; by Professor G. Linck. (Abstract of a paper published in vol. xxvi of Groth’s Zeitschrift fiir Krystallographie.)—The author has already called attention™ to the fact that the characteristics of crystals, i. e. their geometric and optical constants, stand in direct relation to the atomic or molecular weight of the elements contained in them. This is most clearly shown in the eutropic series: a eutropic series being defined as a series of substances, crystallizing simi- larly, but differmy, only in that they each contain a different element, though the elements are yet similar according to the periodic system of Mendeléeff. If such a series is arranged according to increasing molecular or atomic weight, then the series, for all characteristics of the crystal, remains unchanged. The fundamental law of these phenomena the author has desig- nated “ Kutropy.” For the present investigation it was necessary to know the system to which the crystal belonged, its axial relations, the Specific gravity and the atomic weight. Of these, the atomic weights were taken exclusively from Krafft’s Lehrbuch der Chemie. ‘The specific gravities were taken from one or the other of the three books of Dana (1893), Rammelsberg (1881), or Websky (1868). So far as it was possible to decide, only such values were used as belonged to chemically homogenous material. In like manner the geometric constants, the axial ratios, were for the most part, and wherever possible, taken from a single author (Groth, Tab. Uebersicht, 1889). The method employed is stated by the author as follows: If we assume with Fock, that the smallest conceivable crystal is identical with the molecule,—although this is not an essential condition for the further development of the subject here dis- cussed—then the relative size of the molecule may be computed from the volume. This is not the molecular volume, as defined in terms of molecular weight, M, and specific gravity, d, according to the formula . but the volume of the smallest crystal expressed as a product in terms of its geometric constants. As represent- ing the smallest crystal, instead of the hypothetical actual poly- hedron, the author assumes (after Schrauf) an ellipsoid whose volume is proportional to that of the fundamental form. This ellipsoid, designated as the crystal-volume, CV, is therefore re- garded as the extreme case of a combination. The crystal-volume is computed from the crystallographic axes of the fundamental form. These divide the fundamental form into eight irregular tetrahedra of equal volume. Of each one of these we know the length of the three edges corresponding to the axes, and also the three angles a, 6, vy, which these axes torm * Zeitschrift fir physikalische Chemie, xix, 193. Am. Jour. Scr.—FourtH Series, Vou. IV, No. 22.—Oct., 1897. 22 322 : Scientifie Intelligence. with,each other. From the above data we have the volume of the tetrahedron v, from the formula V = 3 abc 4/sins, sin[s — a]. sin [s— f].sin[s— y]. where s represents the half sum of the angles a, 6, y. The vol- ume of the entire, fundamental form would consequently be eight times as large, or in rectangular codrdinates, V=4abe. The contents of the corresponding ellipsoid is, in rectangular coordi- nates, where the codrdinate axes become the axes of the ellipsoid, = Ave. 3 For the volumes of the various crystal systems we have, if we denote the quantity under the radical by A, the following for- mulas: I. Regular; CV =47z (wherea = b=c=1), II. Tetragonal and Hexagonal; CV —4 7c (fora=1),=47@ (orc =1): III. Rhombic; CV = 47 ac (ford =1),=42bc(a=1),=]4 200 c= 1): IV. Monoclinic and Triclinic ; CV=7§ac/A (b=1), ete. For the regular system the ellipsoid is a sphere, for the tetra- gonal and hexagonal systems an ellipsoid of revolution, and a the others an ellipsoid whose semiaxes are 2, y, 2 If the crystal-volume so computed were equal to the attinal volume of the smallest crystal, or to that of the molecule, then it would only be necessary to multiply this value by the specific gravity of the substance under consideration in order to obtain. its molecular weight in terms of water as the unit. The value of the crystal-volume as computed is, however, only proportional to the actual volume of the molecule, and hence the product, d. CV, represents only a value proportional to the molecular or atomic weight, taken with reference to water or hydrogen as the case may be, and this value is to be multiplied or divided by some number in order to give the molecular or atomic weight. Since, however, this number is not known, we are not able to use the computed valued.CV. We can use it, however, as soon as we consider the entire eutropic series and apply the law of eutropy to the values thus found. It is therefore evident, that in the case of eutropic crystals, the crystal-volumes must form a series, such that with increasing atomic or molecular weight they either decrease, or what is more probable, increase. In like manner the products d. CV, that is, the crystal-weights, must stand in accurate ratio to each other. We ask further, are then the computed crystal-volumes of all members of a series mutually equivalent? This also must be answered in the negative, for it must not be forgotten that in each substance the lengths of the codrdinate axes are taken with reference to a new unit of length, since in each case we put one axis equal to unity. We ought, however, to refer the crystals of the various members to the same unit of length, and only then Chemistry and Physics. 323 would the computed values, d. CV or CV, be equivalent to each other. If the products, d. CV, were originally equivalent, then d.CV : : the quotients Q = —.__, where M is the simplest molecular or M atomic weight, should be the same for all members of the same series. If we have found the quotient Q, for one substance, then from this we can obtain the actual equivalent weight d .CV, = Q,. M, by multiplying it by the atomic or molecular weight, and by dividing this value by the specific gravity of the substance under consideration we obtain the actual equivalent crystal-vol- ume, CV, = eas The quotient, aad is obtained by dividing the crystal-vol- ume by the molecular volume, a The difference between the d equivalent weights, @.CV, of a series must, since the weights themselves are proportional to the molecular weights, stand in the same ratio as the difference between the corresponding atomic or molecular weights. ‘This latter proposition includes, however, an extension of all our previous considerations touching iso- morphic bodies, possibly even a part of the morphotropic ones. It ouly remains to say a few words concerning the relations of heteromorphic modifications of the same substance. It is evi- dent that the molecular weight of heteromorphic modifications stand in some simple rational ratio to each other, and conse- quently, in connection with the above considerations, it follows that the products, d. CV, must also stand in the same simple ratio, or, that equivalent crystal-volumes possess equal weights. In presenting the results of his calculations, the author gives a series of thirteen tables. Of these, seven are devoted to hetero- morphic modifications of the same substance, as, for example, graphite and diamond, marcasite and pyrite, calcite and arago- nite, etc. In all of these cases the crystal-volume (CV), the product of this by the specific gravity (d. CV) and the molecular volume (MV) are given; finally, the quotient of the crystal- volume divided by the molecular volume | Q = uv is deduced. These last values agree closely in the case of the substance in each table, only showing such variations as can be explained by the inaccuracy of the data available, For instance, for graphite, Q =3°732; for diamond, Q = 3695. Again, for calcite, Q = 0:097295 ; for aragonite, @) = 0°09730. From these tables, then, it appears that the theory above devel- oped is in accord with the facts; further, that in case of the com- plete knowledge of one modification of a substance the determi- nation of one of the quantities, CV or d, of another modification is sufficient for the computation of the other. For example, as soon as the axial ratio and specific gravity of graphite are known —— eo. - 2 Bein, BE 324 Scientific Intelligence. the specific gravity for the regular diamond may be computed. In the case of tetragonal and hexagonal crystals also, either the axis ¢ or a, or the specific gravity, may be computed; in the remaining crystal systems, only the specific gravity on ‘the one hand, or the crystal volume on the other may be computed. From the crystal volume one geometric constant may be com- puted backwards, only in case the others are already known. Tables VIL to XIII give the data and calculated values for a series of isomorphous or eutropic substances, as arsenic, anti- mony, bismuth; also, beryllium, magnesium, zine, cadmium ; again, aragonite (CaCO,), strontianite (SrCO,), witherite (BaCO, ): cerussite (PbCO,), etc. The discussion of these tables, , though highly interesting, would require more space than is available here. It must suffice to quote the conclusions deduced by the author from them, as follows: (1) The actual volumes of the various chemical compounds, if formed into equivalent crystals, stand in a very simple relation to each other. (2) The weights of these equivalent volumes stand in the same relations to each other as the molecular weights. (3) The volumes in a eutropic series increase with increasing molecular or atomic weights. (4) The weights of equivalent volumes always increase with increasing atomic weights. (5) Bodies which are isomorphous but not eutropic likewise stand in a very simple relation to each other according to their crystal volume or their actual volume as the case may be. (6) Many crystals which have heretofore been considered eutropic or isomorphic are not so, since they probably possess a larger or smaller molecular weight according to the number of atoms. 7. The Induction Coil in practical work, including Réntgen Rays ; by Lewis Wricut. 172 pp. London, i897 (Macmillan & Co.).—This little volume, by a well known writer, appears opportunely at a time when the induction coil is being called upon for active use more generally than ever before. Many of the workers experimenting with X-rays have not had the advan- tages of extensive practice in the laboratory, and they especially, as well as others, will be grateful to the author for preparing this excellent summary of the subject. IJ. MIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. British Association.—The sixty-seventh annual meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science was held at Toronto from August 18 to 25. It was a more than usually notable occasion, rendered so chiefly by the number and charac- ter of the scientific men who came from England to attend it, also by the enthusiastic work of the Canadians at home, and further by the codperation of members of the American Associa- Miscellaneous Intelligence. 325 tion. The opening address was delivered by the President, Sir John Evans, and other valuable addresses and lectures marked the meeting ; numerous important papers were read in the differ- ent sections. After the close of the meeting various excursions were undertaken, one of them to the Pacific Coast. The Association is to meet at Bristol next year and in Dover in 1899. 2. Notes on Greenland glaciation.—Prof. R. 8. Tarr has con- tributed numerous interesting details to our knowledge of the glacial phenomena exhibited on the west coast of Greenland.* In the paper on the Cornell glacier (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. vill, pp. 251-268, pls. 25-29, March, 1897) he maintains that the angular topography does not necessarily indicate freedom from ice invasion,—that the upper Nugsuak peninsula has all been glaciated—that the glacier has recently withdrawn and is now in process of retreat, with a slight recent advance preceding this retreat. Professor T. C. Chamberlin, reviewing this paper in Science (vol. v, pp. 748-753, May, ’97) criticizes some interpretations there made, which the author defends in a later communication (1. ¢., p. 804). In the American Geologist the author has described the remark- able “ Rapidity of weathering and stream erosion in the Arctic latitudes (vol. xix, pp. 131-136). In a later paper, on “ Evidenee of Glaciation in Labrador and Baffin land” (vol. xix, pp. 191-197, March, 1897), observations on the shores of Labrador and Baffin land lead him to conclude that glaciation has been general over these surfaces, and that the ice has withdrawn from these regions in very recent times. In another paper, “‘ Valley Glaciers of the upper Nugsuak pe- ninsula, Greenland” (vol. xix, April, 1897, pp. 262-267), descrip- tion is given of the valley glaciers, and the “dying glaciers,” which are interpreted as the last traces of retreating glacial sheets. H. S. W. 8. Revision of the Apodide.—Cuar Les ScHucHERT, in a recent article in the Proceedings of the U. 8S. Nat. Museum (No. 1117, vol. xix, pages 671-676). On the fossil Phyllopod genera, Dipeltis and Protocaris, of the family Apodide, revises the genus Dipeliis Packard, describes a new species from the Lower Coal Measures, Morris, Ill., and shows the relation of Dipeltis to Apus, rather than Cyclus. In rearranging the family Apodidz, a new subfamily Apodince is proposed, to include the Cambrian genus Protocaris and the recent genera Lepidurus and Apus ; and another new subfamily Diplitine is proposed, to in- clude the Marine Upper Carboniferous Dipeltis Packard. u. s. w. 4. New Meteorite from Canada. (Communicated.)—The Geo- logical Survey of Canada has recently acquired, through the instrumentality of its Director, Dr. G. M. Dawson, a mass of meteoric iron, which it is proposed to designate as the Thurlow meteorite. It was found by Mr. E. 8. Leslie, Jr., May 12th, 1888, * See this Journal, vol. iii, pp. 223-229 and 315-320. 326 : Scientific Intelligence. on about the center of the twenty-eighth lot of the sixth conces- sion of the township of Thurlow, Hastings County, in the province of Ontario. This meteoric iron, which would appear to have been brought to the surface by ploughing, is described by Dr. Hoffmann as an irregularly-shaped, truncated pyramidal mass, with a more or less rectangular base, measuring 16 by 138°5, or including an elongated projection, 17 centimeters, in its diameters, and 10 centimeters in height; its weight is 5°42 kilos. The entire surface is pitted, and coated with a chestnut-brown, slightly glimmering, film of oxide of iron. 5. Observations on Popocatepetl and Ixtaccihuatl ; by OLtvER C. Farrineton. Field Columbian Museum. Publication 18, Geol. series, vol. i, No. 2, pp. 71-120, pls. vii—xviii, 1897.—In this brief account of a personal examination of this interesting geological region Dr. Farrington has given a vivid description of the geographic and geologic features of the mountains, perfect- ing his sketch by reference to particulars recorded by previous observers, and illustrating the paper by numerous reproductions of photographs. _ H. S. W. 6. L. Evolution régressive en Biologie et en Sociologie, par MM. JEAN Demoor, Jean MaAssarr et Emit—e VANDERNELDE, pp. 1-324, figs. 84, Paris, 1897. (Bibliotheque scientific internationale, Felix Alcan.)—The authors, being specialists in the fields of biol- ogy and sociology, have combined forces to discuss the analogies between the phenomena of “‘régression” in the evolution of organism and regression in society. They conclude that the transformations of organs and of institutions are always accom- panied by regression, that regressive evolution is irrevertible and, consequently, with a few exceptions, is more or less final (netées), and that regressive evolution is caused by limitation of the means of subsistence—food, capital or the forces of labor, ete. The book is modern and full of suggestive thoughts, both for the biologist and for the student of social problems. H. S. W. 7. The Birds of Colorado ; by W. W. Cooke. 141 pp. Fort Collins, Colorado (The State Agricultural College, Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 37).—This pamphlet gives a list of the birds of Colorado, so far as identified up to the pres- ent time, with notes on their distribution, habits of migration, etc. The State is unusually rich in number of birds, more so than any other in the Union except Nebraska. A complete bib- liography- of Colorado ornithology is given in pp. 20 to 39. Copies of this publication may be obtained free of charge by ad- dressing the Director of the Experiment Station at Fort Collins. 8. The Mammoth Cave of Kentucky: an illustrated Manual ; by Horace C. Hovey and Ricuarp Enisworra Cay. 107 pp. 1897. Louisville, Ky. (John P. Morton & Co.)—Future visitors to the Mammoth Cave will be glad to have in hand this full and well-illustrated guide book to that most interesting locality. SILLY POSTER MINERALS, The famous Tilly Foster Mine has been probably — permanently abandoned, the pumps pulled up and 125 feet of water now cover the ore bodies, the miners have departed and not a good specimen is to be had. Under such circumstances our customers will read with unusual interest that we have just purchased the entire collection of the Superintendent of the mine, including the finest Blue Brucites ever found, a number of very choice Chondrodites and Clino- chlores and many other most interesting specimens, such as fine Magnetites and se pseudo- morphs. THAUMASITE. We have been buying up all of this most interesting mineral which we - eould secure and now have so large and fine a lot of specimens that we are __- able to sell them at about one- -sixth our original prices, viz., 10c. to $2.00. _ A fine cabinet-size specimen mailed on receipt of 1dc. It ‘may be safely ey asserted that no other mineral has so interesting a composition. SIPYLITE. _. This exceedingly rare mineral, also of most interesting composition, a _ niobate of erbia, is once again in stock and we now have the best and largest Jot ever obtained. Probably no more will ever be found. Specimens ranging in size up to 10 ounces, $1.50 per ounce. oa ANORTHITE CRYSTALS. é 100 good crystals and groups just received direct from Japan, dc. to 50e. each. Also an interesting little collection of Japanese minerals, many of geen have not been seen in this country previously. ICELAND ZEOLITES. The wonderful display of Stilbite, Heulandite, Scolecite, and Ptilolite now in our show-cases has never been approached. Our own collector jour- __neyed all the way to Iceland expressly to secure them. Choice cabinet-size specimens 50c. upward ; small specimens 10c. to 35c. SPLENDID ENGLISH MINERALS. _ Our own collector secured over 1200 fine specimens of English Fluorite, _ Calcite, Barite, Aragonite, Scarlet Quartz, Quartz and Hematite, - Kidney Ore, etc., including many new types and varieties, and the bulk of © _ these we are selling at the lowest prices on record. 10c. to 25e. are favorite prices for specimens formerly sold at several times these figures. UTAH WARDITE AND VARISCITE. Over 150 superb polished specimens are now in stock. So grand and varied a collection of these exquisitely beautiful specimens has never before _ been seen and probably never will be again. Few minerals light up a col- - lection more than Utah Variscite. . GEORGIA RUTILES. ‘8 Our large stock of superb matrix specimens continues to command the _ admiration of every collector who honors us with a call or who kindly per- -. mits us to send him an approval shipment. No such rutiles are found in __ other localities. Our “FALL BULLETIN”. is now in preparation. : - 124 pp. ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE, paper-bound 25c.; in cloth 50c. _ 44 pp. ILLUSTRATED PRICE-LISTS, Bi Bulletins and Girculars free. GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists, 64 East 12th St., New York City, — ee Lbs XX VIII.--Fractional Cryo of Rocks; “a G. ie BECKER. the XXX, —Conditions required for atatine: ee ‘nee racy in the Determination of Specific Heat by ther aa Method of Mixtures; by F. L. O. WapswortH..-_-- XXX1. —Systematic position of Crangopsis vermiformis ie (Meek), from the Su ven outers: rocks of Kentucky; by Al He ORawra NIN 2 era ie : XXXII.—New Species of the Palinurid- Genus Linnpae found in the Upper, Cretaceous of Dakota ;_ eae = Es at ORTMANN coe XXXIL—Studies in the Cyperacee; by T. Hae XXXIV. — Improved. Heliostat Invented ig Alfred M ae Mayer; by A. G. Mayer “fs, ery _XXXV.—Pseudomorphs from Northern New. oe Re C. H. Smira, Moen sane ape cease eens cen 8 “ XXXVI. “eOhemieal Composition of Hamlinite and its | Occurrence with Bertrandite at Oxford ge Maine ; re | my Dad, UNE LOL DE 0 seen. eyioe bce serene ee 313. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, Chemistry and Physics—Propetties of Highly Purified Substances, ‘duno Hs) _ 317.—Liquefaction of Fluorine, Moissan and DEwakR, 318. —Normal and Iso- I pentane from American Petroleum. Youne and THomas: Heat of Combustion, MENDELEEFF, 319.—Capillary constants of molten metals, HH. SIEDENTOPF, 320.— a 4 ; Relations between the Geometric constants of a crystal and the- Molecular A Weight of its Substance, G. Linox, 321.—Induction Coil in. practical ie including ROntgen Rays, L. WRIGHT. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—British Association, 324.—Notes on Green. ae ‘land glaciation, R. S. TARR: Revision of the Apodide, €.S Meteorite from Canada, 325.—Observations on Popocatepetl and farang O. 0. FARRINGTON: L. Evolution régressive en Biologie et en Sociologie, J. DEmoor, J. MASSART and EH, VANDERNELDE: Birds of Colorado, W. W. Cooke: Mam-— moth Caye-of Kentucky: an illustrated Manual, H. C. HOVEY and R. E. CALL, 326. : | - . AMHRICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, Epirorn: EDWARD S. DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Proressors GEO. L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, He P. pte 9H anv W. G. HARLOW, oF CAMBRIDGE, | Be OrEssons O. C. MARSH, A. E. VERRILL anv H. &. WILLIAMS, or New HAVEN, Prorussor GEORGE F. BARKER, oF PuiapEtpuHia, Prorressor H. A. ROWLAND, or Battimors, Mr. J. S. DILLER, or Wasuineron. FOURTH SERIES. ei VOL. IV—[WHOLE NUMBER, CLIV.] No. 23.—NOVEMBER, 1897. WITH PLATE XI. NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. 3 OT. TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE, & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 125 TEMPLE STREET. ished monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6.40 to foreign sub- bers of countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should be made either by x23 ITS SES TE I eee ee Selene erg SO hee it — m3 Te ince 2 ke | es Sl ee ee ye a ae “x ee aah Sus > t ‘ ve ® RE emer Se eee ee : c - A COMPLETE CATALOGUE : MINERALS. Nearly 150 pages with 40 splendid aNote: -engravings of new =) and interesting minerals. ContTEnts.—I. Recent additions to our stock; II. Goueenane ; a of Minerals, both Economic and Scientific ; III. Complete Price List of minerals sold by weight for Chemical and Technical pur- poses ; IV. Meteorites; V. Gems and Polished Specimens; VI. Books, Geological and Mineralogical; VII. Mineralogical Sup- plies ; ALE Alphabetical Check List of all known Mineral Spe- cles, varietal names and synonyms, referring each name to the Dana Classification. Prices of Minerals in stock are given ; IX. General Classification of all known Minerals, according to . Dana, giving number, name, form of each, with Composition in — words and symbols. Varieties, sub-species.and doubtful com- pounds, are given their proper position. To this is added an im- portant and valuable Supplement, compiled from recent scientific a literature, making the list complete to date; X. Metallic Classi- fication of Minerals showing the various combinations __ in which the Metals occur in Nature. — The most complete table of the kind ever published. ; See Sample Plates in Advertising Pages of this ~ Journal. : Bound in an odd and handsome cover, exhibiting throughout. the finest examples of the photo-engravers’ art, it makes an attractive volume and an invaluable work of weteonpe Prices, postpaid: Bound in paper, 25c.; cloth, 50c.; calf, interleaved, $1.00. (These figures barely cover cost of paper, binding and postage.) Catalogue of Collections, single speci- mens, etc., free. a& EK. KROOTE, WARREN M._ FOOTE, Manager. 1317 Arch Street, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S: A. Established 1876. TH E AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE [FOURTH SERIES. ] 2Oe Art. XXXVIL—On the Geology of Southern Patagonia ; by J. B. Hatcuer. Iv is the purpose of this paper to record such facts relating to the geology of southern Patagonia as were observed by the author during his explorations in that country from May Ist, 1896 to June 5th, 1897, while collecting vertebrate fossils for _ Princeton University; to offer a few suggestions as to the age and origin of the different sedimentary deposits and their stratigraphic relations to one another as displayed by sections in different parts of the region; and to make some remarks in regard to the agencies which have determined the present topographical features of the district visited. Partly in order to assist others who may visit this country for the purpose of collecting fossils, but more especially for the purpose of facilitating the work of future investigators who may desire either to verify or disprove the correctness of my observations, I present here a sketch map of the Argentine territory of Santa Cruz (see p. 347), on which I have designated the most promising localities for vertebrate fossils observed by myself and my assistant, Mr. O. A. Peterson; and those places at which the stratigraphical sections accompanying this paper were made. It is believed that with the aid of this map it will be readily possible for anyone to identify all the more important localities mentioned in the text. While my observations and conclusions are in many in- Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtH SERIES, Vou. IV, No. 23.—Nov., ¥897. 328 J. B. Hatcher—Geology of Southern Patagonia. stances quite different from, and in a few cases directly op- posed to those of Dr. Florentino Ameghino and his brother Carlos Ameghino; yet it is believed that most of the conelu- sions reached are fully warranted by the facts observed; and that in the present paper there will be found an important supplement to our knowledge of this region, which has already been so much increased by the combined efforts of the brothers Ameghino. Mesozoic Rocks. Jurassic?—The oldest sedimentary deposits seen by the writer were a series of black, very hard, but much fractured slates, with Ammonites fairly abundant, but not sufficiently well-preserved to admit of identification. These beds, which I propose to call the Aayer Liver beds, in some places at least, rest directly on the eruptive rocks which here form the great mass of the Cordilleras; they are well represented on the right bank of the lower fork of Mayer River, just where it emerges from a deep gorge about three miles above its confluence with the main stream.* See = 5 Yy 330 JS. B. Hatcher—Geology of Southern Patagonia. It was found associated with the remains of other mammals, birds and small reptiles. From the stratigraphic position of the beds in which this tooth and the associated fossils were Fig. 1, right sup. incisor of Pyrotherium? three-eighths natural size. found I did not suspect that they were in any way related to the Pyrotherium beds and spent very little time in them. I seriously question the stratigraphic position of the Pyro- therium beds as determined by the brothers Ameghino, although it may seem presumptuous on my part, since I was unable to identify the beds at all, and the explorations, travels and opportunities for observations in this region of Sefior Carlos Ameghino have been far more extensive than have my own. It is certainly remarkable that in these beds containing Dinosaurian remains, associated according to Ameghino with the remains of mammals, some of them, as for example Pyro- therium of tmmense size, only a little less than that of the elephant and consequently easily to be seen, I could have ~ searched for weeks without ever finding a single mammalian bone, while every day I found Dinosaurian remains. Considering the immense size and highly specialized charac- ter of many, in fact of most of the mammals described by Ameghino from the Pyrotherium beds, it does not seem pos- sible that they could have lived in Cretaceous times and coex- J. B. Hatcher—Geology of Southern Patagonia. 381 isted with the Dinosaurs of that period. From a study of the figures and descriptions published by Dr. Ameghino of the fossils found in the Pyrotherium beds, one is even led to believe that they may belong to a period more recent than that of the Santa Cruz beds. I present here in fig. 2, taken from one of Ameghino’s latest publications, the superior dentition of Morphippus imbricatus, one of the smaller ungulates described by him as coming from the Cretaceous of Patagonia. oll Se a Fie. 2, Sup. dentition of Morphippus imbricatus Amegh., after Ameghino. One-half nat. size. The entirely molariform condition of the premolars and the cupped incisors are especially noteworthy. In his “ Notes on the Geology and Paleontology of Argentina” previously referred to, he says on page 8, in speaking of the Pyrotherium fauna, “The unarmored edentates are also numerous and of types resembling those of the Santa Cruz formation, but generally of much more considerable size. Nevertheless some forms show very primitive characters, having the molars pro- vided with a well developed layer of enamel. “With these edentates there are Carnivorous animals of a size approximating to that of the largest bears of the present day, but similar to those of the Santa Cruz formation.” This is certainly a greater size than that attained by any of the Car- nivorous animals of the Santa Cruz beds. Moreover many of e- Sie SS we ye ‘gs ne I hf | 332 JS. B. Hatcher—Geology of Southern Patagonia. the ungulates described by Ameghino as from the Pyrotherium beds are larger than the allied forms in the Santa Cruz beds. Now as regards structure and specialization of parts we are as yet unable to judge in many cases just which forms are the more specialized. In not a few instances, in his descriptions of remains from the Pyrotherium beds, he shows that they are not distinguished either generically or specifically from allied forms in the Santa Cruz beds, sometimes that they are decidedly more specialized than the latter, and almost always that they are of a size and structure showing a close relation with the fauna of the Santa Cruz beds and not at all what we should expect from the Cretaceous. As instances of this I may cite that in his “ Premiere Contribution a la Connaissance de la faune Mammalogique des Couches a Pyrotherium” on page 44, in closing his description of Asmodeus Osborni he remarks, “Cet animal est assurement un des plus gros mammiferes qui ait foulé la surface de la terre.’ Again on page 50 in defining the genus Ancylocelus, he compares it with Homalodonto- thertwm, a closely allied genus from the Santa Cruz beds but which is distinguished from the latter partly by the dental formula, which he finds to be [8C1P4M3 in L/omalodonto- thervum, while in Ancyloccelus from the Pyrotherium beds there is a reduction in the number of inferior premolars to three on either side, a marked advance over the Santa Cruz form. On page 56 he mentions edentates from these beds of the stature of Mylodon. Many other similar examples might be cited, but enough has been done to show that we are not deal- ing with a Cretaceous fauna. Thus, from his own figures and descriptions it would appear that in the matter of size at least, there is a decided advantage in favor of forms found in the Pyrotherium beds as compared with related forms from the Santa Cruz beds. In the history of the development of every mammalian phylum in the northern hemisphere, so far as I am aware, there is a decided and gradual increase in the size of the individual from the lower to the higher forms.. According to Dr. Ameghino, exactly the opposite has taken place in South America. It would be interesting to know why it is that natural causes always working by the same methods have pro- duced such opposite results in the two hemispheres, when as is everywhere shown, especially among the ungulates there are such marked cases of parallelism in structural development. Whatever may be the relation of the Pyrotherium beds to the Santa Cruz beds, I feel sure that the mammalian fauna described by Florentino Ameghino as from the Pyrotherium beds does not occur associated with the Dinosaurian remains of the Guaranitic beds, unless such association is due to sec- ondary deposition of the latter or a superficial mingling of J. B. Hatcher— Geology of Southern Patagonia. 333 remains from two or more distinct horizons by recent erosion ; which latter has been the cause of much confusion in other instances, as for example, the Loup Fork and Equus beds of our western plains. Dr. Ameghino,* in giving his reasons for referring the Pyro- therium beds to the Cretaceous, says: “I rely on the fact that these beds with remains of Pyrotherium everywhere accom- pany the red sandstones with remains of Dinosaurs, so that it has not hitherto been possible to separate them in an absolute manner. These sandstones in certain places exhibit nothing but bones of Dinosaurs; in others they show only remains of mammals and small reptiles of types not yet determined, while at other points all these remains are shown mixed tovether, at least to all appearance (italics mine), always accompanied by a great quantity of silicified wood.’ Now according to Ame- ghino’s own statements, in the localities where this Pyrotherium fauna has been found most abundantly, the nature of the country is just such as to bring about a mingling of remains really belonging to quite different aorizons, and thus their association in the same horizon may be only apparent, as he himself has in reality suggested. In another publicationt he says: “ Malheureusement ce nouveau gisement se trouvait dans une région absolument inconnue et accidentée d’une maniére épouvantable il ségara au milieu de ce labyrinthe et ne put en sortir qu’ a dure peine en abandonant une partie du matériel de voyage.” I may also add that in the region of Mayer basin and the upper Rio Chalia, especiaily the former, there have been great disturbances, so that the Guaranitic beds and the superimposed Tertiary deposits are inclined at high angles. In such a region the exact stratigraphic relations of the differ- ent beds are not always easily determined, and in some cases grave errors have arisen through false determinations made by most capable men. As an example of this, it need only be remembered that Sefor Carlos Ameghino spent five years in Patagonia, working mostly in the Santa Cruz beds, before dis- covering that they overlie the Patagonian beds,t all the while considering them as below the latter series (although Darwin had fifty years before suggested the true conditions),§ and this far out from the mountains and in a region singularly free from faults or dislocations of any kind, where the strata are approximately horizontal and succeed one another in regular order. * WuOCHelt. + See Premiere Contribution a la Connaissance de la Faune Mammalogique des Couches a Pyrotherium. Florentino Ameghino, Bol. del Inst. Geo. Arg., tome xv, cahiers 11 et 12. t See Enumération Synoptique des Espéces de Mammiféres Fossiles des Forma- tions Eocénes de Patagonie, par Florentino Ameghino. Buenos Aires 1894, pp. 1-8. § See Geol. Observ. on South America, p. 117. : —" / Wess woo Re af En ~ - 334 J. B. Hatcher— Geology of Southern Patagonia. It is true that Dr. Florentino Ameghino states that the variegated sandstones of the interior extend to the Atlantic coast, and are covered in concordant stratification by the same strata with Pyrotherium ; but since he gives no localities and © nowhere describes any remains of Pyrotherium or other mam- mals from those beds as having been found at San Julian or other localities on the coast, the correct identification of those beds as Pyrotherium may well be questioned. I have dwelt at some length upon the question of the age of the Pyrotherium beds because of the importance of the problems involved. If the beds containing this remarkable mammalian fauna be really Cretaceous, not only may the value of vertebrate fossils as means of correlation be seriously ques- tioned, but a very decided blow will also be struck at the validity of all correlations based on paleontological evidences, whether of vertebrates, invertebrates or plants. Until this entire region has been carefully explored and the stratigraphic position of the Pyrotherium beds accurately de- termined, by men trained in stratigraphic work, the question of their exact position in relation to the Dinosaur beds and to the different Tertiary beds, as well, will remain unsettled in the minds of most vertebrate paleontologists. Tertiary Deposits—LHocene. The Patagonian beds.—Extending along the Atlantic coast in an almost unbroken succession from New Bay on the north to near the mouth of the Coy River on the south, there is a series of light-colored, well stratified sandstones and clays, usually quite soft but sometimes, especially in the sandstone layers, enclosing very hard, lenticular concretions. These beds are known as the Patagonian beds, and the typical locality for them may be considered as the Atlantic coast anywhere from Port Desire to the mouth of the Santa Cruz River. They attain to a thickness of several hundred feet, are of marine origin and are everywhere characterized by marine inverte- brates in great abundance. In the region south of Port Desire they dip very gradually to the southeastward, so that their uppermost strata disappear beneath the waters of the Atlantic about midway between the Santa Cruz and Coy Rivers. In regard to the age of the Patagonian beds there has been great difference of opinion, but most persons acquainted with them and with the invertebrate fauna found in them agree in referring them to the Eocene. Dr. Ameghino, in discussing this question, says:* “The fact is that the Patagonian forma- tion begins with the Upper Cretaceous, but acquires its great- * See Notes on Geol. and Pal. of Arg., p. 12. J. B. Hatcher— Geology of Southern Patagonia. 335 est development during the Eocene. The fossiliferous deposits of Quiriquina were at first regarded as Tertiary, and were only assigned to the Cretaceous after there had been discovered in them remains of Plesiosaurus (Cimoliosaurus) chilensis, of Ammonites, and some other Secondary genera. “The late Cretaceous formation of the coast of Chili ex- hibits absolutely the same aspect and the same lithological characters as the Patagonian formation. The facies of the fauna is equally the same, since the Cretaceous fauna of Quiri- quina only differs from the fauna of the Patagonian forma- tion by the presence of eight genera (Ammonites, Hamites, Baculites, Pugnellus, Cinulia, Pholadomya, Monopleura, Trigonia), which are not met with in this latter; while 85 per cent, more or less, of the genera of the Cretaceous forma-_ tion are also found in the Eocene Patagonian formation. Moreover according to Philippi, the best authority on the sub- ject, 20 per cent of the species of shells of the Cretaceous for- mation of Algarroba are likewise species of the Patagonian formation, and it will be recognized that in Patagonia the marine Oretaceous and Eocene formations pass from one to the other in a gradual and insensible manner.” Granting that the facts as stated above are correct, and Dr. W. Moericke* has shown that considerable doubt exists as to the above association of species at the localities mentioned, they do not justify Dr. Ameghino’s conclusion that the Lower Patagonian beds belong to the Upper Cretaceous; for in regard to the eight genera mentioned above as found only in the Oretaceous of the west coast and not in the Patagonian beds, it should be remembered that of these, six are characteristic of the Mesozoic, and are unknown in any deposit later than Cretaceous, while the two remaining, Pholadomya and Tri- gonia, are found indiscriminately from the Lias to recent times. The per cent of genera or even of species common to the two deposits is of less importance than the character of the genera and species peculiar to each. Now six of the eight genera found in the Cretaceous deposits of the west coast and absent in the Patagonian beds are typical Mesozoic genera, while most of those genera found only in the Patagonian beds - are unknown from the Cretaceous, and the greater number of genera common to both have been found in different localities throughout the world in both Secondary and Tertiary deposits, and are therefore unimportant in determining the age of either series of beds. If the Lower Patagonian beds really belong to the Cretaceous, since they are of distinctly marine origin, we should find in them some trace of that unusually prolific Ce- phalopod fauna (Ammonites, Hamites, Scaphites, Baculites, * Neues. Jahrb., ete., Beil. Bd. x, 1896, p. 594. “ES “Baie J 3 * > % Bw. sy a a *} BY Le PP ~ anaes Ve = gor rea! 42% a, SA FR SY 3 =m BS a A Sk PSR 336 «J. B. Hatcher—Geology of Southern Patagonia. etc.,) the remains of which are everywhere so abundant in all the known marine Cretaceous deposits of the world, but which are singularly wanting in the Patagonian beds. Since there has not been reported up to the present time a single species characteristic of the Cretaceous period from the typical Pata- gonian beds on the east coast of Patagonia, and since the entire facies of the fauna is Tertiary, there is no good reason, from a paleontological standpoint, for referring any part of this forma- tion to the Cretaceous. The arguments advanced by Dr. Ameghino for assigning the Lower Patagonian beds to the Upper Cretaceous on account of certain remains of Mosasaurs, Plesiosaurs and fish of COre- taceous types found in the vicinity of Lake Viedma, are of little value, since those beds have never been properly identi- fied as the Patagonian beds. The stratigraphical evidences in favor of referring the whole of the Patagonian beds to the Tertiary appear to be quite con- clusive, assuming that the Guaranitic beds are Upper Ore- taceous. That there was a considerable lapse of time between the close of the deposition of the one, and the beginning of that of the other, series of deposits is evidenced by the altered nature of the materials, which show not only that they were derived largely from different sources, but that they were deposited in the one instance in fresh water and in the other in salt water over identically the same geographical districts. Again the appearance of the Guaranitic beds, on the coast at San Julian, where there are no disturbances in the Patagonian beds, can best be accounted for by assuming that they repre- sent a prominence in those beds, due to erosion, which took place after the close of the deposition of the Guaranitie beds and prior to the deposition of the Patagonian beds. More- over in vast areas, throughout the interior, the Guaranitie beds are immediately overlaid by formations much more recent than Patagonian, thus showing a decided unconformity by overlap between the two series. No interstratification of the two series has ever been observed, which would have been the natural result had they been deposited simultaneously and had marine and fresh-water conditions prevailed at the same time in adjacent regions. Most of the confusion which has arisen regarding the age of the Patagonian beds, has doubtless been due very largely to the carelessness of collectors. For many years every fossil-bearing horizon discovered anywhere in southern South America and containing a large oyster, was referred without question to the Patagonian beds, and collections were made indiscriminately at many different localities and from many different horizons from the Upper Cretaceous to the Pliocene, all referred to the Patagonian beds and placed in the hands of specialists for J. B. Hatcher—Geology of Southern Patagonia. 387 study, often with no other remark than that they were from the Patagonian beds. In this manner, for years, the fauna of the Patagonian beds has been made to include everything from the Upper Cretaceous deposits of the west coast to the Supra- Patagonian beds, the beds in Entre Rios on the Parana and, very likely, some forms from the Cape Fairweather beds of Pliocene age. It is therefore not surprising, in view of this unwarranted association of fossils, that the opinions of con- chologists should have varied so much in regard to the age of these beds. What is especially needed, is a complete series of the inver- tebrates from the typical localities at the mouth of the Santa Cruz and Desire rivers and the intervening coast, for study and comparison with forms from horizons in both Europe and North America, the age of which has been accurately deter- mined from stratigraphical evidences. With this end in view we made a small collection from near the mouth of the Santa Oruz River, which has been placed in the hands of Dr. A. E. Ortmann, who considers them as not older than Eocene and has thus far identified the following genera and species: Ostrea hatcheri (Ort.); Cucullea alta (Sow.); Pecten sp.?; Perna sp.?; Arca sp.?; Limopsis insolita (Sow.); Limopsis aff. araucana (Phil.); Cardita patagonica (Sow.); C. inaequalis (Phil.); Venus meridionalis (Sow.); V. volkmanni (Phil.); Glycumeris sp.?; Dentaleum majus (Sow.)?3; Lrochus laevis (Sow.); Zurritella ambulacrum (Sow.); Turritella affinis (Hup.); Creprdula gregaria (Sow.); Watica obtecta (Phil.); Struthiolaria ornata (Sow.); Stcula carolina (dOrb.) ; Voluta sp.?; Husus darwinianus (Phil.); Cancer patagoni- eus (Phil.). Incomplete as this collection doubtless is, yet it may be regarded as typical of the beds in question. It is hoped that we may soon be able to make more extensive collections from these beds, but from the evidence already at hand there seems no good reason for referring any part of the Patagonian beds to a more remote age than HKocene. Miocene. The Supra- Patagonian Beds.—After the deposition of the Patagonian beds this region was for a considerable period ele- vated above the level of the sea and subjected to erosion, and doubtless much of the material composing the Patagonian beds was then completely removed over large areas, especially - in what is now the interior region. This period of erosion was of sufficient duration to accomplish great changes in the marine fauna of the regions; for in the succeeding strata, which are also of marine origin, there is almost a completely new list in the species represented, while several new genera have been ie > BS ORAS 5 Be. yee 338 SJ. B. Hatcher—Geology of Southern Patagonia. introduced, and the entire aspect of the fauna changed from Eocene to Miocene, according to Dr. Ortmann, who has also studied our collections of invertebrates from these beds and has identified the following forms: Ciduris sp.?; Scutella sp.?; Bryozoa; Terebratula patagonica (Sow.); Ostrea phillippia (Ort.) ; O. hatcheri (Ort.); Pectunculus sp.?; Glycimeris sp.?; fissurella, Solarium ; Trochita costellata (Phil.); Turritella aginis(Hup.); Crepidula gregaria (Sow. ?); Scalaria rugolosa (Sow.); Struthiolaria chilensis; Natica solida (Sow.); Balanus varians (Sow.); Chthamalus antiquus (Phil.). The Supra-Patagonian beds are composed of alternating layers of sandstones and clays, usually of a yellow or light brown color with a rich invertebrate fauna. Ameghino states that they have a thickness of 30 meters, but in the interior, along the base of the Cordilleras, they certainly attain to a much greater thickness, and I should not hesitate to allot to them a thickness of fully 150 meters at Shell Gap, where Lig- nite Creek emerges from Mayer basin. In this region, as also on the upper Rio Chalia, they rest unconformably upon the Guaranitic beds and dip to the eastward at an angle of about 15° as shown in fig. 3. SSS eee (SEE Oe SEs : A B 50Uft. 2000ft. DD FOOTE Be esa 2) Fig. 3. Section of sedimentary deposits as displayed on south side of Lignite Creek and southern border of Mayer basin, from a point one mile east of Shell Gap to the western border of the basin. A-B. Fresh-water, Santa Cruz beds; B-C. Marine Supra-Patagonian beds; C-D. Fresh-water? Guaranitie beds; D-E Barren sandstones: E-F. Marine Mayer River beds and igneous rocks. Distance from A to F about 15 miles. Relative inclination of strata to base-line. A-F. exaggerated for effect, thus increasing thickness of deposits relatively to length of section displayed. The Santa Cruz beds.—I cannot agree with Dr. Ameghino in considering the Santa Cruz beds as belonging to the same series with the Supra-Patagonian beds. My reasons for sepa- rating them are because the Santa Cruz beds are of fresh or brackish water origin, as shown by the diatoms which they contain ;* and also I am brought to this conclusion by the fact that all along the foot hills of the Cordilleras the Supra-Patagonian beds were observed, inclined at high angles, while in the same region the Santa Cruz beds are approxi- mately horizontal and show almost no evidences of disturbance. At Shell Gap, on Lignite Creek, this creek has cut a narrow gorge through the sandstones and clays of the Supra-Pata- * See Geol. Obs. on S. A., by Darwin, p. 117. J. B. Hatcher—Geology of Southern Patagonia. 389 gonian beds, which are here inclined at an angle of not less than 15°, while not more than one-half mile below, on the right bank of the same stream, may be seen an outcrop of sandstones of the Santa Cruz beds, which appear nearly horizontal. In fact, so far as I was able to determine, the inclination of the Santa Cruz beds is nowhere appreciable, except at certain points along the water courses, where it is possible to take in at one view stretches of several miles of the strata, and then there is apparent only a very gentle dip to the southeast. I nowhere found mammals in the marine beds, nor did I anywhere find the two series interstratified. I observed the contact between the two series at many different localities and did occasionally find bones below the base of the Santa Cruz beds, but they were such as had fallen down from above. On one or two occasions [ found bones in strata which were abso- lutely lower than other strata in the same vicinity where marine invertebrates were abundant, and [ at first believed that there had been an interstratification of the two series, but upon careful examination, I found that the layer with the invertebrates did not continue on so as to actually overlie that with the bones, and I was brought to the conclusion that the Santa Cruz beds had here been deposited upon the eroded sur- face of the Supra-Patagonian beds. An example of this may be seen in a small canon on the south side of the Rio Chico about two miles below Sierra Oveja. In going up the val- ley of Chico River it is impossible to be mistaken as to the old crater (Sterra Oveja), since it rises directly from the bank of the stream and compels one, if traveling with a vehicle,’ either to cross the river or go around to the west of the moun- tain, neither of which routes is particularly good. About two miles below this crater there enters the river valley from the west a narrow, deep cafion. Ascending this cafion some 200 _ yards, there appears on the south side of it a projecting sand- stone ledge, about two feet thick, with an abundance of oyster shells. Proceeding a little farther, the cafion is seen to open out into a small, deeply eroded, “bad land” basin. Continu- ous all the while on your left is the oyster-bearing, sandstone ledge, which, at a distance of about one-half mile from the mouth of the cation, becomes covered by talus: this condition continues for perhaps 100 yards, when the section is again clear, and in the lowermost layers there are mammal remains, while the sandstone layer with its oysters is nowhere to be found. It is true that the bottom of the cafion has been all the time rising, but the elevation did not appear sufficient to bring the shell-bearing layer below its surface; I therefore concluded that the sandstone layer with oysters had been eroded away before the deposition of the mammalian beds. 340 JS. B. Hatcher—Geology of Southern Patagonia. From the high angle of inclination of the Supra-Patagonian beds all along the eastern base of the mountains, it is evident that at the close of that period there were great orographic movements throughout southern South America. Not only were the Cordilleras greatly elevated, but also the region to the eastward, far beyond the present limits of the Atlantic coast, was brought above sea level. The eastern border of this great land mass was perhaps not far to the eastward of the Falkland Islands, and may be approximately represented by an imaginary line connecting these islands with certain out- lying bodies of Primary Rock at Port Desire, and other places farther north, and perhaps extending also in a southeasterly direction as far as South Georgia Island. The great develop- ment of the Santa Cruz beds along the coast, especially between the Coy and Gallegos Rivers, as well as the very shallow nature of the water between that coast and the Falkland Islands, are both important evidences of a much greater east- ward extension of the land during the Santa Cruz period than at present. Consequent upon the elevation which took place at the close of the Supra-Patagonian period, there was between the borders of the old land-mass, now represented on the east by the Por- phyries of Port Desire, and by the Falkland Islands; and on the west by the Cordilleras, a depression, in which were laid down the fresh-water, lacustrine deposits, now known as the Santa Cruz beds, and containing one of the richest and most varied vertebrate faunas known. That the Santa Cruz beds ‘are of fresh-water origin rather than marine is shown by the diatoms. It is also clear from the nature and composition of the strata, that they were not deposited in a great, continuous lake, but rather in a low, flat, marshy country with smaller lakes and connecting water courses. As evidences of this I would cite the numerous examples of cross-bedding, and the fact that the beds of sandstones, clays and conglomerates continually replace one another, both of which facts are well shown in tig. 6 at G and J, and in figures 10 and 11. The Santa Cruz beds may be separated, according to the vertebrate remains found in them, into an upper and lower horizon. The strata of the lower Santa Cruz beds, as com- pared with those of the upper, are of a hghter color, more con- tinuous and are composed of finer materials, containing few or no conglomerates. They are best displayed in the bluffs of the Santa Cruz, and of the upper Chalia and Chico Rivers, where they are characterized by the great numbers of herbiv- orous marsupials and gigantic birds found in them. The upper Santa Cruz beds are best exhibited in the bluffs of the sea and the Gallegos River from Coy Inlet to Guer Aike, J. B. Hatcher— Geology of Southern Patagonia. 341 where they are characterized by the scarcity of herbivorous marsupials and bird remains and the abundance of the remains of carnivorous marsupials, edentates, ungulates, rodents, etc. There has been much doubt in regard to the age of the Santa Cruz beds. Darwin* was the first to determine that they were distinct from the Patagonian beds and to suggest their true stratigraphic position in regard to the latter. Dr. Florentino Ameghinoft and his brother Carlos Ameghino, dur- ing the first five years of their labors on the mammalian fauna of the Santa Cruz beds, supposed them to underlie the Pata- gonian beds which most conchologists agree in referring to the Eocene. They therefore considered the Santa Cruz beds as Lower Eocene and the Patagonian beds Upper Eocene. Finally on his sixth journeyinto this region Carlos Ameghino was able to determine the exact stratigraphic relations of these deposits, and their relative position in the Tertiary scale was exactly reversed. So far as any observations bearing upon the stratigraphic relations of the Santa Cruz beds are concerned, there is abso- lutely nothing against referring to them any age from Lower Miocene to Lower Pliocene. That they are not older than Middle Miocene is pretty clearly shown, since they have been seen to rest unconformably upon the Supra-Patagonian beds, in regard to the invertebrate fauna of which Dr. Ortmann writes as follows: “The most interesting form of the Supra- Patagonian beds is the Scwtella. According to Zittel (Hand- buch der Palaeontologie, vol. i, p. 522), all the species of Scutella are found in the Oligocene and Miocene; so that this fact tends to confirm Moericke’s opinion (N. Jahrb. Min., etce., Beil. Bd. x, pp. 593 and 596) of the Miocene age of the Pata- gonian beds, at least of a part of the so-called Patagonian beds. If this is true, the Santa Cruz beds overlying the Scutella beds cannot be Eocene.” In any attempt to correlate the Santa Cruz beds with other Tertiary strata of either Europe or North America, nothing will be found of more value than the remarkable vertebrate fauna which they contain. There is absolutely no ground, from a stratigraphical standpoint, for presuming that the mam- malia of this region were any more advanced in early Tertiary times than were the mammalia of the northern hemisphere; hence, notwithstanding the fact, that the Santa Cruz fauna is so dissimilar to any known in either Europe or North America, if among the ungulates, rodents and other orders common to * See Geol. Obs. on 8. A., Darwin, p. 117. + See Enumeration Synoptique des Espéces de Mamiféres Fossiles des Forma- tions Eocénes de Patagonie, par Florentino Ameghino, pp. 4-5 (Buenos Aires), 1894. so ka. V- -~ ei f. | ae on, 342. JS. B. Hatcher—Geology of Southern Patagonia. both, forms are found, no matter how dissimilar they may be, yet showing approximately the same degree of development along those lines of progression common to both, it is only fair to consider beds containing such forms as of approximately the same geological age, and such correlation of the deposits of Patagonia will, it is believed, receive the sanction of most - paleontologists and geologists, until good reasons are produced to show that it is at fault. It was largely for the purpose of securing material with which to make such comparisons that our expedition to Patagonia was undertaken. Several tons of most excellent fossils were procured from various horizons in the Santa Cruz beds, among which are the skulls and greater portions of the skeletons of nearly every genus reported from these beds. This material is being rapidly freed from the matrix and prepared for study, and in a short time it will be possible to compare these forms, point for point, with the skeletons of animais found in our own Tertiary deposits, the age of which has been determined beyond reasonable doubt, both from paleontological and stratigraphical evidences. While the final results of such comparisons are yet to be attained, enough has already been done to demonstrate the compara- tively modern aspect of the fauna of the Upper Santa Cruz beds. For the benefit of those interested and who may not have had an opportunity of studying for themselves the figures and descriptions already published by Dr. Ameghino, I present here in figs. 4, 4a, 5, the metatarsals and superior dentition of one of the Proterotheride, drawn from part of No. 15107 in our collection. Note the complex structure of the molars and pre-molars, the molariform condition of the latter, the long diastema, the absence of incisors, etc., in the dentition, while in the metatarsals there is the very great tendency to mono- dactylism, as shown by the rudimentary character of metatar- sals II and IV, and the extremely well-developed metapodial keel on metatarsal III. These or other characters, equally indicative of a high degree of specialization, are met with in nearly every group of animals in these beds. In consideration of the stratigraphic position of the Santa Cruz beds and the degree of specialization exhibited by the mammalian remains found in them, it is difficult to see how they can pertain toa period more remote than Miocene. Pliocene. The Cape Fairweather beds.—In this Journal for September last, the author described and gave a section of certain marine deposits found near Cape Fairweather, overlying the Santa Cruz beds, and named them the Cape Fairweather beds. At J. B. Hatcher— Geology of Southern Patagonia. 3438 that time I had not seen Dr. Ameghino’s article entitled “Notes on the Geology and Paleontology of Argentina,”* in which he gives the first notice of marine deposits, found in this region, overlying the Santa Cruz beds. My observations regarding the relations of these marine beds to the Shingle formation (Zehuelche formation of Ameghino) do not agree _with those of Sefior Carlos Ameghino. Dr. Ameghino, on page 17 of the paper just cited, after quoting at some length from a letter from Carlos Ameghino, concludes: “ According to this the bowlders were deposited at the bottom of the sea, Fie 4. Front view of metatarsals of Diadiaphorus majusculus? Amegh. from No. 15107 Prine. col., fig. 4a: view of distal end of metatarsal III, showing great development of metapodial keel. Fig. 5. Crown view of sup. dentition of Diadiaphorus majusculus 2? Amegh. from No. 15107, Prine. col. and over them there extended at other periods a vast forma- tion of marine shells, of which there only remains diminished traces at certain definite spots.” This is exactly the opposite of what I observed near Cape Fairweather on the coast, where there is a splendid continuous section from the Shingle forma- tion through the Cape Fairweather beds and some 300 feet of * See Geol. Mag., January, 1897, pp. 4-20. Am. Jour. Sor.—Fourts Serizs, Vou. IV, No. 23.—Nov., 1897. 24 aa $s 344 J. B. Hatcher—G@eology of Southern Patagonia. the Santa Cruz beds, and where it is absolutely impossible to mistake the relative position of the series of deposits. As shown in the section given in my original description of these beds, and reproduced here in fig. 6, the beds with marine invertebrates underlie the Shingle formation. Fresh -water 3II3O° Fie. 6. Section near Cape Fairweather showing relations between Cape Fair- weather and Santa Cruz beds. 0-d. SantaCruzbeds. d-z. Marine beds, consist- ing below of Cape Fairweather beds and above of the bowlder formation. c-d. Contact between Cape Fairweather and Santa Cruz beds. I provisionally correlated the Cape Fairweather beds with certain deposits discovered by Darwin at San Sebastian Bay on the east coast of Tierra del Fuego. Until the fauna of the latter beds is known, it will be impossible to verify the accu- racy of this correlation. The aspect of the very meagre fauna found in them by Darwin, as well as the very considerable increase in thickness to which they attain at San Sebastian, are both important evidences in favor of this correlation; for as mentioned in my previous paper, all the Tertiary deposits of s J. B. Hatcher— Geology of Southern Patagonia. 345 this region increase in thickness as we proceed southward along the coast, and appear first toward the north capping the summits of the higher table lands, then farther south they are brought to the water’s level by a slight southeasterly dip, and finally, still farther south, they entirely disappear beneath the sea. In discussing the age of these marine beds Dr. Ameghino refers them to the Miocene because they contain oysters ‘‘ of large size and of a species similar to that characterizing the Santa Cruz formation.” Prof. Henry A. Pilsbry, who has studied our first collections from these beds and already pub- lished in the Proce. of the Phil. Acad. of Sci. a list, with descriptions of new species, refers these beds to the Pliocene. He has furnished me the following list of species: Zrophon laciniatus Martyn, 7. inornatus Pilsbry, Calyptrea mammil- laris Brod. (2), ZLurritella mnotabilis Pilsbry, Cardium sp. indet., Pecten actinodes Sowb., Ostrea ferarresi Orb.,* O. n. sp., Penna sp. indet., Wagellania venosa Sol. Of these he remarks “ Zrophon laciniatus, Magellania venosa and the Calyptrea are living species. The Cardium and Pinna may also be living. The others are extinct, but the Turitella is closely allied to a living Chilian form.” We have since sent Dr. Pilsbry additional material which will enable him to nearly double the list of species, and which, he says, only confirms the Pliocene age of the beds. — The Tehuelche or Shingle Lormation.—The presence of the Cape Fairweather beds with an abundant marine fauna, above the Santa Cruz beds, is positive proof of the submergence of this region. That this submergence took place long after the close of the Santa Cruz period can, I think, be well demon- strated, for, as shown in fig. 6, the Cape Fairweather beds are seen to rest upon the eroded surface of the Santa Cruz beds. This unconformity by erosion cannot be considered as due to a secondary deposition of the materials of the Cape Fairweather beds on the surface of the slope of the cafion where the sec- tion was made, for the two strata of bowlders and sandstones are here quite distinct, and show no mingling of materials, such as would have resulted from secondary deposition. More- over the same unconformity is observable a little farther north in a section exposed for a long distance and where an abso- lutely level plain prevails above, as shown in fig. 7. From these facts and others to be mentioned later, I con- clude that after the deposition of the Santa Cruz beds and prior to the deposition of the Cape Fairweather beds this region was for a considerable period above sea level and sub- jected to erosion; during this period of erosion all the more * In regard to the identification of the large oysters of Patagonia see paper by Dr. A. EH. Ortmann in this number of this Journal, p. 355. ee a es Se 346 J. B. Hatcher—Geology of Southern Patagonia. important water courses and many of the minor ones, which now exist, were outlined. After this, there was a subsidence sufficient to cause a submergence of this region beneath the sea, which prevailed in Pliocene times for a period ample for the deposition of the Cape Fairweather beds. Toward the close of the Pliocene there began a gradual elevation of this a: Z Fic. 7. Section showing unconformity by erosion between Cape Fairweather and Santa Cruz beds, made from top of land slide just north of section shown in fig. 6. B. Upper 150 feet of S. C. beds; A. Marine’C. F. beds, composed below of sandstones with marine invertebrates and above of bowlder formation. area, during which the great bowlder formation was deposited by the combined action of ice and water, and which resulted in bringing this region permanently above sea level. There can be little doubt that the origin of the numerous small salt lakes which now occur all over this region, and which occupy depres- sions in the surface of the plains, frequently several hundred feet in depth, dates from this period, and that they are due to confined bodies of salt water left in these depressions by the receding sea. Such depressions were, at some period during the elevation of this area, bays, formed usually near the source of small drainage channels tributary to the more important water courses, which existed in the former period of erosion. Across the mouths of these shallow bays there were thrown, by the tides, bars composed of sand and shingle which, as the elevation continued, confined considerable bodies of sea-water. If in such a body of water the loss by evaporation exceeded the gain by tributaries, there would bea gradual decrease in the \. i J. B. Hatcher— Geology of Southern Patagonia. 347 - FEES volume of water, until an equilibrium was reached, which would result in a small body of concentrated salt water, often with a deposit of salt at the bottom, due to precipitation from an oversaturated solution: This is exactly what is found to be the case in hundreds of places in this region. In all of these salt lakes the bluffs are always much lower on one side than on any of the other sides, and it is quite apparent that the present drainage system corresponds very closely with that of the former period of erosion. a | | , ie ee SNOIN DL NYIUNTIS sruncraps 7140) snoFIv¥LIUD [ I I ¢ Ayw/LY IZ ——— ON3D3IT across Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. 362 Branner—Lormer Extension of the Appalachians 500 and 750 feet above sea level. If we take the lowlands we have an elevation of 500 feet about Fort Smith, and of 250 to 300 feet about Little Rock. The fall of the Arkansas river from Fort Smith to Little Rock, a distance of 140 miles on a line, is about 200 feet. A reversal of the drainage of the main stream from Little Rock to Fort Smith only with the same slope, would require an elevation of 400 feet at Little Rock. Or the reversal of the drainage from the Mississippi river to the Permian border, 100 miles west of Fort Smith, would require an elevation of 925 feet at the Mississippi river. And it is interesting to note that if the Mississippi region about Memphis and Helena were brought up to a level with the base of the Permian in Indian Territory it would be about on a level with the Carboniferous of southern [llinois, Indiana, | western Kentucky, Tennessee and Alabama. This does not take into account the removal of Carboniferous rocks by erosion. Drainage of the Ouachita uploft.—An examination of the accompanying map shows that the drainage of the Ouachita mountain region is now only partially controlled by the structure, and, as the tendency is for the structure to con- trol it more and more, it is fair to assume that not long ago it was less influenced by the structure than it is at present. “The present elevation of some of the Tertiary beds near the Silurian area lead me to believe that ee Tertiary times nearly all the lower portion of the Ouachita uplift region was covered by water and sediments. This would account for the drainage, but inasmuch as there is a general southeastern direction to the streams (the Ouachita, the Saline, and the Caddo), the slope of the Tertiary surface as it emerged must have been toward the southeast—in the direction of the principal axis of disturbance. This will be the more apparent if it be remembered that the Silurian rocks across which the several forks of the Saline, the Ouachita and the Caddo flow, are largely novaculites—ex- tremely hard and resisting rocks which stand out in high, almost perpendicular ridges. Faults in Arkansas and Indian Territory.—The faults and folds across the eastern end of the Boston Mountains and close to the depressed area are approximately parallel to the Cre- taceous and Tertiary margin. This margin has a direction of North 30° to 35° East. The folds through the Arkansas val- ley are approximately east-west, but about the eastern end of the Boston mountains they swing away toward the north, where they bear North 50° East.* It was hoped that the faults in the State of Arkansas might throw much light upon the subsidence under consideration. * Newsom and Branner, Amer. Geol., July, 1897, xx, pp. 1-13. across Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. 363 Thus far, however, the facts gathered regarding them are not sufficient in number, or they are not as yet well enough under- stood, to lead to any decided conelusions. In the northern part of the state, in the Boston Mountains region, the faults are nearly all normal or tension faults, while south of the Arkansas river and in the Ouachita region they are reversed faults. The one that lies nearest the Cretaceous border is the Red River monoclinal fold which merges into a fault about its northern end in the vicinity of Batesville. Here the downthrow is on the southeast side and the displacement is 165 feet ;* at one place it is more than 200 feet. In Stone county a fault on Roasting-ear Creek has its downthrow of 100 feet on the south; in Baxter county on Spring Oreek is a downthrow of between 200 and 300 feet on the south; on Rush Creek, Marion county, the downthrow is 260 feet on the south side ; a fault about twelve miles long runs northeast from near St. Joe having a downthrow of about 200 feet on the south side. The St. Joe fault has its downthrow of 283 feet on the south. On Big Buffalo Creek (16 N., 22 W., secs. 10-11) the down- throw on the south is 400 feet. Many other similar cases might be cited. It should be added, however, that there are several faults in this same region having the downthrow on the north side ; and there are some cases of long narrow strips having sunk downward. ‘The faults here mentioned are north of the Boston mountains. South of the mountains we have the Red River monocline turning westward and passing into a ereat fault along the south face of the Boston mountains with a downthrow of several hundred—perhaps a thousand—feet on the south. On the south side of the Arkansas Valley faults are known with the downthrow on the north, but on this side of the valley the faults are, in every case with which I am acquainted, reversed faults. Three miles up the river from Little Rock, at Big Eddy, are evidences of a reversed fault having the north side underthrust. In the novaculite area through the Ouachita region but few faults have been located with certainty ;‘the one mentioned by Mr. Griswold in his report on novaculites has no reference to the direction of the downthrow,+t but the field-notes show that it is on the south side. The novaculite region as a whole has the beds pretty closely squeezed, and it is quite probable that instead of a few large faults it has a great many small ones. Dr. N. F. Drake, who has lately studied the geology of the Indian Territory, tells me that the rule for Arkansas faults * Ann. Rep Geol. Sur. Arkansas, 1890, vol. i, 111, 220. + Ann. Rep. Geol. Sur. Arkansas, 1890, ili, 295, 364 Branner—former Extension of the Appalachians holds in the Territory, namely, that the faults about the Ozarks are normal, while in the region south of the Canadian river they are reversed. | 3 Faults in Texas.—I know of no considerable faults in the Cretaceous rocks of Arkansas, but in Texas there is a remark- able one. As a prominent break it begins about eight miles north of Austin and passes southward through the western edge of the city of Austin, through San Marcos, New Braun- fels and San Antonio, and thence westward toward the Rio Grande. West and north of this fault rises an escarpment capped by Lower Cretaceous rocks, while on its east and south side the beds forming the top of the downthrow are Upper Cretaceous. This downthrow is from a thousand to fifteen hundred feet and is on the south side.* The nature of the contact between the upthrow and the downthrow often shows that the fault is not a single slip but several faults close together. The direction of this great Texas fault agrees closely with the western margin of the Cretaceous-Tertiary border through Arkansas. It is supposed to be of Tertiary or later age.t The effect of such a depression upon the physiography of the lower Mississippi will be realized when we remember that such a movement (1500’) at the present time would submerge the greater part of the Appalachian mountains. This fault shows, moreover, that there has been more than one epoch of disturbance and depression in the region under discussion. The embayment began in early Cretaceous times, but this fault is post-Cretaceous. Faults in Alabama.—tiIn the Cahaba coal fields of Alabama the faults are parallel with the Appalachian axis and the down- throw is on the northwest—the embayment side.t Inasmuch as the Coal Measures rocks abut against Silurian and Cambrian beds on the southeast, the total displacement cannot be deter- mined. From the bottom of the Carboniferous on the north- west side to the surface on the southeast side is a distance of 5500 to 5600 feet, but this makes no allowance for erosion from the uplifted surface, which must be somewhat greater than the thickness of the Carboniferous beds. McCalley says that the throw of some of these faults is 10,000 feet or more.$ Sections across Blount Mountain, Alabama, coal field show the basin tipped toward the northwest. In the Coosa coal field * Communicated by N. F. Drake. +R. S. Tarr, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1893, p. 319. Professor Hill shows six faults on the Colorado river northeast of Austin. Amer. Geol., May, 1889, Dede + Map of the Cahaba Coal Field, by Squire and McCalley, 1896. Coal Measures of the Plateau Region of Alabama, i891, p. 218. || A. M. Gibson, Report on Blount Mountain, 1893, map. across Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. 365 the faulting is said to be “not less than 8000, probably 10,000 feet,” and “the base of the adjacent Coal Measures must be at least 4000 feet below sea level!”’* Gen. Gibson also notes that the throw of the Alabama faults is greater toward the south. If the theory of the continuity of this old land area into Texas is correct, the ridge must have bent westward in western Alabama. Eruptives in Arkansas and Texas.—The distribution of the eruptive rocks of Arkansas and Texas follow close and parallel to the old Cretaceous-Tertiary shore line. The syenites near Little Rock and those of Saline county, Arkansas, are both just within the present Tertiary border, while the Magnet Cove eruptives in Hot Spring county are but two miles north- west of it. The age of these eruptives has never been def- nitely settled. In Pike county there is a dike of peridotite in Lower Cretaceous rock. The bauxites near Little Rock are interbedded with Tertiary sediments, and, believing, as I do, that the bauxites were formed at the time of the extrusion of the syenites I conclude that the syenites are of Tertiary age. In any case they lie near the old Tertiary shore line, and appear to offer corroborative evidence of faulting or other weakness along this line. At Austin, Texas, are many eruptives of Upper Cretaceous age;+ in Uvalde county, Texas, eruptives penetrate Lower Cretaceous rocks;:{ in Rockwall county east of Dallas is an isolated area of Tertiary igneous rocks. Hill and Dumble have pointed out the fact that there is a line of eruptives of post-Hocene age at no less than fifty places from east of Austin to the Rio Grande, and speak of them as being “along a line of weakness in the earth’s crust which has apparently existed in this region.”§ These facts suggest that the line of weakness referred to by Messrs. Hill and Dumble has been manifesting itself since Jurassic times and that its influence reached into Tertiary times. Hot Springs—The hot springs of Arkansas are a little northwest of the Tertiary border, and may be regarded, like the eruptives, as having some possible connection with the line of disturbance that extends across the state. Professor Hill mentions evidences of hot springs along the line of the great fault in southwest Texas. Thickness of the Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments.—lf the lapping of the Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments across the Coal Measures of eastern Arkansas and Louisiana was * A. M. Gibson, Rep. upon the Coosa Coal Field, p. 86. + R. T. Hill, Amer. Geol., 1890, vi, 291. t A. Ossan, Jour. Geol., i, 341. § Proc. A. A. A.S8., vol. xxxviii, 242, 243; this Journal, vol. exxxvii, p. 288. <= $e err 366 Branner—Former Extension of the Appalachians caused by a depression, the thickness of these sediments should afford some clew to the amount of that depression. The thick- ness of the Cretaceous beds in Arkansas is estimated at 3520 feet.* In Texas, near Austin, the Colorado river exposes 5210 feet of rock overlying the Paleozoic, while further south, the Comanche alone is said to be nearly 5000 feet thick.t The dip of the Tertiary beds of Arkansas suggests a possible thick- - ness of more than 3000 feet of Eocene alone in that state.t A bore hole put down on Orange Island, Louisiana, 130 miles due west of New Orleans, penetrated 2100 feet of salt and other sediments.§ The age of these salt beds is rot known;| they may be either Cretaceous or Tertiary—more likely the former. At Galveston, Texas, a deep well penetrates 3070 feet of sediments without reaching the Hocene.{ These facts point to 3500 feet of Cretaceous, 3000 feet of Eocene and more than 3000 feet of sediments above the Eocene, in all over 9500 feet. In western Alabama the Cretaceous beds are 2575 feet thick, while the Tertiary and post-Tertiary are 3120 feet—a total of 5705 feet deposited in that region since the Appalachian subsi- dence.** ; Although more or less disconnected, these facts strongly sug- gest a total thickness of Cretaceous and post-Cretaceous sedi- ments of somewhere between 5000 and 10,000 feet in that part of the embayment which the old Appalachian land is believed to have crossed. Such a depression would submerge the entire Appalachian system of to-day. It cannot be positively stated, however, that this thickness extends over the entire lower Mississippi area, or even that it occurs at any one place. Indeed it is well known that there are Cretaceous outliers in Louisiana without any Tertiary beds on top of them.}t The “sunk lands.”—The ancient earthquakes in northeast Arkansas and southeast Missouri were in the upper portion of this embayment. It is well known that at the time of these earthquakes large tracts of land sank and produced lakes, and *R. T. Hill, Geol. Surv. Ark., Ann. Rep., 1888, ii, 188. +R T. Hill, Amer. Geol., May, 1889, iii, 289; this Journal, vol. exxxiv, 301. t Geol. Surv. Ark., Ann. Rep., 1892, ii, 186. S A. F. Lucas, Eng. and Mining Jour , Nov. 14, 1896, 464. | Geology of Lower Louisiana and the salt deposit on Petite Anse Island, by E. W. Hilgard, Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, No. 248, Washington, 1872. “| Dumble and Harris, this Journal, July, 1893, vol. exlvi, 39-42. ** KH. A. Smith, The Coastal Plain of Alabama, p. 27. In the same volume Dr. Langdon gives a general section of 4215 feet, and the columnar sections (pl. 28, . p. 728) give a maximum of 4175 feet of Cretaceous and Tertiary. ++ E W. Hilgard, this Journal, vol. cii, p. 395; Smithsonian Contributions No. 248, p. 27; Mineral Resources of the U. 8. (1883), p. 557. across Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. 367 it is stated that the cracks in the earth ran northeast-southwest.* These disturbances were local, but occurring in a region which must necessarily have been. more or less disturbed since Car- boniferous times, they may safely be regarded as corroborative evidence.t Submerged pre-Cambrian.—The Appalachian mountains, where they plunge southwestward beneath the Cretaceous sedi- ments in central Alabama, are composed of Silurian, Cam- brian and pre-Cambrian rocks (schists and granites), with Carboniferous beds lying against their northern side. In the area northwest of Austin, supposed to be the southwest termi- nus of these Appalachian beds, the rocks are Silurian, Cambrian and pre-Cambrian (schists and granites) with the Carboniferous sediments resting against their north side. These Texas beds plunge eastward beneath Cretaceous rocks. It is worthy of especial note that this Texas area was submerged during Cre- taceous times,* and that it was formerly buried beneath Cretaceous sediments which have been removed by erosion. From this pre-Cambrian area the Cretaceous beds now extend away to the east, and it seems altogether probable that these beds conceal the eastward continuation of the older rocks. Naturally also the overlying rocks are thicker toward the east owing to the greater depression in that direction. Thus the rocks of the southwest end of the present Appalachians seem to be identical with those of the pre-Cambrian area of Texas, and to bear the same structural relations to the Carboniferous rocks on the one hand and to those of the Mississippi embay- ment on the other. The structural relations of the Ouachita uplift.—I was at first disposed to think the Ouachita uplift a part of the old Appalachian land system, but this opinion I have been obliged to abandon. The theory here put forward and the facts that appear to support it throw much light on the structural and physiographic relations of the Ouachita anticline in Paleozoic times. Had this Ouachita anticline been an isolated one like the Ozark island, then the southward Carboniferous drainage would have flowed east of it very like the drainage of the present time. If it had been a part or end of the Appalachian system, the Carboniferous drainage would have flowed west- ward through the Arkansas valley, but we should be at a loss for an explanation of the phenomena of the Carboniferous area of central Texas, and also for the absence from the Ouachita region of the Cambrian and pre-Cambrian rocks so * This Journal, vol. xv, 1829, p. 36. . + A second visit to the Umited States, by Sir Charles Lyell, N. Y., 1849, vol. ii, pp. 172-181; Bringier in this Journal, 1821, iii, 20-22; Flint in ibid., 1829, XV, 366-368. ¢ R. T. Hill, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., ii, 527; this Journal, vol. cxxxvii, 283. 368 Branner—Fformer Extension of the Appalachians characteristic of Appalachian geology. Butif the Ouachita uplift is the structural equivalent of the Cincinnati-Nashville anticline, then it was a region of shallow water at least, and during the land periods turned the drainage from the Indiana- Illinois basin westward through the Arkansas valley. This major anticlinal axis extended westward throngh the Arbuckle mountains of Indian Territory and ended with the Wichita mountains in southern Oklahoma Territory. The Appalachian system crossed the present Mississippi valley further south, and there was another broad syncline between that watershed and the Ouachita region, and the drainage flowed westward through this valley across south Arkansas, Louisiana and northern Texas, and entered the Carboniferous sea south of the Arkansas valley discharge. That this last is the correct theory is borne out by the facts that follow : Southern origin of the Ouachita sediments —The Paleozoic sediments on the south side of the Ouachita uplift are coarser than the materials of the same beds on the north side. This peculiarity is noticeable even in the Silurian novaculites: those on the south ‘fare pure in composition and massive, while on the north side they have largely the character of siliceous shales.”* Again, the beds overlying the novaculites on the south are sandstones, while on the north they are shales. These facts seem to place the Ouachita uplift, in its relations to the source of its sediments, in a position analogous to that of the Cincinnati and Nashville arch whose sediments are supposed to have been derived from the Appalachian lands. The Carboniferous sediments—The accompanying map shows the varying thickness of the Carboniferous rocks. It is noticeable that the greatest thickness is in the Arkansas—Indian Territory valley, in central Texas, in western Pennsylvania, and in northwestern Alabama. Attention should be directed to the fact that only the upper part of the Texas Carboniferous beds is uncovered. On the Brazos River, southwest of Weath- erford, uszlina limestone is exposed, showing these beds to belong to the Upper Coal Measures. But these rocks are not the highest, but the lowest, exposed in the central part of the Texas Carboniferous area.t The Texas coal is therefore higher up than is the coal of Indian Territory and Arkansas. This shows that coal-forming conditions prevailed in Texas later than in Indian Territory and Arkansas. It cannot be said that the Arkansas basin shallowed earlier than that of Texas, for the Texas beds of equal age with the lowest coal of Arkansas are concealed by Cretaceous rocks. *L.S. Griswold, Geol. Sur. Ark. Ann. Rep., 1890, iii, 193. + Communicated by N. F. Drake. across Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. 369 These facts are all in keeping with the theory put forward. It is to be expected that the sediments would be thicker near the supplying land area, such as existed along the Appalachian highlands, and where the drainage became sluggish near the waters into which it is discharged, that is, in Texas, west Arkansas, and Indian Territory. And unless it be admitted that there was a land area across eastern. Texas, Louisiana, and Mississippi, we are at a loss to explain the source of supply for the 5600 feet of upper Carboniferous sediments* in central Texas. In the Arkansas valley, where these sediments have been shown to have a thickness of 23,780 feet,+ and in Indian Territory, where the Coal Measures are 25,000 feet thick, or with the Permian 26,500 feet (N. F. Drake), the supply of the coarser materials could hardly have come from elsewhere than the Ozark mountains in Missouri. The central Texas coal area and the Indian Territory-— Arkansas basin seem to represent the ends or mouths of syn- clinal valleys in which conditions favored the deposition of enormous beds of sandstones and shales. Inthe neck of Upper Coal Measures rocks near San Saba, Texas, where they almost abut against the pre-Silurian area, these beds strike about N. 35° E. This suggests a southeast origin for these sediments. In Arkansas and Indian Territory the upper beds strike across the trough of the valley in this fashion, while the lower ones are more nearly parallel with its sides. In the same way it is to be supposed that the earlier Coal Measures beds of the Texas trough swing round and strike east-west. Marine Coal Measures fossils—South of the Ouachita uplift the Coal Measures beds have yielded comparatively few fossils, and most of these are coal plants. A few crinoid stems and bryozoa, however, have been found near Antoine in Pike county (8 South, 23 West, sec. 24), enough to show that the conditions on the south side of the fold were very or quite like those on the north side. These conditions were: a low- lying region occasionally invaded by the sea. This idea is also borne out by the nature of the Carboniferous beds of central Texas, where limestones are interbedded with the usual sand- stones and shales.t The Arkansas valley syncline sank occasionally during Coal Measures times so as to admit the sea across the region: this is shown by the marine fossils found in the rocks there.§ This *R. S. Tarr (Amer. Geol., 1892, ix, 169) gives 8000 feet as the thickness of these rocks. Later work by N. F. Drake shows that earlier estimates are a little too high, probably because the dip is not so steep along the western edge of the Carboniferous. Fourth Ann. Rep Geol. Sur. Texas, 355-446. + This Journal, 1896, vol. clii, p. 235. ¢N. F. Drake, Rep. on the Colorado Coal Field of Texas, Fourth Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Tex., 355-446. § J. P. Smith, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., vol. xxxv, No. 152. ——+ 370 Branner—Fformer Extension of the Appalachians sea lay along the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, for while marine Coal Measures fossils are not common in the eastern part of the Coal Measures area, in Illinois and Arkansas they are much more plentiful, and in rocks of the same age along the foot of the Rocky Mountains they are still more abundant. Résumé. I. The Ouachita anticline is the structural equivalent of the Cincinnati-Nashville arch; this fold continues westward through the Arbuckle mountains in Indian Territory and to the Wichita mountains in southern Oklahoma Territory. II. The Coal Measures drainage of the Illinois-Indiana-Ken- tucky basin flowed westward through the Arkansas valley into a Carboniferous mediterranean sea. III. The drainage of the Coal Measures region south of the Ouachita anticline flowed westward and entered this sea north of the Texas pre-Cambrian area. IV. The drainage of both the Arkansas and Texas Car- boniferous areas was reversed about the end of Jurassic times, when orographic movements over southeast Arkansas, eastern Texas, Louisiana, and Mississippi submerged the former exten- sion of the Appalachian watershed and admitted the early Cretaceous sea across the Paleozoic land as far north as southern Illinois. V. This depression was not a deep one (Hilgard)* and did not all occur at one time, for there have been subsequent dis- turbances of a more or less similar nature in the same region. — VI. The evidences of these depressions are : 1. The reversed drainage of the Arkansas valley. 2. The reversed drainage over the Carboniferous area of cen- tral Texas. | 3. The submerged eastern end of the Ouachita uplift. _ 4, The eastward slope of the peneplain of the Ouachita region. 5. The direction of the faults and folds near the eastern expo- sure of the Lower Coal Measures in Arkansas. 6. The great fault through Texas near the Tertiary border, hav- ing a downthrow of i000 to 1500 feet on the south and east sides. 7. Eruptive rocks accompanying the Texas fault and the Ter- tiary border through that state and Arkansas to the Arkansas river. 8. Hot springs near the same line. 9. Faults in Alabama with a downthrow of 10,000 feet or more on the northwest side. 10. The thickness of the Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments over the depressed area: from 4,000 to 10,000 feet. * This Journal, 1871, vol. cii, p. 394. across Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. 371 VII. The southwestern or central Texas end of the Appa- jachian land area was formerly covered by Cretaceous sedi- ments, but it has since been uncovered by erosion ; further east it is still concealed. | VIII. The Carboniferous beds uncovered in Texas all belong to the Upper Coal Measures; it is inferred that a greater thick- ness is still covered. IX. The character of both the Silurian and Lower Coal Measures sediments of the Ouachita uplift show that they came from the south, so that the land area must have been in that direction during Paleozoic times. X. The sea occasionally invaded both the Arkansas and Texas synclinal troughs during Coal Measures times, but coal- forming conditions obtained in the Texas syncline later than in the Arkansas basin. aS fat XI. The Tertiary depression was probably more marked on the Arkansas than on the Tennessee side of the embayment ; this is shown by the Cretaceous border being concealed by the Tertiary deposits in Arkansas, while in Tennessee, Mississippi and Alabama they are exposed in a broad belt. 372 I. K. Phelps—Combustion of Organic Art. XL. — The Combustion of Organic Substances in the Wet Way; by I. K. PHELPs. [Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale University—LXVI.] In a former paper* I have shown that carbon dioxide may be estimated iodometrically with a fair degree of accuracy. Inasmuch as this method is not dependent upon the rate of flow or rapidity of generation of the carbon dioxide, it seemed possible that some advantage might follow its application to the determination of organic carbon, oxidized by liquid reagents. Method of oxidation by Potassium Permanganate. The first experimental test in this direction was made with oxalic acid, which was oxidized according to the well-known reaction of potassium permanganate in the presence of sul- phuric acid. The apparatus used was the same as that previ- ously described in the iodometric process, referred to above. It consisted, in the main, of an evolution flask and an absorp- tion flask, properly connected. As an evolution flask, a wide- mouthed flask of about 75™* capacity was used. This was closed by a doubly perforated rubber stopper, carrying a sepa- rating funnel for the introduction of liquid into the flask and’ a glass tube of ‘7° internal diameter, which was expanded to a small bulb just above the stopper, to carry off the gas. This exit tube was joined by means of a rubber connector to a tube which passed through the rubber stopper of the absorption flask, which was an ordinary round-bottom flask of 250°™* capacity. This tube ended in a valve of the Kreider pattern,+ which was enclosed in a larger tube, reaching nearly to the bottom of the absorption flask. The second hole of the stopper of this absorption flask, was filled by a glass tube closed by a rubber connector and screw pinch cock. The barium hydroxide solution for use in the determination of the carbon dioxide was prepared by filtering a cold satu- rated solution of the commercial salt into a large bottle, which was connected with a self-feeding burette. The solution was standardized in the manner described in my former paper by boiling with an excess of decinormal iodine solution in an ether wash bottle. The short tube of the glass ground stopper of the bottle was sealed to a Will and Varrentrapp absorption apparatus, which was charged during the operation with a solu- tion of potassium iodide to prevent the loss of elementary * This Journal, vol. ii, p. 70. + This Journal, 1, p. 132. Substances in the Wet Way. 373 iodine in the boiling; the long tube of the bottle was used as an inlet tube and was closed externally by a rubber cap during the boiling. After cooling, the excess of iodine used was determined by titration with decinormal arsenious acid solu- tion and the iodine lost calculated on barium hydroxide mole- eule for molecule. Potassium permanganate was prepared for use by dissolving the commercial salt in water, and boiling this solution, made acid with sulphuric acid, until free from carbon dioxide. Water was also prepared free from carbon dioxide by boiling distilled water until one-third had been driven off in steam and was kept until used in full-stoppered flasks. For the first determinations of carbon, crystallized ammonium oxalate was weighed out and introduced into the boiling flask with 10-15™ of pure water and the flasks connected as dis- cribed above with an appropriate amount of barium hydroxide solution (8-5°™ in excess of the amount required to precipitate the carbon dioxide to be determined) in the absorption flask. The whole system was then evacuated with the water pump to a pressure of 200-225™" and the oxalate solution in the boil- ing flask warmed. An excess of potassium permanganate solu- tion was then run in through the funnel tube and the mixture warmed again, when the oxidation of the oxalate was shown by the carbon dioxide evolved. The carbon dioxide was com- pletely set free by the introduction of 10™* of sulphuric acid (1:4) and was driven completely to the absorption flask by boiling for five minutes. During the passage of the gas into the absorption flask, it was shaken frequently and was kept cool by standing in a dish of water and by pouring cold water over it from time to time. If, during the boiling, any fears are entertained as to the strength of the vacuum in the flasks, they may be easily allayed by opening momentarily the stop cock of the funnel tube and noting the direction of the flow of water, contained in the funnel. After the boiling was ended, the atmospheric pressure was restored by allowing air, purified from carbon dioxide by passage through potash bulbs, to enter through the funnel tube of the boiling flask. Then the flasks were disconnected and the stopper of the absorption flask with its attachments was removed, the valve and its tube being carefully washed free from barium hydroxide. A sec- ond stopper, which was provided with a separating funnel, and a Will and Varrentrapp absorption apparatus, containing water to serve as a trap, was inserted into the mouth of the absorption flask and the emulsion brought to the boiling point. Deci- normal iodine solution was then run in through the funnel tube in sufficient quantity to destroy the larger part of the excess of barium hydroxide and the emulsion brought to the ea sire Y ae oe fF EOS i i ay iy ae ff i [S \Geae . - RoRs “TO Oro Oo DD 3874 I. K. Phelps—Combustion of Organic boiling point again, after which iodine was again run in but this time to the permanent red color of the excess of free iodine. After cooling, this excess of iodine was determined by titration with decinormal arsenious acid solution. Thus, © the excess of barium hydroxide used being determined by the iodine lost, the barium hydroxide used, now in the form of carbonate, was known, from which the carbon dioxide which precipitated this carbonate, may be calculated. The following results were obtained by this procedure. TABLE I. Ammonium Error oxalate BaO.He BaO2H. CO. CO2 on taken. taken. found. found. calculated. CO.. orm. erm. orm. erm. orm. erm. 0°2522 0°7267 0°1170 0°1565 0°1561 0°0004 + 0°2542 0°7267 0°11138 0°1579 0°1574 0°0005 + 0°5020 1°4535 0°2417 0°3110 0°3108 0°0002 4- 0°5058 1°8954 0°1753 0'3131 0°3131 000004 1:0038 2°6163 0°1955 0°6215 06211 0°0002 + 1:0008 2°5951 0°1856 06189 0°6192 0°0003 — 1:0010 2°61638 0°2037 0°6192 0°6197 0°0005— In. experiments (5) and (6), a few drops of ammonia were added to the oxalate solution before running in the perman- ganate; in (8) and (7), the permanganate was treated to alka- linity with barium hydroxide; in the remaining experiments, (1), (2) and (4), the permanganate was slightly acid with the sulphuric acid used in its purification from carbon dioxide, as _ already described. The results obtained are good and it is plain that the oxidation proceeded regularly, whether the first action of the permanganate was in the alkaline or slightly acid solution. Jones* has shown that formates may be determined volu- metrically by titration with potassium: permanganate in alkaline solution. In an attempt to determine formates by the process outlined above, the pure barium salt was used. This was pre- pared by treating the aqueous solution of formic acid with pure barium carbonate to neutrality and crystallizing the product. It was proven pure by ignition and weighing in the form of carbonate. In making determinations of carbon in this formate, weighed portions were introduced into the boiling flask, together with sodium hydroxide solution, which was taken in such quantity as to more than neutralize the acid in the potassium perman- ganate. Naturally, the sodium hydroxide must be free from * Amer. Chem, Jour., xvii, 539. Substances in the Wet Way. 375 carbonate—which was effected by treatment with an excess of barium hydroxide and filtering. An excess of potassium per- manganate is then run into the flask and the solution heated to boiling. An excess of dilute sulphuric acid is introduced into the mixture and the carbon dioxide, thus set free, completely driven over to the absorption flask and determined as before. Table II shows results obtained by the process. Tasxe IL. Barium Error formate BaO.H. BaO.H. CO. CO, on taken. taken. found. found. calculated. COx. erm, erm. erm. erm, erm. grm. 0°5001 0°9302 0°1745 0°1939 0°1935 0°0004 + 0°5033 0°9012 0°1402 0°1958 0°1947 0:0006+ 1°0002 16861 0°1798 0°3867 0°3870 0°0003— 1°0059 T6279 0°1098 0°3897 0°3892 0°0005 + 1°3750 2°2529 0°1820 0°5315 0°5320 0°0005— 1°5028 2°4419 0°1754 0°5816 0°5814 0°0002+ Sok YN These results show plainly that the carbon of formic acid may be determined accurately by the method outlined. It was found incidentally that ammonia cannot take the place of the sodium hydroxide in this process, probably because the ammonia volatilizes to the absorption flask during the boil- ing and is acted on by the iodine subsequently used and is thus registered as barium hydroxide. It is a well-known fact that tartrates are oxidized by per- manganates. I have found, however, that when tartaric acid is treated under the conditions of analysis outlined above in acid solution, the oxidation is incomplete; but that oxidation is complete if the tartrate is heated in a solution alkaline with sodium hydroxide and then acidified with sulphurie acid. The tartrate used was a recrystallized tartar emetic, dried at 100° C. The following results were obtained with such a tar- trate by this process. | Taste III. Tartar Hrror emetic BaO.He BaO.H. CO: COz on taken. taken. © found. found. calculated. CO.. erm, erm. erm. erm. orm, erm. 0°5051 1°2450 0:1709 0°2756 0°2751 0°0005 + 0°5030 1°2226 0°1536 0°2748 0°2739 0°0004 + 0°7509 1°7355 0°1401 0°4094 0°4091 0°0003 + 0°7541 1°7430 0°1410 O°4111 0°4107 0°0004 + 10018 2°3456 0°2187 0°5458 0°5456 0°0002 + 1°0005 2°2439 0°1396 0°5451 0°5450 0°0001 + Am. Jour. Scl.—Fourts Srrizes, Vou. IV, No. 23.—Nov., 1897. 26 oT eg bo 376 I. K. Phelps— Combustion of Organic It seems possible to draw the general conclusion from the results recorded that organic substances which are oxidized completely by the permanganate may be determined by the process outlined above. It will also be seen that the use of the rubber stopper in the boiling flask, with due care to prevent its contact with the solution, does not introduce an appreciable error. Wanklyn and Cooper* and others have noted the fact that potassinm permanganate, whether in acid or alkaline solution, will not oxidize all organic substances (acetates, for example), even at the boiling temperature. It is well known that a mix- ture of concentrated sulphuric and chromic acids has a much wider field of action in oxidizing organic compounds than the permanganate. With hopes of applying this reagent more widely to the determination of organic carbon, the experiments about to be recorded were tried. Method of Oxidation with Chromic Acid. A concentrated mixture of chromic and sulphuric acids, although a much more powerful oxidizer than potassium per- manganate in aqueous solutions, fails to oxidize completely many organic compounds. ‘Thus Cross and Higgint have shown that carbohydrates are among the number of organic substances; later Cross and Bevan find that carbohydrates and many other substances are oxidized completely to a mixture of carbon dioxide and monoxide. Messinger{ has proven that carbon may be determined in organic compounds by passing the mixed products, resulting from the oxidation with chromic and sulphuric acids, through a short combustion tube, filled with granular copper oxide and heated in a furnace—all of which facts have been confirmed in my own experience. Ludwig§ has observed that the contact of carbon monoxide ‘with a mixture of chromic and sulphuric acids, especially when hot, results in the oxidation of that gas to carbon dioxide. This fact suggested the idea of substituting for the apparatus described above a new form, adapted to retain the first products of oxidation in prolonged contact with the oxidizing mixture. This apparatus, shown in the accompanying figure, by means of which, as the sequel shows, it has been found possible to extend the availability of the oxidizing mixture, is put together * Phil. Mag. (5), vii, 138. + Jour. Chem. Soc., 1882, 113. t Ber., xxiii, 2756. § Am. Chem. Pharm., clxii, 47. Substances in the Wet Way. 377 -as!follows: A thick walled, round bottom flask of a liter’s capacity, serving as an oxidizing chamber, was closed by a rubber stopper with two _ perforations, through one of which passes the tube of a separating funnel of about 100™ capacity. The tube of this funnel reached nearly to the bottom of the flask and is drawn out at the lower end. A dise of platinum foil is hung in the neck of the flask, nearly clos- ing it, and held in place by a plati- num wire passing through the foil and tucked under the rubber stop- per where the funnel tube enters. The second hole of the stopper is filled by the exit tube, a glass tube of 0-7 internal diameter. This gabe is expanded just above the stopper to a small bulb which serves to prevent mechanical loss of the solid contents of the flask during the boiling. This tube is joined by means of a rubber connector (pr ovided with _a screw pinch cock) to the inlet tube of the absorption flask, which is an ordinary 500° round bottom flask. This flask is also closed by a rubber stopper with two perforations, through one of which passes the inlet tube described above and through the other the exit tube, which is also enlarged to a small bulb just above the stopper and j is closed by a rubber connector and screw pinch cock. The glass ground stopper of the funnel tube is carefully cleaned and lubricated with a thick solution of metaphosphorie acid. Instead of getting the vacuum by the water pump, it may be gotten almost as quickly and certainly more simply by boil- ing water in the evolution flask and the barium hydroxide solution in the absorption flask at the same time—both flasks being connected ready for making a determination. When steam issues in good quantity from the exit tube of the absorp- tion flask, the burner is removed from under the evolution flask and its screw pinch cock closed, and then the burner under the absorption flask and its screw pinch cock also quickly closed. ‘The flasks are then allowed to cool. In making a determination, the organic substance is weighed out in a counterbalanced bulb, so thin that it may be easily broken later and made with a wide mouth for convenience in introducing the solid substance. After the substance is weighed, the mouth of the bulb is sealed by heating in a small blow-pipe flame and the tube introduced into the evolu- ooo 3 378 Ll. K. Phelps— Combustion of Organic tion flask, together with an amount of pure potassium dichro- mate, which is known to be in excess of that required to oxi- dize the organic substance. The flasks are connected, as already described, with an appropriate amount of barium hydroxide solution in the absorption flask and 10° of pure water in the evolution flask and the vacuum obtained (as described above) by boiling both flasks, the boiling being stopped when the water in the evolution flask has decreased to 2 or 8". Naturally, this boiling must be so regulated as not to allow loss of the solid material in either flask. The vacuum obtained, the tube containing the organic substance is broken by shaking the flask, and 20™™* of concentrated sulphuric acid, previously purified from organic material by heating to the fuming point with a few crystals of potassium dichromate, are run in through the funnel tube, when reduction of the chromic acid soon becomes evident. While still hot, the acid is shaken in the flask violently, the platinum foil hung in the neck serv- ing to protect the rubber stopper. The flask is warmed to approximately 105° C., the highest temperature to which, as shown by Cross and Bevan,* a mixture of chromic and sul- phuric acids may be safely heated without the disengagement of oxygen gas. Water is then run in until the erystals of chromic anhydride have disappeared and the danger of the evolution of oxygen is past. The solution is heated to its boil- ing point, care being taken that it shall not get under pressure, which can easily be observed by opening momentarily the stop-cock of the funnel tube and noting the direction of the flow of water, contained in the funnel. The flask is shaken and heated alternately for five minutes—a period of time which appears to be sufficient to bring about the oxidation of the small amount of carbon monoxide, originally produced. Then more water (60—70*) is introduced through the funnel and the stop-cock between the boiling and absorption flasks opened, when the carbon dioxide enters the absorption flask, which is kept cool and shaken as before. The contents of the evolution flask are then heated to boiling and a slow current of air, freed from carbon dioxide by passage through potash bulbs, allowed to enter through the funnel tube to keep the liquid from undue bumping. The boiling is continued for fifteen minutes, after which the excess of barium hydroxide is deter- mined iodometrically and thus the carbon dioxide present esti- mated as before. Table IV shows results obtained by the treatment of crystallized ammonium oxalate and cane sugar, recrystallized from dilute alcoholic solution, in this manner. * Jour. Chem. Soc.,, liii, 889. Substances in the Wet Way. 379 TABLE IV. Substance BaO. He. BaO.He CO, CO. Error on taken. taken. found. found. calculated. COxz. erm. erm. erm. erm. erm. erm. Analysis of ammonium oxalate. 1. 0°5009 1°3534 0°1469 0°3097 0°3101 0:0004— 2. 0°5006 1°3400 0°1308 0°3103 0°3099 0°0004 + 3. 0°5005 1°3400 0°1348 0°3094 0°3098 0 0004— ae 10002 2°5460 0°1347 0'6188 0°6192 0°0004 — Pil COLO 275 192 O°'1094 0°6185 0°6197 (°0012— Analysis of cane sugar. LeeOr2 001 1°3926 0°1905 0°3085 0°3088 0°0003 — 2. 0°2000 1°3926 0°1956 0°3077 0°3086 0:0009 — 3. 0°2001 1°3926 0°1857 0°3097 0°3088 0:0009 + 4, 0°2014 1°3400 0°1279 O'3s111 0°3108 0°0003 + The results are evidently very satisfactory. The Determination of the Oxygen required to Oxidize an Organic Substance. Several different methods have been proposed for estimating the oxygen present in organic substances, depending, in gen- eral, upon the determination of the oxygen which must be supplied to burn the substance to a known amount of carbon dioxide and water—thus discovering by difference the oxygen originally contained in the substance. Lavoisier is said to have measured directly the oxygen used in burning organic sub- stances ; Gay-Lussac and Thénard determined the oxygen used by measuring the amount of potassium chlorate reduced by burning the organic compound; Baumhauer* determined the oxygen used by measuring the volume of oxygen entering the combustion furnace and subtracting the measure of the gas coming from the combustion tube, which was set up according to the well known method for determining carbon and hydro- gen ; Stromeyert determined the amount of copper reduced by the ignition of the substance in copper oxide; Ladenburgt oxidized the substance by heating in a sealed tube with a known amount of iodic acid, determining at the end of the operation the amount of iodic acid left ; Mitscherlich€ has estimated the oxygen in organic substances directly by decom- posing the substance by ignition in a stream of chlorine gas, estimating the oxygen content by determining the resulting carbon dioxide and monoxide. As it has been shown in the work described that carbon may be determined in organic substances by oxidation with chromic and sulphuric acids without the evolution of oxygen gas, it would seem that the determination of the oxygen in the sub- * Ann. Chem. Pharm., xc, 228. ¢{ Ann. Chem. Pharm., exxxv, 1. + Ann. Chem. Pharm., exvii, 247. § Pogg. Ann., cxxx, 536. 380 I. KG Phelps— Combustion of Organic stance might be effected by determining the amount of chromic acid used in the operation, taking into consideration the products of combustion. This can be readily accomplished by taking a weighed amount of pure potassium dichromate as the oxidizing agent and determining, at the end of the operation, the amount of chromic acid left by treatment of the residue with hydrochloric acid, absorption of the chlorine evolved in an alkaline arsenite of known strength and titration of the excess of that substance with decinormal iodine solution. To test the accuracy of the determination of chromic acid under these conditions of analysis, weighed portions of pure fused potassium dichromate were introduced into a Voit flask, whose outlet tube was sealed to the inlet tube of a Drexel wash bottle, the outlet of which, in turn, was sealed to a Will and Varrentrapp absorption apparatus. An amount of hydro- chloric acid, more than enough to completely reduce the chro- mate (15-40°™* of the strongest acid), was added with 20™* of strong sulphuric acid and the total volume made up to 120-140°™ of liquid. The sulphuric acid used here was puri- fied from carbonaceous matter (as in the carbon determination above) by heating with a few crystals of potassium dichromate, the excess of which was reduced by holding the acid at a fuming point for about two hours, when a portion diluted with water gave no color with potassium iodide and starch paste. Pure arsenious oxide, in amount slightly in excess of that required to take up the oxygen to be given up by the chromate, was dissolved by the aid of heat in a solution of pure sodium hydroxide, taken in such quantity as to more than neutralize the arsenious acid and the hydrochioric agid used to reduce the chromate, and this solution was introduced into the Drexel wash bottle. The flask was then connected with the wash bottle, using a thick solution of metaphosphoric acid to lute the joint between the flask and its stopper. The absorption appa- ratus was charged with a dilute solution of sodium hydroxide. Carbon dioxide was generated in a Kipp generator by the action of hydrochloric acid on marble and purified from reducing matter by bubbling through a strong solution of iodine in potassium iodide and finally washed with a solution of potas-. sium iodide alone. A slow stream of this purified carbon dioxide was allowed to enter the inlet tube of the Voit flask, the contents of which were then boiled. When a concentra- tion to a volume of 30-—40°™* was reached, the boiling was dis- continued and, after cooling and disconnecting the flask, the contents of the receiver were made acid with sulphuric acid and then alkaline with acid potassium carbonate, when the excess of arsenite was determined by titration with decinormal iodine solution. Sometimes during the reduction of the chro- mic acid, the red fumes of the chlorochromic anhydride volati- oo? Substances in the Wet Way. 381 lized to the receiver; but since the chromic acid thus pro- duced is reduced later by the arsenite,* this transfer is of no account in the working of the process. The following results were thus obtained. TaBLe V. K.Cr.0, As203 3 As.Os KeCr.0- Error on taken. taken. found. found. K.Cr.07. erm. erm. erm. erm. erm. 5°0002 5°1025 0°1144 4°9447 0°0555 — o°0018 5°0799 0°0526 4°9849 0:0169— 3°0005 5°0801 0°0582 4°9782 0:0223 — 5°0013 50706 0:0908 4°9365 0°0648 — ie ee ae The cause of the error shown in these experiments was traced finally to too great concentration of the sulphuric acid in the process. When the boiling begins the chromate is reduced gradually and if the evaporation of the water is pushed too rapidly, the sulphuric acid may reach a strength at which it begins to cause the reduction of the chromic acid with the evolution of oxygen instead of chlorine. The obvious remedy is to conduct the boiling operation more slowly. It was found that, if from 5-6 hours time was taken for the proper concentration of the contents of the Voit flask, the presence of tbe sulphuric acid worked no harm, as will be seen from the following results. Experiments (1) and (5) were made with 5° of sulphuric acid present and the others with 20°™, as used before. Tasie VI, K.Cr.0, As.,03 As.O3 . K.Cr207 Error on taken. taken. found. found. K.Cr20;. erm, erm, erm. erm. erm. Lar lOO0 4 1°:0500 0°0398 1°:0014 0:0014 + 7 eels O007 Osa 1 0°0437 1°0006 0:0001— Same csOULLS 2°0501 0°0299 2°0026 0:0013 + tO at MO 27 0°0502 270049 0:0012+4 5 0 0020 5°1002 0°0495 5:0068 0:0048 + 6. 5:°0037 5°1018 0°05138 5°0066 0°0029 + In applying this method to the determination of oxygen used in the oxidation of an organic substance, the carbon determination was made as already described, the amount of water used being such as to leave 60-80°* of liquid in the boiling flask after the carbon dioxide had been driven to the absorption flask by boiling. This liquid was then washed into the Voit flask and the chromic acid remaining determined by a second distillation (this time with hydrochloric acid) in the manner described above. In each of the experiments recorded * Browning, this Journal, 1896, vol. i, 35. be 382 Phelps—Combustion of Organic Substances, ete. below, 20™* of purified sulphuric acid were used in the carbon determination and 385 of hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1:2) in the chromic acid determination. The ammonium oxalate used was the pure crystallized salt; the phthalic acid was recrystal- lized from its water solution and dried for a short time over sulphuric acid; the cane sugar was selected crystals of rock candy, recrystallized from dilute alcoholic solution and dried for a long time over sulphuric acid; the paper was ashless filter paper, dried to a constant weight over sulphuric acid ; the tartar emetic was recrystallized from water solution and air dried ; the barium formate was prepared by treating formic acid with an excess of pure barium carbonate, filtering hot and allowing the product to erystallize. Tasie VII. Error Oxygen Error Substance CO, on K.Cr.0;, AseO3; AseO3; Oxygen required on taken. found. CQO, taken. taken. found. used. by theory. Oxygen. erm. orm; | SEM: erm. Sr: )SOTM. ) Orin: erm. grm. Analysis of ammonium oxalate. 1. 10122 0°6265 0:0001— 2:0009 1:3002 0:0000 0:1160 071139 0-0021+ 2. 10019 0°6212 0°0010+ 2°0002 1°3517 00440 01147 071128 0:0019+ Analysis of phthalic acid. 071002 0°2138 0°0014+ 2°0012 1°2004 0°0814 0°1456 0°1448 0°0008+ . 01093 0:2324 0:0007+ 2°0000 1°1031 0°0634 0°1582 0°1580 0:0002+ Analysis of cane sugar. 1. 0°2025 0°3117 0°0008— 3:0000 1:7002 00796 0°2275 0:2273 0°:0002+ 2. 04012 0°6166 0:°0024— 5:0000 2°3022 0°0366 0°4495 0°4502 0:0007— Analysis of paper. . 0°3034 0°4932 0:0010— 35015 1:4017 0°0879 0°3589 0°3598 0:0005— . 04523 0°7334 0°0033— 5:0035 1°8090 00710 05368 05358 0:0010+ Analysis of tartar emetic. . 05057 0:2671 0-COO9— 2°5018 1°7000 00766 0:°1459 071462 0:0003— . 110099 0°5321 0:°0030— 3°5003 1°7520 0°0198 0°2911 0:2919 0:0008— Analysis of barium formate. . 10079 03906 0:0006+ 3°0026 2:2002 0:°0496 0°1423 0°1422 0:0001+ . 15014 0°5814 0:0005+ 3:0010 1°8080 00890 0°2118 02118 0-0000+ Nor Nr ‘we bo From these results, it will be seen that the process works with accuracy upon a great variety of organic substances. It was found impossible, however, to determine the elements in bodies which are at the same time volatile and hard to oxidize ; for instance, ether oxidizes easily to acetic acid but difficultly beyond that stage; although the liquid acid is oxidized vigor- ously by chromic and sulphuric acids, the gaseous acid is hardly attacked at the temperature used ; naphthaline was also found to be volatilized, and hence not attacked, to such an extent as to render its determination by this process valueless. In conclusion, the author wishes to express his thanks to Prof. F. A. Gooch for many helpful suggestions. FE. H. Mudge—Pre-Glacial Drainage in Michigan. 383 Art. XLI.—Some Features of Pre-Glacial Drainage in Michigan; by E. H. Mune. To reach a definite and satisfactory conclusion in regard to the condition of the pre-glacial surface of a region now deeply covered with drift, is not an easy matter. The best, perhaps, that can be done is to examine the surface of an unglaciated region of like geologic age, and with the knowledge thus gained examine such data as may be obtainable from the cov- ered region. The lower peninsula of Michigan is such a covered area. In all the glaciated area of North America there is, I think, no region of equal extent, approximating 40,000 square miles, that is so deeply and uniformly covered with drift as this. Except within the southern half of the Carboniferous area, and in the vicinity of its southern rim, there are practically no outcrops in the interior of the state. The glacial mass seems to have concentrated itself upon this territory. Though the general direction of the glacial movement was southwest, that portion of the ice sheet which would naturally have passed over Wisconsin was largely deflected to the south by the val- leys now occupied by Lakes Michigan and Huron, and joined with the great body which passed over Michigan,* mingling its volume of drift from the Lake Superior region with that derived more locally from the sedimentary terranes of the lower peninsula. The drift-mantle resulting from these con- ditions is so deep and so uniformly distributed that any conclu- sions in regard to the pre-glacial surface must be’ largely speculative, though we are not entirely without data bearing on the subject. One thing seems certain. We are quite sure that during the several millions of years between the close of the Car- bouiferous and the beginning of the ice invasion the surface © was exposed to the constant influence of the agents of denuda- tion and erosion—rains, frosts, winds, chemical action and run- ning streams. We conclude, therefore, that the condition of | the surface just previous to the ice invasion was not very unlike that which may now be seen in unglaciated regions of similar age. The unglaciated region most suitable for com- parison in this case is doubtless the driftless area of Wisconsin, above referred to. With this as a criterion, we may infer that our field was traversed by broad base-level valleys and sharp, ridge-like divides, the latter sometimes cut through by the * “Driftless Area of Wisconsin,” T. C. Chamberlin, Sixth Ann. Report U. 8. Geol. Survey. . == == 384 &£. H. Mudge—Pre-Glacial Drainage in Michigan. headwaters of streams, leaving detached erosion blocks, which in some cases had become reduced to fragile erosion towers, ready to tumble to decay. The more level surface was cov- ered with disintegrated rock, not yet borne away. There were no lakes or marshes; these, if any there ever were, having been drained by the cutting down of their outlets. If, however, we would determine the location of the old streams, and join them into a consistent drainage system, we must depend upon such knowledge as an examination of the territory itself may yield us. This is not inconsiderable, though quite fragmentary and indefinite. Notwithstanding the vigorous glacial action to which the lower peninsula was subjected, the more prominent features of the old topography do not appear to have been entirely oblit- erated. The greater valleys were not entirely filled, nor were the greater eminences smoothly planed down. The leveling process was left incomplete. Of the old valleys thus left in recognizable shape, that which crosses the state from east to west, and which is now occupied in part by the Saginaw river and its branches, and in part by the Grand and Maple rivers, is the most clearly discernible. It is still a striking topo- graphic feature, and during the departure of the ice sheet it was for a long period the natural outlet of the great glacial lakes farther to the east. The theory that this valley is the modern representative of a far greater pre-glacial valley is by no means new, the same having been set forth especially by Dr. J. W. Spencer.* The evidence on this point is clear. It may be inferred from the great lateral extent of the depression, indicating that it is not of post-glacial origin, and it is clearly proven by a deep boring at Alma, which penetrated about 500 feet of drift and failed to reach the rock surface. There is reason to believe that the axis of the ancient valley was some- what farther north than the center of the modern depression. The Alma boring is well to the north, while at one point in the bottom of the present river valley near Ionia the rocks come to the surface and project several feet above the river.t Two recent borings at Ionia, near the valley margin, found rock at moderate depths. This would indicate that the modern valley is located over the southern edge of the ancient one, the northern portion having been more completely filled by the flood of glacial debris which was swept into it from that direction. JI have, therefore, on the accompanying map, located the ancient river somewhat to the north of the modern streams. * Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., November, 1890. + See the writer’s paper in this Journal for November, 1895. E. H. Mudge—Pre-Glacial Drainage in Michigan. 385. In the same manner two other lesser ancient valleys may be postulated with some confidence. The first of these is repre- sented by the valley of the Thornapple river, which enters the Grand a few miles east of the city of Grand Rapids. The depression occupied by this stream and its branches is rather broad and flat, and within its area there is a large number of small lakes. It is therefore not a product of post-glacial ero- sion. Borings at Hastings and at other points near the river passed through more than 100 feet of drift without finding rock. That this valley is also a remnant of an older one is a legitimate inference. The second ancient valley referred to is buried beneath the valley of the modern Muskegon River. This stream rises in the highlands of the north central part of the peninsula, and flows directly southwest, reaching Lake Michigan only a few miles north of the mouth of Grand River. Its drainage area is peculiar, having a length of about 125 miles, while its lateral extent averages about 25 miles, and at some points is much narrower. ‘That this elongated area is the modern representa- tive of a pre-glacial valley is not claimed with so great confi- dence as in the case just described, though there is good reason for accepting this hypothesis. It will be noted, in the first place, that there is a large area, tapped by this supposed valley, which must have had a drainage system of some sort. When the central part of the peninsula was a great Carboniferous i. a Ee Pie ers , 2 ee 386 F. H. Mudge—Pre-Glacial Drainage in Michigan. swamp, the older and higher Jand adjoining must natur- ally have drained into it. Later, when the Huronian River dissected the Carboniferous strata, the drainage from the north must have gathered into a prominent stream at some point and become a branch of the main river. This important branch valley is, in my judgment, represented by the modern Muske- gon Valley. Throughout much of the upper part of its course the surface of the valley rises rapidly on either side of its center, attaining an elevation of from 300 to 600 feet within a limit of five or six miles on either side. ‘The limits of the. valley may indeed have been determined by the presence of moraines, pushed up from either side by the Saginaw and Michigan glacial lobes, but much of the country is new, and has never been carefully examined, and there are few borings and no rock exposures on which to base an opinion. In the absence of other data it may be proper to assume that the drift-sheet is thinner over the more elevated portions, as in the southern part of the State, in which case we can plainly see in the upper Muskegon Valley a remnant of an old erosion orge. The general configuration is such as to indicate that this old valley joined the main valley near Grand Rapids,* though the modern river flows into Lake Michigan. Dr. J. W. Spencer, who has given much study to the sub- ject, supposes that this region drained to the east, which is undoubtedly correct. He has named the main stream across the peninsula the Huronian River, and considers it as a branch of his Laurentian River, which he supposes to have drained the upper part of the Lake Michigan basin. But the location of the two tributaries, occupying the valleys above described, I think has not before been suggested by anyone. I have therefore named the southern tributary the Hastings River, from the chief city within the modern valley, and the northern the Gypsum River, from its coincidence with the supposed strike of the gypsum or sub-Carboniferous strata. The drain- age system as thus made out will be clearly understood by an inspection of the map. Tonia, Mich. * See the writer’s paper on the ‘Drainage Systems of the Carboniferous Area,’—in American Geologist, for November, 1894. Chemistry and Physics. 387 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysICcs. 1. On the verification of Dalton’s law for Solutions.—It is wel! known that Van’t Hoff in 1886 first drew attention to the fact - that the equations representing the generalizations arrived at by Boyle, Gay Lussac and Avogadro in the case of gases, are equally applicable to dissolved substances if the osmotic pressure of the molecules dissolved be substituted for the gaseous pressure. Moreover he not only deduced these conclusions from thermody- namic considerations, thereby giving them increased validity, but he established a thermodynamic relation between the osmotic pressure of a dissolved substance and the molecular lowering of the vapor pressure, or that of the freezing point of the solution. WILDERMANN has now shown that the third gaseous law called the law of Dalton also holds good for dilute solutions. Accord- ing to Dalton’s law the total pressure of a gaseous mixture in a given space is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the - constituents. In a solution of two or more substances it means that the total osmotic pressure of two or more dissolved sub- stances is the sum of the partial osmotic pressures of each of them. Hence from the connection between osmotic pressure and the depression of the freezing point it follows that the total freezing point depression is equal to the sum of the partial freez- ing point depressions of each of the dissolved substances. In his experiments the author employed the freezing point method on account of the readiness with which mixtures of substances can be examined by means of it. The direct experimental proof of the law consisted in verifying one of the thermodynamical gen- eralizations with which it has been experimentally connected The thermometers used read, the one to 0:001° and the other to 0:01°. After the freezing point of the water itself had been determined, a certain quantity of a given non-electrolyte, urea for example, was dissolved in it and the freezing point again determined. The second non-electrolyte was then added and the total depression noted which was produced by both electrolytes. The substances used with the urea were resorcinol, cane sugar, dex- trose and alcohol. The results are given in tabular form and show that the constant of depression obtained for the second electrolyte is in no way inferior to that obtained when it is dis- solved by itself in water. This result proves that the depression produced by the first electrolyte was calculated under a correct assumption, i.e. that the freezing point depression produced by the first electrolyte is independent of the presence of other sub- stances in the liquid. In a second paper, WILDERMANN gives the results of experi- ments made to verify the constant of Van’t Hoff for very dilute solutions. This constant, 1. e., the molecular depression of the 388 Screntifie Intelligence. freezing point—was verified for moderately dilute solutions by . Van’t Hoff himself by means of the equation t=0°02T"/w in which T is the absolute temperature, and w the latent heat of fusion of the solvent. If Bunsen’s value for w, 80 calories, be taken, the value of the constant v is 1°87, somewhat smaller than 1°878 obtained if 79°6 be taken. Preliminary experiments in 1894-5 gave for alcohol and cane sugar the value 1°84 when ob- tained with the 0:001° thermometer. Subsequently 1°89 was ob- tained for cane sugar and resorcinol, 1°87 for urea, 1°86 for milk sugar, 1°85 to 1°86 for dextrose and 1°84 to 1°87 for maltose, In the present investigation, cane-sugar, alcohol, urea, acetone, ani- line, phenol, dextrose, resorcinol, maltose and milk sugar, were the substances used, the solutions were very dilute and the obser- vations for temperature were made with 0:001° and 0°01° ther- mometers, the convergence temperature being both above and ‘below the freezing temperature. The results, which are given in tabular form, show only small deviations from 1°87, the theoretical value. Hence the author concludes that Van’t Hoff’s thermody- namic equation receives abundant confirmation from the results obtained with dilute solutions, the evidence being even more sat- isfactory than is the case with most of the generalizations estab- lished on the thermodynamic basis.—J. Chem. Soc., 1xxi, pp. 748, 796, July, 1897. G. F. B. 2. On the Spectrum of Silicon.—If a silicate be fused on a platinum plate and a highly condensed spark be allowed to im- pinge upon it,* ARNAUD DE GRamonrT has shown that the spec- trum of the spark shows the following lines of silicon: 6969-7 strong, 6342°2 very strong, 5978°9 somewhat strong, 5960°3 dis- tinct, 59480 doubtful, 5060°0 and 5045°5 very strong, 4575°7 very feeble, 4568°9 somewhat distinct, 4553°7 distinct, 4131°3 and 4129°2 somewhat strong but diffuse. These wave lengths are the means of determinations not only with the spark and fused salts but also with the spark and silicon electrodes in very pure hydro- gen. The most characteristic lines are 6969°7 and 6342°2 in the red and 5060°0 and 5045°5 in the green. ‘The silicon lines last mentioned are much more intense than the adjacent lines of plati- num and air. The spectrum obtained by this method is well shown with sodium silicate, not as well by the potassium salt. Both potassium and sodium silico-fluoride show it particularly well, but zinc silicate gives it very imperfectly. Natural silicates if pulverized and fused with sodium carbonate, soon show the pairs of lines in the red and in the green.— C. #., cxxiv, 192-194, January, 1897. G. F. B. 3. On the Spark Spectrum of Cyanogen.—Several reasons have been offered for supposing cyanogen to have a real spectrum. (1) When nitrogen is present, this substance is actually formed ain the arc; (2) without nitrogen, carbon itself does not give the * This Journal, IV, iii, 150, February, 1897. Chemistry and Physics. 389 same spectrum; (3) cyanogen burns with a flame giving a bauded spectrum assumed from the foregoing facts to be that of this gas, and (4) this spectrum can be photographed when a con- densed spark is passed between electrodes of gold in an atmos- phere of cyanogen. Hartiey has examined this question and concludes that the facts which have been obtained solely from observations on this are are insufficient to establish the existence of a definite cyanogen spectrum. While certain facts have appeared tending to support the view that the carbon spectrum ought to be given by the flame of burning cyanogen, on the other hand it has been shown that lines somewhat resembling the edges of the cyanogen bands are seen when moistened graphite electrodes in air have sparks passed between them; these lines being intensified if the water used in moistening contains ammo- nium, calcium or zinc chlorides, developing into bands which become stronger as the solution is made more concentrated. This is explained by the fact that all mineral acids contain ammonia, freshly made sulphurons acid being the only one free from it. ‘Salts of calcium and zinc made with ordinary mineral acids therefore always contain ammonium salts. Consequently if the so-called cyanogen bands are really due to the nitrogen of the ammonia, the spectrum of the graphite electrodes will evidently exhibit the bands more strongly in proportion as the solution used is more concentrated. The following facts are instanced to show that the bands and lines observed are really due to cyano- gen and not to carbon alone: (1) The lines on the edges of the bands in the spectrum of a cyanogen flame coincide exactly with those photographed from a potassium cyanide solution, when the spark is passed in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide or of cyano- gen, or when this spark is passed between gold electrodes in cyanogen gas; (2) the cyanogen spectrum in the flame of burning eyanogen is accounted for because there is excess of the gas present; and while the temperature of the flame is exceedingly high the gas within it is not in contact with a solid substance, and hence the gaseous compound is heated only to incandescence and immediate decomposition does not occur.—-Proc. Roy. Soc., 1x, 216-221, 1896. G. F. B. 4. On the Electrolytic Solution and Deposition of Carbon.—It has been noticed already that during the electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid with carbon electrodes, carbon monoxide and diox- ide appear at the anode along with oxygen. Coxun has observed that by suitably altering the concentration of the acid, the tem- perature and the current density, the electrolysis may be so con- ducted that practically the sole products at the anode are carbon dioxide and monoxide; the gaseous mixture on analysis giving 70 per cent. CO,, about 30 per cent CO and one per cent. oxygen. If this operation be conducted at low temperatures, the anode disintegrates and particles of carbon remain suspended in the acid. At high temperatures, the carbon dissolves in the acid, giving a yellowish and finally a reddish brown solution. This 390 Scientific Intelligence. solution thus obtained may be electrolysed; and if a platinum electrode be employed, a deposit of carbon is obtained at first as a thin colored film and then as a deposit of graphite. The solution itself reduces Fehling’s solution and probably contains carbohy- drates. On making a cell by means of a lead peroxide plate and a carbon electrode, and on working under the conditions above mentioned, the carbon acts as the soluble electrode. The cell gave an electromotive force of 1:03 volts and yielded a constant current until the lead peroxide was exhausted.— Chem. Centralbl., 1, 985, 1896; J. Chem. Soc., 1xxii, ii, 241, June, 1897. «G. F. B. 5. On the conversion of Nitrites into Cyanides.—On heating together sodium nitrite and sodium acetate, the mixture finally explodes. Kerrp has shown that if the mass be mixed with dry sodium carbonate before heating, it glows and becomes dark col- ored, evolving hydrogen cyanide. It is then found to contain sodium cyanide as follows : CH,. COONa+NaNO,=NaHCO,+NaCN +H,0. About 25 per cent of the theoretical yield is obtained. Sodium nitrite, heated with formate, gives only sodium carbonate; while with propionate it deflagrates and gives a small amount of cyan- ide. If sodium acetate or cream of tartar be heated with potas- sium nitrate a violent explosion occurs, cyanide and cyanate being produced. Nitrite is probably at first formed and this by its action on the acetate gives nitroso-acetate, giving hydrogen cyan- ide and hydrogen-sodium carbonate.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xxx, 610-612, April 1897. | G. F. B. 6. Physics ; the Student’s Manual for the Study Room and Laboratory ; by LeRoy C. Cooley, Ph.D., Professor of Physics in Vassar College. 12mo, pp. 448. New York, 1897. (The American Book Company.)—This book combines very skillfully class room and laboratory instruction. The principles it treats of are clearly and accurately stated and it cannot fail to become a valuable addition to the existing text-books on elementary physics. G. F. B. 7. Action at a distance.—P. DRubDE in an extended article discusses the mystery of gravitation, and is led to the conclusion that, in order to discover its mode of action, we must seek it in some hitherto undiscovered property of the ether, and he quotes Maxwell’s remark in an article on attraction in the Encyclopedia Britannica, ‘The answer to the question of how two bodies act upon each other lies in the incitement of investigation of the properties of the intervening medium.” Hitherto we have recog- nized only one property of a vacuum, that of the propagation of light velocity. The author is hopeful that we shall discover other properties of the so-called ether, which will enable us to build up a system of units which will not depend upon the materials of which the earth is composed but which will be connected with the general properties of the ether. The mean free wave length of the ether atom might serve for the measure of length, for instance. The unit of time would then result from the velocity of light.— Wied. Ann., No. 9, 1897, pp. 1-49. Sa Chemistry and Physics. 391 8. Electrical tension at the poles of an induction apparatus.— The electromotive force necessary to produce a spark of a certain length has been variously stated by investigators. Heydweiller (Wied. Ann., 48, p. 313, 1893) calls in question Professor Elihu Thompson’s statement that a striking distance of 80° requires a potential difference of about 500,000 volts, and thinks that this is avery great overstatement and that 100,000 volts would be nearer the truth. A. OBERBECK has begun an investigation of the subject and points out that the maximum rise of the curve of electromotive force in an induction coil produced by interrupting the primary circuit should be the starting point in an investiga- tion of this subject. Oberbeck finds that a potential difference of 69,000 volts can produce under certain conditions a stream of sparks of more than 10 in length. Experiments in the Jefferson Physical Laboratory with a stor- age battery of 10,000 cells connected to a Planté rheostatic machine lead the author of this note to conclude that Professor Thompson’s estimate is nearer the truth than that of Heydweiller. — Wied. Ann., No. 9, 1897, pp. 109-133. Ju Fi: 9. Investigation of the Lenard rays. — Tu. DES CouDRES describes a simple method of studying cathode rays in free air. He employs a small transformer for exciting the rarified tubes, the primary of which consists of only three turns of a band of copper, while the secondary consists of about sixty turns. The primary is excited by the discharge of a Leyden jar. The con- struction of suitable tubes with aluminum windows is fully described. The author concludes that cathode rays behave in the outer air precisely as they do in the rarified space inside the tubes.— Wied. Ann., No. 9, 1897, pp. 134-144. SsHe. 10. Behavior of rarified gases in approximately closed metallic receptacles in a high frequency field—Faraday showed that no electricity could be perceived inside a metallic cage, the exterior of which was connected with the ground. H. Exserr and E. WIEDEMANN show that this conclusion is not correct when the space inside the cage is filled with a rarified gas, which is sub- jected to the oscillations of an electric field. They conclude that - in order that an electric charge shall penetrate through the holes of a metallic net into a space surrounded by this net, it is necessary that a rarified gas should exist on both sides of the net. The lighted gas apparently conducts the energy into the inner space. — Wied. Ann., No. 9, 1897, pp. 187-191. TE, 11. Cathode Rays.—In a very important paper Professor J. J. THOMSON discusses the ether theory of the cathode rays and the electrified particle theory. The latter theory has the great advantage that it is definite and its consequences can be predicted, whereas the ether theory depends upon unobserved phenomena in a ether the existence of which is in doubt. Thomson shows by ingenious experiments that the cathode rays carry a charge of negative electricity, and that they are deflected by an electro- static field. Since they are also deflected by a magnetic field, he Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtTH SERIES, Vou. IV, No. 23.—Nov., 1897. 27 ) } 392 Scientific Intelligence. sees no escape from the conclusion that the cathode rays are charges of negative electricity carried by particles of matter. The question then arises, what are these particles—are they atoms, or molecules, of matter in a still finer state of subdivision ? Thomson gives a series of measurements to determine these ques- tions. It was found that the electrical carrier or molecule must be small compared with ordinary molecules. (1) The carriers are the same whatever the gas through which the discharge passes. (2) The mean free paths depend upon nothing but the density of the medium traversed by these rays. Thomson favors the view that the atoms of the different chemical elements are different ageregations of atoms of the same kind. In Prout’s hypothesis the atoms of the different elements were hydrogen atoms; in this precise form the hypothesis is not tenable, but if we substitute for hydrogen some unknown primordial substance X, there is nothing known which is inconsistent with this hypothesis, which is one lately supported by Lockyer from study of stellar spectra. In the cathode rays we have matter in a new state, in which sub- division is carried very much further than in ordinary gaseous matter—this matter being the substance from which all chemical elements are built up. Thomson computes that if the coil he used were to go on working uninterruptedly night and day for a year, it would produce only about one three-millionth part of a gram of this primordial substance.— Phil. Mag., October, 1897, pp. 293-316. Jods 12. Hiffect of Pressure on Wave Length.—-W. J. HumPpureys has an important article upon the above subject in the October number of the Astrophysical Journal, giving the results of an investigation carried on at the Johns Hopkins Physical Labora- tory. Some of the conclusions reached are as follows: Increase of pressure causes all isolated lines to shift towards the red end of the spectrum, the shift being proportional to the total increase of pressure, but apparently independent of the temperature. Lines of bands (at least in certain cases) are not shifted but different series of lines of a given element are shifted to different extents, while similar lines of an element suffer equal displacement. The lines of substances having as solids the greatest coeflicients of linear expansion have the greatest shifts. II. GroLtogy AND NATURAL HISTORY. 1. Recent publications of the U. S. Geological Survey.*—— Monograph Volume XXVI, Zhe Flora of the Amboy Clays, by John Strong Newberry; a posthumous work edited by Arthur Hollick, pp. 1-260, plates i-lviii, 1895. This volume, as is explained by the editor was almost completed in the autumn of 1890, and shortly before the author’s death in 1892 the manu- script and plates were handed to the editor for completion. Few alterations are made in the original text, and where they are * Not previously noticed. See list in this Journal, August, 189i ssp. aa: Geology and Natural History. 393 made the editor’s initials indicate the fact. A review of Dr. Newberry’s contributions to fossil botany is contributed by Prof. Hollick. The following Bulleenis have been issued :— No. 87, A synopsis of American Fossil Brachiopoda, includ- ing bibliography and synonymy, by Charles Schuchert, pp. 1-464, 1897. The author recognizes 2053 known species of Brachiopods from the sediments of North and South America, 1922 of which are known from North America. ‘The statistics of original description, geological range, geographical distribution and sys- tematic classification, are fully expressed in carefully prepared lists. The biological development is discussed in a chapter by the author, and Prof. Charles E. Beecher contributes a special chapter on the morphology of the brachia. The autbor’s exhaust- ive study of the chronological history of the Brachiopods con- firms the law of the rapid differentiation of a type of organisms at its beginning, announced by Hyatt in 1883 from a study of Cephalopods, and elaborated in the case of Brachiopods by the present writer in 1895. No. 138, Artesian well prospects in the Atlantic coastal plain region, by Nelson H. Darton, pp. 1-232, plates i-xix, 1896. No. 140, Keport of progress of the Division of Hydrography for the calendar year 1895, by Frederick H. Newell, pp. 1-356, 1896. This report opens with a brief discussion of instruments and methods employed in the division. No. 144, The moraines of the Missouri Coteau and their atiendant deposits, by James Edward Todd, pp. 1-71, plates i-xx1. No. 145, The Potomac formation in Virginia, by Wm. M. Fontaine, pp. 1-149, plates i-n, 1896. “No. 148, Analysis of Rocks with a chapter on Analytic methods, Laboratory of the United States Geological Survey, 1880 to 1896, by F. W. Clarke and W. F. Hillebrand, pp. 1-306, 1897. The experience and chemical skill of the authors have enabled them to make many important contributions to our knowledge of rock analysis. H. 8. W. 2. Alabama, Geological Survey, Kugene A. Smith, State Geologist.—The following three Reports have been issued since our last article (this Journal, vol. iii, p. 350), viz: Balletin No. 5. Part I, A preliminary report on the Mineral Resources of the Upper Gold Belt, in the Counties of Cleburne, Randolph, Clay, Talladega, Elmore, Coosa and Tallapoosa, by . Wm. M. Brewer, Assistant, pp. 1-106, with three plates. Part II, Supplementary Notes on the most important varieties of the metamorphic or crystalline rocks of Alabama, their composition, distribution, structure, and microscopic characters, by HKugene A. Smith, Geo. W. Hawes, J. M. Clements and A. H. Brooks, pp. 107-197, 1896. Iron making in Alabama, by Wm. B. Phillips, pp. 1-164, 1896. This Report is issued as an authoritative handbook of all the con- ditions which surround the iron-making business in Alabama. | , 394 Scientific Intelligence. Report on the Valley Regions of Alabama (Paleozoic strata), by Henry McCalley, Assistant State Geologist, Part II, On the Coosa Valley Region, pp. 1-862, plates x-xxxv, figures 5-18,.— The illustrations are chiefly of ore banks, mines and quarries of iron ores, bauxite and limestone. 3. Canada, Geological Survey, Geo. M. Dawson, Director.— The Annual Report (new series), vol. viii (publication number 617) is composed of the separate reports A, D, J, L, R, and §, for the year 1895. They have been issued previously in separate form and several have been already noticed in these pages. A. (No. 582.) Summary Report of the Geological Survey Department for the year 1896, by the Director, pp. 1-154A. D. (No. 601) Report on the country between Athabasca Lake and Churchill River, by J. Burr Tyrrell and D. B. Dowling, pp. 1-120D. J. (No. 541) Report on the Geology of a portion of the Lauren- tian area lying to the north of the Island of Montreal, by Frank D. Adams, pp. 1-184J. L. (No. 584) Report on Explorations in the Labrador Peninsula, along the East Main, Kokasoak, Hamilton, Manicuagan, and por- tions of other rivers, in 1892—93—94-95, by A. P. Low, pp. 1-387L. R. (No. 616) Report of the Section of Chemistry and Mineral- ogy, by G. C. Hoffmann, pp. 1-59R. S. (No. 602) Section of mineral statistics aud mines, Annual Report for 1895, by E. D. Ingall, pp. 1-1038. The maps accompanying the reports in this are, 597, Map of the country between Lake Attabasca and Churchill River, 590, Province of Quebec, geological maps of parts of Joliette, Argen- teuil, Terrebonne and Montcalm Counties, and four maps (585, 586, 587 and 588) of the Labrador Peninsula. There are also 17 plates, pp. 998. Ottawa, 1897. H, S. W. 4. Indiana, 21st Annual Report of Department of Geology and Natural Resources, 1896, W.8. Blatchley, State Geologist, pp. 1-718, plates i-xxxix, and six lithograph maps. 1897.— Besides detailed reports on the geology of several counties the volume contains an elaborate report on the Bedford Odlitic lime- stone, by T. C. Hopkins and C. E. Siebenthal (pp. 289-427); a chapter on Indiana Caves and their fauna, and a Catalogue of the uncultivated ferns and fern allies (Pteridophyta) and the flower- ing plants (Spermatophyta) of Vigo County, Indiana, by W. 5S. Blatchley, the latter containing 853 entries, and several reports on economic resources of the state. Hy (6.2 We leh 5. Fossil Insects of the Cordaites shales of St. John, N. B.— G. F. Marruew has given a description of what he believes to be a new fossil insect, Geracus tubifer, n. gen. et sp. (with long suctorial proboscis, but with no head distinct from thorax and no wings and no evidences of appendages) from the Cordaites beds. Whether the specimen be insect or not, the author has in connec- tion with this description brought together figures and references to the original descriptions of the remarkable. land fauna, already known from these beds. Geology and Natural History. 395 The list comprises 2 land snails, 2 Crustacea (Saw Bugs ?), 4 Arachnoida, 6 Myriapoda, 2 Insecta- -Thysanura, and 8 Insecta- Paleodictyoptera. The specimens come from Plant Beds No. 2 of the Lower Cordaite shales of St. John and neighborhood, in New Brunswick; which are referred to Middle Devonian by Dawson, but by the author are called Silurian, although some of the insects are recognized as like forms found in the Coal Measures. — Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc., N. B., vol. xv, pp. 49-60, figs. 1-4, pl. i-ii, 1897. H. S. W. Q Cape of Good Hope, Ist Annual Report of the Geological Commission, 1896, J. X. Merriman, Chairman, pp. 1-52, Cape- town, 1897.—This volume consists of a few brief reports of the first year’s work in preparation of a geological map of the colony. The chief economic interest in the survey centers in seeking for coal beds and in determining the hydrographic conditions ot the region. One of the reports by E. H. L. Schwartz, assistant geologist, gives details of the peculiar coal seam at Leeuw River’s Poort, occurring in a fissure, the chief part of which cuts the Kooro beds nearly vertically. The mode ot occurrence reminds one of the Albertite beds of Nova Scotia, and we would suggest that it may be of similar origin. H. S. We 7. Glacial observations in the Umanak district, Greenland ; by Grorcre H. Barron (Techn. Quart., vol. x, No. 2, pp. 213- 244, 1897).—In this Report, B, of the scientific work of the Bos- ton party on the sixth Peary Expedition to Greenland the author has given a vivid narrative, illustrated with numerous photo- graphic reproductions, of the ‘geological and physical features of the region about Umanak Fiord. H. S. W. 8. Les Variations de longueur des Glaciers dans les Régions arctiques et boréales par M. Cuartes Ragsor. Premiére partie, Geneva, 1897 (Commission Internationale des Glaciers).—Follow- ing in the line of the classical work of Forel upon the glaciers of Switzerland, the author has investigated the glaciers of the extreme north, with respect to the variations in length which they have undergone during the past two hundred years. The countries most particularly considered are Iceland and Greenland. In the case of Iceland, observations more or less accurate are available for comparison since the close of the 17th century. The author gives many interesting statements about each glacier, and in conclusion sums up the subject as follows: Since the colonization of Iceland by the Normans, the glaciers of the island have considerably increased, this being particularly marked on the southern slope of Vatnajékull, where a large extent of terri- tory has been again covered by the ice. More in detail, he remarks that at the end of the 17th century and the commence- ment of the 18th, the glaciers were less extended than to-day ; but about this epoch, a period of growth was entered upon, inter- rupted towards the middle of the 18th century in the case of a certain number of the streams by a rather ill-defined period of retreat ; but after this, the majority of the glaciers had a remark- 396 _ Setentifie Intelligence. able extension, producing a true invasion which continued during the larger part of the 19th century, and in the case of some streams has not yet been arrested. In the majority of cases, however, after this time of extension a period of diminution set in; this phase appearing to have commenced sooner in the north (1855-1860) than in the south (1880). This movement of retro- gression, thus far at least, has not had an amplitude equal to the growth which immediately preceded it. The retreat of the Ice- land glaciers presents neither the importance nor the generality of the great phase of diminution established in the Alps between 1850 and 1880. It has rather the character of a secondary phe- nomenon as compared with the great increase marking the end of the 18th and the larger part of the 19th centuries. In the case of Greenland, the information is much less exact and minute; so that whatever conclusions are reached must have more or less of a hypothetical value. The author remarks that early authors, deceived by the name of the country, believed that it was truly a “green land” up to the 9th century at the time of the arrival of the first colonists; the idea being that the inland ice was of comparatively recent date. This, however, is a complete error. The earliest document available (13th century) gives a general description of the glaciers which is as accurate as a geol- ogist could write to-day. The unanimous testimony of the natives affirms that at several points of Danish Greenland, on the west coast up to 72° N. lat., the glaciers have moved forward since the historical period, and Commander Holm gives the weight of his authority to these accounts, at least for the southern portion of the country. In any case, an increase appears to have been established about the commencement of this century, and to have continued up to the present time, in the greater part of Greenland. In general, it may be said that particularly in the north the inland ice of Greenland seems at present to be stationary at its maximum point, while in the south a slight diminution manifests itself, but. too slightly marked to arrest the progressive move- ment of the ice noted by Commander Holm. Certainly, during the middle of this century, there is no phase of retreat to be noted which can be compared in extent or duration to that in the Alps. On the contrary, during this period, at least on certain local glaciers, particularly of Disko and Upernavik, a progression has been noted. Observations on Jan Mayen (71° N. lat.) show that the glaciers of Beerenberg have progressed since the end of the 17th century, as is true of a majority of those of Iceland. 9. Hsquisses Sélénogiques, II, par W. Prinz (from Ciel et Terre, xviii).—The author has carried on an extended and interesting series of studies in regard to the surface features of the moon, and in this, his second paper, he mentions some of the more prominent of them, particularly with reference to their similarity to certain analogous features of the earth. For example, he dis- cusses in detail, with a number of figures, the craters of the Miscellaneous Intelligence. 397 Hawaiian Islands, also those of Java, Iceland, ete. ; further the volcanic troughs of East Africa. The resemblance brought out in certain salient peculiarities is very striking, and it is rightly urged that a comparative study of the lunar and terrestrial sur- faces in these and similar directions is likely to lead to a much better knowledge of the moon’s history and a safer interpretation of what the telescope reveals. 10. Hxperimental Morphology ; by C. B. Davenport, Ph.D. Part First, Effect of chemical and physical agents upon proto- plasm. New York, 1897 (The Macmillan Company).—The thor- oughness which characterizes this important treatise renders it the most useful annotated bibliography of the subject which has appeared. But it is far more than an expanded bibliography. With a good sense of proportion, Dr. Davenport has placed at the command of biologists, not merely the results which have already been secured in this fascinating field, but he has pointed out certain directions which new investigations ought to pursue if they are to be fruitful. The sequence of subjects does not com- mend itself to us as in all respects the best, for it appears as if the effect of molar agents and of varying moisture upon proto- plasm might well precede instead of follow the action of chem- ical agents and the molecular forces, but, aside from this, one can go with the author along a straight path, until he comes to the end of this part, now before us, namely, the action of light and heat upon protoplasm. ~The general considerations on the effects of chemical and phys- ical agents upon protoplasm, which constitute the closing chapter of this part, are carefully stated, and keep on relatively safe ground: they are at the same time of a distinctly suggestive character which must aid in carrying out the chief wish of the author, namely, the stimulation of further inquiries in this attrac- tive and fertile field. Botanists owe to Dr. Davenport very sin- cere thanks for the exhaustive manner in which he has presented the botanical side of his subject. G. L, G. III. MisceELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Geological Lectures of Harvard University.—Dr. Hans Revscu, Director of the Geological Survey of Norway, has been appointed to the Sturgis-Hooper Professorship of Geology in Harvard University, left vacant since the death of Professor J. D. Whitney, a year ago. Dr. Reusch will deliver two courses of Jectures. During the first half year he will treat of Vulcanism : volcanoes and eruptive rocks in general; earthquakes and move- ments of the earth’s crust. In the second half year, he will con- sider the Geology of Northern Europe, and its relations to general geology. These lectures will be given in the Museum, where the Whitney geological library will be immediately accessible. The third hour of each week will be set apart for seminary work, with reports and discussions on geological literature. In the spring, Ses I ee eee ee ee 398 Scientific Intellagence. Dr. Reusch proposes to take part in instruction of advanced stu- dents in the field. ) 2. The Calculus for Engineers; by Joun Perry, F.R.S., Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the Royal College of Science; pp. 378. London and New York, 1897 (Edward Arnold).—This is a work written with much freshness and even, it may be said, vivacity. Every step is illustrated by a profusion of applications to problems of engineering, and the question which the academic beginner in Calculus is so often constrained to ask “ what is it all good for” would never suggest itself in reading this text-book. Without sacrificing anything of thorough- ness the book is remarkably free from the abstruseness which 1s so blinding to all but the born mathematician and seems much better fitted than the usual text-book to make the Calculus real to all classes of students as well as engineers. W. B. 3. Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exeakien Wissenschaften. Leipzig (Wilhelm Engelmann).—The latest additions in the department of physics to this excellent library of scientific classics are num- bers 81, 86 and 87. These give respectively Series I and II (183 2); Series III to V (1833) and Series VI-VLI (1834) of Faraday’s Experimental investigations of Electricity (Experimental-Unter- suchungen tiber Elektricitat). Grundprobleme der Naturwissenschaft: Briefe einer modernen Naturforscher yon Dr. ADOLF WAGNER, pp. 1-255, Berlin, 1897. OBITUARY. Victor Meyer died on the 8th of August, 1897, in the 49th year of his age. After studying chemistry with Bunsen at Heid- elburg and with Baeyer in Berlin, he was called in 1872 to the Ziirich Polytechnic, from which place he went in 1885 to G6ttin- gen and in 1889 to Heidelberg, on the retirement of Bunsen. As an investigator, whether in the field of physical or organic chem- istry or aS an experimentalist, he stood in the first rank. Ilis investigations on the nitro-paraffins in 1872 and on the isonitroso compounds in 1882, his discovery of the two isomeric benzil di-oximes in 1888, which laid the foundation of our knowledge of the stereochemistry of nitrogen, as well as his discovery of _ thiophene with its numerous derivatives in 1882, may serve as examples of his organic work. His air-displacement method of determining vapor density, devised in 1878, was one of the most ingenious and valuable methods ever given to chemistry. His “Lehrbuch der Organischen Chemie,” written in 1891, in connec- tion with Jacobson, is in many respects the most valuable treatise on the subject. The later years of his life were clouded by ill health, but he continued his intense activity without the rest he needed. This brought on insomnia and led to his early death. Though he had accomplished so many and so brilliant achieve- ments in his favorite science, still greater things were promised in his future. His loss to chemistry is well nigh irreparable. oMsi™ _ BS ie rs; “ts Bee, ryt c i fy Bia ee eee ne ee see | eS em he ee ne, Cees | “DOUBLY TERMINATE GREEN CYANITE CRYSTALS : A NEW FIND IN NORTH CAROLINA. We sent a collector to North Carolina recently with instructions to secure every obtainable specimen of this most interesting find (shortly to be described by Prof. Pratt). The crystals are of rich grass-green color and quite transparent, with brilliant termina- tions; they range in size from 14x1¢ inch up to 114 x2l4 inches, a few coarser crystals being even as long as 31g inches. The number of really fine crystals is exceedingly limited, and as our collector exhausted the locality, no more can be had. 0c. to $2.50. | OTHER CHOICE NORTH CAROLINA MINERALS. Columbite. A few, excellent, stout crystals, one inch to over three inches long, 50c. to $5. 00. Zircon crystals from a new locality, 144 to over one inch, with a and wu planes; brilliant, sharp, attractive, cheap. 5c. to d0c. Amethyst, beautiful groups of crystals, 10c. to $2.00. WONDERFUL NOVA SCOTIA STILBITES AND CHABAZITES. We obtained during October a small lot of the finest large Chabazites and sheaf stilbites we have ever seen from Nova Scotia. $1.00 to $3.50. BEAUTIFUL SATINY EPSOMITE. From one of California’s quicksilver mines we have just received fifty vials filled with superb satiny fibres of snowy Epsomite three to four inches ong. 35c. to 75¢e. Also a few pieces of the rare Mountain Leather; 10c. to 50c. . ; OTHER RECENT ADDITIONS: California Halite, in clear, octahedral crystals ; 25c. to $1.00. Arizona Cuprite. Choice groups of modified Octahedrons, 50c. to $3.50. Arizona Red Wulfenite and MEE a few fine specimens from an old collection. Endlichites from New Mexico—surpassingly fine groups of large, gemmy, yellow crystals, $2.00 to $10.00. Arkansas Quartz. Clear and exceedingly slender crystals, single and in groups, dc. to $2.00. Large Pyrite Crystals from Joplin, a new find, 25c. to $2.00. Diaspore. A dozen splendid groups of large crystals from Chester : $7400 to $12.50. Tilly Foster Chondrodites, Clinochlore, Brucite, etc. from the eollee- tion of the superintendent of the mine, which we purchased entire. New Jersey Rhodonites. A very few little groups, exceptionally good in color and crystallization ; 75c. to $1.50. Danburite from Russel. gF ee et a ] V fon 4.! sai ‘ hg ‘ Ay & * eye - y _ Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818. a AMERICAN |JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Epiror: EDWARD 8, DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS | Prormssors GEO.’ L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, | 4H. P. BOWDITCH ann W. G. FARLOW, or Camsrivesr, | Proressors O. ©. MARSH, A. E. VERRILL anv FH. 8. : ; WILLIAMS, or New Haven, a -Prorzsson GEORGE F: BARKER, or Pamapztruia, Proressor H. A. ROWLAND, or Baxtimore, Mr. J. S. DILLER, oF WasuHineTon. FOURTH SERIES. VOL. IV—[WHOLE NUMBER, CLIV.] No. 24.—DECEMBER, 1897. WITH PLATE XII. ~ NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. 1897. TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 125 TEMPLE STREET. 2 Published monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6.40 to foreign sub- seribers of countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should be made either by ey orders, registered letters, or bank checks. ee ee bE wale a He . tear} ‘ et 5 elas te == Ce 7 a 2 A e ay 4 44 t Pe = - > we ial 8 r = ~ = a - . ‘ . - -“a 4 » . « F- “ , ” é - r a 7 ‘ 2 ‘ . > , oa 2 ‘ . os ¥ ' : : z he “ “+ fe ~ “4” . a 2 — ry oe * « = * to oy «ile oi a ae A en Peet : : 4 P ens a" Ce SACE 2 FT tern ee, ree re i. « nee OL ers a ye fie : Aig 3 oy, Hen a sep tee Sota og Mee ie ee ee ne ye nn eae my - : -s- Ca aoe ele et 4S ety, oe go, a een TORY eet ee liy ey en! a ae MC tan 3 “t: te el shes Gh; ae, So? ae ae oe ae ‘ae ange ect 1 Ee ie i ae ae Bet dh Pha th Seay SAL OF ae hers. SD hae ae = i fe, Fe, hn r Pn ate. ”" © at Ae a =f é Fi Le . w% ee as 3 ; * 2% ae f = ‘ - iy 2 jn wr) rs “ > = ” ™ Fat 7 ‘ ta K - . a f m » > i o apie GP ad oy 2 % y at a> . =< oe") v 28 . * Pad mi & ine wD Z : ) 5 '0- ’ an Ad fs Pha ae 6 : A Lae ae +f oe 22, 4 Ns ee rae) ‘ ‘ } Shar Ate A. y yi h 2 a fae . : . r. Tie 1 Oe 3 a 5 Ke re or 2 -; » Veins 4 ae f ve es = 6 a aT wa te Ohad 2 - + A Pal ag oe a ew Eas > oe een es —- ae Is a small COLLECTION OF MINERALS, handsomely cased ina pal ished oak compartment cabinet, with descriptive list. 75e. to de = Price List of Collections free. AN OPAL, Topaz, Garnet, Olivene or > other gem costing $1.00 and ‘up wards, makes a desirable present. Send for list. POLISHED FLAT PAPER-WEIGHTS AND CUBES, bevele i So Banded Agate, Moss Agate, *‘ Tiger liao. ” ete. CRYSTAL PAPER- WEIGHTS. 5 The following are selected from over one thousand minerals as being inex- — pensive, natural crystallizations of unusual beauty, and making very hand- a some ornaments. They are mentioned in the order of their relative attract-_ : iveness. Specimens neatly shaped, about 2x3 inches, are worth from 20¢. tog ‘7de. each, according to crystallization. Tourmaline var. Rubellite. Slender pink crystals in a lavender Lepidolite | q roek. from Gan Daaen ya oN IN ean nia. ip of bright, clear crystals. (See illustra “kansas. ; oup of purple crystals, clear and of cubic | Fee Matane of brilliant coal-black ovata From the Island of Elba. “COMPLETE MINERAL CATALOGUE.” Over 160 pages, with 40 splendid engravings. The largest and best ever published ; more and better illustrations ; better Paper and printing; more — useful matter, conveniently arranged. g PR We CG ES of I. New Minerals; II, Collections, Scientific, Practical and Eile- | mentary; III. Minerals Sold by Weight for Use in Chemical and Technical Laboratories ; I V. Meteorites: V. Gems and Polished Specimens ; VI. Books on Mineralogy and Geology; Vil, Mineralogical Supplies. VIII. An Alphabetical Index.and Price-List ; 1X. Classified List giving : * Ba LAB LES Name, Composition and Form of all known Mineral Species and — \ an Varieties, with Supplement; X. A Complete Metallic Classification of Minerals, show- 4-99 ing the Natural Combinations of the Metals. i ae Invaluable alike to teachers, students, investigators, mining experts, é x _ chemists, and all desiring a brief reference book containing useful informa- tion in a condensed form. Prices, postpaid, paper bound, 25c.; handsome cloth binding, 50c.5 calf, interleaved, $1.00. (Cloth or paper copies half-price to schools ordering twelve or more.) s Dr. A. FL. FOOTE, WARREN M. FOOTE, Manager. 131% Arch Street, Philadelphia, Pa., U. 8. AS Established 1876. ‘ yw Ye a) LSS ,. avo She Ec Sits a LAS orn as TH E AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE [FOURTH SERIES. ] ee eS, Art. XLII—A Wicrosclerometer, for determining the Hard- ness of Minerals ;* by T. A. JaAGcar, JR., Cambridge, Mass. (With Plate XII.) Introduction: the definition of “ hardness.” Tue hardness of minerals and metals has been investigated by the following methods: ABRASION—TESTS. Scratching by hand: (Werner, Haiiy, Mohs, Breithaupt, Cohent, etc.) Drawing mineral under a point: (a) H. = weight on point— (Seebeck, Franz, Grailich and Pekarek,{ Exner$). } (5) H. = weight to draw mineral (inversely) —(Grailich and Pekarek). c) H.=number of abrading movements—(Grailich and Pekarek). * This research has been carried on in the petrographical laboratory of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.; the author is much indebted to Professor J. E. Wolff, Dr. Charles Palache, Mr. L. W. Page and Professor Victor Goldschmidt, of Heidelberg, for advice and assistance. For the admirable mechanical execu- tion of the instrument, as well as for many valuable suggestions, I have to thank Mr. Sven Nelson, of Cambridge, to whose skill as an instrument maker no words of mine can do justice. + v. Rosenbusch, Mikros. Physiographie, I, p. 258. - ¢ Sitzungsber. d. k. k. Akad. Wien, xiii, 1854 (contains complete bibliography | of earlier papers), § Preisschrift, Wien, 1873. Am. Jour. So1.—FourtH SERIES, VoL. IV, No. 24.—Dsc., £897. 28 400 T. A. Jaggar, Jr.—Microsclerometer, for Drawing point over mineral: = weight to draw point (inversely)—(Franz). (6) H. = weight on point—(Turner*) Grooving with a standard edge: H. = depth of groove—(Pfaff tf). Boring with a standard point: H. = number of rotations—(Pfaff{). Grinding with a standard powder : (a) H. = period required for polish (inversely)—(Behrens§). (5) H. = loss of volume (inversely)—(Rosiwal])). (c) H. = comparative loss of four substances (inversely) (Jannettaz and Goldberg ). STATIC PRESSURE-TESTS. Compressing lens on plate of substance : (a) H. = limit pressure per unit of surface—(Hertz**). (0). sf = * multiplied by the cube root of the radins of enryature—(Auerbachff). J Ela Dank Ue Compressing @ point into a surface: it ety weight to reach a standard depth—(Calvert and Fohmsontt. PBottoness), , Lea Fi (6) H. = volume of indentation (inversely)—(U. S. Ordnance Tests||||). Reference to the foregoing table shows a wide diversity of method, all designed to measure the resistance which a sub-— stance opposes to permanent deformation ; all come within the scope of four. processes utilized as the measure of such deforma- tion, viz: (1) Abrasion, (2) Penetration, (8) Friction, (4) Fracture. Of the eighteen authors mentioned, thirteen used abrasion (76 per cent); friction was used as an alternative (and found inadequate) by two of these. All were mineralogists except Turner, who was a practical metallurgist. The five authors who used static pressure as a test of hardness (penetration and fracture) were physicists and metallurgists, and in all five cases * Proc. Phil. Soc., Birmingham, v, 1886. + Sitz. k. k. Bayer. Akad., 1883. ¢ Sitz. k. k. Bayer Akad., 1884. § Anleitung zur Mikrochemische Analyse, 1895. | Verhandl. k. k. Geol. Reichsanstalt, 1896, xvii, 475. 4] Assog. Frang. p. l’Avane. d. Sc., 9 Aug., 1895. ** Verhandl. Berlin Phys. Gesells, 1882. ++ Wied. ane 1891, 1892, 1896. tt Phil. Mag., xvii, 114. §§ Chem. News, 1873, xxvii. ||| Report of experiments on metal for cannon, U. 8S. Ordnance Dep't, 1856. determining the Hardness of Minerals. 401 objection has been made to the results obtained on the ground of the interference of tenacity and plasticity. Dana has stated concisely the generally accepted definition of the mineralogists : ‘‘ Hardness is the resistance offered by a smooth surface to abrasion.” For practical purposes it has been demonstrated that when softer substances are abraded by a very hard substance, other conditions being constant, the amount of abrasion suffered varies with the hardness of the abraded substance. Tor obtain- ing values relative to an empirically selected abrader, it is obvious that any one of the numerous variable conditions in the process may be selected for functional purposes, provided all the other conditions are maintained constant. What is required, then, is an absolutely defined abrading agent, a method, one condition, variable with the resistance to abrasion, selected as functional, and devices for maintaining the others absolutely constant. The values obtained would be relative to the hardness of the abrader: this is a point that seems to have been frequently overlooked. Attention has been called, in the text-books,* to the fact that the results of sclerometry show the hardness differences between the lower members of the Mohs seale to be much less than between the harav: m-hers, where the differences are said to be enormous, as shown by the great length of time requisite for polishing t>- harder gems, ete. It must be remembered, however, that when the diamond scratches quartz there is interaction, the phenomenon of the scratch is arelative one; if sufficient force 1s applied the dia- mond may be perceptibly abraded as well as the quartz. On the basis of the definition that hardness is the resistance to abrasion by diamond, diamond is almost infinitely harder ; but assuming hardness to be the molecular or atomic tenacity, we must have a means for measuring that tenacity in absolute terms of energy expended before we may be sure of the actual differences between different substances. The hardness of a substance as expressed in resistance to scratching, is, in the case of fine-granular aggregates, dependent on the fineness of the particles, the interlocking or loose struc- ture, and the strength of the cement. If such an aggregate as, for instance, chalk is scraped with a tool, we overcome the tenacity of the particles and produce a scratch: if the sub- stance were an aggregate of diamond particles the scratch would still be produced. If the particles are so rigidly inter- locked that the tool does not overcome their tenacity, a scratch will not be produced by reason of a separation of the frag- mental particles: yet we know that the soft carbonate will be seratched, and the hard carbon will resist. The first case was * Tschermak, p. 139. | 402 T. A. Jaggar, Jr. for ec hanical structure, the second atomic structure. Again, if a mass of amorphous carbon of low specific gravity is heated in a crucible, crystalline graphite needles are formed, of some- what higher specific gravity and hardness; if enclosed in a globule of molten iron, which expands suddenly on solidifica- tion, and so subjects its inclusions to great atomic pressures, Moissan* has shown that the carbon crystallizes in the form of carbonado and diamond, of very high specific gravity and hardness. The substance in this case is a single element throughout, its atom has retained a constant weight but the molecule has continuously increased in weight under pressure, hence the number of atoms in the molecule has increased with the hardness. This accords with the determinations by Bot- tonet that the hardness of metals varies as the specific gravity divided by the atomic weight, which quotient, as Turnert has pointed out, varies directly as the number of atoms in a unit space. palennic structure in the element; atomic and molecular structure in the crystalline compound; atomic, molecular and sub-microscopic structure in the amorphous or crypto-crystal- line substances; atomic, molecular (sub-microscopic) and mechanical structures he ¢ ye talline or fragmental agegre- rates :+-all of these in 1ce hardness as measured by physical abrasion tests; hence lor comparative results of scientific value it is important that ainittet are or wholly amorphous sub- stances ate eget If this is done, abrasion tests, delicately conducted, may give very valuable data concerning the inti- mate structure of solids: Exner§ has shown very interesting relations between the directions of resistance to abrasion and crystalline form: Pfaff] has barely touched upon a wide field of research in his experiments on the mean hardness variations of minerals in isomorphous series, and the relation of the cohe- sion constants to the other physical properties. And, finally, as an aid to the differentiation and determination of the crys- talline minerals, there is no reason why a thoroughly defined method may not give very constant results. Former instruments have had three chief sources of error: (1) personal variability due to using “visibility” as determi- nant; (2) inequalities of mineral surface; (3) undefined details of instrument. To eliminate (1), the depth of abrasion should be definite and measurable: to eliminate (2), the surface should be artificial and defined, and the boring method, where only a very small portion of the surface is initially touched, should be used: this, at the same time, gives a mean value for all directions in the surface ; to eliminate (3), every part of the * Comptes Rendus, 1894 and 1895. + Loc. cit. +t Loc. cit. § Loc. cit. || Sitz. kk. Bayer. Akad., 1884, p. 255. determining the Hardness of Minerals. 403 instrument, including the abrader, should be minutely defined, and, for comparative determinations, an empirical standard should be adopted. The Microsclerometer. The author’s object in the present research is to describe an instrument so precisely adjusted as to eliminate these earlier sources of error. The quality which it is proposed to measure is the resistance opposed by a body to the removal of particles of its substance by a defined diamond point, moving in con- tact with it under uniform conditions. The instrument is applied to the microscope, so that it may be used for either thin sections or crystal faces; it is believed that the tests described will eventually be of determinative value in petrog- raphy. The adjustments of the instrument are such that any of the variable elements in the process of abrasion may be made functional while the others are maintained constant; but the best movement for obtaining a mean value is the rotary movement described by Pfaff, the number of rotations of the boring point indicating the hardness of the substance relative to the abrading point. The instrument is shown in Plate XII, adjusted to the large Fuess microscope No. 1. Fig. 1 shows the plan, and fig. 2 the vertical elevation. The principle of the instrument is as fol- lows: A diamond point of constant dimensions is rotated on an oriented mineral section under uniform rate of rotation and uniform weight to a uniform depth. The number of rotations of the point, a measure of the duration of the abrasion, varies as the resistance of the mineral to abrasion by diamond: this is the property measured. The instrument consists of the fol- lowing parts: (1) A standard and apparatus for adjusting to microscope. (a) Foot adjustments, (0) Rotating adjustments, (c) Lifting adjustments, (d) Fixing adjustments. (2) A balance beam and its yoke. (3) A rotary diamond in its end. » (4) Apparatus for rotating uniformly. (5) “ ““ recording rotations. (6) f “ locking and releasing. (7) s ‘“¢ recording depth. The instrument described admits of measurement with any one of the four variables, rate, weight, depth or duration. The last has been found most practical, because it gives the highest values and hence admits of the most delicate gradation. The Standard.—The yoke y is supported on a brass column, which slides in an outer tube, and may be raised or lowered by 404 T. A. Jaggar, Jr.—Microsclerometer, for a worm at the side. The foot-block F fits the left prong of the U-shaped microscope foot. The distance to which it may be slid on this prong is limited by a set-screw , and a second thumb-screw ¢ binds it in place. The outer tube T, with all the apparatus which it supports, rotates on the surface of the foot- block I’, and this rotation may be given fine adjustment by the graduated barrel and screw RK which presses against a projec- tion 0 from the foot-plate 7 of the outer tube. The vertical rotation-axle passing through F may be made rigid in any position by the thumbscrew t, M. This is Niven’s method adapted to alternating currents. See remarks to method 20. Methods 20 and 21 are specially useful when one wishes to set up an apparatus for measuring self induction, as the resist- ances R’, Rk”, KR, R,, can be adjusted once for all in case of a given inductance standard and only W or 7 need be varied afterwards. Method 22. eR ge eee | ee ema a a This is Carey Foster’s method adapted to alternating cur- rents and changed by making R” finite instead of zero. The ratio of R’+ BR, to R, is computed from the known value of the induction standard. R’” is then adjusted and O’ obtained. in general the adjustment can be obtained by changing R, and R”. The adjustment is independent of the current period. = R/(R' 4R) Method 28. mL’ =rR,+R[r+R’'+R,] Mr—L’'R | =r+R’'+R, m H.. A. Rowland—Electrical Measurement. 445 _ If we make R=0 we have b'mL! = rR, M —r+R/+R, tal r This method requires two simultaneous adjustments. M must also be greater than m. As Mand L’ belong to the same coil, we can consider this method as one for determining m in terms the M and L’ of some standard coil. The resistance, A, can be varied to test for, or even correct, the error due to electrostatic action between the wires of the induction standard. Method 24. ey AE iss: u ae, +R ih) We MA om Ur (r' +R+ ‘oR This is a good method for comparing standards. We first determine = for each coil by one of the previous methods. Then we can calculate - and adjust the other resistances to | balance. It is independent of the period of the current and suitable for standards of equal as well as of different values, as the mutual inductances can have any ratio to each other. For twisted wire coils 7, = 7’ very nearly. See method 23 for the use of the resistance, A. Method 25. In fig. 6 remove the shunt FR’ and self induction L. This method then depends upon the measurement of the angular deflection when a self induction or a capacity is put in the circuit of the small coil of the electrodynamometer and comparing this with the deflection, when the circuit only con- tains resistance. The resistance of the circuit, 7, is supposed to be so great compared with R that the current in the main circuit remains practically unaltered during the change. There ‘is also an error due to the mutual induction of the electrodynamometer coils which vanishes when 7 is great. or = Rte” ts oll | 1 Be Rian Bi, These formulas assume that the deflection is proportional to Parte sain Ms 2» . A) ee } 446 H. A. Rowland— Electrical Measurement. 6. This assumption can be obviated by adjusting 6 = 6’ when we have or P22 = (7+R Lue = iis ) 1 b*¢° These can be further simplified by making R” = R.”. The method thus becomes very easy to apply and capable of considerable accuracy. As the absolute determination depends on the current period, however, no great accuracy can be ex- pected for absolute values except where this period is known and constant, a condition almost impossible to be obtained. The comparison of condensers or of inductances is, however, independent of the period and can be carried out, however variable the period, by means of a key to make the change instantaneously. Method 26. Similar results can be obtained by putting the condenser or inductance in R” instead of 7, but the current through the electrodynamometer suspension is ‘usually too great in this case unless 7 is enormous. We have in this case for equal deflec- tions, Om AUD) eS I i rR," —7r RR" oe or OL? = R"(R" +1) ( PR” ) Where 7, and R,” are the resistances without condenser or self induction. This is a very good method in many respects. For using 25 and 26, a key to make instantaneous change of connections is almost necessary. To measure resistance by alternating currents, a Wheat- stone bridge is often used with a telephone. I propose to increase the sensitiveness of the method by using my method of passing a strong current through the fixed coils of an electrodynamometer while the weaker testing current goes through the suspended system. Using non-induetive resistances, methods 10, 13 A, B, C, and 14 all reduce to proper ones. 10 or 14 is specially good and I have no doubt will be of great value for liquid resist- ances. The liquid resistances must, however, be properly de- signed to avoid polarization errors. ‘The increase of accuracy over using the electrodynamometer in the usual manner is of the order of magnitude of 1000 times. Since writing the above I have tried some of the methods, especially 6 and 12, with much satisfaction. By the method HI. A. Rowland— Electrical Measurement. AAT 12, results to 1 in 1000 can be obtained. Replacing L’ by an equal coil, the ratio of the two, all other errors being eliminated, can be obtained to 1 in 10,000, or even more accurately. The main error to be guarded against in method 12, or any other where large inductances or resistances are included, arises from twisting the wires leading to these. The electro- static action of the leads, or the twisted wire coils of an ordinary resistance box, may cause errors of several per cent. Using short small wire leads far apart, the error becomes very small. ; Method 6 is also very accurate, but the electric absorption of the condensers makes much accuracy impossible unless a series of experiments is made to determine the apparent resist- ance due to this cause. In method 12 I have not yet detected any error due to twisting the wires of coils 7. However, the electrostatic action of twisted wire coils is immense and the warning against their use which I have given above has been well substantiated by experiment. Only in case of low resistances and low induct- ances or in cases like that just mentioned is it to be tolerated for a moment. Connecting two twisted wires in a coil in series with a resistance between them, I have almost neutralized the self inductance, which was one henry for each coil or four henrys for them in series ! Altogether the results of experiment justify me in claiming that these methods will take a prominent place in electrical measurement especially where fluid resistances, inductances and capacities are to be measured. They also seem to me to settle the question as to standard inductances or capacities, as inductances have a real constant which can now be compared to 1 in 10,000, at least. The new method of measuring liquid resistances with alter- nating currents allows a tube of quite pure water a meter long and 6™™" diameter having a resistance of 10,000,000 ohms to be determined to 1 in 1,000 or even 1 in 10,000. The current passing through the water is very small, being at least 500 times less than that required when the bridge is used in the ordinary way. Hence polarization scarcely enters at all. It is to be noted that all the methods 15 to 24 can be modi- fied by passing the main current through one coil of the electrodynamometer and the branch current through the other. The deflection will then be zero for a more complicated relation than the ones given. If, however, one adjustment is known and made, the method gives the other equation. Thus method 18 requires R, R’—R’R,=0. Hence, when this is satisfied we must have the other condition alone to be Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH Series, Vou. IV, No. 24.—Dec., 1897. De, 448 H. A. Rowland— Electrical Measurement. satisfied. Also in method 22, when we know the ratio of the. self and mutual inductances in the coil, the resistances can be adjusted to satisfy one equation while the experiment will give the other and hence the capacity in terms of the induct- ances. Again, pass a current whose phase can be varied through one coil of the electrodynamometer, and the circuit to be tested through the other. Vary the adjustments of resistances until the deflection is zero, however the — of current through the first coil may be varied. The best methods to apply the first modification to are 15 A, 16 A and B, 18, 20, 21, 22 and 24. In these, either a Wheat- stone bridge can be adjusted or the ratio of the self and mutual inductances in a given coil can be assumed as known and the resistances adjusted thereby. The value of this addition is in the increased accuracy and sensitiveness of the method, an increase of more than one hundred fold being assured. As a standard I recommend two or three coils laid together with their inductances determined and not a condenser, even an air condenser. Lt. T. Hill—The alleged Jurassic of Texas. 449 Art. XLVUI—TZhe alleged Jurassic of Tewas. A Reply to Professor Jules Marcou ; by Rost. T. H1u1. APROPOS of personal criticisms and questions of fact. con- cerning the validity of the work of myself and others upon the later Mesozoic formations in the Southwestern United States, made by Professor Jules Marcon* in many recent pub- lications, such as the American Geologist,t Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural Historyt, Science,§ and espe- cially the paper entitled “Jura of Arkansas, Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico and Texas,” in this Journal for September, 1897 (pp. 197-212), I beg to submit the following statements. In the month of September, 1853, Professor Jules Marcou, while accompanying a rapidly marching military expedition for the preliminary determination of a Route for a Pacific Railway Survey which was traveling up the valley of the Canadian River, through Oklahoma, the Panhandle of Texas, and Northeastern New Mexico, saw two small, outlying beds of the Lower Cretaceous formation. The first of these localities, which he termed that of Comet Creek, then in Indian Territory, is in what is now known as G County, Oklahoma, west of the present town of Arapahoe. It has recently been revisited by Mr. T. Wayland Vaughan of the United States Geological Survey and described in this— Journal for July, 1897. At this spot, Professor Marcou, according to his own statement, remained “only one hour.” | The second locality was a detached outlier of the Llano Kstacado, standing in the broad valley through which the Canadian winds its way through northeastern New Mexico. Here he remained “ only three or four hours.” Each of these *Tn my writings I have always shown the greatest respect for Professor Mar- cou, and still have for him the most charitable and friendly feelings. Further- more, I have always given and shall continue to give him the fullest credit whenever credit is due. The injustice of his attacks upon me and the incorrect- ness of his statements, which, if unanswered, would prove serious defacements of the scientific record, force me to take note of his accusations, and to add a line of controversy to geologic literature. Professor Marcou’s attacks upon the validity of my work have been so direct, numerous and skillfully introduced into the geologic literature of the day under the guise of alleged scientific discus- sion. that I would deem it unjust not only to myself but to my co-laborers and the United States Geological Survey, with which organization I am connected, and the scientific world in general, not to correct some of his assertions It is also at the earnest solicitation of several of my co-laborers, who have read this manu- script, that it is submitted to the public. + Growth of Knowledge concerning the Texas Cretaceous, August, 1894. t The Jura of Texas, October, 1896, pp. 149-158. § Science, Oct. 22, 1897. | ‘I was enabled on account of the rapidity of the march of my military escort, to remain at Comet Creek only one hour, and at Pyramid Mount only three or four hours.”—This Journal, September, 1897, p.-198. = ~ou. — 450 Rh. T. Hill—The alleged Jurassic of Texas. occurrences, from two to five feet thick at one place and less than fifty at the other, represents an outlying isolated, attenn- ated outcrop of the great body of Lower Cretaceous which has a development of over 2,000 feet in Texas, and from which they have been disconnected by prehistoric and recent denuda- tion, and to which I have devoted thousands of miles of travel and careful study and field work during my lifetime. At the first of these localities he collected from a “lime- stone five feet thick,’* one species of Ostreid (“ Gryphea pitcherv”’) and at the second from a bed given by him as 30 feet thick, two other species of the fossil Ostreidee (called by him G. dilatata and O. marshii). These species, with two or three hundred molluscan forms, since reported by others, are now krown to constitute the faunas of the Lower Cretaceous formations of Kansas, New Mexico, and Texas. Upon the supposed resemblance of the fossil oyster from the first mentioned of these localities to certain forms in the Cre- taceous of Switzerland, and the fact that it occurred as a shell agglomerate or “lumachelle” resembling in its lithologie facies similar “‘lumachelle” of Switzerland, he referred the beds containing it to the “ Neocomian” epoch, and has since used this determination as a basis of his subsequent discussion of this system, as other workers discovered and delineated the great series of strata and its areal extent to which this single outcrop has proved to belong. Likewise on the supposed resem- blance of the two fossil oysters from Pyramid Mount in New Mexico to forms from the ‘Oxfordian” and ‘ Lower Oolite groups”} of England and France, he referred these beds to the Jurassic period—an opinion which he has since rigidly maintained and used as the basis for asserting the Jurassic age of various other and entirely distinct strata since discovered and described by later writers throughout the Texas region, and coloring vast areas of what we now know to be Lower Cretaceous and Tertiary, upon maps which he has compiled. By his own statement, Professor Marcou has spent not over five hours of his life-time in observation of the formations under controversy. In fact he has never seen the main body of the Cretaceous in Texas or Indian Territory at all, and has never visited the localities, nor examined the vast collections subsequently reported. ‘I have explored only a very small part of Texas,” he says, “ only asimple road in the Panhandle,’§ and I might add, that his road Jay entirely through the Permian of * U.S. Pacific Railroad Explorations, 1853-54, vol. iv, p. 43, H. Doc. 129, Washington, 1855. wey ie + Geology of North America, Zurich, 1858, p. 19, and in several other publica- tions. {‘‘ Geology of North America,” Geological Map of the World, ete. $ This Journal, September, 1897, p. 208. R. T. Hill—The alleged Jurassic of Texas. 451 the Canadian Valley and Tertiary of the Llano Estacado, which he called Triassic and Jurassic respectively, and no- where touched upon the Cretaceous in the State of Texas. Professor Marcou by his writings has at several times conveyed the impression that he had seen the Cretaceous in Texas.* The various journals, itineraries and maps of the Pacific Railway Expedition as published by himself and others, giving a minute record of the progress of the party day by day, show that it nowhere encountered this locality or any other south of the Ouachita Mountains. The fossils from Fort Washita and the Cross Timbers of Texas described by him in his Geology of North America, were collected and sent to him by Dr. G. G. Shumard. | Each of his localities have since been thoroughly studied by specially equipped expeditions of the United States Geologi- cal Survey and the Texas State Geological Survey. The Tu- cumearri region has been twice visited by me and the results of my observations published in Sciencet and in this Journal} and elsewhere.§| .The Texas Geological Survey also made researches in this locality, and published extensively thereon.4 Professor Alpheus Hyatt several years ago spent a season of minute field work upon the region, and his manuscript report thereon is in the office of this Survey. Thus we have, as opposed to the three hours spent by Professor Marcon, the observations of three independent parties, who have devoted days and months to the locality. Each of these parties (although both Professor Hyatt** and myself}f were at first pre- disposed towards Professor Marcoun’s conclusions, and made the mistake in print of partially supporting him) have all arrived, after careful and impartial study, at conclusions contrary to his. I have shown beyond all doubt that the deposits which he called Jurassic are Cretaceous—not only Cretaceous, but of a Cretaceous horizon which I believe to be of the same general formation but of a horizon stratigraphically above the rocks which he, himself, collected at Comet Creek and called “ Neo- comian.” It is also extremely doubtful if the Comet Creek beds are homotaxially equivalent to the Neocomian, as he alleges. * “T have seen and studied the strata of the Upper Greensand and Marly Chalk, in the bed of Little River,” ete, ‘‘and also on the Kim Fork of Trinity river ’"—Professor Marcou in American Geologist, August, 1894, p. 100. + July 14, 1893. t September, 1895, p. 234. ; Report on Underground Waters, Washington, 1892. uaa Geol. Soc. Amer., May, 1894, p. 332. §] Third Annual Report, pp. 201 et seq.—A controversial article fully answered in Science, July 14, 1893. ** 11th Annual Report U.S. Geological Survey, Part 1, pp. 97-100. t+ Circular letter, Austin, Texas, 1888. Fae old, 452 R. T. Hill—The alleged Jurassic of Texas. Professor Marcou established his Jurassic at Tucumearri solely upon two species of fossil oyster. Each of these expedi- tions, in addition to the two fossil oysters found by Professor Marcou, collected large Cretaceous faunas of over a dozen species, ‘similar to that which occurs in Grayson County, Texas, above the Comet Creek horizon (Preston Beds) which he has himself referred to the Cretaceous, and published lists thereof in the publications above mentioned.* His repeated assertion that his adversaries will not or have not published figures of these fossils is unjust. These fossils are mostly all well known species which have been fully illustrated by their authors and are in the United States National Museum, the State Capitol of Texas, and at Johns Hopkins University, where they are accessible to all interested, and have been, are being, or will be duly published at the proper time and place as the systematic work of publication of the Cretaceous stratigraphy and paleon- tology of Texas progresses. Professor Marcou has said+ that his “ observations, instead of being accepted and used for further development of our knowl- edge of the Texas Cretaceous, were, on the contrary, opposed systematically.” This statement is true except so far as the last words are concerned, for the opposition was largely based upon independent investigation of parties who, in some in- stances like the writer, were predisposed to accept his conelu- sions. Not only has Professor Marcou rigidly maintained the fundamental errors of his conclusions as to age, but has used them as a protext for assaulting the observations, often with crimination and misquotation, of every later worker who has since more thoroughly studied the field, or distorted their lan- guage into confirmations of his own erroneous conclusions. The foregoing isa brief statement of the facts which gave rise to a controversy, which has pervaded geologic literature for nearly forty years, and which is marked by unparalleled bitter- ness and accusations of American geologists as a body on the part of Professor Marcou. This controversy will be again re- ferred to in the later pages of this paper, after we say a few words in direct reply to his article in the September number of this Journal. A most serious, but less important defect of his paper is the fact that he omits reference to most of the recent literature which shows the fallacies of his conclusion concerning Comet Creek and Tucumearri, and these omissions leave the general reader, who may judge the work of others by his article, under a false impression concerning the questions involved. Sys- * Lists of these fossils were published by me in Science, Sept 1, 1895, and this Journal, Sept. 1895. + American Geologist, August, 1894, p. 100. RL. T. Hill-——The alleged Surassie of Texas. 453 tematic observations on the stratigraphy of these formations, written by me, and, at my request, by Messrs. Stanton and Vaughan, can be found in this Journal from 1877 to the present year, in the papers to be enumerated presently. Within the past ‘few years | have paid special attention to these isolated but related localities in Kansas, New Mexico and Trans Pecos, Texas, and their relations to the Central Texas region where the main area of the Cretaceous lies in continuous section. The three papers specially showing the identity of Professor Marcouw’s Jurassic of New Mexico with the beds of the Washita Division in Texas, are entitled “Outlying Areas of the Comanche Series in Kansas, Oklahoma amd New Mexico,” with ex parte paleontologic determinations by T. W. Stanton and I’. H. Knowlton, published in this Journal of September, 1895; “Section of the Cretaceous at El Paso, Texas,” by T. W. Stanton and T. Wayland Vaughan, this Journal, vol. i pe 91, 1896; and Additional Notes on the Outlying Areas of the Comanche Series in Oklahoma and Kansas” by T. Wayland Vaughan, this Journal, July, 1897. These three papers cover every well known essential point concerning these regions and should be read by all who wish to know the true merits of Professor Marcou’s determinations of the localities discussed. Furthermore, two previous bulletins of the Geological Society of America,® written by me upon the paleontologic and stratigraphic relations of the Cretaceous formations of Indian Territory and Texas adjacent to Red River—the locali- ties from which the Cretaceous fossils described by Professor Marcon, in his Geology of North America, were collected— set forth the details of the comprehensive section of the Cre- taceous developed in that region by which the stratigraphic position of Professor Marcou’s isolated outcrops can be located in the general section. Finally, concerning the paleontology of the entirely distinct Trinity Division as published in my Arkansas Report—the only one of my papers to which Pro- fessor Marcou refers,—I will state that the paleontologic descriptions and figures of that volume were fully revised and republished by me in a paper entitled “The Invertebrate Paleontology of the Trinity Division,’ published in the Pro- ceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, vol. viii, pp. 9-40, Plates I-VIII, June 3, 1893, and that this later paper, not the Arkansas Report, represents my views of the fauna discussed. In this later paper the description of the form from Arkansas described by me under the name of Ammonites walcotti, is fully revised by Professor Hyatt and redescribed by me, and my previous generic and specific comparisons as quoted by Marcou (p. 199)}+ are abandoned and superseded. * Vol. ii, pp. 503-528, 1891, and vol. v, pp. 297-338, 1894. + This Journal, Sept., 1897. an &@ 3. eee: ee ers. 454 he. T. Hitl—The alleged Jurassic of Texas. Professor Marcou completely ignores this paper in his writings, and seems to present me to the public as having said things which were never intended. Not only does he fail to set forth fairly the work of others, but he even appropriates from them their own substance and converts them to his own end. No better illustration of this. can be found than the sentence on page 211 where he speaks of the “true Washita Division as I established it as long ago as 1853 when at Comet Creek near Fort Washita.” This asser- tion that he established the Washita Division is absolutely untrue. The two feet of beds at Comet Creek which he saw in 1858 (and thisdocality is not near Fort Washita, as he states) were never called by him the “ Washita Division” or aught else but ‘‘ Neocomian,” nor was the term ever used in scien- tific literature by him until after it had been invented by another. The classification of the beds of the Texas Cre- taceous into “divisions” and the term “ Washita Division ” was originally made by me and published in this Journal for April, 1896, and amplified in my later papers. Marecon’s ‘““ Neocomian,” Comet Creek bed, is only a single horizon in one of the eight great formations composing the Washita Division, seven of which are shown in my paper entitled the “ Geology of Parts of Texas, Indian Yerritory, and Arkansas Adjacent to Red River (Bull. Geol. Soc. of America, March, 1894) and one of which, the Grayson Marls, has been added by Cragin. His article is also so full of conclusions with which few Americans will agree, that we can only point out at present a few of the scientific points of disagreement. He dismisses (p. 204) Mr. Knowlton’s careful study and identifications of the Dicotyledons* with the assertion that “ no conclusion can be drawn from such a meagre florula.” Mr. Knowlton’s. florula enumerates five characteristic Dakota species. The occurrence of a Dakota-like dicotyledonous flora in Marcow’s | “ Jurassic” beds both in Kansas and also at Gallisteo, New Mexico, as has been noted by Newberry,t is certainly against his hypothesis, but paleo-botanists and geologists in general, who are acquainted with the western United States, know that this flora is distinctly Cretaceous in its facies, and not Jurassic. Professor Marcou neglects to state, and I myself had over- looked the fact, that Newberryt many years ago noted in New Mexico the occurrence of -dicotyledonous plants with Marcou’s. Jurassic oyster in sandstone called Jurassic by Marcon, near Gallisteo, New Mexico. The cycud which the latter men- tions (p. 204) (Cycadeoidea munita of Cragin) was found in the * Given in my paper in this Journal of September, 1895, p. 212. + This Journal, vol, xxviii, 1859, p. 33. t Ibid. re ae ee a RR. T. Mill-—The alleged Jurassic of Texas. 455 Tertiary Plains drift, and derived from a geological position unknown, and has been studied by Professor Ward. Even if it should prove of Purbeckian age it would still be from a much higher horizon than Professor Marcou’s alleged “ Oxford- ian,” “ Oolitic,” Jurassic of New Mexico. On page 198 he accuses me “of making a clean sweep of the marine American Jura,” and quotes a paragraph from me in which I stated that “there are reasons for suspecting that no marine Jurassic formations of Atlantic sedimentation have as yet been discovered north of Argentina on the present Atlantic slope of the American hemisphere.” In quoting this paragraph Professor Marcou apparently forgets that he, him- self, has distinctly said in italics (Geology of North America, p- 19), that “the Jurassic rocks do not exist on the Atlantic slope of North America nor anywhere cast of the Mississippr fiwer.” My assertion of practically the same proposition is maintained by every known fact, unless the Wealden beds, which are not positively known to be marine and which are classified with the Cretaceous by a preponderance of authority, are Jurassic as maintained by Marsh—(merely a question of classification, as I have recently shown in Science*).. Further- more, as he referred the Tucumearri beds under discussion to the ‘“‘ Oxfordian” and “ Lower Oolite”’+ of the Jura, they are in no manner to be confused with.the Wealden, or “Jurassic” of Marsh. Neither does the sentence quoted from me make “a clean sweep of the American marine Jura,” for it in no manner alleges that there is no Jurassic on the Pacific slope, or in the Black Hills of Dakota, where, as is well known, Jurassic formations, in no manner related to those of New Mexico, so- called by Professor Marcon, do occur. Concerning his general classification and tabular view of the whole country south of the Arkansas, pp. 208-211, I will state that it has no value and cannot in any manner be fitted to known conditions. For instance, I have shown that the Cheyenne Sandstone of Kansas which he places at the base of his section, contains dicotyledonous flora and ogcurs stratigra- phically about midway in the Lower Cretaceous of the Texas section, and does not belong to my Trinity Division at all, as at first supposed by Cragin. His ‘Tucumearri Division (B) and “Neocomian Division,” are synchronous formations, and embrace beds far more nearly allied to the Gault than Neoco- mian. His descriptions of these divisions are purely imaginary — creations, stratigraphically incorrect, and altogether out of har- mony with the natural occurrence of the rocks or the literature thereon. The whole table is ingeniously constructed by com- pilation of the works of the very authors he condemns. * December 18, 1896, pp. 918-922. + Geology of North America, pp. 19-20. Se ss. 456 L. T. Hill—The alleged Jurassic of Texas. Professor Marcou has long imagined that brief observations in these outlying areas have constituted him an authority on the greater Texas region which he has not seen, and made them the basis for creating, at his study at Cambridge, such tabulations as above mentioned and dictating where work should and should not be done in the Cretaceous region of Texas. This article under discussion is especially profuse in such suggestions. I can dismiss them in a lump as follows: The monograph on the fossils which have been ealled “ Gryphea pitcheri,’ was written and ready for the printer a year ago, and was transmitted to the Director for publication on January 13, 1897. When it does appear it will further show by the most conelusive stratigraphic and paleontologic data, together with a careful study of the development of the forms, the identity of his alleged Jurassic species from Tucum- carri with the forms called “ Gryphewa pitcher.” in the Cretaceous of Texas, and the form which he names Gryphea kansana (page 203) from Kansas. For the two or three speci- mens of the last mentioned form which he states that he possesses, and which I have seen in his studio at Cambridge, we possess hundreds of specimens showing every stage of the development. Futhermore Mr. T. W. Stanton is now solely engaged upon the descriptive paleo-zoology of the Cretaceous of Texas, a work which | had to abandon owing to pressure of other duties, and his work will be reliable and authoritative. Professor Lester F. Ward is likewise studying in a similar manner the paleo-botany. Prof. Marcou’s remark about “special need of investigation in the vicinity of Austin and Fredericksburg” can be fully answered by stating that in addition to my previously pub- lished papers on this region, there is in type for the Eighteenth Annual Report of the U.S. Geological Survey a large and comprehensive work upon this region by Mr. Vaughan and myself, giving every detail of its stratigraphy with maps and illustrations. Furthermore, we have in process of publication, four atlas sheets of this region.. I have also personally con- ducted Mr. Stanton over this country, and he is illustrating and describing the paleontology as fast as accurate methods will permit. He has just returned from that region, where he has made additional collections. We have already shown that his charges that his opponents will not visit his localities are unjust. Just one year ago when I lay at Muskogee, Indian Territory, upon what was then supposed my death-bed, I turned over my camp equipment to Professor Lester F. Ward and Mr. T. Wayland Vaughan, and requested them to visit the Kansas localities, which they did. Mr. Vaughan also thoroughly studied all the outlying areas to RL. T. Hill—The alleged Surassie of Texas. 457 the south thereof, including Professor Marcou’s Comet Creek locality, and his results have been fully published in this Jour- nal for July, 1897. Professor Ward, who accompanied Mr. Vaughan to the Kansas localities, is now again in the Kansas region,® studying the fossil flora. Professor C. §. Prosser has also lately published an excellent paper on the stratigraphy of the Kansast localities, ‘which confirms the conclusions of Professor Marcou’s opponents. The invertebrate paleontology of the same region is in process of publication by Professor Cragin. After all the complaints pervading Professor Marcou’s papers against others who are working as hard and consistently as they can upon the problems of the region, for not publishing hastily, and charging that “ poor stratigraphy and poor paleon- tology have long enough prevailed,” etc., etc., he apparently sees no inconsistency in immediately creating in this article a new species of oyster (Gryphea kansana) without one word of description or illustration. His accusation (page 201) that Dr. Charles A. White changed “the generic and specific name ” of his (Marcon’s) G. pitchers, alias G. remeri, ete., etc., to Hvogyra forniculata is untrue. Marcou, himself, was the first to use the generic name Huogyra for this species, in his first paper in the original Whipple report and elsewhere,t and continued to use it for some time, as shown in the extracts from his writings given on a later page. Although I believe Dr. White's Kzogyra forniculata may be identical with Marcou’s G. prtcheri, there is still room for much doubt upon this subject. Inasmuch as this Grypheea and the thickness of the beds containing it is made the basis of many charges against others by Professor Marcou, it may be well to introduce here the fol- lowing extract from his own writings concerning it which will be referred to later in this paper. His record of the thickness of the Comet Creek beds and the various names which he gave to the fossil found there (““Gryphea pitcher”) and which almost exclusively composes the rock, is as follows: 1855. ‘This limestone is only five feet thick; it is of a whitish grey color containing an immense quantity of Ostracea which I consider (provisionally) as the Hxogyra ponderosa Roemer; hav- ing the closest analogy with the Exogyra of the neocomian of the environs of Neufchatel.”—U. 8. Pacific Railroad Explorations, 1853-54, vol. iv, p. 48, H. Doc. 129, Washington, 1855. * Prof. Ward has returned since this was written, bringing with him over forty boxes of Cretaceous fossil plants. + Report of Kansas State Geological Survey, pp. 96-181, 1897. t Geology of North America, p. 17. ; 458 Lt. T. Hill—The alleged Jurassic of Texas. 1858. ‘This limestone is only five feet thick ; it is of a whitish- gray color, containing an immense quantity of fossil Ostracea, which I consider as identical with the Hxogyra ( Gryphea) pitchert Mort., having the closest analogy with Hxogyra couloni, of the Neocomian of the environ of Neufchatel (Switzerland).—Geology of North America, Zurich, 1858, p. 17. This passage purports (Geology of North America, p. 7) to be a “verbatim” copy of the preceding paragraph, and is copied from the chapter in the latter work (p. 9) entitled “ Extract trom Report of Explorations for a Railway Route, near the Thirty-fifth Parallel ot Latitude from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean, etc., Washington, 1855, H. Doc. 129.” It should be noted that he here, as in the preceding quotation, refers the genus to Exogyra. 1858. In the literal copy and translation of Professor Jules Marcou’s field notes by W. P. Blake, p. 131, vol. iii of the Pacific Railway Reports, quarto edition of 1856, the Comet Creek local- ity near Camp 31 is described as composed of “three or four broken beds with crinoids* disseminated here and there as if the ruins were formed of a lumachelle limestone of Neocomian age. This lumachelle is formed by the fragments of Ostrea aquila or coulont or a variety, for it is smaller... . the four beds of lumachelle are two feet.” Concerning these notes, however, Mr. Marcou later said: ‘1 here declare that I know nothing of the publication of the edition in quarto of these reports, and that I decline all responsibility as to the use that may have been or may hereafter be made by others of my official note books,’ etc. (Geology of North America, etc., Zurich, 1858, p. 1.) Nevertheless he himself, now (1897) cites them as authoritative in his recent article, p. 205. 1858. On page 27 of the Geology of North America, Mr. Marcou says, in discussing his Neocomian in America, of which this is the only locality recorded as seen by him, that “its thick- ness varies from 6 to 50 feet.” 1862. “J have never seen Morton’s original specimen. .... - I am led to believe that I did not meet with the true G. pitcheri of Morton in my explorations with Captain Whipple’s party. Mr. Ferdinand Roemer having the opportunity of seeing, in the com- pany of the late Dr. Morton himself, the original specimen at Phila- delphia, I naturally followed his identification of G. pitcheri ; and if Roemer has made a mistake I was misled by his description . . . Thus we shall have three species of Gryphwa: 1, the G. tucum- carrii of the Jurassic rocks of Pyramid Mount (New Mexico); 2, the false G. pitchert of Roemer and Marcou, or the false G. pitcheri var. navia of Conrad and Hall of the Cretaceous rocks of the false Washita River (‘fexas) which may be called G. roemert in honor of its first discoverer, Mr. F. Roemer, and, 3, the true G. pitchert Morton, which I have never seen, and, consequently, * This word does not occur in the French version of the notes, in which G. couloni is also followed by a question mark. LR. T. Hill—The alleged Jurassic of Texas. 459 on which I cannot give any information as to its stratigraphical position and association with other fossils.—Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. viii, p. 95, 1862.” 1889. “As to the Gryphea pitcherit which Mr. Hall calls var navia it is the true G. pitchert of Morton and Roemer found by me at Comet Creek near the false Washita river.— American Geolo- gist, September, 1889, p. 163.” 1896. “The first strata of this Cretaceous system contain at Comet Creek, Fort Washita, etc., an immense number of Gryphea roemert Marcou (formerly called G. pitchert by Roemer and Marcon). The Gryphea arcuata are so numerous as to recall the ‘Limestone of the Liasof England, France, and Germany.’ These first beds, which may be called the ‘Caprina and Gryphea Remeri limestone; are the bottom beds of the American Neocomian or Lower Cretaceous.”—The Jura of Texas by Jules Marcou, Proc. of the Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xxvii, p. 157, Boston, October, 1896. The foregoing extracts show that he has successively called this Comet Creek species ‘“ EHxogyra ponderosa Roemer,” “ Hrogyra pitchert” with analogy with “ Hxogyra couloni” ; “ Ostrea aquila or coulont?” “Gryphea pitcheri,” “ Gryph- awa remerr,” “ Gryphea pitcher.” and Gryphea remer.” The paragraphs in Professor Marcou’s paper to which I per- sonally take exception are such as that on page 199, in which he makes direct charges upon my veracity and the motives and correctness of my work, citing “an example of carelessness, not to use a stronger word, in quoting a plain paleontological fact,’ which “shows how unreliable Mr. Hill is when he writes on paleontology,’ and accusing me of endeavoring by “extraordinary alteration” and misquotation of D’Orbigny to make a certain species of Ammonite appear of Cretaceous instead ot Jurassic affinities. These accusations on Professor Marcou’s part are absolutely without foundation, as anyone can see by comparing my origi- nal assertion with his extraordinary misrepresentation of it. What I said was as follows :* Careful examination of the literature and specimens of the Boston and Washington libraries and museums failed to reveal any figured species with which this one can be identified. J¢ resembles generically the group Harpoceratide (genus Ludwigia, Boyle), which is peculiar to the upper jurassic of Europe and also Ammonites yo, D’ Orb, of the lower neocomian. The absence of this ammonite from the great mass of the Trinity strata, except in the place indicated, suggests that it may be an older fossil reimbedded in the Trinity, but its preservation and delicacy of structure would seem to render this impossible. * Neozoic Geology of Arkansas, p. 128. 4 460 R. T. Hill—The alleged Jurassic of Texas. By omitting all the words of this paragraph except those in italics, which ‘he brings together and by substituting the word “Cretaceous”? for “ Neocomian,” he succeeds in establishing his remarkable construction of a proposition which I did not utter, upon which he could base his assertion that I “ under- took to change the age of Ammonites yo,” which cannot be explained otherwise than that I “ wanted to sustain my classi- fication of the Trinity Division in the Cretaceous, quoting in his (my) favor the great D’Orbigny.” These charges are repu- — diated by every passage referring to the species of Ammonites to be found elsewhere in the volume referred to, in which I repeatedly present the Jurassic affinities of this form; but as he well knows, in another paper, the species was revised by me and the previous description in the work which he quoted was abandoned. All the other passages referring to the age of Ammonites walcotiz, both in the Arkansas Report,* and the revision thereof are here reproduced in full, and I beg the candid reader to compare them with Professor Marcou’s state- ment, in order to see if there is ground for his accusations. Arkansas Report, p. 125.—Reviewing the stratigraphic evi- dence afforded by Trinity formation, it seems to be clearly older than any Cretaceous rocks hitherto described in this country, a fact which is verified by the paleontology as shown in the next ‘chapter. The stratigraphic position beneath the lowest Comanche series, which is of very early cretaceous (neocomian), and the extreme difference in the character of the sediments and fossils, confirm the opinion that the rocks are either uppermost jurassic, lowest cretaceous (Wealden) or transitional jura-cretacic. They are at least older than the oldest American cretaceous rocks hitherto. known, and mark the littoral stages which characterized the beginning of the first grand subsidence of cretaceous times. Proceedings of the Biological Society,+ pp. 37-38: Only one specimen of this species has thus far been discovered. It occurred in association with O. franklini, Vycaria lujani, Eriphyla arkansaensis, and other mollusks herein described. The form very much resembles in outward appearance the figures of the genus Oxynoticeras of Hyatt, as given by Zittel and Steinman in their Manuals, but Professor Hyatt refers it to Mewmayria, and contributes the following comments upon the specimen : “Your Ammonites walcotti is probably a Neumayria. The aspect is Jurassic, but this group, Upper Jura, and the species * Neozoic Geology of Southwestern Arkansas. By Robert T. Hill, Assistant Geologist—Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Arkansas for 1888, vol. li, pp. 125-128. + Paleontology of the Cretaceous Formations of Texas. The Invertebrate Paleon-- tology of the Trinity Division, by Robert T. Hill.—Proceedings of the Biological. Society of Washington, vol. viii, pp. 37-38, June 3, 1893. : R. T. Hitl— The alleged Jurassic of Texas. 461 nearest walcotti occurs in the very top of the Jura of Centra} Volga stage, supposed by some to be similar to the Purbeck in the upturn at Malm. The obscuration of a portion of the sutures occurs over the most important part of the outer side, and the structure of the abdomen, which is rounded and has no keel, is not very consistent with the reference either to the Wew- mayria of the Jura or the so-called Neumayria of the Cretaceous. Nevertheless it agrees better with those of: the Jura than the Cretaceous ones referred to the same genus by Nikitin.” Whatever may be the range of this genus in Europe, the writer is inclined to the belief, from the stratigraphy and asso- ciation, that its occurrence in Arkansas is lowest Cretaceous, and Professor Hyatt’s opinion serves to strengthen the position of the writer in his reticence in earlier papers in expressing a more definite assignment of the Trinity beds before minutely studying the accompanying faunas. The specimen was collected in the banks of T'own Creek, one mile southeast of Murfreesboro, Arkansas. Named in honor of Mr. C. D. Walcott. Nowhere in these writings do I quote or have I quoted D’Orbigny, and even my citation of a doubtful resemblance to a species of his (which citation was entirely abandoned in the revision of the species), cannot be interpreted as a quotation. The very first sentence of the paragraph upon which Professor Marcou constructs this charge distinctly shows that no identity between the species was intended. Whether Mr. Marcon’s assertion that D’Orbigny’s species came from the Jurassic and not the Cretaceous is true or not, 1 do not know (for no copy of D’Orbigny’s Paleontologie Francaise is accessible to me to verify his references), but even if it is true, the matter is entirely secondary to the entire tenor of my writings and was set right by myself through its omission in the later publica- tions. Professor Marcou states on the same page that “he has shown with accuracy and details in the American Geologist, Dec., 1889, . . . that the whole fauna without a single excep- tion is composed of Jurassic fossils.” [am perfectly aware of the fact that in his paper cited,* he took the list of fossils illustrated by me, species for species, and asserted+ their iden- tity or resemblance, according to his fancy, with some Jurassic species of Europe, making them allied to forms from various horizons of Europe, such as the “ Portlandian,” the “ French Jura,” “Argovian,” ‘“Sequanian,” the “ Upper Lias,” and the “ Kimmeridian.” These mere assertions are all the “ accuracy and detail given.” His identifications have so little basis of fact that I merely pass them by unnoticed and do not yet * Jura Neocomian and Chalk of Arkansas; by Jules Marcou, American Geolo- gist, December, 1889. + Ibid., pp. 362-363. Poe, 4 _ - 462 Le. LT. Hill—The alleged Jurassic of Texas. accept them. This fauna is undoubtedly one of the oldest of the Comanche Series. In my Arkansas report I said that it resembled the Wealden and -Purbeckian, a position which I still maintain, and Professor Marcon has proved nothing further concerning it. He has issued similar manifestoes upon the appearance of other lists of species from the Southwest, notably the one identified by Stanton and published by Dumble from the Washita Division at Kent.* Here he takes a dozen or more of the best known and commonest fossils, not of Wealden affinities, but from the uppermost division of the Lower Cretaceous, and refers each of them serially to Jurassic forms. His zpse dixit is all the basis there is for such correla- tions. The following extracts from Professor Marcou’s discussions of a species of Ammonites, a family of much more value for stratigraphic correlation than Ostreidz, show that he, rather than others, used the peculiar methods in paleontological dis- cussions which he has attributed to them. He found no Ammonites in the “ Jurassic” Tucumearri region, and noted their supposed absence. In his “ Geology of North America” (p. 38, Plate I, fig. 1), he gave an excellent figure of a “Cre- taceous” species which he named Ammonites shumardi, after Dr. George G. Shumard, here called by him “the learned geologist of Arkansas,” who collected all the species from Fort Washita and Texas, near Red River. These localities, which Marcou has never seen, are several hundred miles distant from Tuecumearri, and judging from his writings he is ignorant of their stratigraphy, although they have been visited several times by the writer and made a special study by him.+ Furthermore, as I have seen, this species of Ammonite occurs by the hundreds in the Red River localities from which Marcow’s type specimen was sent, in a horizon stratigraphically below beds containing the majority of the species now known to constitute the fauna of his alleged “ Jurassic” of the Tucumearri region, and above the horizon of his Comet Creek ‘‘ Neocomian.” In 1888 Professor Alpheus Hyatt found this confessedly Cretaceous species of Professor Marcou’s in the supposed “Jurassic” beds of the Tucumearri region of New Mexico. Professor Marcou, since the latter event, endeavored to recon- cile these facts in a most remarkable manner. Without await- ing publication by Professor Hyatt, and upon what authority we do not know—for Professor Hyatt has never published other than a brief administrative reportt on his work so far as * American Geologist, November, 1893. + See papers previously cited. { Eleventh Annual Report U. 8. Geological Survey, Part 1, pp. 97-100. R. T. Hil—The alleged Jurassic of Texas. 463 I am aware— Professor Marcou immediately proceeded to announce, that* ‘“ The fauna of the upper part of the Jurassic strata of Pyramid Mount at the Tucumearri, thanks to the col- lection made there in 1889 by Prof. A. Hyatt, is now well known.” Later, however, when he pressed Professor Hyatt, who has, perhaps wisely, kept out of the controversy, for an opinion concerning the age of the Ammonite, he received a very deci- sive answer as follows:+ “I think there can be no reasonable doubt that it belongs to the Inflatus group of the genus Schlen- bachia, hitherto found only in the Cretaceous.” Not daunted by this decisive contradiction of the Jurassic age of this species by Professor Hyatt, Professor Marcou next proceeded to force the species into his Jurassic system, whether or no, by making a new paleontologic law to suit the case as follows: ‘‘ When considered in connection with the surround- ing fauna of the Tucumearri area, the Schloenbachia found there indicates that in America the genus appeared near the end of the Jurassic epoch, a fact constantly indicated for many other fossil forms which appeared sooner in America than in Europe.” t To demonstrate the last proposition he asserts that he§ (Marcon), “ received a very remarkable confirmation ” of “his” opinion concerning “the appearance of the Jurassic genus Schlenbachia during the Jurassie epoch in America,” and says that Aguilera gives a description, with figure, of a Schleenbachia “found among a whole Jurassic fauna” at Catorce. By consulting the work referred tol it is seen that no such statement is made, and that the Mexican Schloenbachia is not reported with the other Jurassie fossils described by Aguilera, but is the only fossil found in the limestone of the upper part of the upper division of their section, and is referred by him to the upper part of the Lower Cretaceous. q The fact that he, himself, had originally given the Ammon- ite a Cretaceous position—an insurmountable obstacle to its alleged Jurassic occurrence in New Mexico—was further remedied as follows: Mr. Dumble found a specimen of Ammonites leonensis at Kent** in the same bed with the cog- nate of G. pitchert, which Marcou coniessestt is his alleged * American Geologist, August, 1894, p. 102. t hs The Jura of Texas,” by Jules Marcou,—Proce. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xxvii, : t Same publication as above, p. 155. § Proe Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., p. 155. || Boletin de la Commission de Mexico, Num. 1, pp. 49 and 50 (Mexico, 1895). {| Ibid., p.49. ** Previously cited, p. 462.4+ ‘“ The Jura of Texas,” p. 153. Am. Jour. Sc1.—Fourts Series, Vou. 1V, No. 24.—Dec., 1897. 32 a Se ee 464 R. T. Hill—The alleged Jurassic of Texas. Jurassic Gryphea dilatata of the Tucumearri region. To off- set this additional evidence of the Cretaceous age of the beds, Mr. Marcou, after showing to his own satisfaction that all the common species collected by Mr. Dumble from these upper- most beds of the Comanche Series are “ Jurassic,” erroneously says that the “ Ammonites leonensis Conrad is not that species at all, but the Ammonites shumardu Marcou. “It is true that I placed this species in the Cretaceous of Texas, but I was impressed by its form. ... If the specimen had come to me with a Gryphea tucumcarri, I should not have hesitated to refer it to the Jurassic of Texas. But it came to my hands collected by a person not a geologist, who put together all the fossils obtained during a military march through Texas.” It is needless to say that the two species of Ammonites cited are quite distinct. Such is an example of how he, himself, has by misquotation changed the geologic age of an Ammonite and thus gained support for his erroneous conclusions—an act identical with that which he has so skillfully tried to fix on me in the case of A. walcottz. Another unfounded accusation is his assertion that I have misquoted him when I spoke of the Comet Creek bed “as being composed of a single bed of limestone five feet thick,” which he alleges is “ another example of want of exactness in quotation in Mr. Hill” (p. 205). The alleged quotation on my part is from the first two of the extracts from his writings previously given, wherein he distinctly says “ This limestone” (not limestones) ‘‘is five feet thick.” On the other hand, the only passage of Marcou’s writings seen by me in which this formation is spoken of as more: than one bed, is in Blake’s publication of his (Marcou’s) notes—the same which he has hitherto repudiated with such vehemence but which he now, for the first time in forty years, cites as authority as already noted. But in doing this he even misquotes these notes, which distinctly say that there are three or four of these beds, not five as Professor Marcou now alleges they state (p. 204). It is likewise apparent that Marcou in his various writings has himself variously given a thickness of “2,5” and from “to 50” feet to these beds. The truth of the matter, as shown by Mr. Vaughan in his recent paper,* is that they are probably only two feet thick. Such are some of the examples of Professor Marcou’s per- verted charges wherein he states that I, who, according to his own statement, am the only man in American science who has endeavored to treat him with courtesy and give his writings due credit, and who has tried to record facts truthfully, have misquoted and corrupted paleontologic facts with a motive. * This Journal, July, 1897. RL. T. Hill—The alleged Jurassic of Texas. 465 After perusing the foregoing pages one cannot but wonder why Professor Marcou should wrongfully accuse others of maliciously misquoting. Let the reader put side by side the two first abstracts we have given from his writings concerning the Comet Creek Gryphea on pp. 17-18. The second of these was published by him asa verbatim copy* of the first, yet in this alleged verbatim copy he has changed the name of every species mentioned in the original and made other addi- tions, and this, too, without one word of explanation. These instances together with the misquotations elsewhere given of Aguilera the Mexican Geologist, of himself and myself, are but a few of the many examples which could be given showing that he has certainly exceeded the ordinary limits of toleration in such practices, in which I have never, intentionally, indulged in, as he charges. In the paper in the September number of this Journal, Professor Marcon also accuses Messrs. Hall, Roemer, Shumard, Gabb, Charles A. White, Hill, Cragin and Stanton of confus- ing species, and I can but consider it an honor that he should have selected my head, above all these distinguished authori- ties, upon which to pour the last and most concentrated dregs » of his wrath. His many papers are bristling with similar assaults devoted to denouncing the scientific value of the work of James D. Dana, James Hall, J. S. Newberry, I’. B. Meek, W. P. Blake, T. A. Conrad, J. D. Whitney, C. A. White, J. J. Stevenson, with side notes on nearly every American geologist of the past fifty years, against whom asa whole he has also launched certain epithets. it can be readily seen that his assaults upon me are felt less keenly when one considers the distinguished company with which I have been placed by him. This will be made still more apparent by the following brief résumé of the controversy which he has so long con- ducted. The invalidity of Professor Marcou’s conclusions concern- ing the Jurassic age of the New Mexican locality was early shown in many papers by the principal American geologists, of the decade of 1855-1865, among whom were W. P. Blake, B. F. Shumard, J. 8. Newberry, F. B. Meek, T. A. Conrad, James Hall, James D. Dana, Lesquereux and others. The whole substance of the controversy and proof of the inaccu- racy of Professor Mareou’s conclusions, have been ably set forth by Professor Dana in this Journal for November, 1858, p- 323, and January, 1859, pp. 1387-141. This was the origi- nal Marcou controversy, which died out in the year 1867. The later and detailed studies in the field by the present school of geologists, have confirmed by stratigraphic research that these * See Geology of North America, p. 7. a ~~. tj - 466 LR. T. Hill—The alleged Jurassic of Texas. older writers were correct in their affirmation of the Creta- ceous age of the alleged Jurassic beds of New Mexico. | From 1867 to 1884 there was a cessation in the flow of pub- lication from Professor Marcou’s fertile pen, which did not resume until after the appearance of the writer’s first papers on the geology of the Texas region, in 1886, after I had en- deavored to give a résumé of Marcou’s work in Oklahoma and New Mexico.* In attempting to give him credit, however, I apparently started Professor Marcou’s pen again—which he resumed, after seventeen years of silence during which his history was a blank to me. Since this time his contributions have been as frequent and pointed as before. Time does not permit me to enumerate or refer to all of Professor Marcou’s publications. They are all marked by similar statements to those given in the article which has brought forth this paper, only differing in the violence of the personalities indulged in. His publications have been particularly severe in their de- nunciation of all American geologists. Professor James D. Dana, who has always been considered as the embodiment of honor and integrity, is accused of “ distorting and misrepre- senting facts,”+} of falsifying titles of his (Mare cou’s) papers,’’§ — OL perseenting| and waging war upon him,” of having ‘filled up his Journal, since he is geological editor, with papers of controversial nature, without a single phcoeeen made in the field or museums” and charged with persistent and blind resistance against progress,” “ opposition @ outrance and his parti pris toignore a system.” He also states that Dana and Hall have not excuses of distance to travel over or want of facili- ties and opportunities to create their colossal error.” “ His (Dana’s) efforts during 44 years have been directed to keeping life in wrong conclusions and in the opposite direction of the truth,’ and together with James Hall “has misled those who followed their views by various paleontological de- terminations and false classification.”“ He accuses Professor I. b. Meek—the ideal of exactness in paleontologic method—of ‘mixing strata together without regard to stratigraphy, lithol- ogy, or even paleontology,” and states that Professor J. J. Stevenson makes use of language “such as it is impossible even to quote it.”** His assaults upon American geologists reached their climax, however, in his paper on ‘ American Geological Classification . * Bull. 52, U. 8. Geological Survey. + “A Reply to the Criticisms of James D. Dana,” by Jules Marcou, Zurich, 1859. +t Geology of North America, Zurich, 1858, p. 7. § American Geological Classification, by Jules Marcou, Cambridge, 1888, p. 9. || Ibid., pp. 22, 23. “| Ubid.,"p. 39. ** American Geologist, Sept., 1889, p. 156. LL. TT. Hill—The alleged Jurassic of Texas. 467 and Nomenclature,” published at Cambridge, 1888. This is a bitter attack upon nearly every American geologist of the past half century, all of whom except myself, of whom Mr. Mareou was then fulsome in his praise (for reasons elsewhere explained), are accused of outrageous personal conduct, such as “ suppress- ing facts,” “falsifying,” ‘ misquoting,” “ incompetent obser- vations,” etc., etc., and speaks of “the constant and utmost opposition” of Messrs. James Hall, T. Sterry Hunt, W. E. Logan, James D. Dana, the two Professors Rogers, and Pro- fessor C. H. Hitchcock, and to this list he adds in his own handwriting on page 8 of the copy sent to me, the name of Charles D. Walcott. Also, on page 11, he accuses Professor Dana “in accordance with his usual practice of giving credit to those to whom it does not belong, and pretending that the Lower Silurian is called Champlain by Mather.’ On page 17 he accuses Mr. Walcott of having been “ misled by the erron- eous notions constantly and perversely put forward by Mr. Dana.” I could quote from his various writings many other such denunciations, chiefly directed at Professor Dana as the head and leader of American geologists, just as he now assails me because I have been a pioneer in the late studies of the Meso- zoic in the Texas region. I could fill a volume with similar attacks upon other men of science, such as his accusations of a like kind against Newberry, Hall, Stevenson and others. It was owing to the error Of his deductions, his habit of absorb- ing tq his own credit every new discovery in the Southwest, and printing imaginary geological maps of the United States, of persistently misquoting other writers, of accusing every one of paleontologic or stratigraphic incompetency, and of indulg- ing in personal abuse and vituperation, that Professor Dana at one time demanded that the Boston Society of Natural His- tory should investigate him, and in later years ignored him entirely. So far as [ am aware, his conclusions on the subjects discussed are not accepted by a single living geologist in this country or abroad, and he has hunled criticisms, similar to those now made against me, at the head of every prominent American geologist who has lived since he first came to this country. During the first few years of my studies I was inclined to believe that he might have been right in his conclusions concerning the Juras- sic age of the beds of the Tucumearri region, and committed this opinion to print. So long as I leaned to his opinions he was fulsome in his praise, bestowing upon me effusive compli- ments as to my ability, ete., etc., and even writing amwong others of a similar flattering nature, the following notice* of * Jura Neocomian and Chalk of Arkansas.—Marcou. From the American Geologist, December, 1889, pp. 366-367. ~~ aan ea ie Oe 468 RL. T. Hill—The alleged Jurassic of Texas. the same Arkansas Report which, in the September number of this Journal, he so severely condemns : “On the whole, Volume II of the Arkansas geological report for 1888 is a most creditable work, which reflects honor not only on its author, Professor Robert T. Hill, of the Uni- versity of Texas, by far the best practical geologist who has ever studied Southern Arkansas and Texas, but also on Pro- fessor John C. Branner, the state geologist. The State of Arkansas must be complimented to have secured the services of such able observers.” In the American Geologist for September, 1889, p. 156, he also gives me credit as being “The only American Geologist who has quoted my Mesozoic fossils of Texas.”* Later, how- ever, after my second visit to Tucumearri Mesa, where and when I was the first to discover and there to announce the well-developed Cretaceous fauna identical with that of the uppermost Lower Cretaceous beds of Denison, Texas, he immediately directed his epithets at me, in articles elsewhere cited, in the American Geologist, the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, Science, and this Journal, each attack being proportionately more personal and bitter, as increasing research more and more conclusively demonstrated the Cretaceous age of his New Mexican “ Jurassic,” and its stratigraphic position above the beds of Comet Creek which he, himself, had called Cretaceous. I will admit that in the earlier years of my researches, when my papersjwere largely written in the field away from libraries, I have made occasional mistakes, (and who has not ?) some of which are typographic, others slips of the pen, and others merely mistakes, but these papers have always been conscien- tiously written with a desire to state the truth, and in every instance have been of material advancement to our knowledge of the stratigraphy of the Texas region, and Mr. Marcou’s insinuation, ‘“‘not to use a stronger word,” that I have endeav- ored to corrupt the record is false. No amount of abuse, mis- representation or misquotation on the part of Professor Marcou can alter the essential facts of research, nor cover up his own misstatement of fact and imperfect and misleading quotations. Even though he should succeed in his attempts to prove me untruthful and a defacer of the geologic record—which he cannot do—this would in no way excuse him for distorting and imperfectly quoting every new scientific discovery in order to uphold an erroneous and untenable deduction, founded on self- confessed incomplete exploration. * In a subsequent paper in the American Geologist for August, 1894, p. 98, in which he makes his first change of front towards me, it is interesting to note that his principal unspecified allegation against me is that I do ‘‘ not always give credit where credit is due.” R. T. Hill—The alleged Jurassic of Texas. 469 Finally, concerning his American geologic work, it can be said now, as was truthfully said by Professor Dana many years ago, that* “We cannot see, therefore, that Mr. Marcou’s claims as a discoverer are in any one case sustained, or that his merits are in any respect enhanced by his American researches, and we certainly should not go to him for an exposition of Ameri- ean geolovy.”; .. . “We cannot therefore think’ that his former reviewers and opponents deserve, because they differ from him, either to have their names expunged from American geological history, or thrown into discredit; nor do we believe that their reputations will seriously suffer from our ambitious Rocky Mountein explorer.{t . . . Whoever may identify true Permian, true Triassic or true Jurassic strata will not have borrowed from Mr. Marcou and can owe him no credit.’’§ *This Journal, Nov. 1858, and January 1859. + Ibid., January 1859, p. 139. t Ibid., November 1858, p. 333. § Ibid., November 1858, p. 331. | 470 Scientific Intelligence. SCTE N PIBTC INTE ETS TNs I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. On Thermal Phenomena attending Change in Rotatory Power.—It is well known that certain carbohydrates, at the moment of solution in water, show an abnormal circular polari- zation; and that optical stability in such solutions, at ordinary temperatures, is attained only very slowly. This phenomenon, which was first observed in dextrose and milk sugar, was called birotation, since it was believed that the circular polarization ot the freshly prepared solution was twice that of the rotation finally reached. Subsequent investigations, however, have shown that even in these cases the ratio of the rotations is never exactly 2:1, and further, that dextrose and milk sugar are capable of exist- ing transitorily in solution in more than two optical conditions; and this, coupled with the fact that the rotatory power of a freshly made solution of maltose is actually less than its subsequent value, has caused the term multi-rotation to be adopted as preferable. Now it has been observed that when a substance capable of show- ing this property is originally produced by the hydrolysis of another carbohydrate of greater molecular complexity, the phenomenon of multi-rotation also appears. And Brown and PicKERING have sought to ascertain whether this change in optical properties is attended by any corresponding heat change. Three optically different forms of dextrose have been described by Tanret. His a-dextrose is the so-called birotatory substance, 8-dextrose being the ordinary optically stable form. His y-dex- trose, produced by heating amorphous dextrose to 100°-110°, has. an abnormally low rotation when freshly dissolved. Since dex- trose is produced by hydrolysis in the a form, the authors deter- mined the heat change when this form was converted into B by adding 0°01 per cent of soda solution, the operation being con- ducted in a suitable calorimeter, and a check determination being made by using the dextrose in a second experiment, already in the @ form. The corrected mean of four values is given as 0°588 calory per gram of substance. Plotting the heat changes. thus obtained after various intervals of time and comparing the curve with that given by Parcus and Tollens for the rate of change of rotatory power, it appears that, while the heat curve is somewhat flatter, the general character of the two curves is the same. ‘Thus making it probable that ‘‘the special physical or chemical changes which determine the gradual alteration or specific rotation in freshly prepared dextrose solutions proceed pari passu with the heat evolution,” and therefore “that this evolution is the result of the changes in question.”” Similar experiments were made with maltose, with levulose and with milk sugar. No change of temperature was detected with the first, while levulose gave —4°64 calories per gram and milk sugar Chemistry and Physics. 471 -+-0'19 calories per gram. As to the cause of multi-rotation, the authors conclude that it is probably “an effect of chemical change brought about by the interaction of sugar and its solvent.”—/. Chem. Soc., 1xxi, 756-783, July, 1897. G. F. B. 2. On the Chemical Action of Electrical Oscillations.—The chemical action of an oscillating electric field upon various sub- stances has been studied by Dr HeEmptinne. His apparatus, which was a modification of that of Lecher, consisted of a pair of plate condensers, one side of each being connected with a Wimshurst machine, driven at a constant speed by a gas motor, an adjustable spark gap being placed between the two plates. The other coatings were connected to two wires of considerable length, terminating in two plates facing each other. Substances placed in the space between these plates are subjected to the influence of the oscillating discharge of the condensers, whose frequency and pressure may be varied at will. If a wire be placed across the two conductors at certain points, an illuminated vacuum tube between the plates becomes dark; while on shifting this wire along, points are reached at intervals where the tube again glows. The distances between these points, as Wiedemann and Ebert have shown, represent the wave length of the oscilla- tion. When very high pressure was needed the author used a Tesla apparatus, the current of an alternating machine being transformed up one hundred fold. The secondary of this trans- former was connected to a condenser, and, through a spark gap, with the primary of an induction coil; thus giving in the secon- dary of this coil, whose terminals ended in two plates opposite to one another, an oscillating discharge of high frequency and pressure. The gas to be examined was contained in a glass cylinder 4™ broad and 12-13™ long, having taps at its ends, the lower one terminating in a smaller and graduated tube dipping under mercury; so that the pressure in the cylinder was less than that of the atmosphere. It was observed that n6é action took place within the tube unless it became luminous. Moreover two tubes may screen each other; and if the pressure of the gas in the tubes be slightly different, then when they are placed between the plates and the discharge is so adjusted that only one glows, a slight increase of pressure in this tube causes it to become dark while the other one glows and is decomposed. ‘The substances exposed to the action of the discharge were ammonia, carbon disul- phide, glycerin, oxalic acid and calcium carbonate. It appeared that the speed of decomposition increased with increasing pressure, these pressures being 5, 15 and 50™™; a maximum being reached soon after the decomposition began and then decreased. Moreover this speed is decidedly influenced by the energy of the discharge. The amount of the ammonia eventually decomposed varies with the pressure, being about 50 per cent at 49™™ and 95 per cent at 20"™, though the values obtained do not agree with the expression p, p3/p2 =, which theory gives for dissocia- tion by heat. Addition of nitrogen or hydrogen lowers the 472 : Scientific Intelligence. decomposition, the former less than the latter. Mixed nitrogen and hydrogen when exposed to electric oscillations unite to the extent of 3 or 4 per cent, the result being apparently independent of the pressure. Carbon disulphide suffers decomposition in the oscillating field, the speed corresponding closely to the equation dx/di=k (a—«x). Glycerin and oxalic acid show an increase of vapor-pressure in the oscillating field, but calcium carbonate appears unaffected.—Zezischr. phys. Chem., xxii, 360- 372, April, 1897. G. F. B. 38. On the Lxplosion of Chlorine Peroxide with Carbon Mon- oxide.—Kxperiments made a year or more ago by Drxon showed that when a mixture of well-dried carbon monoxide with other burning gases, such as cyanogen or carbon disulphide, was exploded, the carbon monoxide was not completely burned although there was more than enough oxygen for the combustion of both gases and the flame traversed the entire mixture. A sug- gestion of L. Meyer, that this result was due to the high stability of the oxygen molecule, was disproved by exploding a mixture of well-dried carbon monoxide, oxygen and ozone; which showed that a mixture containing 86 per cent of carbon monoxide and 8 per cent of ozone cannot be fired by a powerful electric spark. Moreover cyanogen is entirely burned to carbon dioxide when exploded with an excess of oxygen. And Smithells, in his flame separator, found that in the inner cone cyanogen is burned to carbon monoxide, this latter being burned completely in dried air when the outer and inner cones are close together, but being extinguished when they are considerably separated. Since it ap- pears, therefore, that carbon monoxide is readily oxidizable when first formed, the author in conjunction with RussELy has exam- ined the question whether oxygen when freshly produced would show the same activity toward carbon monoxide. For this pur- _ pose they exploded a well-dried mixture of carbon monoxide and chlorine peroxide. Since dry chlorine peroxide yields chlorine and oxygen when detonated, even with an inert gas, it 1s evident when it is fired in presence of carbon monoxide, this latter gas finds itself intimately mixed with highly heated “ nascent” oxy- gen. ‘The chlorine peroxide was prepared by the action of sul- phuric acid diluted one-half with water, upon finely divided potassium chlorate, on a water bath; this gas as well as the car- bon monoxide being allowed to pass simultaneously into a spec- ially constructed eudiometer containing phosphoric oxide. The mixture was composed of 29 per cent of chlorine peroxide, 60 per cent of carbon monoxide and 11 per cent of oxygen. After dry- ing for six days, a spark was passed and a pale blue flame tra- versed the tube. Analysis showed that the residue contained 29 per cent of carbon monoxide, nearly 50 per cent having remained unburned. After decanting the gas and allowing it to stand over potash solution, a spark exploded it violently. A second experiment resulted similarly. ‘The authors therefore do not find “that oxygen just liberated from a compound is more active than Chemistry and Physics. 473 ordinary oxygen in attracting carbon monoxide at a high tempera- ture.’—J. Chem. Soc., |xxi, 605-7, June, 1897. G. F, B. 4, On the Absorption of Nitrogen by Carbon compounds under the influence of the Silent Hlectric Discharge.—Experiments have been made by Brerruexot in further elucidation of the phenom- ena which result when nitrogen is absorbed by benzene and simi- lar bodies under the influence of the silent electric discharge. He finds that the rate of absorption is more rapid the more frequent the vibrations of the interrupter, a Marcel—Deprez contact-breaker giving better results than the Foucault interrupter even with or without specially high frequency. In the case of benzene he finds the maximum quantity of nitrogen absorbed is about 12 per cent of the mass of the benzene, the absorption being complete in presence of an excess of liquid. If the nitrogen be atmospheric, the absorption is not complete, though the residue is smaller than the quantity of argon present in the air, since a portion of the argon is absorbed. When the absorption is complete the ratio of benzene to nitrogen is (C,H,),:N,. The product in its em- pirical composition corresponds with diphenylphenylenediamine, and shows many properties common to diamines of this class, mixed with condensation products. When exposed to air or oxygen it readily oxidizes, though without setting free nitro- gen; and when treated with hydrochloric acid yields salts the bases of which have odors recalling those of quinoline and the hydro- pyridines. When heated this hydrochloric acid product yields ammonium chloride. The original product when heated by itself gives off large quantities of ammonia, together with benzene, water (resulting trom oxidation in the air), a:trace of aniline and a bituminous liquid containing nitrogen. Heated in absence of air, it yields ammonia but no free nitrogen. When carbon disul- phide is employed, the absorption is more rapid and is complete if the disulphide be in excess. The maximum quantity absorbed is 11°7 per cent of the mass of the bisulphide, the ratio being (CS,),:.N, the same as with benzene. The product oxidizes in presence of oxygen, no nitrogen being set free. When heated out of contact with the air, some nitrogen is evolved, the larger part remaining in combination with the products of condensation, Hence these products are more stable than those formed by argon or helium. Thiophene under similar conditions absorbs about 8°6 per cent of its weight of nitrogen, the ratio in this case being (C,SH,),: N.—C. &., exxiv, 528-532, March, 1897. G. F. B. 5. Manual of Qualitative Analysis. By the late Dr. C. Rz- miegius Fresenius. Authorized Translation by Horace L. WE ts, M.A. New Edition, thoroughly revised, from the Sixteenth Ger- man Hdition, 8vo, pp. xvili, 748. New York, 1897 (John Wiley & Sons).—The Manuals of Fresenius have stood first in the world among books treating of Analytical Chemistry tor nearly fifty years. Ffrom the notes on Qualitative Analysis, given to the press in 1841 while he was yet a student at Bonn, down to the Paes Ow j 474 Scientific Intelligence. sixteenth edition of this admirable work issued as late as 1895, the author devoted himself untiringly to its improvement, never admitting anything into it without personal verification. It is now fourteen years since the last American edition was pub- - lished; and since then two thoroughly revised German editions have appeared. By a piece of good fortune Professor Wells was induced to undertake the translation of the book for a new American edition, and good evidence of the accurate and pains- taking care with which he has done bis work is to be found throughout its pages. While following the original closely and therefore retaining the general form which has given to this Manual its wide reputation, the translator has been obliged to rewrite a large part of the previous edition and to have the whole work reset. In its present form consequently it represents the most accurate methods and the most recent results in qualita- tive analysis, especially in the chemistry of the rarer elements and the less commonly occurring compounds. No distinction, we notice, is made between the alkaloid termination and that of the glucoside ; morphin and salicin terminating alike in im. The book will be warmly welcomed by American analysts not only for the great excellence of the original but also for the faithful- ness with which it has been put into its English form. 4G. F. B. 6. Zhe delay in spark discharges.—E. Warstre concludes from his researches that in the ordinary spark discharge the air changes from a very good insulator into a relatively good con- ductor. In the delay period there is formed, under the influence of the electrostatic force, a very weak invisible electrical current which at the end of the delay period goes over into a.visible spark discharge. The delay period continues a longer or shorter time according to the conditions of the electrode; whether they are moist or dry, whether they are under the influence of radia- tions (ultra-violet radiations— X-ray radiations) or not.— Wied. Ann., No. 11, 1897, pp 385-395. : BIB 7. Photoelectric relations of Fluorspar and of Selenium.— Shortly after Hertz had discovered that ultra-violet light lowered the spark potential, E. Wiedemann and H. Ebert. showed that this working of light was limited to the cathode. In regard to this phenomenon Prof. J. J. Thomson quotes a hypothesis of Helmholtz that different substances may possess the power of attracting electricity with different intensities—for instance, if a metal draws to itself positive electricity stronger than the surrounding dielectric does then the metal strives to charge itself positively. If the conduc- tor is surrounded by air in its normal condition then it cannot charge itself, since no electricity can escape. All of these condi- tions are changed when the conductors are subjected to ultra- violet rays. Then enter the following: 1, separation of metallic particles from the conductors; 2, chemical changes in the gas in the neighborhood of the conductor, which break up the gas in such a manner thatit can take a charge. According to the above Chemistry and Physics. 475 hypothesis Professor J. J. Thomson explains why metals which charge positively the strongest, also have the greatest sympathy for positive electricity and destroy negative charges to the greatest extent. It has been known that many spots on cubes of fluorspar become negatively charged by light. These, according to the above hypothesis, must possess a greater attraction for negative electricity than for positive, and it would be expected that under the influence of light a positive charge on them would be dissi- pated. G. C. Scumipt has undertaken a research to settle this point and he concludes that fluorspar always charges itself posi- tively at the corners of the crystal and especially on fresh cleavages, and always negatively in the middle. At these places, which are strongest electrified positively in light, the negative electricity is the most quickly dissipated. The positions on fluorspar which are negatively electrified by light are also deprived of negative electricity. Selenium behaves in a similar manner, and the phenomena that bodies charge themselves under the influence of light and dissipate negative electricity are separate phenomena, which are not so closely related as has been supposed. The theory supported by Prof. J. J. Thomson, on the working of light on non-electrified and on negatively charged bodies, is not con- firmed by this investigation.— Wied. Ann., No. 11, 407-414. Syd 8. Ona magnetic method of showing metallic tron.— William Duane has shown that the damping effect of a steady magnetic field on oscillating bodies is more delicate than any chemical analysis for the detection of traces of iron. He has extended his investigation to the effect of rotating magnetic fields and finds that in this case the method is even more sensitive that that formerly employed with the steady field.— Wied. Ann., No. 11, 1897, p. 543. Jah Es 9. On the spectra of certain stars.—A series of observations have been carried on at Potsdam by VoceEx and Witsine having as their object the classification according to their spectra of stars falling in the first spectral class. In the case of one hundred stars the presence of cleveite gas in their atmosphere could be established (Class Id); they formed a fourth part of all the stars of Class I which were observed.— Sittzungsberichte d. K. Preuss. Akad. der Wiss., Berlin, Oct. 21. 10. On the structure of the Cathode Light and the nature of the Lenard Rays.—GoupsteEin shows that the so-called third layer of the cathode light consists of rays in straight lines: which have their origin not on the surface of the cathode itself but from the rays of the second layer. The author explains the Lenard rays as due to diffusely reflected cathode rays.—Sitzberichte d. KK. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, Oct. 21. 11. A new Nicol Prism.—It is announced that C. Leiss has de- vised a new form of prism of Iceland spar and glass which per- mits of a saving of 50 per cent in the material.—Sitz. d. K. Akad., Berlin, Oct. 21. 476 Screntijic Intelligence. Il. GroLtogy AND NATURAL HISTORY. 1. Observations on Baffintland.—Dr. Roprert Butt, F.R.S., of the Geological Survey of Canada, has recently returned from a five months trip into the northern regions. Having proceeded by the Dominion Government S. 8. Diana to Hudson Strait, he took a yacht and small boat from there, and made a topographical and geological survey of about 300 miles of the southern coast of Baffinland. From an account in the “ Ottawa Citizen” of Octo- ber 27th we extract the following : “The northern side of Hudson Strait is the southern coast of Baffinland, which is the third largest island in the world, being 1,100 miles in length. The island of Greenland and the island of Australia alone exceed it in length. Hudson Strait is about 500 miles in length, and averages about 100 miles in width. Big Island, which lies near the north side, is 30 miles long and about 20 miles wide. Both shores of the strait are mountainous, and destitute of trees, being beyond the limits of the northern forests. The land along the western half of the south shore is higher and bolder than any other part of these coasts, and rises to a height of between 1,000 and 2,000 feet above the sea. The eastern half of the south coast is rather low, and is not broken by any moun- tain range. Dr. Bell says: ‘The whole north shore is rugged, but it rises more gradually as we go back from the sea, and attains a general elevation of 1,000 to 1,500 feet at a distance of 10 to 20 miles inland, although some parts are higher; between Frobisher Bay and the eastern part of Hudson Strait, Grinnell glacier, an extensive sheet of ice covers this range, and may be seen from a long distance on a clear day, although one may often pass through Hudson Strait without observing it. In the spring a cold, ice-laden current, flowing in from Davis Strait, passes up the north side of Hudson Strait, while the warmer water of Hud- son Bay flows out along the south shore. The north side has therefore a more Arctic character than the south.’” “On the 20th of July, when Dr. Bell commenced his explora- tion, the south shore was comparatively free, while the north side had a cold, forbidding appearance. The ‘ice-foot,’ 20 to 30 feet thick, still adhered to the rocks, all along, except in some of the inlets. At the outset of his journey Dr. Bell was fortunate enough to find an Eskimo who knew the coast and at the same time understood English pretty well, having picked it up at Spicer’s Trading Station, which had been maintained in this vicinity for several years. “The greater part of the coast to be explored was so completely unknown that it was not indicated on the charts even by a dotted line. Passing to the northwest of Big Island, the mainland soon became fringed with many islands, and a little farther on the whole coast seemed to be broken up into innumerable mountain- ous “islands of all sizes, from single hills of rock surrounded by water, to ranges several miles in length. This border of islands. it Geology and Natural History. 477 would be from 10 to 20 miles in width. Indeed, it was difficult to know when the mainland was finally reached. Even then, when the explorers ascended a mountain they could see many channels of the sea running in all directions among the high hills. Besides the channels and those separating the islands, a number of large fjords running far inland were discovered and explored. These “geographical conditions are due to the geological structure of a great development of crystalline rocks, their extensive ero- sion and partial submergence. Dr. Bell does not recall such a striking example of this kind of topography in any other part of the world. The northeast coast of Georgian Bay resembles it in some respects on a small scale, but here glaciation bas reduced the general surface to a low level and a comparatively even out- line.” He also explored inland at one point sufficiently far to locate two great lakes whose southern shores came within 50 or 60 miles of Hudson Strait. ‘The party returned to St. John, N. B., in the latter part of October. H. S. W. 2. International Geological Congress.—The International Geo- logical Congress for 1897 took place at St. Petersburg from Aug. 28th to Oct. 5th and in point of view of attendance was the most successful yet held, several hundred geologists from all parts of the world being present and taking part. The session was opened by the honorary president, the Grand-Duke Constantine, and those portions of each day which were devoted to delibera- tions were divided among the different fields of geologic activity. It cannot be said that any large result followed immediately from these conferences but great moderation and caution. were shown by the delegates and the exchange of views will undoubtedly be beneficial to geology in the future. The discussion of the ques- tion concerning stratigraphical nomenclature and classification resulted in a general understanding that it was yet too soon to decisively act upon this subject and in the meantime the histori- cal method is recommended as being the most proper ground. In petrography practically the same result was arrived at, the petrographers declining to commit themselves at present to any definite classification but expressing the view that the science had progressed far enough at present to warrant the introduction of some simple group names to be used by the field geologist, and in mapping. The Congress recommended the establishment of an international station for the investigation of the sea bottom. Dr. Hauchecorne and Dr. Beyschlag were placed in charge of the commission for the geological map of Europe. The invita- tion of the French geologists was accepted and Paris named as the place of meeting in 1900. A committee was appointed to report on the advisability and possibility of the establishment of an international journal devoted to the interests of petrography, especially for reviews. A number of interesting exhibits were shown, among them that by the Imperial Geological Survey of Japan being, perhaps, the one that attracted the most attention. an ee 478 Scientific Intelligence. A considerable number of American geologists were present, among them the venerable but active Prof. James Hall of Albany. The following were named vice-presidents: Prof..O. C. Marsh, Prof. B. K. Emerson, Mr. 8. F. Emmons, Dr. Persifor Fraser. The excursions both before and after the Congress were well attended and were managed with great ability and success con- sidering the obstacles which in many cases had to be overcome in moving so large a number of people from point to point. Here the influence of the Russian government was clearly perceptible. Before the Congress the excursions were in Finland, Esthonia and to the Urals, and after it the excursion presented a choice of routes to the Caucasus and then through to Asia Minor and on the Black Sea, including the Crimea. It lasted upwards of a month. For these excursions, the members of the Congress were indebted to the Russian and Finnish governments for free trans- portation. It would be well if in the future some plan could be devised by which these excursions could be strictly limited to those whom they are designed to benefit, and the alleged scientists, who join them tor the sake of obtaining the advantage of cheap travel, could be cut off. Ty, Webs 3. Mineral Resources of the United States, 1895, Davin T. Day, Chief of Division (17th Ann. Report of the U. 8. Geologi- cal Survey, Charles D. Walcott, Director). Washington, 1896.— The appearance of the seventeenth annual report of the United States Geological Survey has already been noticed in this Journal, but the two volumes on Mineral Resources of the United States in 1895 call for an additional remark. These volumes together form Part III of the complete report. This is the second time that the work on the mineral resources brought out by Mr. David T. Day has been published in this form. The first of the two volumes is devoted to the metallic products and coal, the second to non-metallic products. They contain a valuable series of papers by various authors, of which the fol- lowing may be mentioned among others: on iron ores by John Birkinbine; on copper and on lead by Charles Kirchhoff; on manganese, on coke and on petroleum by Joseph H. Weeks; on coal by Edward W. Parker; on stone by William C. Day. An interesting chapter by George F. Kunz is devoted to the preci- ous stones of the country. 4. A Descriptive Catalogue of Useful Fiber Plants of the World, including the structural and economic classifications of fibers; by CuartEes Ricnarps Doper, Special Agent, U. 8. Department Agriculture. Washington, 1897.—It is doubtful whether the general public realizes the extent to which investiga- tions bearing on economic development have been carried on, of late years, at the instance of the departments. The treatises are numerous and, for the most part, of excellent quality. The one before us is a case in point. Mr. Dodge has brought together in this convenient form a vast amount of information, “much of Geology and Natural History. 4:79 which he has apparently verified with his specimens in hand. The range of authorities laid under contribution is wide and has been thoroughly traversed by the author. We naturally ex- pected to see in his list WiErsnER’s Die Kohstoffe des Pflanzen- reiches, and Baron von Musuuer’s Extratropical Plants, but the other omissions which have come to notice are slight and unimportant. It seems a pity that this valuable compendium could not have been enriched by plates of the fibers themselves both in their commercial and ultimate reductions. But, even as it stands, it will set many a cultivator thinking in what way new fiber-plants can be obtained for experiment here. G. LG, Il. MIscELLANEOUS. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. National Academy of Sciences.—The autumn meeting of the National Academy of Sciences was held at Boston, beginning November 16. The following is a list of the papers accepted for reading: R. 8S. Woopwarp: The mass of the earth’s atmosphere. W. A. Rogers: On a final determination of the relative lengths of the Imperia yard and of the meter of the International Bureau. ©. Barus: The secular softening of cold hard steel. T. C. MENDENHALL: On the-elastic resistance of steel knife-edges. A. Hyatt: Evolution and migrations of land shells on Hawaiian islands. R. H. Cuirtenpen: The influence of borax and boric acid on nutrition. C. 8. Minot: Embryological observations. TRA REMSEN: On a new method of obtaining derivatives of guanidine; On the boiling points of mixtures of benzine and alcohols; On double halides containing organic bases A. A. MICHELSON and S. W. STRATTON: Results obtained with a new har- monic analyzer. K. S. Morse: On the ancient molluscan fauna of New England. C. R. Cross: On a new application of the wave siren. C. L. Norton: New apparatus for the comparison of thermometers and for the determinations of the heat of combustion of fuels. O. C MarsH: Recent observations on Huropean Dinosaurs; The Jurassic formation of the Atlantic coast—Supplement A. EK. VERRILL: Ovarian variations and cannibalistic selection as factors in the evolution of species; Notable instances of free variation nearly unchecked by natural selection; Some of the important factors in the evolution of the marine animals of coral-reef seas. S. C. CHANDLER: Comparison of the theory of the motion of the pole with recent observations. J. W. Poweut: An hypothesis to account for movements in the crust of the earth. S. WEIR MITCHELL and ALoNzo H. Stewart: A eaenibatiehn to the study of the action of the venom of the Crotalus adamanteus upon the blood. S. F. Emmons: Report on the international geological congress at St. Peters- burg in August, 1897. A lecture was delivered by JOHN TROWBRIDGE at the Jeffersonian Physical Labo- ratory, Cambridge, on electrical discharges, with exhibition of apparatus for obtaining high voltages. ' At the business meeting of the Academy. on Nov. 17, it was an- nounced that Miss Alice Bache Gould, daughter of the ‘late Benja- min Apthorp Gould, had presented a sum of $20,000, to be known Am. Jour. Sc1.—Fourta Suries, Vou. IV, No. 24.—Dec., 1897. 33 480 Scientific Intelligence. as the Benjamin Apthorp Gould fund, the proceeds of the fund to be used at the discretion of a board of three directors, two of whom must be members of the Academy, in furthering astronomi- cal research. This fund was later formally accepted by the Acad- emy; the following directors were appointed by Miss Gould: Prof. Lewis Boss of Albany, Dr. Seth C. Chandler of Cambridge and Prof. Asaph Hall of Washington. 2. Cordoba Photographs: Photographic Observations of Star- Clusters, from impressions made at the Argentine National Observatory, measured and computed by Brenszamin APTHORP GovuLp, Lynn, Mass., 1897.—The growing importance of astro- nomical photography is manifested in this extensive contribution to the subject, which completes the long array of results derived by Dr. Gould from his southern sojourn. It contains the results of the measurement of 177 plates, taken at Cordoba with an equatorial of 114 inches aperture, of which the original objective was that first devised and used by Rutherfurd, but having been broken on the journey to South America was replaced by a simi- lar one by the same maker, Mr. Fitz. The objects photographed were mainly star-clusters and richer portions of the southern hemisphere, 37 districts being included in the present discussion, and some 27 yet remain to be computed. In all, the positions of 9144 stars are furnished, referred to 78 centers by polar codrdi- nates; these are then converted into differences of right ascension and declination. For each plate four constants are determined by reference to known star-places, these being mainly derived from the Cordoba meridian observations. The four constants determined for each plate are the corrections to the rectangular coérdinates of the origin and to the adopted scale-value and position-angle zero. This method seems amply adequate for the degree of accuracy aimed at, and the work will doubtless prove a most valuable addition to our knowledge of the southern heavens. The volume is edited by Dr. 8. C. Chandler, to whom this duty was confided after the death of Dr. Gould, who most lamentably was not to see the finished work, though the computations and discussion had all but completely passed through his hands. W. L. E. 3. November Meteors, 1897.—A watch was kept at the Yale Observatory on the night of Saturday, Nov. 13, for 6 hours com- mencing at 11 p.m., by Mr. Brown (for one half of the time) and Mr. Smith, who exposed plates in the photographic apparatus. In all 30 meteors were seen during these hours, only 5 of which were conformable to the Leonid radiant. Only one of these fell in the area covered by the cameras and this was not bright enough to impress on the plates, which were much fogged by the moon, then only 44 days past full. The nights of Nov. 14,15 and 16 were completely overcast here at New Haven. Wises Es 4, Sixteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1894- 95; by J. W. Powe tt, Director, 326 pp., with 81 plates and 83 figures in the text. Washington, 1897.—The sixteenth annual Miscellaneous Intelligence. 481 report has been recently distributed to the public, and like those which have preceded, it gives evidence of the activity in this department and of the excellent work that is being done in the study of the many ethnological problems of this country. After the administrative report of the director, the following papers are given: Primitive Trephining in Peru, by M. A. Muniz and W. J. McGee; Cliff Ruins of Canyon de Chelly, Arizona, by C. Mindeleff; Day Symobols of the Maya Year, by Cyrus Thomas; Tusayan Snake Ceremonies, by J. W. Fewkes. 5. Mield Columbian Museum.—Recent publications of the Field Columbian Museum at Chicago include the following : Publication 16. Anthropological Series. Vol.i, No.1. Arch- eological Studies among the Ancient Cities of Mexico. Part II, Monuments of Chiapas, Oaxaca and the Valley of Mexico. By William H. Holmes. 338 pp. This is a valuable contribu- tion to a highly interesting subject. It is profusely illustrated, containing with other plates numerous panoramic views which the author has drawn with his well-known skill. Publications 19 and 20. Zodlogical Series. Vol. i, Nos. 6 and 7. List of Mammals from Somali-Land obtained by the Museum’s East African Expedition, and Remarks upon two Species of Deer of the Genus Cervus, from the Philippine Archipelago, by D. G. Elliot, F.R.S.E. 155 pp. (Plates.) Publication 21. Anthropological Series. Vol. ii, No. 1. Ob- servations on a Collection of Papuan Crania, by George A. Dor- sey. With Notes on Preservation and Decorative Features, by William H. Holmes. 49 pp. 6. The Americun Journal of Physiology.—Attention is called to the following circular, which gives the prospectus of a new journal in a field not yet occupied in this country. It deserves the hearty support of all interested in the department. The number of investigations in physiology and its allied sciences now made in this country is grown so large that the present means of publication are no longer sufficient. To meet the needs of investigators in physiology, physiological chemistry. physiological pharmacology, and certain other branches of biology, a special journal will be published, the first number appearing in January, 1898. The American Journal of Physiology, as the new publication will be called, will contain in each volume about five hundred pages, divided into parts or numbers, to be issued whenever material is received. It is expected that not more than one volume a year will be printed. The Journal will be edited for the American Physiological Society by H P. Bowditch, M.D., Boston; R. H. Chittenden, Ph.D, New Haven; W. H. Howell, M.D., Baltimore; Frederic S. Lee, Ph.D., New York; Jacques Loeb, M.D., Chicago; W. P. Lombard, M.D., Ann Arbor; and W. T. Porter, M.D., Boston. _ It is not to be supposed that a journal devoted solely to the publication of original researches in physiology will ever do more than pay for its paper and printing, and it is probable that some years must pass before the new enterprise will cease to be a financial burden on a small number of investigators. Yet the need of such a publication is undoubted. The aid of all friends of learning is asked until the Journal shall be established on a self-supporting basis. The sub- scription price, which is five dollars (£1 1s.; marks, 21; frances, 26) per volume, should be sent to W. T. Porter, M.ID., 688 Boylston Street, Boston, Mass. INDEX TO VOLUME IV A | Cathode light and the nature of the | Academy of Sciences, meeting at Bos- ton, 479. | Action at a distance, Drude, 390. Adams, G. I., extinct Felide, 145. Alabama geol. survey, 393. Allen, E. T., native iron in coal meas- | ures of Missouri, 99. | American Microscopical Society, tran- | sactions, 206. Association, American, meeting at | Detroit, 160, 200. British, meeting at Toronto, 324. Audition, limits of, Rayleigh, 69. | B Baffinland, observations, Bell, 476. Bancroft, W. D., The Phase Rule, 67. | Barbour, on Demonelix, 77. | Becker, G: F., fractional crystalliza- tion of rocks, 257. Bell, R., observations on Baffinland, - 476. Birds of Colorado, Cooke, 326. BoTany— Cyperacee, V,13; No. VI, 298. Plants, catalogue of useful fiber, Dodge, 478. Flora of North America, Synopti- cal, Vol. i, pt. I, 249; Britton and Brown, 250. Phznogamia, new system of ‘classi- fication, van Tieghem, 79. Branner, J. cx extension of the Ap- palachians across Mississippi, etc., | 301. Brazil, Bendegé Meteorite, 159. studies in, Holm, No. | Britton, N. L., Flora of N. United | States, 250. Brown, A., Flora of N. United | States, 250. | C Calculus for Engineers, Perry, 398. Canada geoil. survey, 78, 394. Cape of Good Hope, geological com- mission, 1896, 395. Lenard rays, 475. - rays, 71; Thomson, 391. Réntgen rays. See Ihe ae Aluminum and beryllium, separa- tion, Havens, 111. Chlorine peroxide, explosion with carbon monoxide, Dixon, 472. Combustion of organic substances in the wet way, Phelps, 372. Cyanogen, spark spectrum, Hart- ley, 3 Dalton’s law for solutions, Wilder- mann, 387. Double salts, Van’t Hoff, 68. Electric discharge, synthetic action of dark, Losanitsch and Jovi- tschitsch, 66. Electrical oscillations, action, Hemptinne, a71. Electr olytic solution and deposition of carbon, Coehn, 389. Electrosynthesis, Mister, ol. Fluorine, liquefaction, Moissan and Dewar, 318. Gaseous elements, specific heat of, Berthelot, 65. Helium, action of silent electric discharge on, Berthelot, 152. Inorganic compounds, structural isomerism, Sabanéeff, 66. Nitrates into cyanides, conversion of, Kerp, 390. Nitrogen, absorption by carbon com- pounds, Berthelot, 473. Petroleum, normal and iso-pentane from America, Young = and Thomas, 319. Potassium and sodium vapor, action in coloring their haloid salts, Giesel, 152. Properties of highly purified sub- stances, Shenstone, 317. Qualitative Analysis, Manual, Fre- senius and Wells, ATA, Silicon, spectrum of, de Graindné 388. chemical Sodium thiosulphate, titration with iodic acid, Walker, 235. Supersaturation and supercooling, Ostwald, 151. * This Index contains the general heads, BoTANY, CHEMISTRY (incl. chem. physics), GEOLOGY, MINERALS, OBITUARY, RocKs, and under each the titles of Articles referring thereto are men- tioned. INDEX. CHEMISTRY— Thermal phenomena attending change in rotatory power, Brown and Pickering, 470. Thermochemical method for deter- mining the equivalents of acids, Berthelot, 151. Viscosity of mixtures of miscible liquids, Thorpe and Rodger, 65. Cooke, W. W., Birds of Colorado, 326. Cooley, L. C., Physics, 390. Cordoba Photographs, Gould, 480. Cross, W., igneous rocks in Wyoming, 115. D Deemonelix, papers on, 77. Das Tierreich, Hartert, 250. Davenport, C. B., Experimental Morphology, 397. Derby, O. A., Bendegé meteorite, 159. Diamond, genesis and matrix of, Lewis and Bonney, 77. Dodge, C. R., catalogue of useful fiber plants, 478. E Eastman, C. R., Ctenacanthus spines from the Keokuk limestone of Iowa, 10; Tamiobatis vetustus, 85. Ebonite, transparency, Perrigot, 72. Electrical convection of dissolved sub- stances, Picton and Linder, 150. discharges in air, Trowbridge, 190. measurements by alternating cur- rents, Rowland, 429. tension at the poles of an induc- tion apparatus, Oberbeck, 391. Electricity and Magnetism, Webster, Lala tce Electrosynthesis, Mixter, 51. Elkin, W. L., November meteors, 480. Ethnology, 16th Ann. Report of Amer. Bureau of, 480. F Fairbanks, H. W., contact metamor- phism, 36; tin deposits at Temes- eal, So. California, 39. Field Columbian Museum, Publica- tions, 481. Flames, theory of singing, Gill, 177. Foote, H. W., bixbyite and topaz, 105 ; composition of ilmenite, 108. Fossil, see GEOLOGY. Frog’s Egg, Development, Morgan, 161. 483 Franklin, W.S., Light and Sound, 73. Frenzel, A., identity of chalcostibite, etc., from Bolivia, 27. Fresenius, C. R., Manual of Qualita- tive Analysis, 478. G Geological Congress, International, ATT. lectures, Harvard University, Reusch, 397. GEOLOGICAL REPORTS AND SURVEYS— Alabama, 398. Canada, Hoffmann, 78, 394. Cape of Good Hope, 1896, 395. Indiana, annual report, 1896, 394. United States, 17th Annual Report, etc., 155 ; recent publications, 392. GEOLOGY— Apodide, revision, Schuchert, 3295. Appalachians, extension across Mis- ' sissippi, etc., Branner, 357. Comanche series in Oklahoma and Kansas, Vaughan, 45. Crangopsis vermiformis of Ken- tucky, Ortmann, 283. Ctenacanthus spines from the Keo- kuk limestone of Iowa, Eastman, 10. Currituck Sound, Virginia and No. Carolina, Wieland, 76. Deposits from borings in the Nile Delta, Judd, 74. Dinosaurs, European, Marsh, 413. Eopaleozoic hot springs and siliceous odlite, Wieland, 262. Felide, extinct, Adams, 145. Florencia formation, Hershey, 90. Fossil insects of New Brunswick, Matthew, 394. Glacial observations in Greenland, Barton, 395. Glaciation in Greenland, Tarr, 325. Glaciers, Arctic, variation in length, Rabot, 399. Igneous rocks in Wyoming, Cross, 115 Jura and Neocomian of Arkansas, etc., Marcou, 197; 449. Jurassic of Texas, alleged, Hill, 449. Linuparus atavus of Dakota, Ort- mann, 290. Metamorphism, contact, Fairbanks, 36 Patagonia, geology of southern, Hatcher, 246, 327; large oysters, Ortmann, 355. - Peat in the Dismal Swamp, depth of, Wieland, 76. p. 484 INDEX. GEOLOGY— Pithecanthropus erectus, Man- ouvrier, 213. Pleistocene deposits of Chicago area, Leverett, 157. Popocatepetl and Ixtaccihuatl, ob- servations, Farrington, 326. Pre-glacial drainage in Michigan, Mudge, 383. Protoceratidz, principal characters, Marsh, 165. Pseudoscorpion, a new fossil, Gei- nitz, 158. Rocks, fractional crystallization, Becker, 257. Stylolites, Hopkins, 142. Tamiobatis vetustus, Eastman, 89. See also Rocks. Gill, H. V., theory of singing flames, IT Glaciers, see GEOLOGY. Gould, B. A., Cordoba Photographs, 480. Gray Herbarium of Harvard Univer- sity, Contributions, No. XI, Green- man, 249. H Hallock, underground temperatures, 76. Hatcher, J. B., geology of southern Patagonia, 246, 327. Havens, F. 8., aluminum and beryl- lium, separation, 111. Heat of combustion, Mendeléeff, 319. Heliostat, Mayer, 306. Hershey, O. H., Florencia formation, 90. Hill, R. T., alleged Jurassic of Texas, reply to Marcou, 449. Hoffmann, Canadian Mineralogy, 78. Holm, T., studies in the Cyperacee, We abaybe WAL Ae ic). Hopkins, T. C., stylolites, 142. Hovey, H. C., Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, 326. I Indiana, annual report of department of geology, 1896, 394. Induction coil, Wright, 324. J Jaggar, T. A., Jr., microsclerometer for determining the hardness of minerals, 399. Judd, J. W., deposits from borings in the Nile Delta, 74. K Kunz, G. F., sapphires from Montana, 417. L Lenard rays, des Coudres, 391. Leverett, F., Pleistocene features and deposits of the Chicago area, 157. Lewis, H. Carvill, Genesis of the Diamond, 77. Light and Sound, Nichols and Franklin, 73. Linck, G., relation between the geo- metric constants and the molecular weight of a crystal, 321. Lindgren, W., monazite from Idaho, 63 Lodge, O., influence of a magnetic field on radiation-frequency, 153. M MacCurdy, George Grant, translation of paper on Pithecanthropus erec- tus, 218. Magnetic field, influence on radiation- frequency, Lodge, 153. method of showing metallic iron, Duane, 475. Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, Hovey and Call, 326. Manouvrier, L., Pithecanthropus erec- tus, 218. Marcou, J., Jura and Neocomian of Arkansas, etc., 197; Reply to, R. T. Hill, 449. Marsh, O. C., principal characters of the Protoceratide, 165; observa- tions on European Dinosaurs, 413. Mayer, A. G., improved heliostat of A. M. Mayer, 306. Mercury resistance, pressure co-effi- cient of, Palmer, 1. Metals, capillary constants of molten, Siedentopf, 320. Meteorite, Bendegdé, Derby, 159. iron, new, Canada, 820. Meteors, November, 480. Microsclerometer for determining hardness of minerals, Jaggar, 399. Mineral Resources of the United States, Day, 478. MINERALS.— Altaite, British Columbia, 78. Bertrandite, Maine, 316. Bismu- tosmaltite, 159. Bixbyite, Utah, 105. INDEX. MINERALS— Cassiterite in California, 39, Chal- costibite, Bolivia, 31. Corundum, Montana, 417; 421, 424. Danaite, British Columbia, 78. Diamond, So. Africa, 77. Dicks- bergite, Sweden, 158. Fluorite, 474. Fuggerite, 159. Guejarite, 27. Hamlinite, Maine, 313. Ilmenite, composition, 108. native, Missouri, 99. Leonite, 158. Leucite, Wyoming, 115. Maltesite, Finland, 158. Mangan- Tron, andalusite, Sweden, 158. Mica pseudomorphs, 309. Monazite, idaho, 638. _Munkforssite, Swe- den, 159. Nitre, 118. Pyroxene pseudomorph, 309. Quirogite, 158. Sapphires, Montana, 417, 421, 424. Scheelite, Nova Scotia, ‘78. Stromeyerite, British Columbia, 78 Tetradymite, British Columbia, 78. Topaz, Utah, 107, Wolfsbergite, 27. Minerals, determination of hardness of, Jaggar, 399. Mixter, W. G., electrosynthesis, 51. Morgan, T. H., Development of the Frog’s Egg, 161. Morphology, Experimental, port, 397 Mudge, pre-glacial drainage in Michi- gan, 383 Daven- N Nichols, E. L., Light and Sound, 73. Nicol prism, new, Leiss, 475, Nile delta, deposits of, Judd, 74. 0 OBITUARY— Clark, A. G., 83. Des Cloizeaux, A., 164. Fresenius, C. R., 84. Mayer, A. M., 161. Meyer, V., 398. Sachs, J., 164. Orthoptera, North America, Scudder, 200. Ortmann, A. E., Crangopsis vermi- formis of Kentucky, 283 ; Linupa- rus atavus of Dakota, 290; large oysters of Patagonia, 355. 485 Oscillatory currents, Seiler, 71. discharge of a large accumulator, Trowbridge, 194. Ostwald, supersaturation, etc., 151. Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exacten Wis- senschaften, 398. Oysters of Patagonia, Ortmann, 355. P Palmer A. deF’., Jr., pressure coeffi- cient of mercury resistance, 1. Patagonia, geology of, 247, 327, 355. Penfield, S. L., identity of. chalco- stibite, etc., from Bolivia, 27; bixbyite and topaz, 105 ; composi- tion of ilmenite, 108 ; chemical com- position of hamlinite, 313. Perry, J., Calculus for Engineers, 398. Phase Rule, Bancroft, 67. Phelps I. K., combustion of organic substances in the wet way, 372. Photoelectric relations of fluorspar and selenium, Schmidt, 474. Physics, Cooley, 3890; Elements, Nichols and Franklin, 73. Physiology, American Journal of, 481. Pirsson, L. V., corundum-bearing rock from Montana, 421. Polarization capacity, Gordon, 71. Pratt, J. H., crystallography of Mon- tana sapphires, 424. Prinz, W., Hsquisses Sélénogiques IT., 396 Pseudomorphs from New York, Smyth, 309. R Rabot, C., variations in length of Arctic glaciers, 395. Rarified gases, behavior of, Ebert and Wiedeman, 391. Rayleigh, limits of audition, 69. Resistance of mercury, pressure-coef- ficient, Palmer, 1. Robb, W. L., solarization effects on Réntgen ray photographs, 243. Roéntgen rays, in surgery, 72. photographs, solarization effects, Robb, 248. See Cathode rays. Rowland, H. A., electrical measure- ment by alternating currents, 429. Rocks— Fractional crystallization of rocks, Becker, 257. 486 INDEX. » Rocks— U Corundum-bearing rock from Mon- é brea United States Geological Survey, pub- Leucite rocks in Wyoming, 115. Madupite, 129. Orendite, Wyoming, 128. Wyomingite, 120. S) Seudder, S. H., North American Orthoptera, 250. Secondary undulations registered on tide gauges, Denison, 82. Smyth, C. H. Jr., pseudomorphs from New York, 309. Spark discharges, Warburg, 474. Specific heat, determination by the method of mixtures, Wadsworth, 265. Stars, spectra of certain, Vogel and Wilsing, 475. South Africa Geological Society, vol. EE agi: T Temperatures, underground, at great depths, Hallock, 76. Tide gauge observations, 82. Tin deposits, Temescal, So. Califor- nia, 39. Trowbridge, J., electrical discharges in air, 190; oscillatory discharge of a large accumulator, 194. lications, 155, 392. V Van Tieghem, new system of classifi- cation of phzenogamia, 79. Van’t Hoff, Doppelsalzen, etc., 68. Vaughan, T. W., outlying areas of the Comanche series, 43. Ww Wadsworth, F. L. O., determination of specific heat by the method of mixtures, 265. Walker, C. F., titration of sodium thiosulphate with iodic.acid, 235. Wave-length, effect of pressure on, Humphreys, 392. Webster, A. G., Theory of Electricity _and Magnetism, 72. Wells, H. L., translation of Frese- nius’s Qualitative Analysis, 473. Wieland, G. R., Currituck Sound, Virginia and North Carolina, 76; depth of peat in the Dismal Swamp, 76; eopaleozoic hot springs and sil- iceous oblite, 262. Wright, L., Induction Coil in practi- cal work, 324. Z Zoological Bulletin, 83. Amer. Jour. Sei., Vol. IV, 1897. TAMIOBATIS VETUSTUS. Dorsal aspect of cranium, two-thirds natural size. by Dr. T. A. Jaggar, Jr. Plate |. From a photograph taken Plate Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. IV, 1897. Male skull of PROTOCERAS CELER, Marsh. Miocene. Three-fourths natural size. Plate Ill. Ce ee £ ate Shaan ee Male skull of PROTOCERAS CELER. Miocene. Three-fourths natural size. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. IV, 1897. ASE aes Plate. IV. a PIAA peas oh ROD eae Riese Male skull of PROTOCERAS CELER. Miocene. Three-fourths natural size. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. IV, 1897. Plate V. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. IV, 1897. Male skull of PROTOCERAS CELER. Three-fourths natural size. Miocene. Am. Jour, Sei, Voln IV, 1897. Plate VI. 1.—Male skull of PROTOCERAS CELER. Miocene. 2.—Female skull of PROTOCERAS coMPTUS, Marsh. Miocene. Three-fourths natural size. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. IV, 1897. | Plate VII. 1 and 2.—Female skull of CALops consors, Marsh. Miocene. 3 and 4.—Brain cast of PROTOCERAS CELER. Miocene. One-half natural size. a a Ne ie Se a ate tan aN Aeneas w ms by SE ey Plate VIII. Vol. IV, 1897. len Am. Jour. Sc Am. our Sein Vole eso, Plate IX. Plate Xl. Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. IV, 1897. SSS 1Ze. 1Z@. d natural si ir th ite Sp. One= ippui n. Sp. — Ostrea hatcher 1 Fig ize (copy). ls half natura -half natural s One-third natural size (copy). One One em. 2 dst al — Ostrea ph — Ostrea bourgeo 2 3 Fig. 4.— Ostrea patagonica d’Orb. Fig. FIG. Ama wiouinescie, Vol. IV shoo. Plate XII. THE MICROSCLEROMETER. ay. eR eu? Pe 4 gi SPA < -_ P RARE QUARTZ TWINS! Just arrived from Japan! 30 choice contact twins with twinning plane € (1122), similar to figure 11 on page 184 of Dana’s System, but without the modifications, and with crystals quite flat (like figure 12), crystals about three- tact twins of quartz wili make this little lot sell very rapidly at 50c. to $2 00. RARE ALEXANDER COUNTY, N. C, QUARTZ. From our collector, who has already spent over two months in North Carolina, visiting all of the most desir- able localities for us, we have received by far the finest lot we ever had of the famous Alexander County Quartz crystals. The crystals are mostly of the type ‘shown in fimure !7 on page 185 of Dana’s Svstem, though they often are much g pag d g y more complex, and at least five or six of them should be secured to show the different forms. Nearly all of them are perfectly clear and flawless, delicate, smoky crystals, with very brilliant faces; they range from three-quarter inch to 3 inches in length with diameter about one-third the length. Prices 10c. to $2.00. A suite of five best quality crystals (averaging about 1 and 14 inches in length) postpaid for $1.30. WONDERFUL FINDS OF AMETHYST. Our N. C. collector has been especially alert for fine Amethysts, and has visited: - numerous localities, has worked several and we have finally purchased outright the best locality we have ever heard of, and have already taken out Thousands of Beautiful Specimens, both single crystals and groups. We believe this is the most important find of Amethyst specimens ever made. The color is rich, the erystals well formed and of large sizes, every element is present which contributes to makes a specimen desirable, including the fact that none have previously been - in the market from this new locality in Iredell County, N. C. We also have a large lot of fine specimens from Macon County, N. C., and from Rabun County, Georgia, 10c. to $5,00. Specimens at 50c. to $2.50 will be acceptable additions to the very best collections. OTHER NORTH CAROLINA MINERALS. The loose terminated crystals of Green Cyanite secured by our collector con- tinue to please scientific collectors. But few fine crystals, consequently, remain: 50c. to $2.00. A few good, large size Columbite crystals are still in stock at 50c. to $2.50. The Iredell County Zircons, of which a new lot has just arrived, increase » large size, rare form, bright faces, in popularity as their merits become known low prices: 5c. to 50c. RARE CONNECTICUT MINERALS. An exchange with a near-by University brings us some good and rare minerals; several loose crystals of Monazite, several small but good Uraninite Crystals, a little lot of Columbite Crystals, 22 terminated Beryls, several richly colored Jolite specimens, etc. RARE COLORADO MINERALS. An exceptionally interesting little shipment from a Colorado collector enables us to offer good, small specimens of Crystallized Calaverite and Gold Pseudo- morphs after Calaverite; fine, large specimens of Sylvanite, also a few specimens of Altaite and the exceedingly rare Melonite ; we are also able to furnish good specimens of Johannite and a lot of good and large, loose crystals. of Selenite from a new Colorado locality. : - Many other recent additions ought to be mentioned, but space forbids. Quite a number of them are noted in our Fall Bulletin recently published, mailed free on application. 124 pp. ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE, 25c. in paper; 50c. in cloth. 44 pp. ILLUSTRATED PRICE:LISTS, 4c.; Bulletins and Circulars free. GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists, 64 East 12th St., New York City. quarters of an inch in size. The excessive rarity of con- ~ Rete Kar wag SOR er ee CON TEN ES Page Arr. XLII.—A Microsclerometer, for determining the Hard- ness of Minerals; by T. A. Jaccar, Jr. (With Plate AT Se ae oo 399 XLIII.—Recent a ea a on Kuropean Dinosaurs; by O. C> Masi OCS Be od Serr ea One 413 XLIV.—Sapphires from Denote. with special reference, to those from Yogo Gulch in Fergus County; by G. F. WONG es A ge XIV: Chundunbomine Rock hon Yogo Gulch, Montana; by AL.) Ve RIRSSON- oe FS ee ee Oe 421 XLVI.--Crystallography of the Montana Sapphires; by J. . EE PRAT oS ee UR aS ie ei ON ee rr XLVII.——Electrical Measurement by Aljernaiias Currents ; by H. A:ROWLAND S225 Os 2 XL VIUil.—tThe alleged Tue of Texas. A Reply to Pro- | fessor Jules Marcou; by wR. Hy 2 ee 449 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Thermal Phenomena attending Change in Rotatory 4 ; Power, BROWN and PICKERING, 470.—Chemical Action of Ilectrical Oscilla- tions, DE HEMPTINNE. 471.—Explosion of Chlorine Peroxide with Carbon Mon- oxide, Dixon, 472.—Absorption of Nitrogen by Carbon compounds under the influence of the silent Electric Discharge, BERTHELOT: Manual of Qualitative Analysis, C. R. FRESENIUS, 473.—Delay in spark discharges, E. WARBURG: Photoelectric relations of Fluorspar and of Selenium, G. C. ScHmiptT, 474.— - Magnetic method of showing metallic iron: Spectra of certain stars, VOGEL and — Witsine: Structure of the Cathode Light and the nature of the Lenard Rays, GOLDSTEIN: New Nicol Prism, 475. Geology and Natural History—Observations on Baffinland, R. BELL, 476.—Inter- national Geological Congress, 477.—Mineral Resources of the United States, 1895, D. T. Day: Descriptive Catalogue of Useful Fiber Plants of the World, including the structural and economic classifications of fibers, C. R. Dop@x, 478. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence— Natural Academy of Sciences, 479.—Cordoba Photographs, B. A. GouLD: November Meteors: Sixteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, J. W. POWELL, 480.—Field Columbian | Museum: American Journal of Physiology, 481. INDEX, 482. A MMUIURE Sarg e@® A nn, me SPP Agia asaan ren PAU MUUU RE age bby yey YY¥ET: LE PETE i” apapebe- uapr (mpr er pp mm. aa oui bil ype 11 wind tat O NEA ea art 1 reset - ook z ‘er Th ar ai Piney . Basa ites Wy le a, rl wage ti, . 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