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WY i VB ui oa Nei h ble ahd ate RB A] iV 4 Mee ba Tee 4 1 a ; N “yah int Nag WHEE Mah ha : a Ve | 5 ow me eS ~ A Uetencettl vy ae.’ I Fan d .- PGS gee eal ty Nhe» | iT] th wnat: ded Ay yess’ “ble Vevey eee ere rt bs ~~ Sian rah J’ Ss an hy PELT Rat: at eb ¥ evr WES OD ah 1 -" § a r HAT wal Nine oY : pacer etal City | en | TK Ugh bio ae al ye OTT e iz Avy p- SU be '~, a tow nag Of 7 pie Se ge SY on * hd ~ Spe eel hae =: oo tng Co ae = a | Sh 4 % S etry mince Mas mn iy “> road Lik | ||] Mut ‘hi ‘oti ec ee Ue pny - yw we ve w witty AM ST Rails wrk one OSS wicca ~ SOC earns : wi Desa Mie wy ve | Mad TTT Lat SNL Tans rH h | v) ’ a To , i v Mu ti Svurg!llunne ell eye. 1 Winn. Bids, : vO. f wah *¥i Me iy Wow Vy > MN ie Ge Pte Voy @r tere wee De NeW sean Da erate Wt ME oe ce ee ey \e wy : . ofatys Oy PO VL OLS ut is Ce Sen why . Ls Set er |e) kid SE) Aad ' oe | Lae repeeteneost™ arsine WMS DAT ete rer ww qyetetes , we Taam nhl Nt ail TT iy i wrete da Lier |) LL A Nie VoIP eee sscsey | ts = on Mi hee b awa. as G ) L- AMERICAN © JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Epirorn: EDWARD S. DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Prorrssors GEO. L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, H. P. BOWDITCH awp W. G. FARLOW, or Campripeg, Prorrssors O. C. MARSH, A. E. VERRILI anp H. S. WILLIAMS, or New Haven, Prorrssor GEORGE F. BARKER, or Puamapetpata, Prorrssor H. A. ROWLAND, or Batrimors, Mr. J. 8S. DILLER, or Wasurneron. FOURTH SERIES. VOL. VI-[WHOLE NUMBER, CLVI.] WITH THREE PLATES. gonian Insti, tie 4 fw 256(G3 NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. seal ~~ | es 1898. Bice va = THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR PRESS. NEW HAVEN, CONN, CONTENTS TO VOLUME VI. Number 31. Art. J.—Origin and Significance of Spines: a Study in Evo- lution; by C. E. Brrcurr. (With Plate L)-.-.....-- I].—Electrical Discharge from the point of view of the Kinetic Theory of Matter; by J. E. Moorge.-.....--- i1L—Crystalline Symmetry of Torbernite; by T. L. I I oe Ca ne ot SSeS dSE nce IV.—Further Separations of Aluminum by Hydrochloric ee HAVENS. ......-.-:--.-..------+--- V.— Origin of the Corundum associated with the Peridotites meemerm Carolina; by J. H:. Pratr __.....--.-...--- V1.—Erionite, a new Zeolite; by A. S. EaKtxE ._--.------ VilL—Winter Condition of the Reserve Food Substances in the Stems of certain Deciduous Trees; by E. M. Wri- i tela os es a aa aim ole oe a ee eee sie ass VIII.—Metamorphism of Rocks and Rock Flowage; by C. 8 ee SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 21 4] Chemistry and Physics—V apor Pressure of reciprocally soluble Liquids, OSTWALD: Electric Energy by Atmospheric Action, WARREN: Significance of Ionic Reac- tions in Electrochemistry, KUstEer, 93.—Photoelectric Properties of Certain Colored Salts, Euster and GEITEL, 94.—Combustion in Rarefied Air, BENEDI- CENTI: Molecular Masses of Solid Substances, TRAUBE, 95.—Liquefaction of Hydrogen, DEwaAR, 96.—New Methods for the Measurement of Self-Inductance, Mutual Inductance and Capacity, H. A. RowuLanp and T. D, PENNIMAN, 97.— Notes on the Zeeman Effect, J. 8S, Amrs, R. F. EARaART and H. M. REgss, 99. —Elementary Course of Physics, J. C. P. Aupous, 100.—Storage Battery, A. TREADWELL, Jr., 101. Geology and Natural History—Important Vertebrate Fossils for the National Mu- seum, O. C. Marsu, 101.—U. S. Geological Survey: Occurrence of Petroleum in Burma, F. Noeriine, 102.—Text-book of Entomology, A. S, PACKARD: Bibliotheca Zoologica II., O. TASCHENBERG, 103. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Seestudien, E. Ricuter, 103.—Field Colum- bian Museum, 104. iv CONTENTS. Number 32. Art. X.—Jurassic Formation on the Atlantic Coast.—Sup- plement; by O. C. Marsa... 22.2. .-.,-.--050 ee ee XI.—Mineralogical Notes; by C. H. Warren...._---.--- 116 XII.— Origin and Significance of Spines: A Study in Evolu- tion; by C..E. Brerckme ..2- 5.22.05. ee 125. XII.—Prehistoric Fauna of Block Island, as indicated by its Ancient Shell-heaps; by G. F. Eaton. (With Plates Wand Til): 22.23. secte ole 137 XIV.—Registering Solar Radiometer and Sunshine Re- corder; by G. 5S. ‘Isham |. 2.2: -2).2 2 2 160 XV.—Tertiary elevated Limestone Reefs of Fiji; by A. AGASSIZ 2 gOS 78S. 2D es Se nee Ae =~ LGB XVI.—Iodometric Determination of Molybdenum; by F. A. Gooca and J. T. Norron, Jr.z. 9.2.05) 2o eee 168 XVII.—Silvsbergite and Tinguaite from Essex County, Mass.;: by H. 8S. Wasainctow \-255-2- 2-2-2 176 XVIII.—Occurrence of Native Lead with Roeblingite, Native Copper, and other minerals at Franklin Furnace, N. J; by W.. M. Hoorn’... 22.223 22 Se ee: ee XIX.—Position of Helium, Argon and Krypton in the Scheme of Elements; by W. Crooxns _.._-_-_ 2225s SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—New Constituent of Atmospheric Air, Ramsay and TRAVERS, 192.—Direct Elimination of Carbon Monoxide and its Reaction with Water, ENGLER and GRIMM, 193.—Osmotice Pressure and Electrolytic Dissoci- ation, TRAUBE: Fusion in the Electric Furnace, Oppo, 194.—Ammonium Per- oxide, MELIKOFF and PISSARJEWSKI: Molecular Masses of Inorganic Salts, WERNER, 195.—Sodium Carbide, MatiGNnon, 196. Geology and Mineralogy—Cycad Horizons in the Rocky Mountain Region, O. C. Marsu, 197.—Calamaria of the Dresden Museum, H. B. GeInitz: Fossil Cephalopoda of the British Museum, G. C. Crick: Two new fossils from Canada, J. F. WHITEAVES: Brief notices of Some recently described minerals, 198. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—American Association for the Advancement of Science: Harper’s Scientific Memoir, 199.—Electro-Mechanical Series; In- dustrial Electricity : Catalogue of Earthquakes on the Pacific Coast, 1769-1897 E, S. HotpEen: Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exacten Wissenschaften, 200. Page = yi CONTENTS. Vv : Number 33. Art. XX.—Transition Temperature of Sodic Sulphate, a New Fixed Point in Thermometry; by T. W. Ricuarps 201 Page XXI.—Distribution and Quantitative Occurrence of Vana- dium and Molybdenum in Rocks of the United States; Set MILE EE BAND 223.0 Sai 2 ashlee ce tae we 209 XXII.—Electrosynthesis; by W. G. MixTEer._-..---.---- 217 X XIII.—Notes on Species of Ichthyodectes, including the new species I. cruentus, and on the related and herein established genus Gillicus; by O. P. Hay---..--.---- 225 XXIV.—Determination of Manganese as the Pyrophosphate ; feeeeex. Gooch and M. Averin 4.20 fc. ree cee 2 233 XXV.—Oceurrence of Dunite in Western Massachusetts; Meme APARTIN o20 2.1504 70. Sika cea daesit Louise 244 XXVI.—Origin and Significance of Spines: A Study in Evo- Pee, fi: BREGHER os) ols 2. onic dees ese 249 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Laboratory Guide in Qualitative Chemical Analysis, H. L. Wetus: Short Course in Inorganic Qualitative Analysis for Engineering Students, J. S. C. WeEtts: Introduction to Electro-chemical Experiments, F. OETTEL, 269.—Remarks on Colloidal Glass, C. Barus, 270. Geology and Mineralogy—Late Formations and Great Changes of Level ia Jamaica, J. W. SPENCER, 270.—Resemblance between the Declivities of High Plateaus and those of Submarine Auntillean Valleys, J. W. SPENCER, 272.— Eruptivgesteine des Kristianiagebietes, Part III, W. C. BroaGErR, 273.—Bad- deckite, a new variety of Muscovite, G. C. HorrmMann, 274.—Text Book of Mineralogy with an extended Treatise on Crystallography and Physical Miner- alogy, HE. S. Dana, 275.—L’or dans la Nature, EK. CUMENGE and F. ROBELLAZ, 276. Botany—Mlustrated Flora of the Northern States and Canada, N. L. BRITTON and ADDISON Browy, 277. Obituary—Professor JAMES HALL, 284. 1 CONTENTS, Number 34. Page Art, XXVIT.—Compressibility of Colloids, with Applica- tions to the Jelly Theory of the Ether; by C. Barus -. 285 XXVIII.—Eolian Origin of Loess; by ©. R. Kuyus ..---- 299 XXIX.—Dikes of Felsophyre and Basalt in Paleozoic Rocks in Central Appalachian Virginia; by N. H. Darron SG AS. Keerinih : Cee ee tte - 305 XXX.—Diaphorite from Montana and Mexico; by L. J. DPENOBR 2.0 2000.20 5 -s0acol. bed er XX XI.—Detection of Sulphides, Sulphates, Sulphites and Thiosulphates in the presence of each other; by P. E. Brownine. and, E. Hows £222 12.2) 4 2 ee 317 XXXIL—Twinned Crystals of Zircon from North Carolina; by: W.-E. Hippmn-and- J... -Peares 2522 sae 323 XX XITI.—Brachiopod Fauna of the Quartzitic Pebbles of . the Carboniferous Conglomerates of the Narragansett Basin, R. 1; by Cy D."Watcorr ._-. 22.2... 2 XXXIV.—Origin and Significance of Spines; A Study in Evolution; by C. EH: BrRoHER...:.-.2. 7.222 ¢ 2 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Neon and Metargon, companions of Argon in Atmos- pheric Air, RamMSAy and TRAVERS, 360.—Metargon, Dewar: Density and Boil- ing Point of Liquid Hydrogen, DEwAR, 361.—Boiling Point of Liquid Ozone, TRoosT, 362. _ Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—American Association for the Advancement - of Science, 363.—British Association, 372. CONTENTS. re Number 35. Page Art. XXXV.—Irregular Reflection; by C. C. Hurcurns.. XXX VI.—Occurrence of Sperrylite in North Carolina; by RREEDER II 62 On Pas SS, XXXVII.—Description of a Fauna found in the Devonian Black Shale of Eastern Kentucky; by G. H. Girty-_-- XXXVIII-—Separation of Nickel and Cobalt by Hydro- Gammel by H. 5. HAVENS 2... 0-2 2.2.22 x _ XX XIX.—Contributions to Paleontology; by F. A. Lucas XL.—Value of Type Specimens and Importance of their Sreeetvation;s by O.\C. Marsa 2... 22. 225222220 o.- XLI.—Origin of Mammals; by O. C. Marsu.---.-------- XLII.—Causes of Variation in the Composition of Igneous 373 381 384 396 399 401 406 Rey fly. WW ADK ER. ooo ue. fade cls. 410 XLIUI.—Relation between Structural and Magneto-optic Ro- tation; by A. W. Wricur and D. A. KRrerper ._--.. 416 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Crystallized Metallic Calcium, Morssan: Preparation and Properties of Calcium Hydride, Motssay, 428.—Improved method for determining Molecular Mass by the Boiling Point, WALKER and LumMspDEN, 429. ——Chemical Effects of the Silent Electric Discharge, BERTHELOT, 430.—New Gas, C. F. Bruss, 431.—Electricity and Magnetism: a Mathematical Treatise for advanced undergraduate students, F. E. NipHer: Electrical currents ex- cited by Rontgen rays, A. WINKELMANN, 432.—Reflection of Cathode rays, H. STARKE. Change of the energy of Cathode rays into light rays, E. WIEDEMANN: Theory of the Coherer, D. van Gutrk and E. Dorn: Absorption of light pro- duced by a body placed in a magnetic field, A. Rigut, 433. “Geology and Mineralogy—Eighteenth Annual Report of the Director of the U.S. Geological Survey, 1896-7, 433——Summary Report of the Geological Depart- - ment of Canada for the year 1897, 434.—Geological History of the Isthmus of Panama and portions of Costa Rica, R. T. Hitu: Physical geography of Wor- cester, Mass., J. H. PERRy: Handbuch der Mineralogie, C. Hintze, 435.— Manual of Determinative Mineralogy with an Introduction on Blowpipe Analy- sis, G. J. BRusH and 8. L. Penrietp: Law of Mines and Mining in the United States, D. M. BARRINGER and J. S. Apams, 436.—Canadian minerals, G. C. HOFFMANN, 437. Obituary—JAMES HALL, 437. oe ee Paves Vili CONTENTS. Number 36. Page Arr. XLIV.—Another Episode in the History of Niagara Falls; by J. W. Spencenr........-.---.-c0neeeeeeee 439 XLY.—Apparatus for Measuring very High Pressures; by A. DEF, PALMER, Jr, .- 26.502 55---0ce ss oe ee XLVL—Application of Iodine in the Analysis of Alkalies and Acids; by C. F. Watker and Davin H. M. Gr- LEGPIB 2 one oo oe we we cabin wenn conn cee se 2 en XLVII.—Associated Minerals of Rhodolite; by W. E. Hrppew and J. H. Pratt .......:...... «690 gee 463 XLVIII.—Revision of the Moraines of Minnesota; by J. E. TODD 6 o nin 2 5 2 6 endear nel adin omic nine sik Sale 469 XLIX.—Preliminary Report on some new marine Tertiary horizons discovered by Mr. J. B. Hatcher near Punta Arenas, Magellanes, Chile; by A, E. Ortmann ._. _.. 478 L.—Comparative Value of Different Kinds of Fossils in Determining Geological Age; by O. C. Marsn .-..-.- 483 LI.—Families of Sauropodus Dinosauria ; by O. C. Marsu_ 487 LII.—Biotite-tinguaite Dike from Manchester by the Sea, | Essex County, Mass.; by A. S. Eaxre....._....._... 489 LIII.—Deseriptions of new American Actinians, with critical notes on other species, I.; by A. E. Verrint -_.....-- 493 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Hyponitrous acid and Hyponitrites, KirscHNER: Ex- periments with Helium, TRAVERS, 499 —Calcium nitride, MorssaNn, 500.—Sodi- um sub-oxide and peroxide produced by combustion, ForcRAND: Aluminum nitride, FRANCK, 501.—Enantiomorphism, Kieprne and Pope, 502.—Doctrine of _ Energy; a Theory of Reality: Gravitation constant and mean density of the earth, F. Richarz and O. Krigar-MENzeL: Theory of the Coherer, BE. ASCH- KINASS, 503.—Theory of the Hall effect in an Electrolyte: Free Expansion of Gases, 504. Geology and Mineralogy—Geological History of the Isthmus of Panama and Por- tions of Costa Rica, R. T. Hint, 505.—Geology and Mineral Resources of the Judith Mountains of Montana, W. H. Weep and L. V. Pirsson, 508.—Fossil Meduse, C D, Watcorr: Cretaceous Foraminifera of New Jersey, R. ae BaaG, Jr: Lava-flows of the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, Cal, F. L. RANSOME 509.—Bibliography and Index of North American Geology, Paleon- __ tology, Petrology and Mineralogy for 1896, F. B, WEEKS: Report on the Geol-. —~ ogy of Southwest Nova Scotia, L. W. BamLey: Report on a traverse of the northern part of the Labrador Pevinsula from Richmond Gulf to Ungava Bay, A. P. Low: Report on the Geology of the French River Sheet, R. BELL, 610.— Granite des Pyrénées et ses phenoménes de contact, A. LACROIX: Igneous Rocks of Tasmania, W. H. TWELVETREES and W. F, PErrerp: Sulphohalite, J. H. van’? Horr and A. P. SAUNDERS, 511. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—National Academy of Sciences: Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory, E. W. Scripture. 512.—Report on the © Survey of the Boundary Line between Alleghany and Garrett Counties, Md, L. A. Baver: Catalogue of Scientific and Technical Periodicals, 1665-1895, H. C. Bouton: Differential and Integral Calculus, P. A. LAMBERT, 513. INDEX TO VOLUME VI, 514. has. D. Walcott, 7 ) U.S. Geol. Survey. fi \/ a fe VOL. VI 3 | JULY, 1898. Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818. ie im * he Be AMHRICAN ca oe Pg JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. EDWARD 8. DANA. EDITOR: ASSOCIATE EDITORS Prormssors GEO. L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, H. P. BOWDITCH anv W. G. FARLOW, or Camsripes, Prorrssors O. C. MARSH, A. E. VERRILL anp H. S&. WILLIAMS, or New Haven, Prorrssor GEORGE F. BARKER, or Paimapetpuia, Prorgssor H. A. ROWLAND, or Battimors, Mr. J. 8. DILLER, or Wasurneron. FOURTH SERIES, VOL. VI—-[WHOLE NUMBER, CLVI.] No. 31.—JULY, 1898. WITH PLATE I. NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. 1898. TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 125 TEMPLE STREET. | Published monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6.40 to foreign subscribers of countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should be made either by money orders, registered letters, or bank checks. CROCOITE. A rare species from a new locality. Magnificent crystalliza- tions which in color, lustre, perfection and beauty, are superior to the old Siberian examples. No low-priced specimens, but good ones are cheap at $5.00 to $8.00 each. We can send you one express paid, for inspection, with the certainty of your approval, Send for descriptive ** New Arrival List.’’ THE COMPLETE MINERAL CATALOGUE, 186 pages, 40 engravings. Contains tables giving names, composition and form of all known species and varieties, with an up-to-date supplement. A Metallic Classification of minerals according to elements contained. Index of names and other valuable lists. Prices postpaid, Paper bound, 25 cts.; Cloth, 50 cts.; Calf interleaved, $1.00. | , | Minerals purchased in quantity. Rare and beautiful erys- tallizations especially wanted. Correspondence and samples solicited, ee Dr. A. EK. KOOTK, WARREN M. FOOTE, Manager. 1517 Arch Street, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S. A. Established 1876, THE _ AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE [FOURTH SERIES. ] Oe Art. I.—The Origin and Significance of Spines: A Study in Evolution; by CHARLES EMERSON BEEcHER. (With Plate I.) INTRODUCTION. THE presence of spines in various plants and animals is, at times, most obvious to all mankind, and not unnaturally they have come to be regarded almost wholly in the light of defen- sive and offensive weapons. Their origin, too, is commonly explained as due to the influence of natural selection, resulting in the greater protection enjoyed by spiniferous organisms. But when, upon critical examination, it is seen that some ani- mals are provided with spines which apparently interfere with the preservation of the individual, that other animals develop spines which cannot serve any purpose for protection or other- wise, and that spines themselves are often degenerate or sup- pressed organs, then it becomes evident that the spinose condi- tion may have other interpretations than the single one of pro- tection. The object of this article is to make a few observations on spinosity, especially among invertebrate animals, and _ to endeavor to arrive at some general conclusions relating to the origin and significance of this condition. It is believed that the results have a broader application than is at first apparent, and underlie important laws and principles of organic evolu- tion. In closely related species, the presence or absence of spines seems in itself a trivial character, indicating at best only specific differences, yet it will be shown that the spines are often the expression of important vital adjustments and condi- tions, and are not merely external features of the same value Am. Jour. Sci1.—FourtH Series, Vou. VI, No. 31.—JuLy, 1898. i 2 0. &. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. as color and many other skin or superficial characters. As will be indicated later on, spines may also arise through the operations of a number of forces and conditions, and it may well be asked, therefore,—Do spines have any profound signifi- eance? It must be granted at the outset that apart from other characteristics, or when regarded as simple spiniform exten- sions of certain tissues or organs, they have no such value or meaning. How, then, should they be considered? The reply is evident: Their importance lies not in what they are, but in what they represent. They are simply prickles, thorns, spines, or horns; they represent, as will be shown, a stage of evolu- tion, a degree of differentiation in the organism, a ratio of its adaptability to the environment, a result of selective forces, and a measure of vital power. After studying namerous organisms, the writer is led to believe that in every case no single reason is sufficient to account for this spinose condition. The original cause may not be operative through the entire subsequent phylogeny, so that spines arising from external stimuli and then serving important defensive purposes may at a later period practically lose this function; or spines may become more and more developed simply by increasing diversity of growth forces, or through the multiplicity of effects. In this way, causes may follow, overlap, or even coincide with each other; but in interpreting special cases, the problems involved may be quite complicated and often obscure. In reviewing the development of animal life from the earliest Cambrian to the present, one cannot avoid being impressed by the groups of spinose forms which appear here and there throughout geologic time, and give a special phase to contemporary faunas. Tracing these one by one through their geological development, it is noticed that each group began its history in small, smooth, or unornamented species. As these developed, the spinose forms became more abundant until after the culmination of the group is reached, when this type either became extinct or was continued in smaller and less specialized forms. In applying this principle to any order of plants or animals, several precautions are necessary. The estimate must be based approximately upon the general average of the total- ity of specific characters, whether a genus, family, order, or even a class is being considered. A short-lived family or genus, or the terminal members of specialized groups, there- fore, cannot be taken as representing the developmental status of the larger divisions, because they culminated and disap- peared independently of the culmination of the-class to which they belong. On a small scale, however, each epitomizes the rise and decline of the larger group, and the principles of C. EB. Beecher— Origin and Significance of Spines. 3 correlation commonly applied in ontogeny and phylogeny can likewise be used in the study of spines and spiniferous species, with equally exact results, whenever the principal factors are understood. Law of Variation. Before undertaking any general or special examination of the life histories and interpretation of spinose organisms, it is desirable to consider briefly some of the biogenetic principles which are considered to bear directly on the problems here under discussion. First among these is the law of variation or change, which is so generally recognized as to require but the briefest restate- ment. The organic as well as the inorganic world is subject to all the forces of nature, internal and external, molecular and molar, and even a partial stability is gained only through a regulated adjustment. In organisms, this change is momentary and persistent, while in most imorganic substances, it is slow and intermittent. The results of this continual readjustment constitute modification, which may be progressive or regressive, continuous or discontinuous (in the sense of accelerated, uni- form, or retarded). They are everywhere present and the causes always operative. Throughout life, the individual changes, and in addition varies from all other individuals. The family, also, changes with time, and likewise ditfers from other families. Variation is everywhere present. Moreover, it is generally accepted, and is so taken here, that, in its results, this variation is not haphazard, but is normally in accordance with certain demands or in harmony with certain, surroundings. Whether an organism itself tends to vary in all directions, or is chiefly subject to modifications from external forces, does not alter the preceding statement. Cope” has considered variation as either physico-chemical (molecular) or mecharical (molar). The influence of the first is known as physiogenesis and of the second as kinetogenesis. In the animal kingdom, the potency of kinetogenesis is greater as an efficient cause of evolution; while in the vegetable king- dom, physiogenesis is apparently of more importance. The tendency of variation is always in the direction of the establishment of an equilibrium between the organism and its environment. However, the laws of the development of the earth preclude the possibility of a constant environment, and therefore a perfect, permanent, and uniform equilibrium between life and surroundings is unattainable. The manner of variation is clearly defined as progressive and regressive. Progressive variation is one of the essential 4 0. £. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. factors of evolution, while regressive variation is towards disso- lution. Since the main history of life is told through processes of the former, progressive variation is far greater in importance ; while, in general, regressive variation can be applied only to late periods in the history of groups or forms now in their decadence, or to others which in past times have suffered decline and extinction. The summary of the operation of the law of multiplication of effects, as given by Herbert Spencer”, may well be stated here, as it emphasizes one of the principles through which spines have originated. “It manifestly follows that a uniform force, falling on a uni-_. form aggregate, must undergo dispersion ; that falling on an ageregate made up of unlike parts, it must undergo dispersion from each part, as well as qualitative differentiations; that in proportion as the parts are unlike, these qualitative differentiations must be marked; that in proportion to the number of the parts, they must be numerous; that the secondary forces so produced must undergo further trans- formations while working equivalent transformations in the parts that change them; and similarly with the forces they generate. Thus the conclusions that a part-cause of evolution is the multiplication of effects, and that this increases in geo- metrical progression as the heterogeneity becomes greater, are not only to be established inductively, but are deducible from the deepest of all truths.” | Modification, therefore, may properly include the results of the multiplication of effects. Furthermore, from a knowledge of the life history of the organic world, it is known that this change has been progressive, resulting in the evolution of the higher from the lower, of the complex from the simple, and of the definite from the indefinite. It must now be asked,—Is the amount of variation without limit or is it restricted within bounds which can be deter- mined? As far as can be seen, the limitations of the forms of species of animals and plants end only with the aggregate number of possibilities within the functional scope of the organism. Beyond, in either direction, is death, and a passage from the organic into the inorganic. The restrictions of varia- tion are chiefly those of temperature, pressure, motion, light, space, time, and matter. Within certain limits, these clearly bound the horizon of known possible life. Further, the mate- rial constitution of the organic world is naturally subject to ordinary mechanical and chemical laws. If, instead of the preceding, general, and-therefore rather - abstract statements of the limits of variation, the subject is C. E. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. 5 considered from the concrete, objective side, the limits between which are found all the variations actually presented by any character or set of characters, in the animal or the vegetable kingdoms, can at once be determined. The fact that the organic world can be divided into kingdoms, sub-kingdoms, classes, orders, etc., and definitions of the divisions given, in itself furnishes sufficient evidence that these have been the limits of organic change, at least under present terrestrial con- ditions. This does not imply that the phylogenies of groups of animals and plants do not converge and coalesce, and join larger and larger phyla in past ages, so that the gaps between unlike forms are gradually filled by complete series. It does, however, express the definite heterogeneity of the results of development. For the sake of illustrating an extreme range of variation, it will be granted that the assemblage of characters by which a mammal is now recognized precludes mammalian variation into a cold-blooded, non-vertebrate, lungless animal. Like- wise, the mammalian skeleton cannot be siliceous or chitinous. Externally, mammals may be smooth, hairy, Sealy, or plated, but not feathered. There may be found numerous gradations from the smooth to the plated state, and a great range of varia- tion in each type of epidermal structure. In vertebrate ani- mals generally, the hair may vary in length, in fineness, in color and shape; it may form bristles, or spines, or feathers ; and as a skin character, it is related to horn-sheaths, hoofs, nails, claws, scales, and teeth. These constitute the limits of modification in epidermal or exoskeletal growths. The types are’ few, but the variety in each is almost infinite. The variation may be seen in individuals, but becomes greater in species, and increases still more in larger groups. The grada- tions are numerous between the hair of a Beaver and the spines of a Porcupine; between the horns of the Giraffe, Rhinoceros, and Antelope; between the nails of Man and the claws of the Carnivora; and between the teeth of a Dog-fish and those of a Tiger. Definition of Terms. In the beginning, it is well to understand the meaning and extent of the terms included under the comprehensive word spine. In a general sense, spzne is here used to cover any stiff, sharp-pointed process. A prickle is restricted in use to the small, sharp-pointed, conical projections which are purely cuticular; as in the Rose and Blackberry. A thorn is a sharp process on plants, usually representing a branch or stem. A horn is an excrescence on the head of certain animals, and is properly hollow. An antler is a solid bony process, usually 6 CO. &. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. deciduous, and generally confined to the male; as in the Deer or Elk. A spur isa term applied to the claw-like process on the legs and wings of some birds, and on the hind legs of Ornithorhynchus and Lehidna. The word spine, therefore, is most comprehensive, and is here intended to include the modified hairs of the Hehidna and Poreupine; the sharp, prickly scales of the Horned Toad (Phrynosoma) ; the pointed spiniform projections on the shells of Mollusca; the spinous prominences on the test of Crustacea and insects; the fin spines as well as those on the opercula and scales of fishes; the generally movable processes of Echinoderms; the projecting rays and processes of Radio- laria, ete., etc. The vertebral column and also the processes from the separate vertebra are known as spines, but as these are distinctly internal structures, they will not be considered in this connection. In nearly all classes of organisms, spines have been devel- oped independently, and simply represent cases of parallel development of similar structures or morphological equivalents. They possess analogy of form without necessary homology of structure, and accordingly have no common phylogenetic con- nection. Therefore, if the relationships between the smooth and spinose forms belonging to any group of animals or plants can be traced, and the simplest and most primitive condition in each case, as well as the highest stage of progressive develop- ment, can be ascertained, their relative significance from an evolutionary standpoint may be confidently determined. Growth of a Spine. The growth of a spine is either direct and progressive, or indirect and regressive. It is direct when it is developed by the addition of new tissue. In this way, growth is attained in the antlers of a Deer, the horns of a Cow, the ordinary spines of Brachiopods, Mollusca, and Crustacea, and in other similar examples covering the majority of cases. Growth is indirect, however, when the spine represents atrophy or suppression of an organ through the loss of its accessory parts, as in the thorns of the Locust and the Barberry, the spiniform termina- tion of the stems of. the Pear, or the spurs on the Python. The direct development of a spine is essentially the same process in all cases. At a given point on the surface of an organism, there first appears a slight elevation, which becomes higher and higher, and is usually conical in form. This cone represents the simplest type of spine; and among animals and plants, most spines conform to this primitive pattern (figures 1-5). 0. E. Beecher—Origan and Significance of Spines. 7 Often there are various kinds of surface ornaments, which by growth and differentiation develop into spines. By rhyth- eae, alternating areas of accelerated or retarded growth, the L. 2. 3. a Figures 1—5.—Different stages in the growth of a spine. 1, plane surface ; 2, slight elevation; 3, node; 4, short spine; 5, completed simple spine. concentric laminz on many molluscs may produce spines, as shown in figure 26. In the same way, the radiating ridges may be diversified into a row of spines, as represented in figure 6. Further, the surface may be reticulate, with longi- tudinal and transverse lines, and at the points of intersection, nodes and often spines are formed after the manner shown in figures 7-12. The longi- tudinal or vertical lines may become obsolete, leaving the spines to be borne on the transverse or horizontal lines (figure 10). In other eases, the hori- zontal lines disappear, leaving the spines on the vertical lines (figure 11). Finally, both horizontal and vertical lines become obsolete, and then only the spines remain, as shown in figure 12. The indirect production of spines is not always evident, for if the ontogeny or phylogeny of the individual is unknown, its direct or indirect devel- opment cannot be determined. An _ excellent example of indirect, or regressive, growth of spines is afforded in the common Barberry (Berberis vul- garis), on the summer shoots of which are shown Fig 6.—A most of the gradations “between the ordinary profile ofa sin- eaves, with sharp bristly teeth, and leaves which Be caceting are reduced to a branching spine or thorn. The ge of Spon- ; 5 dylus princeps, fact that the spines of the Barberry produce a leaf- showing the bud in their axil also proves them to be leaves”™ series of flat- (figure 13). tened spines. : It should be noted that the process of spine development illustrated in Spondylus (figure 14) is directly opposed to that of the Barberry. In the former, the initial growth is smooth, then faint concentric and radiating lines appear, which oradually grow stronger, developing more or less regular inequalities; and by the excessive growth of these variations, spines are formed. In the Barberry, there are at 6. 8 C.F. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. first normal leaves, which are followed by others more si. more toothed and ‘pristly, until the leaf is represented b branching spine, while finally spines only are formed. fe Spondylus represents a progressive increase in growth to pro- duce the spines, while the Barberry exhibits a progressive ag 8. a Figures 7-12.—Diagrams showing growth and differentiation of ornament into spines. 7, surface with parallel lines; 8, surface with regular reticulate lines ; 9, same, with spines developed at the points of -intersection; 10, same, with the vertical lines obsolete, but still represented by the vertical rows of spines; 11, same, with the horizontal lines obsolete, but still represented by the horizontal arrangement of the spines; 12, same, with all lines obsolete, but both series represented by the vertical and horizontal arrangement of the spines. 10. ~~ ea mE Me —~—=—_ ~~ a! ea | ”» as it has been decrease of growth, or an “ebbing vitality, termed by Geddes.” The spines are the final results of both the direct and indi- rect modes of production; the direct, through a process of building on new tissue, and the indirect, through a process of dwindling away to all but the axial elements. These dif- ferences are graphically expressed in figures 13 and 14. Attention should be called to the four kinds of spine pro- duction in different organisms. (1) In the Radiolaria, Echi- noids, the Giraffe, Cattle, and the Rhinoceros, the spines or horns are persistent, and grow by additions to the original structure. ‘The new tissue may be superficial, subterficial, interstitial, or formed by synchronous resorption and orowth. (2) In the ‘Crustacea and’ Articulata generally, and in the Deer, C. EL. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. 9 Elk, ete., the spines are moulted, or shed, periodically. In their various stages, these types (1 and 2) can be studied only by means of separate specimens consecutive in age, or by observing the metamorphoses in one individual. (8) In the shells of Brachiopods and Mollusca, the stages of growth of the individual are generally retained throughout life, and the 13. 14, Figure 13.—Summer shoot of Barberry, showing the gradations between leaves and spines. The arrow indicates the direction of growth. (After Gray.) Figure 14.—Profile of one of the primary rays of Spondylus imperialis, show- ing the series of spines. The arrow indicates the direction of, growth. ma) 18 15, FigurRE 15.—Example of spine growth by simple increscence. Horn (left) and horn-core (right) of Ox. (After Owen.) FIGURE 16.—Stages of spine growth by successive replacement. Antler series of Red Deer, at ages of 1, 2, 3, etc., years. (After Owen.) ; FIGURE 17.—Stages of spine growth by serial repetition. Profile of a series of spines on one of the primary radii of Spondylus imperialis. FIGURE 18.—Stages of spine growth by decrescence. Transformation of leaves into spines in Berberis vulgaris. (After Gray.) 10 0. EB. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. successive development of spines may be studied, therefore, in a single example. (4) Spines produced by suppression, as in the Barberry, express their origin through a series of gra- dations between separate parts; while in others, suppression is brought about by the loss of structures. The first type mentioned develops horns or spines by simple increscence (figure 15); for example, the Ox: the second, by successive replacement (figure 16); as in the Deer: the third, by serial repetition (figure 17); for example, Spondylus; the fourth, by decrescence (figure 18); for example, the Barberry. Localized stages of growth.—By the multiplication of surface ornaments through the process of interpolation, many Mollusca present stages of spine development in two directions. (1) The normal series is represented by the succession of spines along a 19. 20. ame ee ae i ee ee eS eee BY? ae Vi Die NSA a7 is SP 73 ; ZYLYZ4I4ZYLZY3Y 1434924 34 FIGURE 19.—Sector showing in diagram the mu'tiplication of radiating lines by interpolation. The two primary radii (1, 1) are the only ones continuing through the whole four zones. The first zone has 2 radii; the second, 5; the third, 11; and the fourth, 23. FIGURE 20.—Profiles of the spines produced on the various radii at the four zones, aS indicated in the preceding figure. A, the spines on the two primary radii of the first zone; B, the spines on the second zone, showing the growth of those on the two primary radii (1, 1), and the small spines on the newly interpo- lated radii (2, 2, etc.); C, the spines on the radii in the third zone ; D, the spines at the bottom of the fourth zone. The two large compound spines are on the two primary radii. Their development may be traced by following them through A, B, C, to D. The next three longest spines (2, 2, 2) are tricuspid, and represent the stage of spine development attained by the spines on the radii which were interpolated on the second zone. The next six smaller spines (3, 3, 3, etc.) are on radii which were introduced on the third zone. The twelve small spines (4, 4, 4, etc.) are on the radii introduced on the fourth zone. Thus there are four stages of spine growth shown on the lower margin of the fourth zone, and these corre- spond to the four stages exhibited by the series of spines on one of the primary radii running through the four zones. C. &. Beecher—Origumn and Significance of Spines. 11 single sector of growth. or instance, in the radial plications of a Spondylus or Lima, the earliest and primitive spines are found near the beak, while those on the ventral border of an adult specimen are the latest and most highly developed (figure 30). These successive stages, therefore, are in the direction of growth, and may be called longitudinal. (2) By the radial divergence of the ribs or plications and the interpolation of additional ones at various intervals, as many transverse com- pound series of spines finally appear along the periphery as there are primary radii. lence, in a given case, there may be two radii continuing to the beak, then by interpolation there are successively 5, 11, 23, ete., radii, the highest number being found at the periphery (figures 19, 20). Moreover, by taking the distal spines on these 23 rows, there result the same stages of spine development as shown in the longitudinal series along any primitive plication (figure 20). A Pelecypod shell like Spondylus is here used to illustrate this process, but the appli- cation may also be made to the Brachiopods as well as to the conical non-coiled Gastropods. Ina coiled form like a Cephal- opod or an ordinary Gastropod, the longitudinal lines would follow the whorls spirally, and the transverse lines would cor- respond to the lines or increments of growth of the shell. Species in which the radii are all introduced at an early stage of growth (many species of Cardium, Pecten, Lima) or in which the radii multiply by regular dichotomy would show, of course, only the longitudinal series, for at the margin of the shell, the radii would be of the same size and age, and the spines uniform. The foregoing example illustrates an important principle of ontogeny; namely, that in organisms which repeat various parts during their growth, these parts will develop or pass through a series of stages corresponding to the initial and subsequent stages of the parts repeated. In this way, structures appear- ing late in the ontogeny of the individual will present primi- tive infantile and adolescent characters. Further development, if such takes place, will pass through a progressive series of ontogenetic changes, and if the stages of growth are by serial repetition and thus are retained in the part, it will be found that such stages can be correlated with those appearing early in the life or history of the individual. Therefore, in studies of this kind, it is possible to take a structure appearing at matur- ity, and from it deduce or predicate as to what were some of the early characteristics of the whole individual. This prin- ciple is termed localized stages of growth by Jackson”, and was first noticed by him in some investigations on Echinoderms. 12. CG. E. Beecher —Origin and Significance of Spines. Compound Spines. A simple, sharp, conical process expresses only the primitive type of spine. In plants and animals, it is the most common form found, and is the first stage of spine differentiation. From this type, the myriad forms of spines known in the organic world are produced by almost insensible gradations. It is needless to attempt a detailed description of this infinite variety ; but, as a single illustration, some of the leading forms of spine differentiation among the Radiolaria are here shown (Plate I). These figures are taken from Haeckel’s “ Report 21. 22. 23. FIGURE 21.—Simple spine. FIGURE 22.—Spine, with lateral spinules. FIGURE 23.—Spine, with forked apex and lateral spinulose spinules. on the Radiolaria,’” and generally represent enlargements of from 100 to 400 diameters.* Probably no other class of * EXPLANATION OF PLATE I, Spiniform processes of recent Radiolaria taken from the shells of the following species: Fig. 1.—Heliospheera coronata. Fig. 27.—Elatomma juniperinum. Fig. 4.— Astrosphera stellata. Fig. 28.—Castanura tizardi. Fig. 3.—Astrophacus solaris. Fig. 29.—Pleuraspis horrida. Fig. 4.—Stylospheera calliope. Fig. 30.—Staurocarynum arborescens, Fig. 5.—Heliodiscus glyphodon. Fig. 31.—Rhizosphera serrata. Fig. 6.—Pripodictya triacantha. Fig. 32.—Pheenocalpis petalospyris, Fig. 7.—Pleuraspis horrida. Fig. 33 —Aulospathis bifurca. Fig. 8.—Hexacontium sceptrum Fig, 34.—Aulographis bovicornis. Fig. 9.—Acanthosphera clavata. Fig, 35.—Aulographis ancorata. Fig. 10.—Acanthospheera clavata. Fig. 36.—Aulographis bovicornis. Fig. 11.—Cromyodrymus quadricuspis. Fig. 37.—Sphzerozoum verticillatum. Fig, 12.—Hexacontium clavigerum. Fig. 38.—Cladococcus pinetum. Fig. 13.—Orospheera horrida. Fig. 39.—Hexancistra triserrata. Fig. 14.—Staurocyclia phacostaurus. Fig. 40.—Cladococcus stalactites. Fig. 15.—Tripospyris capitata. Fig. 41.—Hexancistra quadricuspis. Fig. 16.—Archipera cortiniscus. Fig, 42,—Heliodrymus ramosus. Fig. 17.—Tripospyris conifera. Fig. 43.—Heliodrymus dendrocyelus. Fig. 18.—Orospheera serpentina. Fig. 44.—Aulographis pandora. Fig. 19.—Staurolonche pertusa. Fig. 45.—Cladoscenium ancoratum. Fig. 20.—Astrospheera stellata. Fig. 46.—Cladococcus scoparius, Fig. 21.—Staurodictya elegans. Fig. 47.—Auloscena penicillus. Fig. 22.—Hexastylus contortus. Fig. 48.—Circostephauus coronarius. Fig. 23.—Stephanospyris excellens. Fig. 49.—Lychnospheera regina, Fig. 24.—Podocyrtis magnifica. Fig. 50.—Auloscena spectabilis. Fig. 25.—Hexancistra mirabilis. Fig. 51.—Ccelospathis ancorata. Fig, 26.—Dictyophimus Cienkowskii. Fig. 52.—Octodendron spathillatum. C. £. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. 18 organisms presents greater variety, and many of the forms are repeated again and again, not only in various species of this group, but elsewhere both in the animal and vegetable king- doms. Whenever the development of a compound spine can be studied, it shows a gradual progress from the simple to the complex (figures 21-23). The antlers of the Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) furnish a familiar example. Fawns of the first year have antlers with only a single prong, a short front tine being added the second year; then “year by year as they are renewed they acquire a greater and still greater number of tines and branches, till they finally attain the complete stage, when their owner is termed a ‘royal hart’”* (figure 16). Although somewhat conventionalized, the primary series of spines on the Spondylus shown in figure 20 exhibits the pas- sage from simple to compound forms. An inspection of many species of Murex will show the stages in series presenting a greater complexity. After spine development has reached its maximum growth and differentiation, evidence of old age may be exhibited in two ways: (a) The spines may be reduced by resorption, decay, or abrasion, and finally become obsolescent ; or what is of greater import (4), they may gradually cease to be devel- oped, as is especially shown in organisms in which spine growth is by serial repetition. Thus, in Spondylus calcifer, a young individual measuring about two inches across has marginal spines fully an inch in length. Even longer spines are found when the shell reaches a width of four inches. On attaining a maximum diameter of about six inches, spine growth gradu- ally ceases, and the margin of the valves is entire and nearly smooth. At this stage, shell secretion is confined to excessive thickening of the valves. These senile stages of spine growth will receive further consideration under the discussion of ontogeny and phylogeny of spinous species. Application of law of morphogenesis—The manner in. which spines arise from plane surfaces, or from the growth or modification of superficial structures, and also through the decadence of organs, has now been noticed. The spine may thus be taken as a unit for comparison, and its various stages of growth, which were shown to have a definite sequence, may be used in correlation to determine relatively the degree of spine specialization attained by any organism. Furthermore, enough data have been already given to lead to the suspicion that spines may represent the limits of ornamental or superficial differentiation or variation. At this point in the discussion, this statement must be considered as more suggestive than 14. OC. &. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. conclusive. The proof of its reality will be more clearly shown later on. Ontogeny of a Spinose Individual. With few exceptions, the embryonic and larval stages of all organisms are devoid of specialized surface features. In other words, they are without ornament and without weapons. The exceptions to this rule seem to be readily explained under the principles of larval adaptations and accelerated development. Cases of the latter kind, therefore, can hardly be considered as exceptions, since they represent, not real larval features, but former adult characters which have been pushed back or which develop earlier so as to appear eventually in the larval or later embryonic stages. In the very earliest stages of embryonic development, the truth of the first statement becomes obvious, and accordingly the protembryonic, mesembryonic, metembry- onic, neoembryonic, and typembryonic stages are without sur- face ornaments or spines. Among Mollusca, the protoconch, periconch, and prodisso- conch, or the early larval shells, are smooth and without ornament. Even the prodissoconch of very highly spinose species, as in Spondylus, is as smooth as that of the plainest species of Ostrea, Anomia, Avicula, ete. Likewise, the pro- toconch of the most specialized or most retrograde Cephalopod is perfectly plain. In the nepionic stages, the spiny JZwrew is without spines. In the Brachiopoda, the protegulum, or early larval shell, is always without sculpture ; while the nauplius of Crustacea and the protaspis of Trilobites are generally spine- less. The young of horned vertebrates are almost universally hornless, the Giraffe being the only mammal born with horns. The very young seedlings of plants are likewise spineless. In insects, the embryonic stages generally have simple cuticles, but in the larval stages of this class and the Crustacea, a great variety of spines and ornamental characters is developed. Altogether, it may be asserted that spines do not appear dur- ing the embryonic stages of animals and plants, and that their initial development is commonly post-larval. Examples illustrating the ontogeny of a spinose form could be multiplied indefinitely, and taken from nearly every class of organisms. In all cases, practically the same sequence of events relating to the development of spines would be found. The organism would first be smooth, without sculpture or ornament, like the young of other organisms. At some stage of the ontogeny, the beginnings of. spines would appear, and develop first into simple, and later, according to the stage of differentiation attained, into compound spines. This progres- sion would finally reach the maximum, spine growth would C. E. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. 15 cease, and the surface of the organism would inversely revert to an early and more primitive type without spines. Normally, these changes would represent the infantile, adolescent, mature, and early and late senile periods of the life of the organism. In some cases, however, the stages of spine growth, or acan- thogeny, do not agree with the ontogeny of the entire individual in respect to time, and here acceleration and the phylogeny of the species will be found to offer the proper explanation of the divergence. As simple examples of the ontogeny of spiniferons species, the Mollusca afford especial advantages, owing to the fact already noticed, that the stages of development are commonly preserved in a single individual. In figure 24, the larval shell, or prodissoconch, of Pelecypods, or bivalve shells, is repre- sented, and shows the usual type throughout a large portion of the class. The succeeding shell growth of the dissoconch is at first generally smooth, save for the fine concentric lines of growth (figure 25). In ornamented or spinose species, how- ever, irregularities in the growth lines soon appear (figures 26, 27), and these shortly assume the characteristic surface sculp- ture of the normal adult. Thus, the prodissoconch of Avicula sterna is represented at p, figure 25, and is followed by regular concentric growth during the nepionic stages. In figure 26, 26. (2e= Sy ~ SS CS 7 @) \3s Whe Md {\ ei. | A rN ' ia }} eS mv Be Ue Se Jeli aur: ) positive. At the pressure above in- dicated (about 10.10-° Ats.), a clean cut discharge stream is seen to go out from the negative electrode (a), pass continu- ously through the opening in the funnel-shaped diaphragm (D), strike the positive electrode (6), and cause fluorescence on the glass walls of the tube back of (6), not shielded by the elec- trode. The glass stopcocks (C, C) are now closed, the induction coil and the rotating commutator are thrown out of action. The images of the incandescent lamp filiments on the grad- uated scales are allowed to come to rest. The stopcock of the radiometer on the B-side of the diaphragm (D) is then eare- fully opened. The deflection of the radiometer, as indicated by the reflected image of the incandescent lamp filiment, is. seen permanently to decrease. The change in deflection on opening the cock amounted in some experiments to as much as 10°" when the scale was 75™ from the radiometer. On opening the cock connecting the radiometer, on’ the A-side of the diaphragm, with the tube, very little change of deflection is noted. This is readily understood when the relative of view of the Kinetic Theory of Matter. 29 volumes on the two sides of the diaphragm (D) are considered. The whole exhausted system of the mercury pump is in connec- tion with the region (A) of the tube. The volume of the pump system is two or three times greater than the whole volume of the tube. So that the indication of the second radiometer merely shows that no measurable reduction in the gaseous pressure on the A-side of the tube occurred during discharge. This experiment was repeated many times, and at different pressures. In every case the indication of the radiometer on the B-side of the tube showed a decrease of pressure when its stopcock was open, so that it was put in communication with the rest of the exhausted system. Im no case was there any considerable change of deflection noticed in opening the cock of the radiometer on the A-side of the tube. When the gaseous pressure in the tube is very much higher than that at which the radiometers can be used to advantage to measure differences of pressure, if a discharge be sent through the tube by means of the above described uni-directional po- tential-difference, a discharge stream is seen to proceed from the cathode and continue on its course to within a short distance of the opening in the funnel-shaped diaphragm. Jere the dis- charge stream seems to end in a bright band, and from this point on, in the region (B), strize are seen to succeed one another, as in the stratification phenomenon. The tube in this state ‘trans- mits discharge through the region (A) by the discharge stream, and through the region (B) by the stratification process. As discharge stream and _ stratification phenomena are charac- teristic of different gaseous pressures, this last experiment is in agreement with the experiments described in the preceding paragraph. Not being provided with a McLeod gauge, or other reliable means of measuring low gaseous pressures, it is impossible to state with accuracy the absolute value of the change of pres- _ sure observed by means of the radiometers in the previous ex- periments. However, the pressure at which the radiometers ave their maximum deflection could not have been far from 50.10-° Ats., and the pressure at which the first set of the above experiments was made could not have been far from 10.10-° Ats. The spot of light from the radiometer con- nected with the B-side of the tube at the above pressure, fell at 80 or 90° from zero. It seems probable, therefore, that the change of pressure observed amounted to more than 10 per cent of the uniform pressure of the tube. The above experiments would seem to be in good agree- ment with the considerations in § 3 on the pressure resulting from the motion of a gaseous medium. So that in the above experiments, region (5), into which a discharge stream passes, 30 JS. E. Moore—Electrical Discharge from the point being uniformly at a higher pressure (or molecular density) than region (A), from which the discharge stream comes (on account of the law of the conservation of matter), one would apparently be making no mistake in concluding that the discharge stream must convey gaseous matter from region (A) to region (Bb). § 5. In the foregoing considerations and experiments on dis: charge streams, attention has been almost wholly directed to the discharge stream from the cathode. But if discharge streams are streams of gaseous matter (unless there be a con- tinuous accumulation and rarefaction of the gaseous medium as long as the discharge stream flows), then, according to the law of the conservation of matter, there must be found to be second- ary streams, which serve as return streams in the circulation of the gaseous medium. ‘These secondary streams have, in real- ity, been found to exist. It is a fact generally observed, in tubes intended for the generation of Réntgen rays, that the glass walls of the tube in front of the electrode struck by the discharge stream from the cathode, fluoresce vigorously. This fluorescence of the walls of the tube is sharply limited (in case of a plane electrode) by the line of intersection of the plane of the electrode with the walls of the tube. If we make the electrode cylindrical in form, the fluorescence of the glass walls is no longer of uni- form brillianey, but appears as a bright line or band on those portions of the tube lying in the direction of the center of curvature of the cylindrical electrode. If, instead of making the electrode cylindrical, we make it of spherical form, the fluorescence of the glass walls no longer shows as a line or band, but as a bright, sharply defined circular or elliptical spot of light, according to the angle of inclination of the axis of the spherical electrode to the glass wall where the fluorescent spot occurs. 5 6. Of the numerous tubes that have been made for the purpose of studying these secondary discharge streams only two will be described at this point. Fig. 5 represents a simple cylindrical tube, provided with two precisely similar spherical aluminum electrodes, of 2°5™ radius of curvature and 2°7™ in diameter. of view of the Kinetic Theory of Matter. 31 The internal diameter of the tube is 3°5°" and the two spheri- cal electrodes are 7'5™ apart. | At comparatively high pressures, and with the ordinary con- tact maker in the primary, two discharge streams can be dis- tinguished, of almost equal intensity. But if contact be made and broken very slowly, it is seen that these two streams are not simultaneous phenomena, one being produced by the po- tential-difference at make, and the other at break of the pri- mary circuit. By decreasing the pressure in the tube continu- ously, one of these streams is seen gradually to grow smaller, and finally entirely to vanish. On further decreasing the pressure, until the discharge stream from the cathode covers: but a small portion of the total area of the cathode a secondary stream from the anode is found to exist, whether we allow the coil to work continu- ously, or examine the discharge at each make and break of the primary. At make, no discharge stream is seen from either electrode, but at break, the two streams (one from the cathode, the other from the anode) can easily be separated by a magnet, as shown in fig. 5. In some of the early tubes made for the study of these secondary streams, the spherical anode was turned through a small angle, so that the discharge stream from it ordinarily fell on the glass wall of the tube. In this way the two discharge streams can easily be seen, without it being necessary to separate them by a magnet. ‘These experi- ments have also been performed with the rectified alternating potential-difference, described in $4; the same evidence of secondary streams as just noted has, in every case, been ob- served. This experiment will be further discussed in part II of the present paper. Fig. 6 illustrates a tube that shows these secondary discharge streams under conditions somewhat different from those in the tube just described. The tube has two spherical aluminum electrodes each of 2°5™ radius of curvature; the electrode in the main tube being 2°, that in the branch tube 1°7™ in diam- eter. The diameter of the main tube is 2-5, that of the branch tube at right angles, 1°8°". The distance between the electrode in the main tube and the opposite glass wall is about sam. At a pressure considerably lower than that at which a dis- charge stream is sent through the tube on the make of the primary, there is seen to spring from the spherical formed end of the glass tube lying opposite the cathode, a secondary stream, (#,) in fig. 6. This secondary stream could be deflected by a magnet, caused fluorescence of the glass walls where it struck, and in all other respects acted asa discharge stream would have acted, coming from a cathode located at the end of the glass tube. 382 SJ. EL. Moore—Hlectrical Discharge from the point The above described experiments would seem to demon- strate the reality of the secondary discharge streams indicated by the kinetic theory. The experiments also show that these secondary streams do not take definite form until the pressure of the gas (compared with atmospheric pressure) is very low. This, according to the kinetic theory, is what ought to be found, To examine the kinetic theory, as developed to explain the conduction of heat through gases, for the purpose of determin- ing whether or not this theory can be employed to render an account of the form and action of discharge streams, it will be necessary to call attention to the heat-flow lines from a hot body immersed in a cool gas. Consider a spherical cup at a uniform temperature, higher than that of the curren gas and at great distance from any other solid body. Heat will flow from the spherical body to the surrounding gas along lines at ie UY SS SSN RY 2 EEX IPK meee & = = a tH oe on we soon Or bate 3 Ss oe LR 7 Y yA | Fe EAA : 5 “ig ; Al Nc . . LD $e ZN A | Ms Lid Gye | 2 COU! yy = eS aS =z vA SNe Zz ZS, PE SS <6 Zo HAL nN ld: | i it In the diagram, fig. 5, @ represents gneiss, apparently fresh and unaltered, passing into 6, which has somewhat the appear- ance of the unaltered gneiss, but is so decayed that the parti- cles readily separate from each other; ¢, narrow zone of vermiculites that sometimes is entirely lacking; d, green chlorite, clinochlore, partially decomposed and forming the vermiculites of ¢; ¢, the corundum-bearing zone, a mass of the green chlorite with crystals and fragments of corundum dis- 2 : the Peridotites in North Carolina. 59 seminated through it; 7, another zone of the green chlorite; g, mass of interlocking bladed grayish erystals of enstatite that merge into /, a fibrose talcose rock which passes into 7, an altered dunite that is somewhat friable and stained with ferric oxide; 7, hard and apparently unaltered dunite. Between / and 2 a mass of soft, yellowish clay, 0, containing fragments of chalcedony. The line of contact between the zone of alteration products and the gneiss was very sharp and distinct in all the contact- veins examined. The minerals developed between the corun- dum-bearing zone and the dunite are of great abundance and different from those between this zone and the gneiss. In a cross-section of a dunite-vein at a shaft near the south- ern part of Corundum Hill, in a distance of from 20 to 25 feet, the following has been observed : 1. Dunite, hard and apparently unaltered. Dunite, somewhat friable and discolored, passing into 3. Talcose rock, fibrous, merging into 4. Enstatite, grayish and somewhat fibrous. Green chlorite, 6 to 15 inches in width, Green chlorite, corundum and spinel, 6 to 8 feet wide. Chlorite (same as 5). Enstatite (same as 4). Talcose rock (same as 3). Dunite (same as 2). Dunite (same as 1). a HOD MID wD The similarity of the two parts of the vein, each side of the corundum zone, as described above and illustrated in fig. 6, is very apparent. In fig. 6, 1 and 11 represent the apparently unaltered du- nite; 2 and 10, dunite somewhat friable and stained and _ pass- ing into 3 and 9, a fibrous taleose rock, often carrying a green 60 Pratt—Origin of the Corundum associated with actinolite and some green chlorite; 4 and 8, a grayish, rather fibrous, enstatite rock that merges into 3 and 9; 5 and 7, green chlorite passing into 6, a mass of chlorite, corundum and spinel. Although the section just described represents a particular one, it was observed that in all of the dunite veins, the charac- ter of the vein was the same on each side of the corundum- bearing zone. As has been stated already, either a talcose or serpentine rock may be the limit of the cross section. In one of the dunite veins at Corundum Hill, near the west end of the outcrop, the zone of corundum, chlorite and vermiculites is in direct contact with a serpentine rock both on the hanging and foot wall. This zone is divided, and in one place almost pinched out by a mass of serpentine rock. The appearance and character of the veins vary according as they are contact-veins or dunite-veins. In a dunite-vein the approximate trend of the vein is towards the center of the mass of dunite. As these veins penetrate the dunite mass they usually grow less and less in width until they pinch ont. This is especially a prominent feature at Buck Creek, Clay County, N. C., and at Laurel Creek, Rabun County, Ga. In a contact-vein, however, the corundum seems to extend downward indefinitely along the line of contact. Supple- mentary-veins are often encountered branching off from a contact-vein, toward the center of the dunite, and these, like the true dunite-veins, grow less and less in width until they pinch out entirely. This variation in the occurrence of the corundum in the different veins has been observed by many of those who have prospected for and mined corundum in this region. aeaen of the Problem.—The theory advanced by the author, as given in the introduction, is that the corundum was. held in solution in the molten mass of the dunite when it was intruded into the country rock and that it separated out among the first minerals, as the mass began to cool. The dunite magma holding in solution the chemical elements of the different minerals would be like a saturated liquid and as it began to cool the minerals would crystallize out, not according to their infusibility but according to their solubility in the molten magma. The more basic portions, according to the general law of cooling and crystallizing magmas, being the most. insoluble, wouid therefore be the first to separate out. These would be the oxides containing no silica, which in the present case would be alumina and chrome spinel and the corundum. Morozewicz* has shown by some very important experi- * Zeitschr. fiir Kryst., vol. xxiv, p. 281, 1895. the Peridotites in North Carolina. 61 ments that molten glass of a character similar to the basic magnesian rocks would dissolve alumina readily, and as this molten mass began to cool corundum and spinel were the first minerals to separate out. According to this, the corundum and spinel would be the first to crystallize or solidify out from the molten mass of the dunite as this began to cool, and this would take place first on the outer border of the mass, because here it would cool first. Convection currents would then tend to bring a new supply of material carrying alumina into this outer zone, and when this zone was reached, crystallization would take place and the alumina would be deposited as corundum. This is essentially the idea advanced by Becker* in a paper on “Fractional Crystallization of Rocks,’ and where this process has taken place in dikes and laccolites, a concentration is observed of the earlier and more basic minerals at their outer boundary. The more basic the magma the more fluid it is apt to be, and the more tendency there is for this process to take place, as shown by many well known instances which have been described by different geologists. Figure 7 represents the author’s idea of the appearance of a vertical cross-section of a mass of dunite, that held corundum * This Journal, vol. iv, 1897, p. 259. 62 Pratt—Origin of the Corundum associated with in solution, soon after its intrusion into a gneiss. In this figure the corundum zone has been greatly exaggerated in order to better illustrate the cross-section. “The corundum would be concentrated toward the borders of the dunite and would make a sharp and nearly regular contact with the gneiss. With the dunite, however, the contact would sometimes be sharp and regular, while at others there would be an irregular line of con- tact and masses of the corundum would penetrate into the dunite. The rapid erosion to which the rocks in this mountain region have been subjected would readily wear them down to their present condition, represented by the dotted lines in fig. 7. The dunite-veins, I, II, and III in fig. 7, which at the present time have no connection with each other but are each separate and distinct, were at the time of their formation part of the corundum concentrated along the border of the dunite. Some of these veins would soon be worked out, while others might be explored for a hundred feet or more without any apparent change in their width. f= | it [ors Dunst elisizs Greiss. This explanation will account for all the variations in the occurrence of the corundum in the different veins. The corundum crystallizing out from the molten dunite, which would be a very basic magma, would be concentrated toward the margins and where in many eases there would be a sharp separation (at the time of formation) between the corun- a 7 J 7 ‘a the Peridotites in North Carolina. 63 dum and the dunite, in others there would be a somewhat gradual passage from the corundum to the pure dunite, as ‘illustrated in fig. 8. The pressure and the temperature and other physical condi- tions would affect the crystallizing and the separating out of the minerals from the molten mass, and this will explain the great variations observed in the corundum found in the same mass of dunite. Thus, at Corundum Hill there occur masses of block corundum, large rough crystals, small well-developed erystals, and particles or grains of corundum. The differentiation of the basic dunite magma upon cooling is similar to what Vogt* and Adamst have described concern- ing the separation of sulphide deposits from a molten gabbro magma. The segregation or concentration of these ores is usually near the contact of the gabbro with the gneiss and is always sharply separated from the gneiss. While there is sometimes a distinct line of separation between the ore and the gabbro, at others there is a gradual transition from the ore to the pure gabbro. It might be expected that the corundum would be found surrounded by the dunite, but as was stated on page 55, there is but one locality known to the author where the corundum is found directly in the dunite. The absence of any general occurrence of the corundum in dunite is readily explained by the ease with which the dunite itself suffers decomposition. The corundum concentrated in the dunite near the contact with the gneiss, where the thermal waters coming in contact with the heated masses would have the best chance to act, would furnish alumina for reacting with the dunite to form the aluminum-magnesium silicates found surrounding the corundum. That the dunite decomposes very readily is appar- ent from the numerous specimens found of the dunite com- pletely surrounded by foreign material that must have been formed at its expense. The corundum has been found in the serpentine but this is often surrounded by chlorite. The descriptions of the cross sections of the corundum veins given on pages 57-60 are similar to those described by Shepardt, Chatard§ and Lewis], and show practically the same sequence. As the dunite and corundum began to alter and decompose by the action of atmospheric agencies and thermal solutions, there would be formed a series of decomposition minerals on * Zeitschr. fiir Prak. Geol., Nos. 1, 4 and 7, 1893. + On the Igneous Origin of certain Ore Deposits; read before the Gen. Min. Asso. of the Proy. of Quebec, Montreal, Jan. 12, 1894. ¢ This Journal, III, iv, p. 111, 1872. $ U.S. Geol. Survey, Bulletin 42, p. 49, 1887. || N. C. Geol. Survey, Bulletin 11, p. 93, 1896. 64 Pratt—Origqin of the Corundum associated with the dunite side of the vein and but a few on the gneiss side. The decomposed material that would be found on the gneiss side of the vein would vary according to the amount of the: dunite that had been held between the corundum and the eneiss (fig. 8). The common decomposition product surround- ing the corundum is the chlorite (clinochlore) or a further alteration of the mineral to the vermiculites, Between the corundum imbedded in the chlorite and the eneiss there is often but very little and at times no chlorite or vermiculites developed, the corundum-bearing portion of the zone being apparently in direct contact with the gneiss (6 of cross-section, p. 58). In the dunite veins the alteration products developed are the same on both sides of the corundum-bearing zone and are in most cases nearly an exact reproduction of the dunite side of a cross section of a contact-vein (figs. 5 and 6). This de- monstrates that the gneiss had no influence in the formation of the alteration products of the contact-veins. The analyses of Chatard* which show the chemical character of the vein to increase in magnesia and decrease in alumina as the dunite is approached, are in accord with the present theory regarding the formation of the alteration products. The penetration of molten material carrying corundum into the gneiss during the differentiation of the molten dunite, would explain the occurrence of any corundum found in the gneiss bordering a contact vein. ‘There is a similar occurrence of the sulphides penetrating into the gneiss during the cool- ing and differentiation of a molten gabbro, which is well illustrated in Vogt’s* article and have been reproduced by Adams.t . Pirsson’st theory regarding the origin of the Montana sap- phires, occurring in a basic igneous.dike,§ is that these crys- stals separated out from the molten magma as this began to cool. He points out that originally the rock could not have been sufliciently rich in alumina to have allowed a general separation out of that material, and undoubtedly the magma took up quantities of inclusions from the sediments through which it passed. Clay shales, or a rock of similar composition, must have been among these sediments; and the fragments of this shale would be dissolved by the basic magma from which on cooling the alumina would separate out as corundum. Summary.—This theory of the igneous origin of the corun- dum associated with the peridotites is in accord with the field * U.S. Geol. Survey, Bulletin 42, pp. 50-56. + Already cited. . { This Journal IV, iv, p. 422, 1897. § This Journal III, 1, p. 467, 1895. Ee the Peridotites in North Carolina. 65 observations, the most important of which are the occurrence of the corundum surrounded by granular dunite and also by serpentine ; its occurrence with and surrounded by spinel; the sharp contact between the gneiss and the alteration products of the contact-vein; the same sequence of alteration products which are found on both sides of the corundum-bearing zone of a dunite-vein and which are almost identical with the du- nite side of a contact-vein ; the usual narrowing and pinching out of the dunite-veins, the trend of which is toward the cen- ter of the mass of dunite; while the contact-vein seems to ex- tend downward indefinitely. The laboratory experiments of Morozewicz* and Logoriot into the solubility of alumina in a molten basic glass and the separating out of the corundum and spinel as the first minerals whén the glass began to cool, also give strong support to the igneous theory of the origin of the corundum accepted by the author. ‘Thus the facts obtained in the field and in the laboratory both point to the same conclusion regarding the origin of the corundum associated with the peridotite rocks. In conelusion the author desires to express his thanks and indebtedness to Prof. L. V. Pirsson of the Sheffield Scientific School for valuable aid in the preparation of this paper. N. C. Geological Survey, March, 1898. * Cited on p. 60. ¢ Zeitschr. tiir Kryst., vol. xxiv, p. 285, 1895. Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH SEeries, Vou. VI, No. 31.—Juzy, 1898. 5 66 A. S. Hakle—Erionite, a new Zeolite. Art. VI.—LHrionite, a new Zeolite; by AnTHUR S. EAKLE. THE mineral described in the present paper occurs in a rhyolite-tuff from Durkee, Oregon, and was discovered and presented to the museum for identification by Mr. E. Porter Emerson. The tuff consists of a dull gray, amorphous ground- mass containing numerous patches of light brown, pitchstone- like material, fresh sanidine and plagioclase crystals, with an occasional dark silicate altered to chlorite. Large masses of opal fill the cavities. This opal is mostly of the milky and hyalitic kinds, yet often grades into a beautiful precious variety, showing a rich play of colors and forming excellent gem ma- terial. The zeolite occurs as very fine threads, having a snow-white color and pearly luster. These threads resemble fine woolly hairs, having the same curly nature and soft feel. They occur, sometimes as white tufts firmly adhering to a solid base of milky opal, resembling a filamentous growth of the opal, and sometimes as compactly matted fibers filling the rock fissures. In some of the specimens, the filaments are encrusted with a thin shell of white opal, indicating that the opal was subse- quently formed from the zeolite. The mineral fuses easily and quietly in the Bunsen flame, to a clear colorless glass. Heated in a closed tube, the fibers darken slightly, emit a burnt odor, and give off much water which reacts strongly alkaline. The tuff also shows this alka- line reaction, so it is evident that organic matter of some sort is present in the rock. The organic substance in the zeolite wust be a part of its constitution and not a contamination of any hydrosecopic water, since it cannot be eliminated by long boiling in water or acids. The weight of the fibers fluctuates materially from the influ- ence of the air, making correct weighings difficult. The loss over sulphuric acid is water of crystallization, as evidenced by the rapidity with which such loss is regained on exposure. Two-thirds of a gram of the material which had been exposed to the air of the laboratory for two months, was weighed in a platinum crucible and placed in a desiccator for a week. At the end of this period the loss was 6°95 per cent; in one hour, on the balance pan, one-half of this loss was regained; in two and a half hours, the fibers reached their original weight; in four hours, their weight became stationary and exceeded the original weight by 60 milligrams, although the weighings were made in a warm dry room and the balance case contained a beaker of strong sulphuric acid. In the air bath at 110° C., A. S§. EHakle—Erionite, a new Zeolite. 67 the loss was 7°68 per cent; at 200° C. it amounted to 13°32 per cent; at 280° C. it was 15°25 per cent, of which last all but 2 per cent was regained over night, when placed under a beaker in the laboratory. The loss was practically constant for the different temperatures, as shown by repeated trials and dif- ferent durations of heating. All water of crystallization was apparently expelled at 280° C., for on further heating up to 400° C. no more loss was experienced. The remaining water was expelled at low red heat, without fusion, the total loss averaging 17°30 per cent. This makes a difference of about 2 per cent as probably constitutional water. Alkaline water was still given off at 200° C., but at 280° C. all evidence of ammonia had disappeared. The water of crystallization evi- dently contains the organic substance, and considering the ease with which the fibers absorb moisture, it is readily conceivable that such moisture may have carried a certain amount of Organic impurity into the mineral. The amount of ammonia was determined by combustion with soda-lime, collecting the gas in standardized H,SO, and titrating with KOH solution, the result being 0°22 per cent. While this amount is too small to affect the general formula of the silicate, even if con- sidered an essential constituent, it is nevertheless sufficient to form an important pyrognostic characteristic. The fibers are soluble with extreme difficulty in HCl. Complete decomposi- tion was effected by boiling them in concentrated acid, evapo- rating the solution to dryness, grinding the residue and again boiling, the silica in the end separating as a fine sand, with no gelatinization. In the analyses, decomposition was effected (1) by fusing the fibers with the mixed carbonates, (2) by first igniting to a glass and then fusing with the carbonates, and (3) by dissolving in HCl. These various analyses were sufficient to establish the molecular ratio of the mineral, although from the nature of the material, closely agreeing duplicates were difficult to obtain. An average of the analyses gave Calculated for Ratio. 6Si0O2. Al2O3;(Ca;K,Na2)0+6H20 Mee =. of 1G = 953 6°03 56°52 meee. 1608 = “158 | 1° 16°01 wae. }68"50 = oo A-A0 Meo =. «#2066 = oe ; 1 an sal = '-039" 3°69 Peeer 2s] 2°47 = 040 } 2°43 eee 17305 “960 6°07 16°95 Total_. 100°68 100°00 feeetne rakio Si: Al, = 6:1, Si:H,= 1:1, R:Al,=1:1, 68 A. 8. Kakle—Erionite, a new Zeolite. while Ca+Mg:K,:Na,=2:1:1. This gives a general for- mula 6SiO,, Al,O,(Cak,Na,)O +6H,0, or allowing one molecule of water as hydroxyl, H,Si,Al,Cak,Na,O,,+5H,O. The gen- eral formula is analogous to that of stilbite, in which the calcium has been largely replaced by the alkalies, but in other respects the zeolite has no resemblance to stilbite and is undoubtedly a distinct mineral. The specific gravity is 1-997, determined by the methylene iodide and Thoulet solutions. Unfortunately the filaments are so delicate that complete opti- cal determinations cannot be made. ‘The mineral has a mod- erately strong double refraction. The acute bisectrix lies parallel to the fibers, since an axial figure normal to the obtuse bisectrix can be seen in the fibers. The axis of least elasticity is apparently in the direction of the fibers, making the mineral positive in character. Extinction is exactly parallel and indi- cates an orthorhombic crystallization. Several attempts were made to get a cross section of a bunch of the fibers, by imbed- ding them in various media, but nothing in the way of an axial figure was obtained. No difference was observed in the polarization colors between the fibers heated to 280° C. and those not heated. The name eronite, from épiov, wool, is proposed for the zeolite, on account of its woolly appearance. An analysis of the milky opal associated with the mineral gave SiO, 95°56, H,O 4°14 per cent and a trace of alumina. Miaeralogical Laboratory, Harvard University, April, 1898. Wileor— Winter Condition of the Reserve Food, etc. 69 Art. VII. — The Winter Condition of the Reserve Food Substances in the Stems of certain Deciduous Trees; by E. Meap WILCox. THE investigations, of which this is a preliminary account, were undertaken to determine more definitely some of the essential physiological processes involved in the dormant periods of our woody plants. Stated briefly the problem was (a) to determine what are the conditions in which the reserve food substances are stored in the twigs during these dormant periods, i. e. during the winter, and (6) what if any changes they undergo during this period, and (¢) how do these changes affect the renewal of activity by the buds at the beginning of the subsequent season of growth. And it is to be noticed that the phenomenon of the renewal of activity by buds is not essentially unlike the process of the germination of seeds—in fact both phenomena may well be classed under the one head of the germination of dormant organs. It is well known that this periodic alternation in the vegeta- tive growth of the tree of a period of growth and a period of rest is so regulated that both normally occur at definite seasons of the year. And this fact has led many writers to ascribe this periodicity to the effects of temperature and in general to external rather than to internal changes. However, these dormant periods often occur under the most favorable condi- tions both as to moisture and temperature, while germination and the renewal of vegetative activity quite as often occur under rather adverse external conditions. In fact more careful study tends to show that the apparently close dependence existing between vegetative rest and unfavorable external conditions is due to the fact that in the cells there are taking place certain remarkable changes that require for their completion a dormant period. This fact was definitely determined for the potato tuber by Miller-Thurgan 782, ’85. The two very interesting papers by Miller-Thurgan give the chemical changes that occur in the potato during its dormant period. In fact his work shows certainly a dependence of the renewed growth of the tuber upon the completion of these changes in the starch and other reserve food material stored within the tuber. Hartig, *58, expressed the view that the starch is stored in the cells of the bark and wood during the summer and that it remains there unaltered in position or amount till it is entirely or partially consumed in the production of new organs the following 70 Wileox— Winter Condition of the Reserve Food spring. This has been the accepted view until within very recent times. Gris ’66 and ’66a@ also shared in this view and says (66, page 443): “Quw il n’y a que deux grandes mouve- ments des maticres nutritives 4 l’interieur du trone des arbres: la genese de ces matiéres en éte, et leur résorption au printemps.” Famintzin and Borodin, ’67, noted in their study of a birch (the species is not given) that there was a rapid formation of starch in the spring in the cells of the male catkin and in the young twigs in both of which there had been no starch during the winter. They suggest that this starch might have been formed from the oil that was stored in abundance in the same regions and that gradually disappeared during the period of starch formation. Schroeder, 69, in his paper on Acer platinoides came to much the same conclusion, so far as concerns starch, as did Gris. Grebnitzky, ’84, studied eighteen species of trees for a period of two years but came to quite different conclusions than either of the others mentioned above. He says (I. ¢., page 157): “ Die Starke wird im Herbst audgespeichert, bleibt jedoch wahrend des Winters nicht als solches erhalten, indem sle wahrscheinlich in Fett titbergeht, in Frithlinge erscheint sie vor dem Knospenbruche wieder.” By this we see that Greb- nitzky recognized two periods of starch maximum alternate with two periods of starch minimum in the twigs. He says further that in all the soft-wood trees, as the Linden, all the starch disappears in winter while in the hardwood trees that the starch in the bark only is replaced. — Baranetzky, ’84, held that this change of starch into oil is a process that takes place only in the presence of active proto- plasm and that it goes on faster at higher temperatures than at lower temperatures. And this last assumption seemed to him to explain the fact that the transformation of starch into oil does not take place in roots at all or at least not to such an extent as in stems and all parts above ground. ‘This seems to me to be a mere assumption that does not adequately explain the conditions he considers to exist. Russow, ’84, carried on some experimental work in several species of trees. He records a gradual reduction in the amount of starch in the bark and considers that it was replaced by oil. He thought that the amount of starch in the woody part of the stems remained the same during the winter. He further says that the starch reap- peared in the bark in the course of a week in the spring. Fischer, ’88 and ’90, comes to the conclusion that there exists an autumn and a spring maximum period as to the amount of starch in the twigs. He divides the species that he examined into two classes distinguished by the starch in one case chang- ing into oil and in the other into glucose. For further details _— Substances in the Stems of certain Deciduous Trees. U1 the reader is referred to the original paper as it is too lengthy to review properly in full in this preliminary paper. My studies during the past year have been largely confined to the question of starch formation and distribution and its relation to the growth of the tree. And in this preliminary communication I purpose giving some of the results so far obtained that throw light upon this particular subject. The following list includes the names of the species which I have studied: Gordonia altamaha, Asculus flava, A’sculus flava purpurascens, A’sculus glabra, disculus lyoni, Sassa- Jras officinale, Asimina tritoba, Celtis occidentalis, Ailanthus glandulosus, Syringa vulgaris, Magnolia umbrella, Mag- nolia conspicua (hybrid), Acer saccharinum, Diospyros vir- giana, Huonymus atropurpureus, Crategus tomentosa, Cornus florida, Fagus ferruginea, Pyrus malus, Rhodo- dendron maximum, Ehododendron punctatum, Cladrastris tinctoria, Lindera benzoin, Liriodendron tulipifera, and Hamamelis virginiana. In addition to the above twenty-five species a number of others have been examined from time to time. I have collected material* from each of the above species at intervals of one or two weeks since the first of October, 1897. Buds and sections of the stem were collected each time and preserved in the same bottle for further study. a i ee 90 Van Hise—Metamorphism of Rocksand Rock Flowage. apparent perfect granulation, some degree of solution and re- crystallization from solution has occurred. In the case of the imperfect crystalline schists, which are very widespread rocks, the adjustment to the new form is accomplished in part by the process of differential movement of rigid granules and in part by solution and redeposition. It is only in the case of the typical granulated rocks that we can suppose that the process of deformation is mainly accomplished by the movement of the solid particles over one another, and it is only in the per- fect crystalline schists that we can suppose that the deforma- tion is accomplished almost wholly by recrystallization. Nothing is said by the foregoing conclusions as to the condition of the material below the zone of the erystalline schists or the meaning of the flowage of such material. The conclusions of the foregoing pages show clearly the meaning of rock cleavage. I have already held that this structure is largely due to the similar crystallographic orienta- tion of numerous mineral particles, and especially those which are authigenic, and therefore that rock cleavage is a capacity to part largely due to the actual cleavage of the similarly oriented mineral particles. As the cleavage of mineral parti- cles has long been known to be a molecular structure, it fol- lows that the cleavage of rocks is also largely a molecular structure.. I have also explained that the similar erystal- lographic orientation is frequently, perhaps usually, accom- panied by an arrangement of the mineral particles with their longer diameters in the same plane as the cleavage, and that this dimensional arrangement is a factor in rock cleavage, although one of probably less importance in most cases than that of the crystallographic orientation of the mineral particles. RECRYSTALLIZATION AND AQUEO-IGNEOUS FUSION, It is apparent that the conclusions of the foregoing paper have au important bearing upon the hypothesis of aqueo- igneous fusion. It appears that if water is present when the material, as a result of the mechanical subdivision or for an other cause, reaches the very moderate temperature of 180° C., the adjustment is accomplished mainly by recrystallization, and that fusion is not necessary to account for the plasticity of the rocks. 7 So far as the typical crystalline schists themselves are con- cerned, it is certain that they are not the produets of aqueo- igneous fusion. They have peculiar textures characteristic of themselves, which are wholly unlike textures of unmodified sedimentary rocks, and unlike those which are known invari- ably to appear in rocks which have crystallized from a magma, however the magma has been produced. Every magma erys- Van Hise—Metamorphism of Rocks and Rock Flowage. 91 tallizes according to the laws of magmas, and produces textures which are characteristic of such crystallization, and these are widely different from those of the crystalline schists. It does not follow from the foregoing that the deeply buried rocks, including the crystalline schists themselves, may not be- come modified or even fused by contact with igneous intrusives. SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS. I here repeat some of the more fundamental principles stripped of qualifications: (1) The chemical alterations awhicti rocks undergo vary greatly under different conditions. The more important of these variable conditions are water content, temperature, pres- sure, and movement. (2) The outer part of the earth, of which we have definite knowledge, may be divided into two physico-chemical zones. In the upper of these the reactions take place with the ex- pansion of volume and with the liberation of heat, as end results. In the lower the reactions take place with the con- traction of volume and with the absorption of heat, as end results. Some of the more important reactions in the upper zone are hydration, oxidation, and carbonation; some of the more important reactions in the lower zone are dehydration, sulphidation, and silication. (3) The alterations under mass statie conditions preserve previous textures and structures, but may go so far as to com- pletely recrystallize the rocks. The alterations under mass dynamic conditions are different in the zone of fracture and the zone of flow. In the former the rocks are broken into fragments, and the alterations of the fragments are those of mass static conditions. In the zone of flow the alterations obliter- ate previous textures and structures and produce crystalline schists which have characteristic textures and structures. (4) Rock flow is accomplished partly through mechanical strains, but mainly through continuous solution and deposition of the material of the rocks by the ageney of the contained water. During the flow the rock is at all times almost wholly a solid, yet it responds like a plastic body to deformation withont loss of its crystalline character, because of the con- tinuous adaptation of the mineral patticles, while in large parts retaining their integrity, to new forms by reerystalliza- tion. (5) The energy required to produce agiven mass deformation increases downward to the bottom of the belt of granulation. In the zone of flow by reerystallization the energy reqnired to produce a given mass deformation is less, probably much less, than that in the lower part of the zone of fracture. 92 0. C. Marsh—New Species of Ceratopsia. Art. [X.—Wew Species of Ceratopsia ; by O. C. MARsH. In the series of Ceratopsia remains which I secured in the West for the U.S. Geological Survey, and have since sent to Washington, several forms new to science are represented, One of the skulls, the type of Zrzceratops elatus, was sent in 1891, and with it two others belonging to 7. prorsus and 7. sulcatus, and these are now on exhibition in the National Museum. Among the Ceratopsia skulls, twelve in number, sent to Washington from New Haven during the present month, are two of much interest, both representing new forms. Triceratops calicornis, sp. nov. One of these, which may be called Z7iceratops calicornis, is of special importance, as not only the skull but the greater part of the skeleton of the animal is in good preservation, forming one of the most instructive specimens now known of this group of extinct Reptiles. The skull as a whole shows the well-marked features of the genus Zriceratops. A specific character is seen in the nasal horn-core, which is in perfect preservation. It is directed well forward, and unlike any hitherto described is concave above, which fact has suggested the specific name. The upper or posterior surface of this horn-core somewhat resembles the bottom of a horse’s hoof. Some of the principal dimensions of this skull are as follows: Length from front of beak to back of parietal crest, about six feet, five inches; from front of beak to end of occipital con- dyle, three feet, five inches ; distance from occipital condyle to back of parietal crest, four feet; from front of beak to point of nasal horn-core, twenty-three inches ; height of post-frontal horn-core, twenty-nine and a half inches, and antero-posterior diameter of same horn-core at base, twelve inches. Triceratops obtusus, sp. nov. A second new species, which may be called Z7riceratops obtusus, is represented by a large skull belonging to the same genus. The nasal horn-core of this skull is very short and obtuse, and so well preserved that it indicates the normal form and size. The entire length of this horn-core is only one inch. Its summit is three and a half inches behind the premaxillary suture. The width of the nasals beneath the horn-core is five and a half inches. The length of the squamosal from the quadrate groove to the posterior end is about thirty-six inches, and its greatest width is nineteen inches. These two skulls were both found by J. B. Hatcher, in the Ceratops beds of Converse County, Wyoming. Yale Museum, New Haven, Conn., June 15, 1898. —_—- a > j 7 Chemistry and Physics. 93 se rhNYTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. On the Vapor Pressure of reciprocally soluble Liquids.—It has been pointed out by Ostwatp that the question whether two liquids are completely miscible with each other or only partially so miscible is in general a question of temperature. Since all vapors are completely miscible at all points above the critical temperature, evidently liquids must be completely miscible at this temperature. Below this temperature, however, a separation may occur. In 1891 Masson showed that there is a temperature at which this separation first occurs and which he called the “ critical solution temperature.” At this particular temperature the two saturated solutions formed by the liquids have the same composi- tion and the same vapor pressure, and therefore give vapors having identical composition. At this point, consequently, the composi- tion of the liquid must be the same as that of the vapor which is iven off on boiling. Below this point, the composition of the distillate obtained from a mixture of two partially miscible liquids, . may be considered, according to the author, as also that of a liquid mixture having, if homogeneous, the same composition as its vapor.—Ann. Phys. Chem., I, 1xiii, 336-341, December, 1897. G. F. B. 2. On Electric: Energy by Atmospheric Action.—An electric generator has been devised by Warren whose energy comes from direct atmospheric oxidation. Plates of a special porous compressed graphite are prepared, and about a fourth of each plate is made active by immersion in platinic oxalate, drying and igniting in an atmosphere of hydrogen. When placed in contact with a ferrous sulphate solution, oxidation of the iron by the oxy- gen of the air is effected through the agency of the platinum. The circular lead beam to which these plates are attached sur- rounds a porous diaphragm containing as the negative element a rod of amalgamated zinc, the carbon plates being arranged so as to allow the platinized portion to project above the solution, con- sisting of strongly acidified ferric sulphate. On completing the circuit a strong current is produced, which continues until the complete reduction of the ferric salt has taken place, when the action ceases. On withdrawing the zinc, the platinum surface condenses the atmospheric oxygen and so steadily re-oxidizes the ferrous salt, thus renewing the action.— Chem. News, |xxvi, 200, October, 1897. G. F. B. 3. Onthe Significance of Ionic Reactionsin Electrochemistry.— In a recent lecture on the bearing of the ionic hypothesis on ana- lytical chemistry, Ktsrrer made some interesting experiments. The electric exchange Cu**+Fe=Cu+Fe*t was shown by placing pieces of iron near the top and of copper near the bottom, of a solu- tion of sodium sulphate; on adding a few crystals of copper sul- phate near the copper, a current flows at once from the copper to the | 94 Scientific Intelligence. iron through the external circuit. If two iron plates be used in a solution of common salt, a little ferric chloride being placed near the lower one, the change produced illustrates the equation FKe,*++ + Fe = Fe,*+. In the case of the reversible reaction Fett +I[=Fettt +T-, the electrical exchanges were shown by means of two platinum electrodes standing in small crystallizing dishes placed within a larger dish, the latter being filled with a solution of potassium chloride. In one of the small dishes is contained some iodine and in the other ferrous chloride solution. Under these conditions the current in the exter- nal circuit flows from the iodine to the strong ferrous solution ; but by increasing the concentration of the iodine ions or of the ferric ions, the reaction is reversed and with it the direction of the current. In a similar way the exchange I~ + Br= Br*+-+I was shown. When electrodes of iron and platinum are immersed in a potassium chloride solution and a little iodine is added near the platinum, the current developed corresponds to the reaction Fe+[1,=Fett=I-. Again a saturated solution of hydrogen chloride in toluene does not con- duct electricity even under a pressure of 72 volts; nor does such _a solution act on calcium carbonate. But the addition of a little water enables it to accomplish both these results. A saturated solution (0°1 normal) of carbonic acid colors methyl orange less intensely red than a 0°01 normal solution of acetic acid, owing to their dissociation difference. By adding a trace of hydrogen sodium carbonate to the carbonic acid, the diminution of dissocia- tion produced by increasing the concentration of one ion is shown by the disappearance of the red color. The same result follows the addition of sodium acetate to the acetic acid solution ; though no change of color is produced when sodium chloride is added to a weak solution of hydrogen chloride colored by methylorange. A similar phenomenon is the precipitation of lead chloride from its saturated solution by adding a solution of common salt. In the next place, if copper be present in the form of cation in a solution of copper suphate, or in that of a complex anion in Fehling’s solution, this fact may be proved by passing a current through two U-tubes, in one of which is a solution of copper sulphate having one of sodium sulphate floating upon it, while in the other is the Fehling’s solution and on it an alkaline ~ solution of Rochelle salt. In the one tube the blue zone moves in the same direction as, and in the other in the opposite direction to, that of the current. The absence of cupric ions from Feh- ling’s solution was further shown by means of a galvanic cell containing lead and copper immersed respectively in solutions of lead acetate and copper sulphate. Under these conditions, lead dissolves and copper is thrown down; but both the reaction and the direction of the current are reversed if an alkaline solu- tion of Rochelle salt is added to the cupric sulphate solution.— Zeitschr. LHlectrochem, iv, 105-113, August, 1897. G. F. B. 4. On the Photoelectric Properties of Certain Colored —" —- = , Chemistry und Physies. a7 Salts.—Some years ago, Goldstein showed that many salts be- came colored under the influence of the kathode discharge, and that the salts so colored possessed the property of losing negative electrification readily when subjected to the influence of bright light. More recently, Giesel* has obtained a similar coloration by subjecting the salts to the action of sodium or potassium vapor. Eister and Griret have now shown that the salts colored by Giesel’s method also show the photoelectric peculiarity observed in those colored by the kathode discharge. They have also noticed it in the case of some naturally colored specimens of rock salt. Hence it would appear probable that the coloration is due to a dilute solution of the metal in the solid salt, even though no indications of alkalinity in solutions of these colored salts were found by Abegg. There appears to be no evidence in support of Kreutz’s view that the presence of iron salts is the cause of the coloration.— Amn. Phys. Chem., II, xii, 599-602, November, 1897. G. F. B. 5. On Combustion in Rarefied Air.—Experiments have been made by Brnepicen?TI upon the combustion taking place in a lamp fed with olive oil burned under various atmospheric pres- sure, with the object of elucidating the question of combustion at high altitudes. He finds that combustion is just as complete under 360™™ pressure, corresponding to an altitude of 6000 meters, as at ordinary pressures, the only difference being that the speed of combustion is less at the lower pressure. Moreover no appreciable increase occurs in the quantity of carbon monoxide roduced as the pressure diminishes.—fteal. Accad. Linc., V, v, 1, 40, 1896; J. Chem. Soc., |xxiv, ii, 215, May, 1898. G. F. B. 6. On Molecular Masses of Solid Substances.—On comparing the densities of a number of solid organic substances, TRAuBE has been able to show that the volume of the group CH, is practically the same in solid as in Jiquid compounds. If we assume that this holds good also for the atomic volumes of the elements, it be- comes possible to calculate the co-volumes for a number of solid substances. This done, the result appears that the co-volume forthe solid state appears to have about half the value which it pos- sesses for liquids. But since a diminution of the co-volume on solidification can be due only to the association of molecules, it is assumed by the author that the co-volume in the solid state is in reality equal to that for the liquid state, Avogadro’s law holding for the solid state. From this heis able to calculate the associa- tion factor for the compounds referred to, and finds that it is roughly equal to 2; allthese compounds, therefore, in the solid form being bi-molecular. This conclusion appears to be con- firmed by a comparison of a number of inactive racemic com- pounds, which are undoubtedly bi-molecular, with the cor- responding active components. Since these latter are found to have the same co-volumes, they also must be bi-molecular. Ap- plying to inorganic salts the same method, it follows that those * See this Journal, IV, iv, 152, August, 1897. — + - —_ 96 Seientific Intelligence. which yield two ions are bi-molecular whereas those which yield three ions are monomolecular. Kiister’s experiments on naph- thol and naphthalene are quoted by the author in support of his views, as also the fact that many solid compounds have vapor densities at low temperatures corresponding to a molecular mass double that which they possess at high temperatures.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Gres., xxxi, 130-137, February, 1898. G. F. B. 7. On the Liquefaction of Hydrogen.—-On the 10th of May, at the Royal Institution, Dewar succeeded in effecting the complete lique- faction of hydrogen. As early as 1896, he had successfully pro- duced a jet of hydrogen containing liquid, by means of which he was able to cool bodies below any temperature that could be produced by liquid air. It was resolved therefore to construct a larger apparatus of the same type, and the first experiments with it were made on the above date. In his paper read to the Royal Society on May 12th he says: ‘“‘On May 10th, a start was made with hydrogen cooled to —205°C and under a pressure of 180 atmospheres escaping continuously from the nozzle of a coil of pipe at the rate of about 10 to 15 cubic feet per minute in a vacuum vessel double silvered and of special construction, all sur- rounded with a space kept below—200°C. Liquid hydrogen com- menced to drop. from this vacuum vessel into another doubly iso- lated by being surrounded with athird vacuum vessel. In about five minutes, 20°° of liquid hydrogen were collected, when the hydrogen jet froze, up from the solidification of air in the pipes. The yield of liquid was about one per cent of the gas. The hydrogen in the liquid condition is clear and colorless, showing no absorption spectrum, and the meniscus is as well defined as in the case of liquid air. The liquid must have a relatively high refractive index and dispersion and the density must also be in excess of the theoretical density, viz., 0°18 to 0'12, which we deduce respectively from the atomic volume of organic compounds and the limiting density found by Amagat for hydrogen gas under infinite com- pression.” ... “ Not having arrangements at hand to determine - the boiling point, two experiments were made to prove the exces- sively low temperature of the boiling fluid. In the first place, when a long piece of glass tubing sealed at one end and open to the air at the other was cooled by immersing the closed end in the liquid hydrogen, the tube immediately filled where it was cooled with solid air. The second experiment was made with a tube containing helium.” . . . ‘‘ Having a specimen of helium which had been extracted from Bath gas sealed up ina bulb with a nar- row tube attached, the latter was placed in liquid hydrogen, when a distinct liquid was seen to condense. From this result it would appear that there cannot be any great difference in the boil- ing points of helium and hydrogen.” Although Olszewski has pub- lished an account of experiments in which hydrogen was obtained in a state of momentary or “dynamical ” liquefaction, as a thin mist, in which state some of its constants were measured, Dewar’s result, in which the hydrogen was produced as a “static” a ee ee ee i ead Me Chemistry and Physics. 97 liquid with aclearly defined meniscus, must be regarded as an achievement of a greatly higher order.—Wature, lvili, 55-57, May 18th, 1898; Pril. Mag., V, xlv, 543, June, 1898. G. F. B. 8. Some New Methods for the Measurement of Self-Inductanee, Mutual Inductance and Capacity ; by H. A. Rowzanp and T. D. Prenniman. (From the Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 135, June, 1898.)—In the American Journal of Science, December, 1897, and in Phil. Mag., January, 1898, one of us published an ac- count of a large number of new methods for the measurement and comparison of self-inductance, mutual inductance and capacity. Several of these methods have been tested in the Physical Labora- tory of the University with great success, notably the methods for the comparison of the above quantities. The methods involve the use of the electrodynamometer with an alternating current, and depend on one general principle—that is, that the deflection of the hanging coil of an electrodynamom- eter, if the hanging coil and the fixed coils of the electrodyna- mometer are originally at right angles, is proportional to the product of the currents in the hanging coil and the fixed coils, together with the cosine of the phase difference of the two cur- rents. The dependence of the deflection on the cosine of the phase difference of the currents divides the methods into two general classes—methods in which there is a deflection, i. e., the cosine of the phase difference has a value; and methods of zero deflection, i. e., the cosine of the phase difference is equal to zero, The first class of methods gives the self-inductance or capacity in terms of resistance and @, 1. e., 2x (the number of complete alter- nations per second of the current). ‘These methods were very easy of application ; the chief difficulty was the variation of 8, as the current was generated in the power house of the Uni- versity, where the engine was subject to great change of load. ‘The presence of electric absorption also interfered with the accu- rate determination of the capacity of condensers. The following method is an example of this class, and of the accuracy with which self-inductance can be determined even under these conditions. In this method the fixed coils of the electrodynamometer are in the main line or circuit, and the hang- ing coil is shunted off the main circuit around a small resistance, r. In the hanging-coil circuit is placed a non-inductive resistance, fF, with a self-inductance, Z, under which condition the hanging coil will have a certain deflection when the current is flowing. They, & and JZ, are now removed, and a non-inductive resistance, f*, is substituted, which is adjusted to give the same deflection as when A and Z were in circuit. Under these conditions, O° L* = (k'—R) (#+7r). By this method and similar methods given in the article cited, , _ values of self-inductance were determined that agreed among themselves to within about 1 part in 100, i. e., the determinations were made with about the same degree of accuracy as 6 could be Am. Jour. Sct.—Fourts Suries, Vou. VI, No, 31.—Juty, 1898. 7 98 Scientific Intelligence. determined, on which quantity they directly depended. Taking into account absorption, capacity can be determined by the same method with about the same degree of accuracy. This method is easy to use, as it requires but one adjustment, J’. The methods for the comparison of the above quantities gave much more accurate results, as they are independent of the period of the current, the great cause of error in the measurement of the quantities. When care was taken to guard against all inductive and electrostatic action of the different parts of the apparatus on each other, the results derived by the different methods tried were remarkably good, notably the results obtained by the method for the comparison of two self- inductanees. The connec- tions for this method are made in this manner Let there be two coils of self-inductances, ‘B, and £L, placed together, and let the circuit pass through the coil By From the main circuit, after it has passed thr ough the coil B,, “the hanging coil of the electr odynamometer, having i in circuit a self- -inductance, I, and a resistance, #, is shunted around a small resistance, 7 The coil B, is placed in circuit with the fixed coils of the electro- dynamometer and a resistance, R’’. The condition, then, for zero deflection when the current is flowing is L Rk+r | Bo ~ Re Using this method and taking B, as a standard equal to 1 Henry, several coils were compared. with B,, both singly and in series, To show with what accuracy self- inductances of different amounts can be compared, a few values are given for two periods. The coils being compared with L, as a standard. nm = 40 Nic bes Results Sums and Results | Sums and CoILs. found differences found | differences Sums and by direct of direct by direct | of direct differences. measurement. measurement. |measurem’t. measurem’t. Fie ulin COGS 5663 5653.|., 5648 (C+P.)—C= am C 1°3050 1°3049 1°3034 | 1°3029 (C+P,)—P,=C C+P, 1°8713 1°8714 1:8682 | 1°8677 C+P, These are good cases of agreement, and show the accuracy of the method for the comparison of self-inductance of different amounts, when care is taken to eliminate heating and electrostatic action of the resistance and leads. It will be noticed that the value of the self-inductance for the two periods is different; this was due to the electrostatic action of the turns of the coils on each other, and thérefore could not be avoided. | When equal self-inductances are to be compared, the accuracy eS ee ee a a j | | : : . Chemistry and Physics. 99 depends only on the sensitiveness of the instrument to changes in +r; and in the arrangement used in our experiments, the elec- trodynamometer was sensitive to changes of about 1 part in 10,000 in A+r. Therefore the construction of standard self- inductances that will agree with each other to within 1 part in 10,000 is feasible by this method. 9. Some Notes on the Zeeman Effect; by J. S. Amus, R. F. Earwarr and H. M. Rezse. (From the Johns Hopkins-Univer- sity Circulars, No. 135.)—In our investigation of the effect of the magnetic field on radiations in the ether, we have been led to study certain variations from the phenomena discovered by Zee- man, which seem to be worthy of note. Up to the present we have studied the effect of a magnetic field upon the spark-spectra of magnesium, iron, cadmium and zine. The research is by no means complete, but having discovered several new effects we think it well to publish them at present, and to defer until later a full discussion of the phenomena. Our apparatus has been the small concave grating of the Physi- eal Laboratory, which has a radius of curvature of about eleven feet. The grating is ruled with 15,000 lines to the inch and is five inches in width. The magnetic field has been produced by an ordinary form of electro-magnet, but we have made no at- tempt to measure the intensity of the field, because our object has not been to establish numerial relations. The field, however, was strong enough to produce a separation in the case of iron of about a tenth of an Angstrém unit, and the definition has been most satisfactory. The method of use was to introduce between the spark and the slit a Nicol’s prism and quartz lens, and to photograph the resulting spectra along the middle of the photo- graphic plate, then turning the Nicol’s prism through 90°, and at the same time turning a shutter which is placed in front of the photographic plate, to expose the two edges of the plate to the new radiation coming through the Nicol’s prism. By this method we secure on the same plate the components of the vibrations polarized along the lines of force and at right angles to them. We have studied the effect of the magnetic field upon the iron spectrum from wave-length 3400 tenth meters to wave-length 4300, and in this region have noticed that all the lines, with cer- tain exceptions to be noted, are influenced in the way discovered by Zeeman. In particular, when the radiation at right angles to the magnetic field is studied, each line in the spectrum is broken up into three, the central component being plane polarized, with _ its vibrations along the lines of force; the two side components being plane polarized at right angles to this, their vibrations being at right angles to the field of force. We have observed, however, that three lines, of wave-length 3587713, 3733°47 and 3865-67, are affected in the opposite way ; _ that is, the line is a triplet when viewed at right angles to the magnetic field, but the central component is so polarized that its vibrations are at right angles to the field, and the two side com- ponents have their vibrations along the field. 100 Scientific Intelligence. Four lines, at 3746°06, 3767°34, 8850°12, 3888°67, have, so far as our indications go, no modification produced whatever. The lines at 3722°72 and 3872°64 are so modified as to be quadruplets, the central component which has its vibrations along the line of force being a close double. There are several other lines con- cerning which we have doubt, but most of the others examined are clearly modified in the way described by Zeeman. We have noted too that the separation of the side components of the trip- lets seems to be most irregular; lines whose wave-lengths differ by only a few Angstr6m units have displacements which differ by 20 per cent at least. In short, there seems to be no regularity in . the separations produced. (Several of the above effects have been observed by other investigators.) In studying the spectrum of cadmium we have observed that the lines at 4678°37, 4800°09, 5086°06, which belong to the “sec- ond subsidiary series,” and the lines at 3467°76 and 3613:04 which belong to the “first subsidiary series,” are all modified in the normal manner; that is to say, in the manner described by Zeeman, and by amounts which are no greater than for iron, but that there seems to be no regularity in the separations produced, either between the two series or between the lines of any one series. We have been unable to extend our investigations into the extreme ultra violet owing to the fact that the Nicol’s prism which we used in order to separate the components, absorbs the waves beyond 3400. In the study of the spectra of zinc and of magnesium, we have not yet obtained results which are worthy of note. 10. An Elementary Course of Physics. Edited by Rev. J. C. P. Aupous, M.A. 862pp. London and New York, 1898. (Britannia Series: The Macmillan Co.)—In this volume, the chapters devoted to Mechanics, Properties of Matter, Hydrostatics, and Heat have been prepared by the editor; those on Wave Motion, Sound, and Light, by W. D. Eggar; and those on Magnetism and Electricity by F. R. Barrell. The authors have certainly succeeded in giv- ing a very satisfactory and attractive presentation of the subject of physics from the elementary and somewhat popular side. In many cases the subjects are introduced with a brief allusion to the historical development which is sure to make the matter more real to the student. Thus the opening paragraphs devoted to motion begin with the mention of Newton’s observation of the falling apple; even a picture of the philosopher is added (perhaps unnecessarily, in this case). The principles are stated through- out in clear and simple language, and the frequent illustrations, verbal and pictorial, are much to be commended; the latter have been for the most part freshly prepared for this volume. Math- ematical expressions are largely avoided, which fact, while limit- ing the usefulness of the book in certain obvious directions, makes it all the more readable for the class of students for whom it has been prepared. ' 4 ‘ : eis. 2 se ee = we) Geology and Natural History. 101 11. The Storage Battery. A Practical Treatise on the Con- struction, Theory, and Use of Secondary Batteries; by Aucustus TREADWELL, Jr... H.E. 257 pp. New York and London, 1898. (The Macmillan Co.)—The subject of storage batteries is one that has always been of great general interest, both from the theoretical and practical standpoints, ever since the earliest attempts in this direction. The present practical treatise is par- ticularly acceptable because it is at once fresh and sufficiently thorough and scientific. Brief accounts are given of the many different forms of accumulators, and these are accompanied by numerous illustrations; those showing the discharge curves are especially valuable. ‘The chemical theory, as now accepted, is . explained, and an interesting chapter is devoted to a description of practical storage battery installations at many different points with data as to their practical working. The concluding chapter contains valuable suggestions as to the precautions to be observed in the use of accumulators and the conditions under which they give the best results. Il. -GrEoLoGy AND NATURAL HIsToRY. 1. Important Vertebrate Fossils for the National Museum.— Prof. O. C. Marsu has recently transmitted from New Haven to the Director of the U. 8. Geological Survey the fourth large instalment of Vertebrate Fossils secured in the West, in 1882-92, under his direction, as Paleontologist of the U. S. Geological Sur- vey in charge of Vertebrate Paleontology. The collection is packed in one hundred (100) boxes, and weighs over thirteen (13) tons. In accordance with law, the material will be deposited in the National Museum. This collection includes twelve skulls and other remains of the gigantic Ceratopsia from the Creta- ceous; various Dinocerata fossils from the Eocene; a series of rare specimens of Lrontotherium, Hlotherium, Miohippus, and other genera, from the Miocene; a very extensive collection of Rhinoceros and other mammals from the Pliocene; as well as various interesting fossils from more recent deposits. The other important collections of Vertebrate Fossils secured by Prof. Marsh in the West for the Geological Survey, and pre- viously transferred to the National Museum, may be briefly enumerated as follows:— ” Seventy-two (72) large boxes of Pliocene fossils, weighing about 7,500 lbs., were transferred December 31, 1886, and were stored in the Armory, February 8, 1887. The record of these boxes is on file in the office of the Geological Survey, and the Smithsonian numbers of the boxes are 6601-6672. (2) Thirty-three (33) large boxes (weighing 6,960 lbs.) of rare Vertebrate Fossils, ready for exhibition, were transferred July 17, 1891, and were placed in a case specially prepared for them in the National Museum, before the opening of — ‘ 102 Scientific Intelligence. the International Congress of Geologists held in Washing- ton that year. (3) Forty-three (43) large boxes (weighing 4,380 Ibs.) of Pliocene Vertebrate Fossils were transferred April 17, 1896. These various collections with other smaller consignments transferred to the National Museum (255 boxes in all, with a total weight of over 20 tons) were secured under the special direction of Prof. Marsh, as Paleontologist of the U.S. Geological Survey in charge of Vertebrate Paleontology, during 1882-92. The remaining collections thus made, and still at New Haven, will be sent to Washington as soon as their scientific investigation now in progress is completed. 2. U. S. Geological Survey.—A new publication of the U.S. Geological Survey has appeared as Folio 1 of the Topographic Atlas. It embraces ten maps selected to illustrate topographic forms described in an accompanying text, by Henry Gannett, and is intended for use in teaching Geography. The topographic types illustrated are: A Region in Youth (Fargo, North Dakota), Maturity (Charles- ton, West Virginia), Old Age (Caldwell, Kansas), Rejwvenated (Palmyra, Virginia), also A Young Volcanic Mountain (Mount Shasta, California), Moraines (Eagle, Wisconsin), Drumlins (Sun Prairie, Wisconsin), Liver Flood Plains (Donaldsonville, Louis- iana), A Hiord Coast (Boothbay, Maine), A Barrier-Beach Coast (Atlantic City, New Jersey). These features are illustrated by the sbeets noted in parentheses. 3. The Occurrence of Petroleum in Burma. Volume xxvii, Part II, of the Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, consists of a paper of 226 pages, with a large number of folded plates, by Dr. Fritz Nortiine on the occurrence of petroleum in Burma, and its technical exploitation. This discusses the subject exhaustively, both from the scientific and technical side and further gives an interesting historical summary going back to legendary times. The chief locality is at Yenangyoung, on the left bank of the Irawadi, in the Magwe District, where the petroleum comes chiefly from certain argillaceous beds in the Upper Miocene. Another locality is near the village of Minbu, on the Irawadi, 423 miles above Ragoon; but this has not been exploited thus far to any considerable extent. Some other occurrences are also noted, as that at Yenangyat. It is stated that a peculiarity of the Burma petroleum consists in its large percentage of paraffine wax, which makes it a viscous oil. In consequence of this, at a temperature of 54° F., the petroleum which collects in some pools congeals and forms a greasy matter of the consistency of lard; thus during the winter months the pipe lines cool so much that the flow is seriously clogged. The petroleum contains about 50 per cent of illuminating oil with 40 per cent of lubricating oil and 10 per cent of paraffine wax. The oil from _Yenangyat, however, is lighter and contains a larger quantity of illuminating oil than that of Yenangyoung. Previous to 1886 there was no a Miscellaneous Intelligen Ce. os, (OS great variation in the production of oil, but in recent years the amount has run up very largely, and while it amounted to 34,000 barrels in 1886, it has become 257,000 in 1894, although it is remarked that this production is small in comparison to that of Baku or of the United States. ; 4, A Text-book of Entomology ; by A.S. Packarp ; pp. xvii+ 729, 8vo, 1 pl. and 654 figs. in text. New York, 1898 (The Macmillan Company; $4.50).—This, the latest of Prof. Packard’s books on insects, occupies a comparatively new and increasingly ‘important field among modern text-books of entomology. After a brief discussion of the relations of insects to other arthropods and the rest of the animal kingdom, the work is entirely devoted to anatomy, physiology, embryology and metamorphoses. Much the larger portion of the work is given up to the first of the three parts into which it is divided, that on external and internal anat-: omy, in which some account is given of the physiology of the more important organs, especially those involved in locomotion. The second part, on embryology, follows closely Korschelt and Heider’s excellent text-book on the embryology of invertebrates, but the account of the maturation and fertilization of the egg is so brief and imperfect that it gives little idea of these processes. A more noteworthy defect is the apparent omission of any description of asexual reproduction, although the parthenoge- netic eggs of Cecidomyia are described and figured. The final _ part, on metamorphoses, is naturally the most interesting part of the book and cannot fail to be of service to the general student of biology. The volume, which is well and profusely illustrated and admirably printed, will be appreciated by every one interested in entomology. 5. Bibliotheca Zoologica ll. Verzeichniss der Schriften tiber Zoologie welche in den periodischen Werken enthalien und vom Jahre 1861-1880 selbstdndig erschienen sind. Bearbeitet von Dr. O. TascuEnserG. Vierzehnte Lieferung. Signatur 521-560, pp. 4209-4528. Leipzig, 1898 (W. Engelmann).—The editor and publisher of this comprehensive work are to be congratulated upon its near approach to completion. The present Lieferung, No. 14, contains the closing part of the bibliography devoted to the Aves (pp. 4209-4264) and the opening part of the Mammalia (pp. 4365-4528). II. MiscenLANEovus ScIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Seestudien: Erliiuterungen zur zweiten Lieferung des Atlas der dsterreichischen Alpenseen, von Dr. Epuarp RicutEer. Geo- graphische Abhandlungen herausgegeben von Prof. Dr. Albrecht Penck. Band vi, Heft 2, pp. 71. Vienna, 1897 (Ed. Hélzel).— The latest contribution to the admirable geographical memoirs edited by Prof. Penck is this paper on the Austrian Alpine Lakes, intended to serve as a text to the atlas which it accompanies. It gives an interesting account of the results of soundings made to 104 Miscellaneous Intelligence. determine the exact form of the lakes, and f urther, a detailed state- ment of the observations of the temperature of the water through the different seasons of the year. The change of conditions from the time when the lakes were covered with ice to the warmer period of the summer, and again to their freezing in winter, has been traced out with great minuteness, and the results, while not in all respects novel, contain several points of interest. It is remarked, for example, that the warming of the surface water is accomplished exclusively by the direct radiation and is almost independent of the temperature of the air. The Increase in sur- face temperature may amount to as much as six degrees in a day, though most of that is lost again during the night, particularly in the case of clear weather. At a depth of four meters the effect of the sun’s rays may amount to as much as half a degree in a day, while at ten or twelve meters a warming of only one or two degrees in the course of the entire summer is noted; but great differences result according to the purity of the water. It was found, further, that the freezing over begins when the temperature has cooled down to + 1 or + 2, and a temperature of zero degrees before freezing was never observed. It is remarked that further investigations are needed to explain this anomaly. Attention 1s called in this connection to a paper by Arnet on the freezing of the lakes in Central Switzerland from 1890 to 1896, in which it is stated, in regard to Lake Luzerne, that during freezing and while ice covered the lake, no temperature below 1°25 C. was noted. 2. Field Columbian Museum.—The following are recent publi- ions : Me PAbhoenae 23, Anthropological Series, vol. ii, No. 2. eee “4 - RARE AND FINE MINERALS. By July lst we expect to have on sale nearly all of the minerals purchased by Mr. English during his recent European Trip. It is impossible, in this small space, to give even a general idea of the wealth of rare and fine minerals secured, and we, therefore, urge our customers to visit us, if practicable, or to permit us to send a box or two of specimens on approval. BROKEN HILL MINERALS. The collection of an Australian miner bought in Lon- don enables us to offer by far the finest Cerussites and . Embolites ever brought to this country, and to sell them at much lower prices than have heretofore ruled. Superb reticulated groups of Cerussite, 50c. to $15.00; spongy masses of Embolite, 25c. to $20.00; a few sharply crystallized Embolites, $2.00 to $15.00; one 34 lb. mass of nearly pure Embolite, only $35.00; also many good specimens of Calcite, Smithsonite, Limonite, Anglesite, Silver, Pyromorphite, etc. MINERALS FROM THE NORTH OF ENGLAND. English Calcites and Barites are too well known to need description, but the specimens we-now offer are unquestionably the finest lot (excluding Egremont twins) ever shipped to America. Mr. English picked nearly all of the very _ choicest specimens from the best collection of North-of-England minerals, and ‘secured entire finds of several incomparably beautiful, new varieties. The rich- ness of coloring, brilliancy, complexity and perfection of crystallization, give our present specimens an indisputable claim to a place in the very best collections. A very few good Fluors were obtained, also a lot of good Sphalerites, Irides- cent Dolomites, and a large lot of good and cheap Hematite with Quartz. A's these purchases aggregate considerably over 2,000 specimens, there are, of course, many individual specimens worthy of special attention. A FEW OF THE MANY OTHER NOTEWORTHY SPECIMENS. Hessite, well crystallized, 15 specimens; large Phenacite crystals from Norway; Whewellite at low prices; several very choice Crystallized Gold; ochrosite in groups of Scalenohedrons; unusually choice Crystal- ed Pyrrhotite; Crystallized Bornite; a fine lot of large, bright Twins of Cassiterite ; very good Viluite crystals; Tridymite in groups of very large crystals. RARE SPECIES. "In addition to those enumerated last month we would mention a very few more of the 4C0 or more species secured: Aeschynite xls Couzeranite Parisite xls Strengite Agricolite Davyne Percylite Stannite xled Amalgam xled Eucairite Prosopite Tritomite Bayldonite Euchlorite Pyrochlore xls Umangite reithauptite Eulytite Pyrostilpnite Uranospinite acheutaite Famatinite Sarcolite Uranothallite Chalcomorphite Fluocerite Schwartzembergite Zeunerite Countless Other Equally Desirable Specimens. Loose Crystals, cheap Educational Specimens, Minerals for Blowpipe Analysis; Systematic Collections, Mineralogical Supplies. GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists; - 64 East 12th St., New York City. a Se ESS CONTENTS. Art. I.—Origin and Significance of Spines: 7 a Study i in 1 Evo. lution 5 by C. E. Bercuer. (With Plate L)---_. Il. a are Discharge from the point of sew of Kinetic Theory of Matter; by J. E. Moons Iil.—Crystalline Symmetry of Torbernite; Witkar oN oe ee IV.—Further Separations of Aluminum by anaes ‘ Acid; by F. 8. Havens V.— Origin of the Corundum associated with the Peridotites in North Carolina; by J. H. Prarr VI.—Erionite, a new Zeolite; by A. S. Eaxtr ViI.— Winter Condition of the Reserve Food ‘Subaeiees i the Stems of certain Deciduous Trees ; by E. M. Wit cox VIII.—Metamorphism of Rocks and Rock Pawan a 1b Ss R. Van Hise & SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Vapor Pressure of reciprocally soluble Liquids, OstwALD Electric Energy by Atmospheric Action, WARREN: Significance of Ionic Re Colored Salts, Eustpr and GrrteL, 94.—Combustion in Rarefied Air, BENEDI- CENTI: Molecular Masses of Solid Substances, TRAUBE, 95.—Liquefaction of Hydrogen, Dewar, 96.—New Methods for the Measurement of Self-Inductance, Mutual Inductance and Capacity, H. A. Rowuanp and T. D, PmENNIMAN, 97, Notes on the Zeeman Effect, J. S, Ames, R. F. EaRaART and H. M. Russe, —Hlementary Course of Physics, Le MOP IE: Aupous, 100. Storage Soe a TREADWELL, Jr., 101. Geology and Natural History—Important Vertebrate Fossils oe the N ational: Ve seum, O. C. Mars, 101.—U. S. Geological Survey: Occurrence of Petroleum in Burma, F, NoxrLine, 102.—Text-book of Entomology, ANAS: PACKARD: Bibliotheca Zoologica II., O. TASCHENBERG, 103. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Seestudien, H. RICHTER, 103.—Field Colum- bian Museum, 104. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. EDWARD 8. DANA. Epiror: * > ASSOCIATE EDITORS orEssors GEO. L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, +H. P. BOWDITCH anv W. G. FARLOW, oF Campripes, P fadous ©..0- MARSH, A. E VERRILL ann HS. WILLIAMS, or New Haven, _ Prorussor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PuitapEetpuia, Prorressor H. A. ROWLAND, or Ba timore, -Mre. J. S. DILLER, or Wasuineron. FOURTH SERIES. VOL. VI_[WHOLE NUMBER, oe No. 32—AUGUST, 1898. WITH PLATES II-III. NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. tS OS: “TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 125 TEMPLE STREET. ished monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). - $6.40 to - at ones of countries in the Postal Union. Remittances toe CROCOITE. A rare species from a new locality. Magnificent crystalliza- tions which in color, lustre, perfection and beauty, are superior to the old Siberian examples. No low-priced specimens, but good ones are cheap at $5.00 to $8.00 each. We can send you ~ one express paid, for inspection, with the certainty of your approval. Send for descriptive ‘* New ‘Arrival List.” THE COMPLETE MINERAL CATALOGUE, 186 pages, 40 engravings. Contains tables giving names, composition and form of all known species and varieties, with an up-to-date supplement. A Metallic Classification of minerals according to elements contained. Index of names and other valuable lists. — Prices postpaid, Paper bound,. 25 cts.; Cloth, 50 cts.; Calf © interleaved, $1.00. Minerals purchased in quantity. Rare and beautiful erys- tallizations especially wanted. Correspondence and samples solicited. Dr. A. EK. FOOTER, WARREN M. FOOTE, Manager. 1317 Arch Street, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S. A. Established 1876. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE [FOURTH SERIES.] +Ge Art. X.—The Jurassic Formation on the Atlantic Coast.—Supplement ;* by O. C. Marsa. _ Av the autumn meeting of the National Academy last year, ‘in New York, I made a communication entitled “The Jurassic Formation on the Atlantic Coast.”+ In this paper I brought together the results of a careful investigation which I had been conducting for several years, going to prove that the Jurassic formation, generally supposed to be wanting on the Atlantic border, was represented by a definite series of strata in the exact position where such deposits were to be expected. Accompanying this communication, I exhibited a number of drawings and sections illustrating the Jurassic deposits of the West, which I had long before investigated and fully described ; namely, the Baptanodon beds, consisting of marine Jurassic strata with many characteristic fossils, mostly invertebrates, and above these the fresh-water Atlantosaurus beds, which have yielded such vast numbers of gigantic reptiles and other characteristic vertebrates. Sections showing the relative posi- tion of these deposits, with the strata above and below them as they are seen at several localities in Wyoming and Colorado, were also exhibited. In comparison with this great development of the Jurassic in the West, I next discussed the so-called Potomac formation in Maryland, in which [ had found a corresponding vertebrate fauna that proved the strata containing them to be also of Jurassic age. I then gave a brief account of my researches * Abstract of communication made to the National Academy of Sciences, Boston meeting, November 18, 1897. . + This Journal, vol. ii, p. 433, December, 1896; and Science, vol. iv, p. 805, December 4, 1896. See also, this Journal, vol. ii, p. 295, October, and p. 375, November, 1896. Am. Jour. Sci1.—FourtH Srries, Vou. VI, No. 32.—Aveust, 1898. 8 106 Marsh—Jurassic Formation on the Atlantic Coast. during that season, in following essentially the same strata to the eastward through Delaware and New Jersey, and likewise presented evidence showing that apparently the same Jurassi¢ beds were to be found in position beneath Long Island, Block Island, and Martha’s Vineyard, represented by the variegated basal clays of these islands, which had previously been sup- posed to be of much later age. The evidence seemed con- clusive that in this series we had remnants of an extensive formation of fresh-water origin, the strata consisting mainly of soft sandstones and plastic clays of great thickness. In their physical characters, and especially in their variegated brilliant colors, these deposits differed widely from any others known on the Atlantic border, and were only equalled in this respect by the Jurassic beds of the Rocky Mountain region. The presence on the Atlantic coast of such an extensive formation, with its massive beds of plastic clay, all of fresh-water origin, clearly proved the former existence of a great barrier between the basin in which these clays were deposited and the Atlantic Ocean, a barrier that has long since disappeared through sub- sidence, or was broken down by the waves of the Atlantic, which are still rapidly removing the remnants of the formation along its eastern exposure, as may be seen on Block Island, and at Gay Head on Martha’s Vineyard. In discussing the age of this formation, its position above the Triassic and below the marine Cretaceous, its characteristic physical characters, distinct from those above and below, and its western extension into the strata of undoubted Jurassic age in the Potomac beds of Maryland, all pointed to the conclusion that its members belong to the same general epoch, and were deposited during Jurassic time. | In the paper thus cited, I confined myself strictly to the Potomac formation north of the Potomac River, and what I believed to be its eastern extension as far as Martha’s Vine- yard, all of which I had personally explored. I particularly avoided any discussion of the so-called Potomac beds south of the Potomac River, although I had been over these deposits at various points along the Atlantic border and around the Gulf as far as the Mississippi River. I closed the paper with the promise of taking up that part of the subject later. As the question was a difficult one and still under investiga- tion, I likewise guarded myself against expressing the opinion that all the so-called Potomac deposits were Jurassic. My words on this point were as follows: ‘It cannot, of course, be positively asserted at present that the entire series now known as Potomac is all Jurassic, or represents the whole Jurassic. The Lias appears to be wanting, and some of the upper strata may possibly prove to belong to the Dakota,””* * This Journal, vol. ii, p. 436, 1896. * a Pe x ¥ > ceed 5 Marsh—JTurassic Formation on the Atlantic Coast. 107 The Dakota Sandstone. In regard to the sandstone known as Dakota, and generally considered of Cretaceous age, I also spoke cautiously, as be- hooves anyone who has seen this formation at many of its outcrops over a wide range of territory in the West, where its physical characters are striking, and its fossil remains are mainly detached leaves of plants. In figure 1 of my paper, showing geological horizons and designed especially to represent the succession of vertebrate life in the West during Mesozoic and Cenozoic time, and so defined in the text, I left a blank space above the Jurassic for the Dakota, exactly where I had found a sandstone, regarded as Dakota, in place at many widely separated localities. I said little about the Dakota itself, as I did not wish then to raise’ questions outside the scope of my paper. 3 Had the occasion been appropriate, I might have said that the group termed Dakota in my section, I consider as more extensive than the single series of sandstones defined as Dakota by Meek and Hayden in 1861. The original locality of this sandstone was the bluffs near the Missouri River in Dakota County, Nebraska, and these authors included with this the supposed southern extension of the sandstone in eastern Kansas. This placed the Dakota on the eastern margin of the great Creta- _ ceous basin which extended westward to the Rocky Mountains. The attempt of Meek and Hayden to identify the Dakota further north, near the mouth of the Judith River, is now _ known to have failed, but the name transferred to certain sand- stones along the flanks of the Rocky Mountains has been ac- cepted, and this term has long been in use for these strata from Canada to Mexico. With this so-called Dakota sandstone, however, have been included other deposits, the upper part of which may be Cretaceous, while the rest I regard as Jurassic, and with good reason. These intermediate beds may be seen at various places, especially around the border of the Black Hills and along the eastern flanks of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado. As I shall refer to this point later in the present communication, I will not discuss it here. Opinions of Various Geologists. The paper I have now cited, I regarded as the preliminary statement of an important case, and not its final demonstration. When presented to the Academy, it received the general approval of the members interested in the subject, and one of them, the late Professor Cope, who was best qualitied to weigh the evidence of paleontology, fully endorsed my conclusions, and added that he himself had long suspected that the strata under discussion would prove to be of Jurassic age. 108 Marsh-—Jurassic Formation on the Atlantic Coast. When an abstract of my communication was published, although without the main illustrations shown to the Academy, I received further endorsement from geologists familiar with the subject, but from others, marks of disapproval pre- dominated. This I had anticipated in a measure, especially from the paleobotanists, whom I believed responsible for much of the confusion that had so long delayed the solution of similar questions, East and West. This point 1 brought out in my paper, but in an impersonal manner that I hoped would offend none of the craft. | The prompt and vigorous rejoinders that even my first informal announcement drew from two paleobotanists, A. Hollick and L. F. Ward,* showed that I had trespassed upon their bailiwick, and that some of the questions raised they had settled to their own satisfaction. As their ideas in regard to the value of fragmentary fossil plants as evidence of geologic age differed so widely from my own and from those of many — paleontologists, no specific reply on my part seemed necessary, and I have none to make now. Professor Ward has admitted that the plants found with the vertebrates in the Potomac beds of Maryland may be Jurassic, and that removes one of the main points at issue between us. His words are as follows : “If the stratigraphical relations and the animal remains shall finally require its reference to the Jurassic, the plants do not pre- sent any serious obstacle to such reference.” (Loc. cit., p. 759.) _ That the more eastern beds may represent a somewhat higher horizon, I can readily believe, but I must doubt the evidence that would separate so characteristic and homo- geneous a series of sands and plastic clays into two sections, one Cretaceous and the other Jurassic. The few imperfect plant remains that we are told authorize this separation must be reinforced by other testimony to obtain even the support of probability, especially when paleobotanists differ so widely among themselves as to the real significance of the fragmentary remains they describe. Next in order among my reviewers was R. T. Hill,t well known for his researches in the geology of Texas, but appar- ently not familiar with the typical Jurassic, East or West. He evidently had not read my paper carefully, though he eriti- cises it at length, mainly to confirm his own conclusions as to the Cretaceous age of certain deposits in Texas, which he seems to imagine I do not endorse. As IL especially avoided expressing any opinion on that point, or in regard to the Dakota being the base of the Cretaceous in this country, as I have already stated, no reply at present seems called for on my part, although I hope later to refer to the question he raises about the age of the so-called southern Potomac. * Science, vol. iv, p. 571, and p. 757, 1896. + The same volume, p. 918, 1896, a ay Marsh—Jurassie Formation on the Atlantic Coast. 109 I took it for granted, in my paper cited, that American geologists who were not familiar personally with the great development of the Jurassic formation in Europe, or who had had no opportunity of examining typical sections of this for- mation in western America, or of seeing its deposits in place full of characteristic fossils and extending hundreds of miles in half a dozen states, were at least sufficiently acquainted with the literature of the last twenty years to know that two of the best-marked Jurassic horizons in any part of the world existed in this country. Although my communication, as printed, was in fairly clear English, I find it was misunderstood in various other points, as subsequent reviews soon showed. If these marks of disap- roval had been recorded by fireside geologists, who so often differ with those who furnish facts, I should have followed my usual rule and made no reply. They were, however, mainly written by field geologists who had seen something of the West, and ought evidently to have seen more, for the facts I stated can be readily verified at any of the localities mentioned and at many others. The failure to do so well illustrates a law of human nature; namely, that men see what they have eyes tosee. The West is an extensive country. The plant men who go there seem to see only fossil plants; the inverte- brate collectors notice only their own favorites, and as both classes are numerous, the extinct vertebrates are too often overlooked or only peculiar and striking specimens secured. Thus the most valuable evidence as to the age of strata is neglected, and the decision rendered has so frequently to be reversed. This neglect is not confined to field work alone, where fossil vertebrates should be found, but too often extends to the literature of the subject. a me illustrate this by a short quotation from a well-known work : “The Jurassic system, which is so largely developed in Europe, “containing the remains of huge swimming and flying reptiles * * is but sparingly represented in American geology, and none of the gigantic vertebrates have as yet been found here.”* The above extract may fairly be taken as representing the information on the subiect known to the authors, or at least to the editor, when this work was published. It is, moreover, a fair sample of much that has since been written about the Juras- sic formation of this country and its fossil contents, especially by those not familiar with this subject; but whose work. in allied fields should at least have made them acquainted with the main results of our vertebrate paleontology, which had become a part of the world’s scientific knowledge. * Geology of the Black Hills, by Newton and Jenney; edited by G. K. Gilbert; p. 151, 1880. 110 Marsh—Jurassic Formation on the Atlantic Coast. For example, at the time the above work was published, one of the most fruitful horizons of vertebrate fossils ever discov- ered had been known for several years in the Jurassic of the West. Many tons of gigantic fossil vertebrates had been col- lected from several localities, and the principal forms described and figured, while the illustrations had been reproduced even in text-books. Moreover, the Jurassic horizon in which these and other remains were found had been definitely determined and named the Atlantosaurus beds, and a geological section showing their position and characteristic genera had been pub- lished several times. The fossils thus discovered embraced mammals, birds, reptiles, and fishes, nearly all of well-marked Jurassic types. Since 1880, when the statement I have quoted was made,. other discoveries have followed in rapid succession, and the Jurassic vertebrate fauna of the West is now known to be a most rich and varied one, far in advance of that from any other part of the world. More than one hundred and fifty species of extinct vertebrates, some of them represented by hundreds of specimens, have been brought to light, and over one hundred of these have already been described, and the more important have been refigured and republished in various parts of the world, including text-books, so that anyone with even an elementary knowledge of the subject can see that they are Jurassic in type. Nevertheless, a number of American geologists whose studies have kept them in other fields still appear to be ignorant of nearly all that has been made known about vertebrate paleontology in this country during the last quarter of a century, and seem to think that the Jurassic formation here is of small importance, and that its area should be restricted rather than enlarged. Another of my reviewers was G. K. Gilbert, editor of the work from which I have just quoted. Whether he intended his remarks on my paper to be taken seriously is not clear. Apparently he wished to start an academic discussion on correla- tion, and under the circumstances this would probably have led from the Rocky Mountains to the Mountains of the Moon, one of his latest fields of investigation. If he is really in doubt about the methods of correlation of vertebrate fossils, he can perhaps find the information he needs in text-books. __ First of all, however, I must question the accuracy of some of the statements in his review of my paper. One of these is as follows: “Through a comparison of vertebrates from the Potomac forma- tion with vertebrates from other formations he has inferred the Jurassic age of the Potomac; but he gives no hint of the charac- ter of his evidence or the course of his reasoning.’’”* * Science, vol. iv, p. 876, 1896. Marsh—ZJurassic Formation on the Atlantic Coast. 111 Had this critic read the whole of my paper, he would have found the following statement bearing on this point: “The Jurassic age of the Atlantosaurus beds of the West has now been demonstrated beyond question by the presence of a rich fauna of mammals, birds, reptiles, and fishes. Among these, the Sauropoda were dominant, and the other Dinosaurs well represented. ‘In the Potomac beds of Maryland, the same Jurassic verte- brate fauna is present,.as shown by the remains of five different orders of reptiles already discovered in them. Among the Dino- saurs are the Sauropoda, the Theropoda, and the Predentata, the first group represented by several genera and a great number of individuals. One of these genera is Pleuroceelus, which has also been found in the Jurassic of the West. Besides the Dinosaurs, characteristic remains of Crocodilia and Testudinata are not uncommon, and yarious Fishes have been found. The remains of these six groups already known are amply sufficient to determine the age of the formation, and still more important discoveries doubtless await careful exploration.”’* Mr. Gilbert’s next statement, which is likewise without real foundation, is as follows : *'The conclusion that the Atlantosaurus and other horizons of the Rocky Mountain region are Jurassic was announced in the same way, without citation of evidence.” The announcement of the Atlantosaurus beds as Jurassic was accompanied by a section showing their exact position in the geological scale, and the characteristic genera of Reptilia which then indicated their Jurassic age.t This was followed by descriptions in rapid succession of many other vertebrate fossils, proving beyond question that the horizon was Jurassic. The Baptanodon beds were also defined, and their position in the geological series established by characteristic fossils. The demonstration on this point, | have already given above, and need not repeat here. Another point needs correction, as Mr. Gilbert evidently consulted my recent classification of the Dinosauriat without appreciating the evidence it, contained. This is shown by the following quotation from his review: “The closest affinity of the European and American formations seems to be expressed by the statement that there is one Ameri- can genus which falls in the same family with a European genus.” * This Journal, vol. ii, p. 445, 1896. + Proceedmgs American Association, Nashville meeting, p 220, 1878; see also Popular Science Monthly, p. 520, March, 1878. {The Dinosaurs of North America, 16th Annual Report, U. S. Geological Survey, p. 238, 1896. 112 Marsh—Jurassic Formation on the Atlantic Coast. The genera named in my recent classification were mainly typical forms, and I had no intention of making a complete catalogue of all the known genera, as anyone familiar with the subject could readily see. By way of further instruction, let me repeat here what I have recently said about one of these typical forms. “ Pleurocelus ig one of the most characteristic genera of the Sauropodous Pinosauria, and its value in marking a geological horizon should therefore have considerable weight. It is now known from the two European localities mentioned above, both in strata of undoubted Jurassic age. The same genus is well represented in the Potomac deposits of Maryland, and has been found, also, in the Atlantosaurus beds of Wyoming, thus offering, with the associated fossils, strong testimony that the American and European localities are in the same general horizon of the upper Jurassic.’”* Had Mr. Gilbert been familiar with the subject discussed in his review, he would have known that, so far as present evi- dence goes, there are other genera of Dinosaurs common to Europe and America, found in apparently the same Jurassic horizon, and that this is true also of various other reptiles and of fishes. More important still is the correspondence between the genera of Jurassic mammals of the two continents, which in itself is sufficient to demonstrate that they belong in essen- tially the same horizon. The last point Mr. Gilbert raises in his review is a geologi- eal one, and even here he has missed the mark. His words are as follows: | “The physical relations of the beds afford a presumption in favor of their Cretaceous age. Prof. Marsh mentions that the Potomac formation in New Jersey passes by insensible gradation into marine Cretaceous above.” The two statements in this quotation are, in my opinion, both erroneous, and the second is contrary to the idea I intended to convey. The physical relations of the beds in question are in favor of their Jurassic age, and the Potomac strata do not pass by insensible gradation into the marine Cre- taceous above. Although the two are apparently conformable, the passage from one to the other was a change from fresh-water to marine deposits, which in itself implies a break that may represent a long period of time, perhaps the entire lower Cre- taceous. This break was clearly indicated in the geological section that I gave in my paper (figure 2), and to make this point clear, the same section is here repeated. * This Journal, vol. iv, p. 415, December, 1897.: Marsh—Jurassic Formation on the Atlantic Coast. 113 This typical section represents the successive Mesozoic and more recent formations, from New Brunswick, New Jersey, on a line southeast, through Lower Squankum to the Atlantic. The distance indicated is about forty miles. Geological Section in New Jersey. a, Triassic; b, Jurassic; c, Cretaceous; d, Tertiary; T, tide level. My explanation was as follows: “The change from the fresh-water plastic clays of New Jersey to the marine beds containing greensand over them proves not only the breaking down of the eastern barrier which protected the former strata from the Atlantic, but a great subsidence also, since glauconite, as a rule, is only deposited in the deep, still waters of the ocean.’’* ‘ Since my paper was published, I have been over part of this section several times, and found clear indications of the break itself. Moreover, Professor W. B. Clark, of Baltimore, informs me that he finds distinct unconformity between the marine Oretaceous and the underlying Potomac, along the junction of these two formations, at various other points further south. This fact furnishes a strong argument that the marine Cretaceous belongs to a separate formation from the older fresh-water clays, here regarded as Jurassic. Another geologist who has written much about the West, but seems to have failed in comprehending the evidence afforded by the vertebrate fossils from well-marked Jurassic horizons, is O. A. White, and as his opinion is frequently quoted, it may be well to correct one of his statements which bears on the question here discussed. In speaking of the Atlantosaurus beds, in 1889, he made this statement : “If it were not for their dinosaurian faunas their Jurassic age might well be questioned.”’t When this statement was made, more than one hundred species of vertebrate fossils besides the Dinosaurs were known from these same Atlantosaurus beds, and among these, the Crocodilians, the Testudinates, and the various smaller reptiles would have been sufficient to demonstrate the Jurassic age of the strata containing them. More important still, several hundred specimens of Jurassic mammals had been found, over _ a score of species were already described and figured, and these alone were sufficient to prove the horizon Jurassic. * This Journal, vol. ii, p. 441, 1896. + Proceedings of the American Association, Toronto meeting, p. 213, 1890. 114. Marsh—Jurassic Formation on the Atlantic Coast. Following these well-known writers, others of less expe- rience in the West have repeated their statements or followed the earlier geologists as to the age of western horizons, and thus tended to continue the confusion where the facts them- selves made the whole subject clear. Thus it has come to pass that while the Jurassic formation has been recognized in the Arctic regions of this Continent, and along the Pacific coast, especially through Oregon and California, as well as in Mexico, and likewise in various parts of South America, its develop- ment in the Rocky Mountain region has received little atten- tion except from those especially engaged in its investigation. It is not strange, then, that those who have not seen how extensive the Jurassic formation is developed in Europe, and have not examined its characteristic exposures in the West, should fail to recognize it on the Atlantic coast where its features at many points are obscure. In my paper on this subject last year, | endeavored to show that the burden of proof must rest upon those who denied the existence of the Jurassic formation on the Atlantic border. The evidence against it is still based mainly upon fragmentary fossil plants, in regard to the nature of which the paleobotanists themselves are not in accord. Cycad Horizons. I have recorded elsewhere my opinion of the comparative value of different kinds of fossils,—vertebrates, invertebrates, and plauts,—as evidence of geological age, and have endeavored to show that plants, as usually preserved and described, are the least valuable witnesses. The evidence of detached fossil leaves and other fragments of foliage that may have been ear- ried hundreds of miles by wind and stream, or swept down to the sea-level from the lofty mountains where they grew, should have but little weight in determining the age of the special strata in which they are imbedded, and failure to recognize this fact has led to many erroneous opinions in regard to geological time. There are, however, fossil plants that are” more reliable witnesses as to the period in which they lived. Those found on the spot where they grew, with their most characteristic parts preserved, may furnish important evidence as to their own nature and geological age. Characteristic examples are found among the plants of the Coal Measures, in the Cycads of Mesozoic strata, and in the fossil forests of Tertiary and more recent deposits. As bearing directly on the question here discussed, the Cycads of the Jurassic period afford instractive examples of the evidence that may be derived from fossil plants under favorable circumstances. The Cycad trunks of the upper Jurassic of England have long been known, and are especially Marsh—Jurassic Formation on the Atlantic Coast. 115 interesting from the fact that many of them are found imbed- ded in the original soil in which they grew, thus marking a definite horizon, the age of which has been ascertained by independent testimony. On the Atlantic border of this country we have a corre- sponding horizon, determined to be such by its position and by the vertebrate fossils it contains. At various localities in this horizon, especially in Maryland, Cycad trunks have long been known, and within a few years numbers of very perfect speci- mens have been found under circumstances that serve to fix the horizon in which they occur, and confirm the evidence as to its geological age. In the Rocky Mountain region, especially around the margin of the Black Hills, a definite horizon likewise exists, in which great numbers of Cycad trunks are found in remarkable pres- ervation. These Cycads resemble most nearly those from Maryland, found in what I term the Pleuroccelus beds of the Potomac formation. In the Black Hills, the age of the horizon has not been accurately determined, but present evidence points to its Jurassic age. The strata here containing these characteristic fossils has long been referred to the Dakota, but, as I have already shown in the present paper, the beds so termed in the Rocky Mountain region are not the equivalents of the original Dakota, and some of them are evidently Jurassic. Until recently the Cycads of the Black Hills, althongh of great size and remarkable preservation, have not been found actually in place. In the large collection of Cycads belonging to the Yale Museum, a few have been discovered apparently where they grew, and systematic investigation will doubtless show that the various localities where these fossils have been found around the Black Hills are all in one horizon. The evidence now available indicates its Jurassic age, and sug- gests that it is essentially the same as that of the Cycad beds in Maryland, which I regard as a near equivalent of the well- known Oyead horizon in the Purbeck of England.* In conclusion, I have only to say that the year which has passed since my first communication to the National Academy on the Jurassic of the Atlantic border has brought no impor- tant evidence against the view I then maintained, but much additional testimony in its favor, especially in the region north of the Potomac River that I then discussed. I still hope to return to the subject later, and take up the question of the extension of the same formation along the Atlantic coast further south, and around the gulf border to the southwest, where new evidence is now coming to light. * W. H. Reed, formerly my assistant in the West, informs me that he has found Cycads in the Jurassic of Wyoming, both in the Freeze Out Hills, and also near the Wind River Range. In the former region, they occur about forty feet above the Baptanodon beds, so named from a genus discovered by Mr. Reed. 116 C. H. Warren—Mineralogical Notes. Art. XI.—Mineralogical Notes ; by C. H. WARREN. 1. On the occurrence of Melanotekite at Hillsboro, New Mexico, and on the Chemical Composition of Melanotekite and Kentrolite. THE rare mineral melanotekite, a basic silicate of ferric iron and lead, was first described in 1880 from Langban, Sweden, by G. Lindstrém* It was there found as massive material, but erystals of it from Pajsberg, Sweden, have since been described by Nordenskidld+, who has shown that they are orthorhombic, and similar to kentrolite, a corresponding basic silicate of manganese and lead. The material to be described in the present paper was recently sent to the Mineralogical Laboratory of the Sheffield Scientific School for identification by Mr. W. M. Foote, of Philadelphia, Pa., and later an excellent specimen was received from Mr. J. H. Porter of Denver, Col. Both parties had obtained their material from Mr. Geo. E. Robin of Hillsboro, New Mexico, who had collected it at the Rex and Smuggler mines at Hillsboro, where it is associated with cerus- site and a brown, jasper-like, material. The material has a dark brown to almost black color, and gives an ochre-yellow streak, similar to that of limonite or géthite. The specimens consist for the most part of a rather compact mass of crystals, showing distinct forms in numerous cavities. The largest crystals measured about 0°5™™ in length, and considerably less a a: in diameter, and showed the sim- ple combinations represented by Figs. 1 and 2. They were always attached, and frequently in such a manner that both ends of the crystal could be observed. The forms which have been observed are as follows: a, 100 mu, 110 k, 150 b, 010 n, 130 0, 111 _ Usually m and 6 are the only faces in the prismatic zone, but the prism m was seen on a number of crystals, while & was observed only once. The crystals were always terminated by the pyramid 0. Considerable difficulty was experienced in selecting crystals from which satisfactory measurements could be obtained, as the faces were not only small, but generally vicinal, thus rendering the reflec- * Ofv. Ak. Stock., xxxv, No. 6, 53, 1880. + Geol. Foren. Forh., xvi, 151, 1894. C. H. Warren— Mineralogical Notes. EEG tions somewhat uncertain, and this same difficulty has been experienced by others who have studied crystals of melanotekite. The crystal which was finally selected as best, however, gave excellent reflections from the pyramid faces, and it is believed that the axial ratio derived from the measurements marked ~ with an asterisk in the accompanying table is very nearly correct. ‘The axial ratio is given below, together with those obtained by Nordenskidld and Flink from melanotekite and kentrolite, from Swedish localities, and by vom Rath from kentrolite from southern Chili. { aM ENOP 24-2. Lo a:6b:e = 0°63838 : 1: 0°9126 * . . . . ee tekite’ Nordenskidld_.. a:b: ¢ = 0°6216: 1: 0:9041 Wi Sous a:6:c= 0°63828:1: 0'8988 Kentrolite Nordenskiéld .. @:6:¢ = 0°6314: 1 : 0°8793 Vom Fathi: 22 a:6:¢= 0°6334: 1: 0°8830 The measurements and the calculated values of the melano- tekite from Hillsboro are as follows: Measured. Calculated, mmo JUGAL) =.,55° 00'* ea oe Lia JIL = 93 31 08° 32! 0Am, 111A110= 30 24 30 234 fae 0 111,010 = 62 32 62 30 Hipnm, VA0OAlIO= 64 554 64 44 MAN, L110A1380 = 29 34 to 55 39 653 Pee TIO A150 = 16 52 17 30 The chemical formulas that have been assigned to melanote- kite and kentrolite respectively are Pb,Fe,Si,0, and Pb,Mn, Si,O,, but as the analyses do not agree in a very satisfactory manner among themselves, nor with the theoretical composition, it seemed very desirable to make a new analysis, and some of the very best material was carefully selected for that purpose. The material was treated for a few minutes with a little warm dilute nitric acid to remove a trace of cerussite which could not be avoided, and further than this no visible impurity could be detected. The specific gravity was taken with great care on the chemical balance and found to be 5:854. The method of analysis was as follows. The mineral was dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and the silica separated in the usual manner. In the filtrate from the silica lead was precipi- tated as sulphide, and eventually converted into sulphate and weighed. In the filtrate from,the lead the iron was precipitated with ammonia, and weighed as oxide. It was subsequently dissolved and determined by potassium permanganate giving a slightly lower result, but the nature of the difference, X, has not been ascertained. 118 CO. H. Warren—Mineralogical Notes. The results of the analyses are as follows: sie II. Average. Ratio. Calculated for (Fe,O3)Pb3(Si04)s SiO, ies LO OL! Le ae Lee °258 or 3°10 15°40 PbO lS 55°50 5568! 56°56. 2a Naas 57°23 Fe,O, PC D4 OF be. OT pit oh ia 2°06 27°37 Gdn ec ine "83 ‘81 "82 HO) Wt: Feat) apn de 100°06 100°00 The ratio of SiO, : PbO: Fe,O, corresponds closely to 3: 3: 2 and gives as the composition of the mineral, Fe,Pb,Si,O,,, which may also be written as a basic salt of orthosilicie acid (Fe,O,) Pb, (SiO,) ,; the radical (Fe,O,) being sexivalent, and the one which occurs in limonite (Fe,O,) (OH),. That the analyses of melanotekite and kentrolite, which have previously been made, have failed to yield formulas correspond- ing to the above, is probably owing to the fact that the material has not been sufficiently pure. A list of these analyses is given below ; the liberty having been taken of changing MnO wher- ever it was found to its equivalent of Mn,O,, since it un- doubtedly exists in that condition in kentrolite. Melanotekite. Kentrolite. Lindstrom. Damour. Flink. Calculated for If it. (Fe,03)Pbs(Si04)s. (Mn,03)Pbs(Si04)2 iQ e Eee vel eo wo On 17°68 15°40 15°45 PhO. 45'26". 58-42 59°79 50°72 GY es 57°43 Fe,0, DS? WSs (25S aes tee 5°58 Desa onset Mn,O, "76 63 22°26 21sL8 mats 27 12 pC tse!) 47 St 2 nO) $1.50 to $2. 50. | ~ OTHER RECENT FINDS. 5 Cenosite in very excellent little crystals on the matrix, from Sweden, $5.00 to $10.00. _ Svabite, an interesting areoneth of calcium in small, white, hexagonal ens erystals, $1.50 to $4.00. . Rw k _Hessite, well crystallized, Hungary, $1.00 to $20.00. _ Phenacite from Norway, excellent, large crystals, $2.00 to 36.00. Crystallized Stannite from Bolivia, 30c. to $3.50. ee Famatinite from Argentina, 25c. to $3. 50. Beautiful fibrous Orpiment from Macedonia, 35c. to 75c. _ Tridymite, groups of exceptionally large and fine crystals,sfrom Italy, a Bbc. to $3.50. axe Whewellite, one of the half dozen organic minerals, crystallized matrix ‘specimens of good sizes, 0c. to $7.50, from Saxony. _ Carpholite, greenish-yellow, fibrous specimens, thoroughly attractive, — 25e. to $1.00. Calcite from Stank Mine, gorgeously colored, 25c. to $3.50. Pallaflat Calcites, groups of clear, brilliant and very highly modified foe crystals, 25c. to $2. 50. . _ -Embolite from Broken Hill, splendid spongy masses, 50c. to $3.50; one Gea large and fine, $20.00; well crystallized Embolite, $2.00 to $15.00. _ Cerussite from Broken Hill, magnificent reticulated crystallizations, $1.00 — The Pesboing are only a few selections made from our great stock of new arrivals. We have never before been so well equipped to fill all kinds of orders: GEO. Bas ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists ; — 64 East 12th ae New York City. CONTENTS. Art. X.—Jurassic Formation on the Atlantic Coast.—Sup- ‘ plement; by O. C. Marsa. i Sool oS Se pee ee a 105 XI.—Mineralogical Notes; by C. H. Warren-_-..-.----- ie 1h XII.—Origin and Significance of Spines: A Study in Evolu- tion; by C. HK, BarcaEr’ so)-2 2. 20 ee woe XIII.—Prehistoric Fauna of Block Island, as indicated by its Ancient Shell-heaps; by G. F. Eaton. (With Plates Thand TIL Yoo Sco ree eo) aga 187 XIV.—Registering Solar Radiometer and Sunshine Re- eorder:* by GUS. dswam Ae 2S eo oy eee ys eee, 160 XV.—Tertiary elevated Limestone Reefs of . Fiji; by A. ‘bee AGASSIZ “7 2SoaieCS te cack ee ae Pe ee 165 ae XVI.—Iodometric Determination of Molybdenum ; by FA, Sag Gooca and J.T. Norton, - Jt, .2 0222 ase ee ee ee 168 jf XVII.—Sdlvsbergite and Tinguaite from Essex County, Mags.; by H..'S.. WasHINGTON) 22! 55.2 ee aes ytd XVIII.—Occurrence of Native Lead with Roeblingite, Native Copper, and other minerals at Franklin Furnace, Nw by W. M. Boots 22232229 J XIX.—Position of Helium, Argon and Krypton in the Scheme of gas apaare by ws CROOKES .-_.- 3-2). aaa ee SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—New Constituent of Atmospheric Air, RAMSAY and TRAVERS, 192.—Direct Elimination of Carbon Monoxide and its Reaction with | § Water, ENGLeR and Grimm, 193.—Osmotie Pressure and Electrolytic Dissoci- | § ation, TRAUBE: Fusion in the Electric Furnace, Oppo, 194.—Ammonium Per- , oxide, MELIKOFF: and PIsSARJEWSKI: Molecular Masses of Inorganic Salts, ~~ WERNER, 195.—Sodium Carbide, Matienon, 196. ‘Geology and Mineralogy—Cycad Horizons in the Rocky Mountain Region, O. C. Marsu, 197.—Calamaria of the Dresden Museum, H. B. Getnitz: Fossil — Cephalopoda of the British Museum, G. C. Crick: Two new fossils from Canada, ~ J. F. WHITEAVES: Brief notices of Some recently described minerals, 198. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—American Association for the Advancement of Science: Harper’s Scientific Memoir, 199.—Electro-Mechanical Series; In- dustrial Electricity : Catalogue of Rarthquakes on the Pacific Coast, 1769-1897, E, S. HoLtpEen: Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exacten Wissenschaften, 200. . Die Ea cn EDWARD S.: DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Sa pessors 0. C. MARSH, A. BE, VERRILL ax H.S. |[ deen WILLIAMS, or New IIaven, ba Fressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or Puitapetpmia ~ Prorzsson H. A. ROWLAND, or Batrinorgs, ~ Mr. J. S. DILLER, or WasutneTon. FOURTH SERIES. ~ VOL. VI-[WHOLE NUMBER, CLVI.] No. 33.—SEPTEMBER, 1898. _ NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. 1898. she d monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6:4010. 8. 25 fibers of countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should 43 by. TADCY. OFHETS, registered detiets) or bank checks Sa : —aeoe fT td oA FRANKLIN MINERALS A recent visit to Franklin Furnace, N. J., secured some fine specimens of the familiar minerals and a few new rarities. NATIVE LEAD, Found most sparingly ; occasionally with native copper. Occurs as exceedingly thin films on a garnet rock. 25c. to $2.00. (Noted by W. M. Foote, Aug. No. Am, Jour. Sci.) ROEBLINGITE. A new and rare silicate and sulphite of calcium and lead, $1.00 to $8.00, CLINOHEDRITE. Four type specimens of this. rarest new species at $3.00 to $8.00 each. (April, 1898, Am. Jour. Sci.) AXINITE, crystallized and massive, 10c. to 75c. FRANKLINITE AND RHODONITE in groups of perfect crystals, some large and showy, 25c. to $5.00, WILLEMITE in handsome apple green masses, ZINCITE of the ‘‘Ruby Zinc” quality, 10c. to $1.00. CRYSTALLIZED MELANOTEKITE From an American: locality. Only recorded locality in Sweden fur- nished simply massive material. Found at Hillsboro, N. M.. lining cavities of a brown gangue-rock. The crystals are small, distinct, perfect and of high lustre, 25c. to $3.00. (Aug., 1898, Am. Jour. Sci.) A NEW AMERICAN LOCALITY FOR SCHEELITE, WOLFRAMITE and JAROSITE. The Wolframite occurs in prismatic crystals of an entirely new type, often coated: with brilliant Scheelites. The Jarosites are comparatively large and very well defined. From Lawrence Co., S. D., 25c. to $1.00. SCHOOL MINERALS. We furnish specimens for educational and experimental work at lowest rates. Detached Crystals, Microscopic Mounts, Collections, Individual Specimens and pure material by the pounds for chemical purposes, LARGE ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE AND PRICE LIST MAILED FREE. Dr. A. EK. FOOTE, WARREN M. FOOTE, Manager. 1317 Arch Street, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S. A. Established 1876, SEED, Bi AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE [FOURTH SERIES. | Art. XX.—The Transition Temperature of Sodic Sulphate, a New Fixed Point in Thermometry; by THEODORE WILLIAM RICHARDS. | I. On the Constancy of the Point in Question. With the assistance of JEss—E Briges CHURCHILL. AccORDING to the Phase Rule of Willard Gibbs, in order to obtain a nonvariant point in any system two more conditions must be definitely fixed than the number of components in the system. In other words, if the system contains only one com- ponent, three conditions must be fixed; if two components, four conditions, and so on. Since such a nonvariant* point is invariable in temperature, as well as in every other respect, there evidently exist a great number of definite temperatures obtainable by the combinations of different substances. Of these multitudinous nonvariant points, the world uses only two, the simplest possible, as the standards of thermome- try. The fixed conditions are :—a definite pressure, and two phases of one component, water. While undoubtedly 0° and 100° Centigrade will always remain the standards of reference, it would be extremely convenient to have at least one definitely determined point between these. Many thermometers do not cover this whole range, and all are noticeably upset as to their internal condition by such wide variations of temperature. Landolt’s very carefully made determinations of the melting *Trevor’s term ‘“‘nonvariant” is a peculiarly happy selection. His similar terms ‘‘monovariant,” ete , would be equally suitable if they were not hybrids of Greek and Latin. Would it not be well to use instead of these the homogenous words ‘‘univariant,” ‘‘bivariant,” etc.? These latter terms are not likely to cause trouble because of their similarity to ‘‘univalent,” ete, for both the num- bers of syllables and the accents are different in the two series. Am. Jour. Sci.—FounrtH Series, Vou. VI, No. 33.—SerPTEMBER, 1898. 14 202 Lichards—Transition Temperature of Sodice Sulphate. points of a number of organic substances* showed that these bodies are too much subject to contamination with clinging impurities to serve as accurate standards. Organic compounds are too plentiful in number to make the easy obtaining of any one alone an easy matter, and among inorganic substances no single suitable substance beside water seems to exist. There is no reason, however, why we should be confined to the use of a single component in this search for fixed points. Two components, requiring four fixed conditions, should answer equally well. The only essential is that the substance involved should form perfectly definite phases, and should be capable of being obtained inthe pure state. Nernst has suggested the use of “ eryohydric” points as a means of maintaining constant low temperatures, but the possibility of utilizing higher nonvariant points involving two components as a basis of thermometry and a means of maintaining constant temperature does not seem to have been generally realized. Of the many pairs of substances which might serve the pur- pose in view, the pair, sodic sulphate and water, seems to be the most suitable for several reasons. In the first place, the system (Na,SO,. + Na,SO,.10H,O + saturated solution + vapor) is in equilibrium at 32°5°+—a most convenient point, less above ordinary temperatures than 0° is below them, and within the field of even very large-bulbed thermometers. This small elevation involves very little dis- turbance in the tension of the glass, as well as very slight cor- rection on account of the column projecting into the cooler atmosphere of the room. Moreover 32°5° is near the tempera- ture of greatest difference between the hydrogen and the mer- cury thermometer. On the other hand, sodic sulphate does not “ melt” so easily as to cause any difficulty in keeping it unfused in a reasonably warm place. A substance melting only a few degrees lower would be. continually freezing into a solid Iump, which could be extracted from its bottle only by melting. The fact that it is not deliquescent is also of value. | A much more important advantage, as far as exactness is concerned, is to be found in the great ease with which the sub- stance may be obtained in a pure state. Its solubility is far less at 10° than it is at 33°, hence its recrystallization by cooling does not involve much loss. Moreover, it may also be crystallized in the anhydrous state by simply melting the aqueous crystals, and since this process necessarily brings into play a wholly new set of isomorphous relations, it may be relied upon to eliminate impurities which are not rejected by the hydrated crystals. * Zeitschr. phys. Chem, iv, 349 (1889). + Lowenherz found 32°39° (Zeitschr. phys. Chem., xviii, 70). Richards— Transition Temperature of Sodic Sulphate. 208 x Again, the “ melting” absorbs enough heat to insure the ren- dering “latent” of any heat evolved by the mechanical process of gentle agitation, or of any heat taken in from the environment. The semi-opaque nature of the mixture removes any serious danger from radiant heat. Since the volume scarcely changes with the transition, rea- sonable alterations in pressure do not cause any essential change in the temperature. This fact may be of importance if one has occasion to use very deep layers of the mixture. The number of possible hydrates is smaller in this case than in many, hence the change is a sharp one. The salt Na,SO,.7H,0O is so soluble that it cannot exist in the presence of either of the other solid phases.* Last, but not least, Glauber’s salt is extremely inexpen- sive, and at hand in every chemical and physical laboratory. Oddly enough, the melting point of the anhydrous salt, 865°, is one of the most satisfactory standards among high nonvar- jant temperatures. It is needless to state that the usual precautions necessary to obtain accurate results were taken in the thermometric work which follows, as well as in the chemical preparation. Several thermometers were used in the course of the experiments; they will be described as the account progresses. For the first determinations, which were wholly ofarelative nature, a Beck- mann thermometer of the first quality, made by Goetze of Leipzig, was chosen. This instrument was graduated to hun- dredths of a degree, and could be easily read to within a thou- sandth. Because of the thinness of its bulb, this thermometer was especially sensitive to pressure; hence it was guarded carefully during its use. It was always read in a vertical posi- tion, as were all the other thermometers. Since the temperature of the room remained essentially constant during the prelimi- nary experiments, the barometric pressure did not change by important amounts, and the height of the mixture around the bulb was always about the same, the readings are directly comparable with one another without correction. First Problem— The effect of the Temperature of the Environment. At first sodie sulphate prepared by crystallizing twice in a poreelain dish the ordinary “ purissimum” material of com- merce wasused. ‘This preparation was coarsely powdered and *The non-existence of the substance Na.SO,.H.O may now be considered proved. Evenif it really exists, however, the facts recorded below remain; one must merely read ‘‘monohydrated ” instead of ‘‘anhydrous,” and the theory will be unchanged. See de Coppet, Berichte d. d. Ch. Gesell., xii, 248; also, Lescoeur, Ann. Chim. Phys. [6], xxi, 526 (1890). 204 Lichards—Transition Temperature of Sodic Sulphate. partly dried in a desiccator. When placed in a wide test-tube surrounded by a Beckmann air-jacket (a still wider test-tube) and allowed to remain for an hour in a thermostat at 32°9°, it melted with absolute constancy at a temperature indicated on the arbitrary scale by 4758. On the following day, upon being replaced in the thermostat the “ melting” point appeared to be precisely the same. It was found advantageous to melt the crystals partially into a pasty mass, by means of a gas-lamp, before immersing them in the thermostat, and the mass was stirred gently by a ring-shaped platinum stirrer. Upon raising the temperature of the bath to 36° not the least change was observed, although this application of a higher temperature was allowed to continue for half an hour. A lower temperature, on the other hand, had a less satisfactory effect. When the bath was kept at 29° the thermometer in the sodie sulphate indicated a constant reading of 4°746, a depression of 0°012°. In order to verify this phenomenon, a purer specimen, which melted at 4°760° with the bath about 33°, was surrounded by an environ- ment at 30°, and then indicated 4°750° on the arbitrary scale. Thus it is evident that the most satisfactory results are to be obtained by melting the salt slowly, and not by allowing it to solidify. The reason for this is obvious. The anhydrous salt is far less apt to form supersaturated solutions than the hydrated salt, and the crystals instantly melt upon being heated above their transition point, absorbing an appreciable amount of heat in the process. On the other hand, in order that the mass may solidify, the anhydrous salt must dissolve while the supersaturated solution is depositing its hydrate, both of these operations being much less prompt than the preced- ing. In all subsequent determinations the thermostat was kept about half a degree above the point sought, and it was found that the mixture would then melt so slowly as to last for hours. Second Problem— Concerning the Purity of the Salt Required. Lowenherz* has found, under van’t Hoff’s direction, that an admixture of foreign substances lowers the transition tempera- ture of sodic sulphate just as it does simpler melting points. Hence a study of the purification of the salt is of great import- ance for our present purpose. The mother-substance used in preparing the salt above was found to melt at a temperature of 0°06° below that which had been twice recrystallized in porcelain. Four further erystalli- zations in platinum vessels changed the transition temperature only 0:002° above that corresponding to two recrystallizations, the arbitrary scale indicating 4°760°. * Loc. cit. Richards—Transition Temperature of Sodic Sulphate. 205 While it seemed probable that this recrystallization had freed the salt from anything which could affect its melting point, further proof seemed proper. Hence a kilogram or so of pure sodic hydric carbonate was thoroughly washed with pure water, and was then dissolved in an excess of pure dilute sulphuric acid. After six crystallizations the salt was still per- ceptibly acid to methyl orange, and hence after testing the melting point the salt was recrystallized again, collected on a large Gooch crucible and washed. Although now free from any trace of acid, it was precipitated as anhydrous salt by heat- ing to 100° (the mother liquor being rejected), redissolved at 33°, and recrystallized by cooling. These final operaticns were conducted with the purest water and all the precautions necessary in the most refined work. A portion of the later mother liquors was neutralized with pure soda and twice recrystallized in order to obtain a third sample. Another thermometer was used in testing the melting points of these three samples. This thermometer, admirably made by Bandin of Paris in 1880, is graduated to the fiftieth ‘part of a degree, and can be read by means of a telescope and microme- ter to within a thousandth. Its scale is about forty centimeters long, and covering the twelve degrees between 21° and 33°, including the zero point below a “small auxiliary bulb. This small bulb was always in the thermostat, leaving only about 10° of the column to be corrected for the lower temperature of the room. Following are the uncorrected results obtained with this thermometer : The slightly acid salt melted at_.._...---------- 32°520 The neutralized and recrystallized salt melted at .32°560 The purest, nine times recrystallized salt melted at .32°561 The twice recrystallized salt first made melted at .32°560 The last observation was made in order to compare this series with the other which has been made with the Beckmann thermometer. As the pressure had increased since the other readings were taken, the arbitrary thermometer itself could not be satisfactorily compared with that of French manufacture. Evidently it is a matter of no great difficulty to obtain sodic sulphate of constant “melting point. » Even two recrystalliza- tions of the purest Glanuber’s “salt of commerce carried on in porcelain vessels seemed to be enough to eliminate any serious impurity. In order to obtain certain results, the purification should be continued until the melting point is constant. The repeated recrystallization of the slightly acidified salt is especially instructive in this regard, for it is safe to conclude that when the acid has gone other accidental impurities would have disappeared algo ; ‘and the methyl orange test is one of extreme delicacy if the solution is not too concentrated. 206 Lichards—Transition Temperature of Sodic Sulphate. Third Problem—The Effect of Varying the Mass of the Phases. Theoretically, of course, a change in the relative amount of the phases should cause no difference in the nonvariance of the point under consideration provided that no one phase totally disappears. But since the superficial area of either solid present is a factor in determining the speed of the adjustment of the equilibrium, it was thought that varying proportions might cause a slightly varying “temperature lag.’ Neverthe- less, as a matter of fact, no reasonable increase in the amount of either of the solids or of the liquid seemed to cause the least effect, provided that the process was one of melting and not of solidifying, and the mixture was properly stirred. The Beck- mann thermometer remained always at 4°760 as long as the barometer stood near to the normal height. In order to insure the rapid establishment of the equilibrium it was our custom to have always some anhydrous powder present in the first place. This precaution also renders harmless drops of water introduced on the washed thermometer or the stirrer. It is well to powder also the hydrated salt, or at least to use it in the form of fine crystals, so as to increase its surface. Since the point in question seems then to fulfil all the requirements of an accurate standard of reference, manifestly its relations to the international standard should be established. Il. Reference to the International Standard. The only good thermometers indicating 33° at hand in the chemical laboratory are two of a set (one of which has already been mentioned) made by Baudin, and these have not been accurately calibrated. On one occasion thermometer Bandin No. 9,389 indicated 32°570° as the point in question, and immediately afterward came to 0:097° in pure melting ice, a difference of 32°473°. Subsequently the same thermometer indicated a change of 32°560—0°086=32'474 ; while the other thermometer (No. 9,390) gave on two successive trials separated by perhaps a week 32°560—0-084=32°476 and 32°550—0°083= 32°467. The mean of all these values is 32°472, and to this about 0:009* must be added:to correct for the column of 10° exposed to the temperature of the room (about 26°). No other corrections are possible, and there is no further guarantee of the accuracy of the number 32°481° than the evident care used in the construction of the thermometers and the fact that they agree very closely. It is probable that the instruments were made to be used vertically, hence no correction to the horizon- tal position is needed. * See tables by Rimbach in Landolt und Bornstein, page 143. d Richards— Transition Temperature of Sodic Sulphate. 207 In order to decide more definitely the exact value, Professor Sabine was so kind as to bring from the Jefferson Physical Laboratory of Harvard University two of the admirable stand- ards in use at that institution. These two instruments, the thermometers Nos. 11,142 and 11,148, of Tonnelot, have been subject to extremely minute scrutiny and calibration. They are of course accompanied by a very detailed report from the Bureau Internationale des Poids et des Mesures, and upon this are based all the corrections recorded below, except the last. This one, necessitated by the fact that the thermometers were not wholly immersed in the constant mixture, was calculated from the relative cubic expan- sion of glass and mercury. The length of the column exposed to the temperature of the room (25° 5°) was estimated carefully with the help of another thermometer, and was found to be about 22° allowing for the conductivity of the glass and mer- eury. The correction, 0-024°, agrees closely with Rimbach’s* empirical values, although his were not intended for such small corrections ; probably it is not more than 0-003° in error. Both thermometers are about six decimeters long, and have their hundred degrees divided into tenths. With the help of the accurate Geneva cathetometer employed, they could prob- ably be read to within =1,;°. The readings’ were made with the codperation of Professor W. C. Sabine. Tue TRANSITION TEMPERATURE OF Sopic SULPHATE. Thermometer Thermometer 11,142 11,143 Tonnelot. Tonnelot. Reading at transition point -----.-.-.--- +32°400 +32:498 feagme im melting ice _-..------=---.- + 0°120 + 0101 Wimeorrected difference. __.. _... ....---- + 32°280 + 32°397 Worrection for calibration ._.._._.......+ 0°147 + 0:'028 terms of solution of Total Manga- Taken. Found. Error. Manganese. HNaNH,PO,y. NH,Cl. volume. nese in erm. grm. erm. erm. cm. grm. em*. filtrate. 071542 0°1521 0°0021— 0:0008— 5 200 none 0°2214 0°2203 9:0011— 0:0004— 10 275 ie 02214 0:2192 0:0022— 00009— 15 275 * 20 275 a 20 200 ce 30 2 ps ed hae O'2214 0°2197 0:0017— 0:0007— 0°2214 0°2223 0°0009+ 0:0003 + 0°1542 0°1528 00014— 0:0005 — Or Or Or Or on Or The experience of this series of experiments demonstrated again that the ease with which the flocky precipitate is con- verted to the crystalline ammonium manganese phosphate is 240 Gooch and Austin— Determination of proportioned to the ammonium chloride present, and the mean error of the results for the phosphate when the ammonium chloride reached 20 grams—0-:0007 grm.—is considerably less than the mean error —0:0018 grm.—when the amount of the ammonium salt was less than 20 grms. Experiments were also made according to the modifications suggested by Munroe,* viz., the boiling of the manganous salt with an excess of microcosmice salt until the precipitate be- comes crystalline and just neutralizing with dilute ammonia ; but we have been unable to find the conditions of this treat- ment by which uniform results may be obtained in even mode- rate agreement with the theory. , We have tried also the effect of substituting ammonium nitrate for ammonium chloride in the conversion process ; but, so far as our experience goes, the nitrate is not so effective weight for weight in producing the change of the trimanga- nous phosphate to the ammonium manganese phosphates, while ‘the solubility of the product in the solution of the ammonium nitrate becomes appreciable more rapidly with the increase of the amount present than is the case when the ammonium salt is the chloride. In the light of the experiments described it would seem to be reasonable to expect the best results from the phosphate method for determining manganese when the conditions are so arranged that precipitation may take place in the cold solnu- tion in the presence of but little free ammonia, and of enough ammonium chloride to bring about the rapid conversion of the precipitate to the crystalline condition. Under such cireum- stances it should be possible to secure the conversion of the phosphate to the ideal constitution as completely as possible without danger of subsequent decomposition by the prolonged action of the hot free ammonia. In carrying out this idea, the solution of manganese chloride was treated as before with microcosmic salt and a large amount of ammonium chloride, the precipitate first formed was redissolved in hydrochloric acid and precipitation again brought about by the very careful addition of dilute ammonia in slight but distinct excess. The mixture was heated only until the precipitate became silky and crystalline, when it was allowed to stand and cool for a half hour. The precipitate was filtered off upon asbestos in a perforated platinum crucible under pressure, ignited and weighed. Table V comprises the results of experiments made in this manner. In those of section A the precipitation was made in platinum vessels; in those of section B the treatment was in glass. * Loe. cit. Manganese as the Pyrophosphate. 241 TaBLE V. A. LiePlatinunm. Mn2P.0; equiva- - a ee Se ee lent to MnOxg. Error in Error in Saturated Man- a — terms of term; of solution of Total ganese Taken. Found. Mn.P20;7. Manganese. HNaNH,PO,. NH,Cl. vol. in the grm. grm. grm. grm. em}, erm. cm?. filtrate. 0'1885 071903 0:°0018+ 0:0007+ 5 20 200 none 0°1885 0°1910 0°0025+ £0:0010+ 5 20. 200 an 071885 01913 0°0028+ 0°0011+ 5 20 200 ES 0°'1885 0O°1911 0°0026+ £0:0010+ 5) 20 200 ‘e 0°3770 3776 0-0006+ 0:0002+ 5 20 200 “ ma720 O3773 O0'0003+ 0°0001+ 5 20 200 a 0°3770 03778 0:0008+ 0:0003 + 5 20 200 aS 03770 038783 0°00138+ 0°:0005+ 5 20 200 = B. In Glass. 071885 0°1904 0°0019+ 0:°'0007+ 5 20 200 S 071885 01898 0°0013+ 0°0005+ 5 20 200 “ 0°3770 03767 0:0003— 0:0001— 5 20 200 <3 03770 0°3784 0°:0014+ 0:-0005+ 5 20 200 ee In this series of experiments the mean indication is, for the first time, in excess of the theory. Previously the error has been one of deficiency, and that in proportion to the amount of manganese handled, no doubt because the amount of uncon- verted trimanganese phosphate is proportioned to the entire amount of the phosphate. The positive error which is devel- oped in this last series of -determinations is probably due to the appearance of the natural error of all precipitation pro- cesses—viz., the tendency on the part of the precipitate to incltide matter in solution. In the previous experiments this effect was doubtless obscured by the incompleteness of the conver- sion of the trimanganons phosphate to the ammonium man- ganese phosphate. “Indeed it is quite possible that even in the last determinations the conversion is not absolute, and that this is so suggested by the fact that the errors of excess are larger in the case of the smaller amounts of manganese for which the conversion throughout the entire work has appeared to be more complete. From the consideration of the results tabulated and described it would seem to be obvious that not only i is the presence of ammonium chloride not objectionable in this aralytical process, which depends upon obtaining the ammonium manganese phosphate from the trimanganese phos- phate preci ipitated from a pure solution of manganese, but that its presence in not too small amount, or that of a substitute, is absolutely essential to make this conversion complete. For a given amount of manganese and a given volume of solution it 242 Gooch and Austin— Determination of seems essential that the amount of ammonium chloride should reach a certain limit. According to our experience the propor- tion of ammonium chloride to the pyrophosphate should be at least 50:15 or, speaking approximately, more than 200 mole- cules of ammoniuin chloride must be present in the liquid 100" or 200°") to every molecule of the ammonium man- ganese phosphate to be formed. However, the quantity of the ammonium salt may be increased almost to the point of satura- tion of the liquid without causing more than a trifling solubility of the ammonium manganese phosphate in the presence of an excess of the precipitant. The statement of Fresenius and Munroe that ammonium manganese phosphate is soluble in ammonium chloride does not hold if there is an abundance of the soluble precipitating phosphate present. Further, our experience goes to show that the precipitate may be washed with perfect safety with pure water as well as with slightly ammoniacal water, or with ammoniacal water containing am- monium nitrate, if the filtration is performed rapidly and the precipitate is gathered in small space, as is the case when the phosphate is collected on asbestos in a perforated crucible. The finely granular precipitate which may be obtained by slow action of dilute ammonia added gradually to the hot solution of the manganese salt apparently includes a portion of unconverted phosphate which resists the replacement of the manganese by ammonium. On the other hand, the precipitate of flocky condition thrown down in the cold passes easily to the silky and erystalline condition when heated with the proper amount of ammonium salt and possesses a constitution approach- ing the ideal under such conditions. The conversion of the flodky manganous phosphate is so rapid that the precipitation may be carried on safely in glass vessels. If the ammonium chloride in the solution were to be included in the precipitate it would volatilize entirely during the ignition, leaving no trace unless, possibly, a portion of its chlorine were to combine with the manganese. Tests for chlorine in the residue of pyro- phosphate resulted negatively—no more than a mere trace being found in any ease, so that the contaminating effect of the ammonium chloride proves to be insignificant and the responsibility for the increase in weight above the theory must apparently rest with the included microcosmice salt. In the practical determination of manganese by the phos- phate method of Dr. Gibbs, therefore, we advocate strongly the presence of large amounts of ammonium chloride. Good results may be obtained by the method of precipitation origi- nally laid down by Dr. Gibbs, or by the modification proposed by Blair, if the ammonium salt is present in sufficient quantity. On the whole trustworthy results are obtained most easily and w > E j , Manganese as the Pyrophosphate. 243 surely, according to our experience, by following the method of the experiments of Table V. The slightly acid solution, containing in a volume of 200° (in platinum or glass) an amount of manganese not more than enough to make 0-4 grm. of the pyrophosphate, 20 grm. of ammonium chloride and 5 to 10°™* of a cold saturated solution of microcosmie salt, is precipitated in the cold by the careful addition of dilute ammonia in only slight excess. The mixture is heated until the precipitate becomes siiky and crystalline, the whole is allowed to stand and cool a half hour, the precipitate is col- lected upon asbestos in a perforated platinum crucible, washed (best with slightly ammoniacal water), dried at gentle heat and ignited as usual. By this process determinations of the larger amounts of manganese—0-4 grm. of the pyrophosphate —approximate rather more closely to the theoretical values than do those of the smaller amounts—0°15 grm. In either case the average error should not exceed 0:0010 grm. in terms of manganese. 244 G.C. Martin—Dunite in Western Massachusetts. Art. XXV.—An Occurrence of Dunite in Western Massa- chusetts ;* by G. CO. MARTIN. Introduction.—The occurrence of a mass of dunite in the Green Mountain region of Massachusetts is of interest and importance because it is a feature of the geology of that region which has apparently been hitherto overlooked, because there are on record only two other true dunites in North America, and because its mode of occurrence is such as to leave little doubt of its eruptive origin. | Location and Topography.—The rock occurs on the moun- tain south of Cheshire. This mountain is a spur of the Hoosac Range and although it is in the territory discussed by Wolff in his “‘ Geology of Hoosac Mountain” + it is topographically dis- tinct from the main mass of that range. This is shown on the contour maps, but 1s much more distinetly shown in the view from some of the neighboring peaks. The exact location of the dunite area may be found upon the Greylock sheet of the topographic map, or upon the geological map (Plate I) of Monograph XXIII U.S. Geol. Survey, by tracing the meridian 73° 10’ for 24 miles south from the village of Cheshire to its intersection with anunnamedstream. The area in question lies chiefly between this stream and Whipple Brook, the next to the southward. The main dunite mass occupies an area irregu- larly oval in outline and about 1000 by 2000 feet in extent. It is situated upon a flattened shoulder on the mountain-side, and is separated from the surrounding gneisses by brooks on the porth and south, and by swamps on the east and west. Within the area are a number of rocky ridges 10 to 50 feet high, sepa- rated by swamps. About 400 feet northeast of the main mass is a smaller one of uncertain extent. (Loc. 351 as shown on the accompanying map.) Another exposure of doubtful rela- tion to the main mass is east of the north end of it at Loe. 114 ¢.; while at numerous localities east and southeast of this, and. northwest of the main mass at Loc. 304 the proximity of dunite is indicated by abundant fragments, some of which may be practically in place. In the banks of the Whipple Brook and at many places to the south, possible outcrops are to be seen, but since they may be merely glacial bowlders they are not mapped. Between all these and the main mass outcrops of gneiss intervene and no surface connection is visible. Description of focks.—The rocks of this area vary much in appearance ; but as will be seen, the change from one form *The author is indebted to Dr. A. C. Gill for advice and assistance in the preparation of this paper, especially in the chemical analysis, which is largely Dr. Gill’s own work. + Monograph XXIII, U. 8. G.S., Part II. G. C. Martin— Dunite in Western Massachusetts. 245 to another is gradual and may be traced in the external appear- ance as well as in the mineralogical and structural details. The most abundant and generally distributed form of the rock is hard, compact, and moderately fine-grained. In mass TME CMESMIR DUNITE AREA. 10" $335" verge 4s s 8 pel ia feel Ce eile a = zeo’ See vos Seo tue /ere ead the color is light to dark green, even approaching black, but the translucent splinters are light green usually with enough black specks to give the darker appearance. The density is from 2:9 to 3. The rock weathers readily in a well-marked zone to a yellowish brown “ muscovado.” This rock shows in thin section a badly shattered mass of olivine serpentinized — along the cracks. Black opaque grains are scattered through it. The olivine fragments extinguish in groups, each of which 246) «6G. CO. Martin—Dunite in Western Massachusetts. gives a uniform interference color. These groups are then the remains of former olivine crystals which are nearly uniform in size (‘3 to 1™") and interlock to fill the entire field of the microscope. The cracks between the original olivines are no better developed than those between the shattered fragments. The serpentine is generally in fine cracks but often has reerys- tallized into needles varying in size from 02 by ‘1 to -04 by ‘5m™m™, These in general follow the olivine cracks. But often there is a parallel arrangement of the serpentines and some- times a tendency for all the serpentines of an individual olivine to arrange themselves in two directions nearly at right angles, —thus giving an appearance resembling Hussak’s “ gestrickte Structur,” but showing by the enclosed olivine its derivation from that mineral instead of from pyroxene, as is usually assumed for that form of serpentine. A specimen of this rock was powdered and the magnetic ingredients removed. Then by means of the Thoulet solution the serpentine was floated off. There then remained olivine with black grains scattered through it. The latter came down slightly in advance of the olivine and by repeated separations pure samples of each were obtained. The black non-magnetic grains had a brown streak and gave reactions showing the presence of iron, chromium, and aluminum. ‘They are then doubtless at least partly picotite. The magnetic grains showed a trace of chromium. An examination of the olivine showed Colonia sees: pale green >) Oe cp ania eae 3273 (not corrected for temperature, etc.) Composition - PO ape ee SAT 51:41 SIO 8 oe eet et 40°07 EO ye he oper ere kd 4°84 PAN 6 tila Sse iae oir < sida Ryne: Fy! OBO Tre, yo eee ele me HO (ignition) 2-2 oes 1:03 . 99°29 The remaining rocks of the area range in density from 29 to 2°54. As the density decreases the macroscopic characters of the rock above described are gradually lost. The lightest rocks vary much from each other in texture and in color. Some are finely granular and homogeneons, some are schistose or shaly, and some are fibrous; some are black, light or dark green, yellow, white or mottled. But all grade, with the density, toward the type described above. When these rocks are examined under the microscope it is found that the amount of olivine decreases with the density. And as the olivine decreases in amount, the serpentine increases by a gradual widening of the cracks. Reerystallization of the serpentine also takes place. Variation in rocks with the same G. O. Martin—Dunite in Western Massachusetts. %47 amount of serpentine depends in a large degree upon the amount of recrystallization and upon the relative positions assumed by these crystals. The magnetite is largely contem- poraneous with the serpentine, It increases in amount with it, and shows a tendency tosegregate into large grains, strings, and plates, some of several square inches in area and about $ inch thick. Other minerals are: hematite, with the magnetite : opal, oceurring in cracks; chlorite, in irregular angular masses seat- tered throughout the dunite and serpentine; a carbonate, in the serpentine near the northeast corner of the main mass at Loe. 115; and a bronze non-magnetic mineral which gave the bead test for nickel and is probably niccolite, although with the quantities used no decided test for arsenic was obtained. The latter mineral is scattered in grains throughout the serpen- tine. The rocks of the area consist then of olivine and the serpentine which has been derived solely from its hydration. The original rock was a mass of olivine, with some members of the spinel group as minor constituents,—a strict Dunite ; and it has hydrated in places to a Dunvite-serpentine. freld-felations.—The olivine and serpentine are irregularly distributed, but the latter is in general more abundant around the border, especially at the northernend. Slickensides; a well marked foliation of the serpentine; and veins of fibrous ser- pentine traverse the area from north to south, dipping steeply to the east: but the foliation deviates from this general direc- tion at the northern end, striking parallel to the border and dipping more moderately to the south. These characters are evidently due to shearing,—either that which accompanied the expansion during hydration, or that which attended some of the mountain-making movements by which the region has been affected. The slightly altered dunite which covers the greater part of the area has absolutely no structure but a strong irregular jointing. The surrounding rocks are of a varied and complex char- acter. The entire mountain was mapped by Wolff (Mono. XXIII, U. 8. Geol. Survey) as ‘‘ Vermont Formation (con- glomerate, quartzite, and white gneiss).” The general struc- ture is given as an overturned anticline with easterly dip anda strike varying somewhat from north. ‘The presence of a dike of amphibolite is indicated in a position about half a mile north of the main mass of dunite. The studies upon which this paper is based have shown that there are in the immediate vicinity of the dunite, beds of impure crystalline limestone, amphibolite, and. gneiss. The limestone is apparently independent of the dunite, and it will be considered in a future detailed discussion of the ee mountain. ‘T’he amphibolite is very generally distributed ; usually at least, interbedded with the gneiss; and the two are 248 GCG. CO. Martin—Dunite in Western Massachusetts. extremely contorted. There is a general tendency toward a north and south strike with a steep easterly dip, but this varies extremely, as may be seen by the map. The dunite mass in its southern part is parallel to the strike of the gneiss, but at the northern end the bedding of the gneiss changes position, possi- bly forming a synclinal fold whose axis is eut by the dunite. The contact of serpentine or dunite with gneiss is nowhere revealed. Outcrops of the two rocks are everywhere separated by eighty feet or more of swamp or by a drift-filled stream bed. In these places abound fragments of rotten gneiss and vesicular bowlders of gneiss, which latter are seldom elsewhere seen. Structural Lelations.—Concerning the structural relations of the dunite to the surrounding rocks, there are five hypoth- eses which may be considered. 1. That the dunite is a chemical deposit. 2. That it is a clastie. 3. That it is a bedded flow. 4. That it is a knob older than the gneisses and about which they were deposited. 5. That it is an intruded mass. Of these the last seems best to accord with the following facts. The unaltered dunite is uniform in character, has no trace of fragmental material, of recrystallization, or of bedding or banding of any kind. There are an abundance of angular chloritic masses near the border, which on account of their aluminous character are probably the remains of feldspathic inclusions. There are a number of outlying masses of dunite which can be connected with the main mass only as apophyses. At several places the strike of the gneiss is directly toward the mass and in close proximity to it. (See map; east side, Loc. 3846, 114a; west side, Loc. 353). These show conclusively that the dunite is discordant with the bedding of the gneiss. The contact is deeply disintegrated and is marked by the presence of vesicular gneissoid bowlders, suggesting an altera- tion by an intruded mass. ) Note.—In this connection it may be noted that there are in the Hoosac Range and to the east of it a considerable number of serpentine beds, many of which are not known to have been studied since the Hitchcock Survey and whose origin has not been made out. Some of them, however, are known to be derived from peridotites,* but these peridotites resemble all others in America, except those from Quebec, North Carolina, and the one here described, in containing, as original constitu- ents, other ferro-magnesium silicates in addition to olivine. Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. * Bulletin 126, U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 10, 56, 152. C. E. Beecher-—Origin and Significance of Spines. 249 Art. XX VI.— The Origin and Significance of Spines: A Study in Evolution; by CHARLES EMERSON BEECHER. [Continued from page 136.] Summary of Causes of Spine Genesis. Before taking up in more detail the various causes of spine development, and illustrating them by means of examples drawn from a number of classes of organisms, it is well to restate the factors which are believed to induce spine growth. This is especially desirable from the fact that, through the operation of unlike forces, similar conditions may produce the same morphological results, as in the differentiation of ornamental lamelle and ridges, which, either from external stimuli or dispersion of growth force, may develop into spines. In such eases, it is difficult or impossible to distinguish the pri- mary force, and the only satisfactory method is to discuss the subject under one head. By carrying out this plan, and indicating the instances where the causes may replace or overlap each other, it may be shown how spines have originated, as follows :— I. In response to stimuli from environment acting on most exposed parts. (A,.) II. As extreme results of progressive differentiation of pre- vious structures. (A,, B..) III. Secondarily, as a means of protection and offense. (A Lp oer D,.) IV. Secondarily from sexual selection. (A,, B,, C,, D,.) V. Secondarily from mimetic influences. (A,, B,, C,, D,.) VI. Prolonged development under conditions favorable for multiplication. (B,.) VII. By repetition. (B,.) VIII. Restraint of environment causing suppression of structures. (C,.) IX. Mechanical restraint. (C,.) =. Jisuse. (C,, D,.) XI. Intrinsic suppression of struetures and functions. (D,,.) 3) To illustrate the various causes of spine growth, representa- tive examples which are believed to conform to the require- ments will be selected from various groups of organisms. The number of spinose forms is so great that it will be impossible to give more than the briefest citation of a few of the leading types, especially those which have come under the notice of the writer; on this account the number of examples derived from the vegetable kingdom will be necessarily few. Am. Jour. Sct.—Fourts Series, Vou. VI, No. 33.—SEPTEMBER, 1898. 17 250 OC. £. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. I. In response to stimuli from the environment acting on most exposed parts. (A,.) The action of external stimuli falling on the most exposed parts of organisms is probably one of the most fundamental and fertile causes of spine production, since the relation between cause and effect is more direct and apparent here than by other modes of origin. In a general way, it comprehends all the remaining causes coming under the head of external stimuli, but for present purposes, it will be restricted by the elimination of secondary conditions, such as the indirect pro- duction of spines through differentiation of previous structures, and the action of external forces of selection. The ruling forces in plants being so largely vegetative, or those of growth, and the cause of variation being principally physico-chemical and not molar, most of the modifications to produce spines will fall under other categories of origin (B, D) than the one now under discussion. In the free swimming forms, however, as the Desmids and Diatoms, the external relations are found to be very much like those of animals. The frustrule of the Diatom, Attheya decora,” is quadrate in outline, and from the angles there extend sharp spinous processes, as represented in figure 32. The frustrule of the Desmid, Stawrastrum cuspidatum, is composed of two triangular halves, and the spines project from the vertices of the angles. Other species of Staurastrum, Aanthidium, (X. armatum™), Arthrodesmus (A. octocornis”), etc., show similar spine growth from the most prominent por- tions of the frustrules. It is evident that in forms like these having angular outlines, any growth produced by external stimul will naturally be greatest at the points of these angles, and in conformity with the previous analyses of these factors, a spiniform extension of the tissues would result. Among the fresh-water Rhizopoda belonging to the Proto- plasta (= Amebina), the genus Difiugza affords good examples. D. globulosa® has a nearly spherical shell. In 2. pyriformis,” the shell is elongate pear-shaped, and generally round on the summit or fundus, though in rare instances a central spiniform elevation is developed. This tendency becomes fixed in D. acuminata’ in which the shell in general form resembles the preceding species, but the fundus is commonly prolonged into a single acuminate process (figure 33), though occasionally two or three spines are found. In JD. corona,” there is a cirelet of spines around the margin of the fundus besides the primary one in the center. Dzplugia constricta” is a variable form, with the top of the shell generally smooth, though sometimes it is acuminate, and occasionally it has two or even a cluster of spines (figures 34-36). Luglypha mucronata” has a terminal spine, as in Difflugia acuminata.” Placocista spinosa” is a — _ spines at the two lateral angles on C. E. Beecher— Origin and Significance of Spines. 251 flattened miter-shaped form with a distinct edge, along which are numerous spines. It should be noted that no spines are developed on any portion of these fresh-water Rhizopods except those here mentioned. The Nasellarian Radiolaria furnish many instances of a terminal spine from the summit of the silicious helmet or cup- shaped skeleton, as in Lucyrtidium elegans," Podocyrtis. Schomburgki,” Tridictyopus conicus,” Cornutella hexagona,* ete. Many of the primary, or axial, spines in other sub-orders probably originated according to I. In the Spumellarian forms especially, the principal spines project from the prominent por- tions, as in Zrigonuctura tria- cantha,” Hymenactura copernici,” Rhopalastrum triceros,” L. hexace- ros,” ete. The existence of similar non-spinose species shows that the formation of spines is independent 33 of the growth of the normal prom- inences, as in L?hopalastrum mal- leus,”* L?. hexagonum,”’ ete. In the Foraminifera, the configu- ration of certain forms is such that parts of the test are much more prominent than others, and in these exposed situations, the spines are most frequently developed. Some of the triangular Textularize have 32 the oral side. Some of the indi- & viduals of Zeatularca foliwm® show Fiqure 32. Attheya decora, that similar spines were developed a Diatom with spines from the eduierent staves of growth, so 2eles. (From Mic Dict.) ees fail orown specimen, ~~ 0U= 22:, Diugia acumt- ’ 5 I : >» nata, a fresh-water Rhizopod., there may be two or three pairs of showing spiniform projection of spines along the sides. Others, like fundus. ae Breas eae by Bd Ae 9 . IGURE 34. iffiugia con- Verneuilina spinulosa and Colt- sricta, a fresh-water Rhizopod, vina pygmea,’ develop spines from with rounded fundus. x 175. the points of each chamber. A (After Leidy.) Mammiber of species, also, show a .. PiSUR= 35. The same, show- ‘ : : - ing a single spine on the fundus. single spine at the apex of theshell, 175. (After Leidy.) as Pleurostomella alternans,’ £Lo- — Figure 36. The same, show- liwina robusta,’ Polymorphina VS ay pes ie ey (etter sororia, var. cusprdata,’ ete. In ‘3 the latter species, the ordinary form is rounded, or obtusely pointed at the fundus. Some of the Infusoria have terminal spiniform processes, which, by analogy with other forms, have probably developed according to I, as Ceratiwm tripos, C. longicorne,’ C. fusus.’ 252 CO. #. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. The apertural spines on some of the Graptolites are on the most exposed portions of the hydrotheca, as in d/onograptus spinigerus,” Dicranograptus Nicholsoni,” Letiograptus ten- taculatus and Graptolithus quadrimucronatus. In many com- pound corals, the corallites are polygonal from crowding, and the most exposed portions, the angles of the calices, often bear spines, as Lavosites spinigerus,” Callopora easul,” ete. The spines on the septa and costz of corals probably originate by intrinsic forces (B), since they are internal growths not influ- enced directly by external stimuli. The spines on the ventral sacs of Crinoids are usually termi- nal, and in the most exposed situations ; asin Scytalocrinus validus,” Dorycrinus unicornis,” Aulocrinus Agassizi,” ete. The anterior and posterior pairs or rows of spines on the loricee of some species of Rotatoria are in the most exposed places; as in Anurwa squamula, Noteus quadricornis, ete. The spinules on the tubes of Spzvorbis are usually developed after it rises above the object of support so as to be exposed on all sides; as Sperorbis spinuliferus.” The spinules at the corners of the anguiar cell apertures of many Bryozoa are in the most exposed situations, and probably arise through external stimuli; as in 7rematopora echinata,” T. spiculata,” etc. The large marginal spines of the Brachio- pod Atrypa hystrix probably owe their excessive develop- ment to external stimuli, though the phylogeny of the species shows that the spines first originated through the differentia- tion of the radiate and concentric ornaments. In many Pelecypods, the siphonal region receives a great amount of stimulus, and the post umbonal slope is the part most exposed. Along this slope are found many of the spines, and generally the greatest differentiation of ornament. Exam- ples of spines on post-umbonal slopes may be seen in Callista sublamellosa and young Saxicava arctica (figure 27). Such spines represent periodic extensions of the mantle border, and in some cases, the stimulus for this growth may come from internal causes. The spines on Unio spinosus and related species are believed by Mr. Charles T. Simpson to assist in anchoring the shell in the sand of swift running streams. In Callista, the young Saxécava, and the Unios mentioned, the spines occur on all individuals and at such an early period as to preclude any special sexual function. In the Gastropoda, the periodic extension of the shell over the posterior canal and the spiniform prominences formed on the labrum are situated in exposed places, or where the amount of stimulus is greatest; as in Zrophon magellanicus, Strombus pugilis, Husus colus, Clavatula mitra, Melo diadema, ete. The spines on the larvee of geometrid moths are usually on top of the loop, and are explained by Packard®™ as follows: C. FE. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. 258 “The humps or horns arise from the most prominent portions of the body, at the point where the body is most exposed to external stimuli.” When the origin and function of spines in a oreat many forms of animals, and especially among the higher classes, are examined, it seems almost impossible to decide whether a spine has been originated and perpetuated by free varia- tion and heredity, or by the general action of external stimuli on the most exposed parts; and in the latter case, whether or not under the selective influences of use. Its origin in either instance may be through external stimuli, but in the latter, it falls under other captions than A,; or, in other words, the external stimuli excite the growth force at certain points, and the growths so produced may be simply reciprocal without function or they may serve purposes of pro- tection or offense. Thus, the dorsal and rostral spines on the zoéa of the Decapods are on the most exposed points, and seem to function as defensive structures. As soon as the legs become well developed or when the animal ceases to swim at the surface and hides among the stones, etc., at the bottom, these spines become reduced and are often succeeded by others. The spines of the adult are also usually efficient for protection, but owing to the change in form of the animal and change of habitat, the most exposed parts are different from those of the larva, and the spines are frequently developed where there were no larval spines ; as in Cancer irroratus, Callinectes has- tatus, etc. Again, the horned ungulates show in their habits of sport, fighting, defense, and procuration of food, that the exposed angles of the top of the skull are subject to the greatest number of stimuli, and there the horns are developed. The connection between external stimuli and growth is here most manifest, for.it is impossible to imagine the action of free variation or simple growth force as resulting independently, in the evolution of horned out of hornless species in several suborders of mammals, and in every case determining the loca- tion of the horns on the prominent angles of the skull, whether on the nasals, maxillaries, frontals, or parietals. It is well known that toads and frogs defend themselves by using the head as a shield, and the cranial angles thus receive the greatest amount of stimulus. “There are natural series of genera measured by the degree of ossification of the superior cranial walls” (Cope). In the highest genera, the head is completely encased, and in some forms the projecting angles are developed into short horns. The so-called “ Horned Toad” (Phrynosoma) has the same habit of defense, and it is believed that this mode of protection or of receiving ‘impacts has given rise to the structure, by stimulating orowth | at these points. 254 CO. fb. Beecher —Ovigin and Significance of Spines. Il. As extreme results of progressive differentiation of previous structures. (A,, B,. The differentiation of existing ornamental structures into spines has already been noticed in several instances in this article. It was shown that spines often arise by the elongation of nodes and tubercles or similar structures, by rhythmic alter- nating areas of growth in lamelle and ridges, and by the growth of matter at the intersections of lines, lamelle, ridges, ete. urthermore, it was indicated that this progressive differ- entiation could be produced either (a) by the direct action of external stimuli affecting the amount of nutrition brought to a certain structure, (0) by the stimulus and dispersion of growth force, or (c) by a combination of the two forces. In this dif- ferentiation of the features which are generally called ‘ orna- mental,” it will also be shown that the spine is the final result of progressive differentiation and, as previously indicated, can be formed out of a variety of other structures. The term “ornamental” is mainly one of human interpretation, and is used simply in apposition to “plain” or “simple”; for example, a clam cannot be imagined as consciously favoring a particular kind or arrangement of tubercles for ornamental purposes. In a reticulate or cancellate surface formed by the crossing of raised lines, ridges, or lamellee, it is evident that the causes or forces producing such structures will be increased at the points of intersection, and normally the amount of growth will here be greatest. In this way, it is possible to account for the very common presence of spines at the intersections of the radiating and concentric lines on many Mollusca and other organisms. A few examples will now be given illustrating the differen- tiation of various structures into spines. The points of intersections of the elements of the lattice in the Radiolaria are where spines are most frequently found; as in Larnacalpes lentellipsis, Orosphera Hualeyr, Carposphera melitomma, ete.” In Xiphosphera pallas, the ridges about the openings or meshes are granular, and the intersections are raised into spines. Many of the discoid shells have their edges differentiated into spines, as /Zelcodiscus asteriscus, H. cingu- lum, H. glyphodon, Sethastylus dentatus, Heliodrymus den- drocyclus, etc. When an edge becomes elevated and defined as a carina, this structure is also often spiniferous, as in 777po- calpis triserrata and Astropilium elegans. The final differen- tiation of the radiate arrangement in the Radiolaria results in forms consisting only of a composite spine, ‘as in the legion Aeantharia. — In the Foraminifera, there are many instances of the gradual differentiation of caring, ribs, costs, etc., into spines. In ee, C. LE. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. 255 Bulimina aculeata,’ the surface nodes and granules become developed into spines. In Zeutularia carinata’ and Cristel- larva calcar,’ the carine are spiniferous. The young of Uvige- rina aculeata’ is strongly costate, and later shell growth shows the costee broken up into numerous spines. A related species (U. asperula’) has the whole test covered with spinules, which are sometimes arranged in lines, showing derivation from cos- te. In Truncatulina reticulata,’ the carina is made up of confluent spines, often discrete along the edge, and sometimes entirely separated. . 37. 38. 39. Ar? = Fa en OP 2 a RET TEE A = ae res am a Sh tts yt st ras aad. aon oe CI ak ehh FIGURE 37.— Cyathophycus reticulatus. Ordovician. 4. FIGURE 38.—Dictyospongia Conradi. Devonian. #4, FIGURE 39.—Aydroceras tuberosum. Devonian. 4. (Figs. 37, 38, 39, after Hall.) To illustrate progressive chronogenetic and ontogenetic differentiation in a family of hexactinellid sponges. The hexactinellid sponges belonging to the family Dictyo- spongidee show some very clear instances of the progressive differentiation of ornament in time and in ontogeny. The Ordovician Cyathophycus reticulatus* is a turbinate form, with a rectangular mesh of longitudinal and transverse spicular rays (figure 37). At more or less regular intervals, some of the spicules are larger, thus dividing the surface into larger rec- taneular areas. In Dictyospongia prismatica® from the Deyonian, the domination of eight of the longitudinal bundles of spicules has produced a prismatic form. LD. Conrad is regularly an eight-sided pyramid or prism when young, but with the growth and elongation of the sponge, it developed slight undulations, then nodes, and later prominent tubercles (figure 38). Ceratodictya annulata and Hydnoceras nodosum* show a further specialization in the formation of rings and nodes. Practically the limit to these specializations is attained in Hydnoceras tuberosum (figure 39), H. phymatodes and related forms. In H. twherosum, the apex representing the young stage or the initial growth is much like Cyathophycus 256 OC. L. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. or Dictyospongia. This is followed by a prismatic stage like D. prismatica and D. Conradi, then the nodes and tubercles are introduced and further growth produces the typical charae- ters of the species. The tubercles are surmounted by a sharp spine formed at the intersection of two spicular laminge, one concentric and one longitudinal. Another type of surface specialization is shown in the genus Physospongia from the Keokuk group of the Lower Carboniferous. In this genus, there are bands of regular, alter- nating, elevated and depressed quadrules, the former frequently having the superficial layer of spicules extended into a spini- form process, as in P?. Dawsoni.”* Among corals, there is occasionally some evidence of the external differentiation of structures into spines. The epitheca of the Tetracoralla frequently shows, by means of low lines or low ridges, the number and direction of the septa, and in some of the later species, these external septal lines are ornamented with rows of short spines or spinules; as in Oyathaxonia cyno- don and Zaphrentis spinulosa.** Many Crinoids and Asteroids show the development of tubercles into spines, and the surface sculpture is often made up of ridges which bear strong spines at the points of inter- section ; as in Galbertsocrinus tuberosus,” Technocrinus spinu- losus,” Actinocrinus lobatus,” A. pernodosus, Oreaster occi- dentalis, O. gigas, Letaster cribrosus, ete. The concentric lamine of growth in the Brachiopods are frequently differentiated into spinules; as in Siphonotreta unguiculata,” Schizambon typicalis,” Spirifer jimbriatus,” S. pseudolineatus,” S. setigerus,”’ Cliothyris Loyssi,” ete. Other species show the differentiation of the radii into spines; as Acanthothyris spinosa,“ and A. Doderleini.” In others the strong concentric laminge passing over radii are often infolded into spines; as in Atrypa spinosa.” Among the Mollusca, innumerable examples could be cited showing clearly the differentiation of various ornamental features into spines. Some of these have already been discussed, but may be referred to again in this con- nection. Thus, an illustration of the passage of concentric Jaminz into spines is shown in Avzcula sterna® and Anomia aculeata® (figures 26 and 28), and Margaritiphora fim- briata, etc. Many species of Gastro- pods show the same types of differen- tiation. The differentiation of radi- ating lines or ridges into spines is Figure 40. Lima squamosus, equally common, and is well shown Natural size. To show differ- in Spondylus (tigures 12, 14, 30), and Enebyonies a eee squamosus (figure 40). In ae CO. EB. Beecher— Origin and Significance of Spines. 257 most of these cases, the rib represents the progression of a fold in the edge of the mantle, while the spine is a process of a con- centric lamina, and is usually more or less flat or tubular. Occasionally, the rib becomes obsolescent, and is represented by a row of spines, as in some specimens of the Gastropod, Crucibulum spinosum. When the radiating and concentric ornaments are distinctly continuous, a reticulate or cancellate appearance is produced, and the points of intersection often bear spines; as in Aviculopecten scabridus,” A. ornatus,™ Actinopteria Boydi,” Pterinopecten spondylus,” ete. The raised lines or ridges on the legs and carapaces of Crus- tacea are frequently spiniferous, as Gelasimus princeps, Gecar- conus ruricola, etc. The radii on the shells of barnacles are sometimes differentiated into spines ; as in Balanus tintinnabu- lum var. spynosus.”* In the higher animals, the differentiation of ornamental features into spines is not common, especially as most of the forms are devoid of hard external parts. Among the fishes and reptiles, certain lines and ridges on the head and body are often spiniferous, while in others the scales have spiniferous ribs. Ill. Secondarily as a means of protection and offense. (A,, B,.) After spines have originated through the stimuli from the environment acting on the most exposed parts, or by growth force, or by progressive differentiation of previous structures, they may often acquire added qualities, one of which is to protect an organism from the attacks of many of its enemies. Morris” shows that defense in animals is either mechanical or motor, while in the higher plants, it is purely mechanical. The spine clearly belongs to the mechanical mode of defense, and in many animals may be efficient without motion. If motion is added, it then may serve not only for protection but for offense as well. Natural selection evidently could not originate a spine, but after one has appeared from any of the causes mentioned in the preceding paragraph, this agency could tend to preserve and allow the spine to develop along certain lines. The restrictions as a defensive structure would be those of efficiency, and therefore all the monstrous growths, vagaries, and ornamental spine features would arise independ- ently of the action of protective selection, and would be accounted for by the operation of the forces of the environ- ment, growth, and sexual selection. In this way, the simple antlers of the Ter tiary Deer may be imagined to have reached the highest degree of efficiency as weapons, by ordinary natural selection (figure 41). In most cases, the subsequent increasing complexity of the antlers during more modern times cannot have improved their usefulness for protection or fighting 258 C. £. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. (figures 42, 43), and probably arose through gradual specializa- tion according to the law of multiplication of effects, acted on by the agency of sexual selection. In some species, as the Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), the differentiation of the antlers has secondarily produced a useful structure. One of the brow tines in this species has become greatly enlarged and palmated, and serves to assist in removing the snow to uncover food. Evidently this has had something to do with the common retention of the antlers in both sexes. 41, 42. 43. Figure 41. Antler of Cervulus (?) dicranoceros. Pliocene. Ficure 42. Antler of Cervus pardinensis. Pliocene. Figure 43. Antler of the Fallow Deer (Cervus dama). Reduced. (After Nicholson and Lydekker.) Certain types of horns are common to particular regions, especially when the cattle are in a semi-wild state, as in the Western Plains of America. The Texas cattle have long, gently curved horns standing out from the head. Similar forms are prevalent in the cattle of southern Italy and in other warm temperate regions. farther north, the horns become more curved in a direction parallel with the head, and are therefore closer to the skull. The most northerly representa- tive of the hollow-horned ruminants, the Musk-Ox (Ovibos mochatus) has the horns hanging down close to the skull and only curved outwards in their distal portions. Marsh suggests to the writer that these variations in the directions of the horns have been influenced by the climate. A warm climate per- mits the horns to stand out directly from the skull. Farther north, or in a colder region, the frequent freezing of the horns and their consequent drooping has induced a natural drooping condition, and an Arctic climate has resulted in the production of horns closely appressed to the skull, in which position they cannot be affected by freezing temperatures. Another possible service for antlers is also suggested by Marsh. As is well known, the male Moose is one of the most wary of the Cervide, and detects noises at great distances. ¢ C. FE. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. 259 The large palmate antlers act as sounding boards, and, when listening, the animal holds his ears in the focus of the anterior surfaces of the antlers. The hollow-horned mammals afford some of the most evi- dent examples of the use of horns for protection and offense. In species with permanent horns, like the bison, oxen, goats, cattle, antelopes, etc., the horns are generally present in both sexes, though in the males they are often much the larger. In defense, many of the horned ruminants hold the head down, thus protecting the nose and bringing the top of the skull into prominence. In this position, the horns are most effective. A similar posture is taken by the horned batrachians and lizards. The Porcupine and Echidna rely largely on the protection afforded by their spines, and on this account they are sluggish in their movements, and make little effort to escape approach- ing enemies. Many of the great horned Dinosaurs of the Mesozoic are well provided with an armature of protective plates and spines on various parts of the body. In addition to an arrnature on the body, Z7riceratops had three large horns on the head, one median (nasal) and two lateral (supra-orbital). These were powerful offensive and defensive weapons. There were also other small nodes and spiniform ossicles around the posterior erest of the skull and on the jugals, forming a part of the general armor. In Stegosaurus,” the efficient offensive and defensive weapons were the huge spines on the tail, and it is interesting to note as a parallel to this condition, that the greatest nerve centers were in the sacrum, and therefore pos- terior also. No group of vertebrates shows such a variety of protective and offensive characters as the fishes. Many of the older types were heavily plated, while in others the fin-spines were greatly developed. Among modern forms, the protective character of the spines is well shown in types like the Spiny Box-fish, Chilomycterus geometricus and Diodon maculatus. A combi- nation of mechanical and optical protection is afforded in the remarkable Australian Pipe-fish, Phyllopteryx eques*® (figure 49). This fish has numerous spines and ribbon-like branching filaments, the former giving it a mechanical defense, and the latter assisting in its concealment among sea-weeds, to which it bears a striking resemblance. Spines for protection are extremely common among insects, even in larval forms. They have been so frequently noted as to require no elaboration here. Packard™ has ably discussed the origin of nodes, tubercles, and spines, among certain cater- pillars. Among the forms which feed exclusively at or near 260 O. L. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. the ground, he finds the body usually smooth, while those feed- ing on trees or on both trees and ground are often variously spined and tuberculated. These ornamental features arise from the modification of the piliferous warts common to all lepidopterons larva, and he coneludes that the trees were more favorable for temperature, food, ete., than the ground, and that an increase of nutrition and growth force led to the hypertrophy of these warts into tubercles and spines. Having thus arisen, they immediately became useful for protection from birds and parasitic insects. Among the Crustacea, there are also numerous examples of protective spines. ‘These may be confined to parts of the body and legs especially exposed, or the entire animal may partake of the spiny character, as in the crab, Hehidnocerus setumanus, where even the eye-stalks and antenne are spiniferous. Others, like Lethodes maia, have the spines generally distributed over the carapace and legs. While serving for defensive purposes, this generally spinose character has probably reached its extreme development through the influence of repetition (B,). The nauplius larva of Lepas fascicularis is very large, and has highly defensive spines which are explained by Balfour® as a secondary adaptation for protection. The larger spines on Trilobites, especially those from the genal angles and the axis, doubtless served protective purposes. The extremes of spi- nosity in this elass are found in the various species and genera of the family Acidaspidee, and also in many forms of Arges, Terataspis, Hoplolichas, ete. Even among the star-fishes, which are so generally spinose, some forms have the spines so prominently developed on the most exposed portions of the animal that they evidently serve for protection; as Acanthaster solaris, Echinaster spinosus, ete. The examples already given are sufficient to emphasize the fact that after spines are developed, they may then often serve for protection and offense and therefore be useful, their effi- ciency being controlled by natural selection resulting in the survival of the fittest. Another process or kind of selection has been described by Verrill, as “ Cannibalistic Selection.” He has shown: that the young of carnivorous animals often prey upon each other, as in the larval forms of some Decapoda, or sometimes even before the escape of the young from the egg capsules, as in some of the Gastropoda. Here, of course, any natural variation in the newly-hatched animals which would give an individual some advantage over its companions would tend to its pre- servation and to their destruction. In this way, it may occur that the relative growth of spines in the zoéa of decapods has CO. FE. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. 261 determined the survival of the well-armed individuals, as in the zoéa of Cancer” (figure 44), Carcinus, Homarus, ete. 44, FIGURE 44, Zoéa of the common crab, Cancer irroratus; lateral view. x8. (After Verrill and Smith®.) IV. Secondarily from sexual selection. (A,, B,.) The males and females of so many animals present dif- ferences in size, color, and ornament, that corresponding varia- tions in the development of spines, horns, and antlers, might naturally be expected. That such differences actually occur in nature is evident. Every gradation can be found between horns or antlers common to both sexes and those confined to one sex. Probably the initial difference is as ancient as sex itself. Sexual variations of horns are most familiar among the mammals. Some, as the Giraffe, Ox, Bison, and Reindeer, have them present in both sexes, though the antlers of the female Reindeer are smaller and more slender than in the male, and in the American variety are sometimes absent. Others, as in the Prong-horn Antelope, many sheep, goats, ete., have the horns usually quite small in the female, and well developed in the male. Lastly, the modern Deer, Elk, Moose, etc., have the antlers confined to the males alone, the female being entirely without them. Some of the early deer (Procervulus) seem to have had antlers in both sexes, and in nearly all the families of the Ruminata, there are species without horns, other species with horns in both sexes, and still others with horns only in the male. In the wild state, the presence or absence of horns and their character in any particular species seem to be well established, but in domesticated forms, the greatest variety is found. Among domesticated cattle, presumably of one species 262 O. FE. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. originally, varieties are found without horns, and others with horns, showing all degrees of twisting and length. By protecting cattle from enemies, by forcing them into changed environment, and by varying amounts of nutrition, man has evidently brought the original stock into a condition of free variation. This state has been made use of in the pro- duction of endless varieties by selection and cross-breeding. Darwin" accounts for the sexual selection affecting the growth of the antlers in the Deer as due to excess in the num- ber of male individuals, and their struggles for supremacy in the possession of a mate. The antlers at the breeding season — are strong and solid, and are therefore at their maximum of efficiency in each individual. They are shed at or before the time the young are born. Previous to the growth and maturity of the new antlers, the young are so far advanced as to be able to avoid being killed by the adult males. Furthermore, Darwin suggests that the excessive development of antlers into palmate and arborescent forms was probably an orna- mental character attractive to the females. These complicated antlers not being the most efficient weapons, the fightiag pro- clivities of the males would tend to favor the individuals with simple antlers, and to repress the more differentiated forms. Thus, the two influences would be opposed to each other, though not necessarily equal. The law of the multiplication of effects may also have some force, since it may carry a struc- ture beyond the bounds of efficiency. Even in one of the oldest horned mammals, the Protocerus* of the Miocene Ter- tiary, a great difference is seen in the horns of the two sexes. The female has little nodes or tubercles, which in the male rise to the height and prominence of the horns on the Giraffe, or are even relatively more pronounced. The males of some other vertebrates have spiniform processes or spurs on their legs and wings serving particular functions. The spurs in birds are to be considered mainly as weapons which are used by the males in combats among themselves. They are developed on the metatarsal or metacarpal bones as bony processes ensheathed in horn. In the females, the spurs are generally rudimentary. A kind of spur is also found on the hind limbs of the male Avhidna and Ornithorhynchus, attached to the astragalus. It is perforated by a duct lead- ing from a gland. The functions of the spur and of the secretion are unknown. Many lizards especially among the Chameleons present striking differences between the sexes, and the males of some of them develop veritable horns like those’ in cattle, sheep, and other hollow-horned ruminants. Darwin” illustrates and describes a number of most interesting examples. One of C. EB. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. 263 them (Chameleon Owenz) is here shown (figures 45, 46). The male has three horns, one on the snout and two on the fore- head. They are supported by bony excrescences from the skull. From the peaceable nature of these animals, Darwin concludes that “ we are driven to infer that these almost mon- strous deviations of structure serve as masculine ornaments.” The males of the tropical: American genus of fishes, Callichthys, “ have the ca spines on the pectoral fins stronger and longer than those of the female, the spine increasing in size as the male reaches maturity ” (Seeley”). Among insects, the males of many beetles belonging to the Lamellicorns have long horns arising from various parts of the head and thorax. One of the best known forms is the Hercules beetle (Dynastes hercules). Bateson® states that, in this and other genera, it is commonly found that the males are pieurr 45. Profile of not all alike, but some are of about the head of Chameleon Oweni; size of the females and have little or male. 3. no development of horns, while others as co weal gr gic are more than twice the size of the Darwin.) females and have enormous horns. . These two forms of male are called “ low ” and “ high ” males, respectively. Among the males, similar dimorphism in respect to size and length of horns occurs in Xylotrupes gideon, and in the stag beetle (Lucanus cervus, L. titanus, L. dama). In many of these cases, the horns are evidently protective and not developed through the selective influences of the female. In such eases, the habits of the male are supposedly different from those of the female. Thus, Wallace” suggests that the horned males of the coleopterid families Copridze and Dynastidee fly about more, as is commonly the case with male insects, and that the horns are an efficient protection against insectivorous birds. These interpretations clearly do not come under the definition of sexual selection as restricted to the choice of either sex. Beauty, voice, or strength, may influ- ence the selection of a mate by the opposite sex, but when the habits of the sexes are different and certain characters arise in response to this change, the explanation is then really found in the law of adaptation or physical selection. 99 V. Secondarily from mimetic influences. (A,, B,.) Natural selection may aid in furthering and preserving a spinose organism after the spines have originated through any primary cause. One aspect of this influence may be treated 264 CO. E. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. under the head of mimicry. If, by their resemblance in form, color, or voice any characters are similar to characters present in the surroundings of the animal, and afford a means of pro- tection or are useful, they may be considered as mimetie in the broadest sense of the term. Mimicry is usually restricted to a kind of special resemblance, and not to the cases of general resemblance afforded by an animal without significant colors in general harmony with its surroundings. The influence of mimicry in the production of spines can only occur where the object mimicked is spiniform or spinose. Apparently this is rather infrequent and of little real import- ance as a factor of acanthogeny. Insects and spiders have furnished the greatest number and variety of mimetic forms, both in their larval and adult condi- tions, and naturally would be expected to furnish examples of spines having mimetic significance. The object mim- icked may be another species of insect or animal, in which case, there is usually some offensive or defensive quality ren- dering the resemblance useful to the mimicker; or, the whole or a portion of some plant or other object may be imitated, tending to the more or less complete concealment of the mim- icking insect. Satisfactory examples are not at hand, though doubtless many occur in nature, and some have been described, but not for the present purpose. A few will be cited here which seem to conform to the requirements. 47. 48, FIGURE 47.—Profile of a Spider (Cerosiris mitralis) on a twig mimicking a Spiny excrescence. (From Peckham, after Vinson.) Figure 48. The larva of the Early Thorn Moth (Selenia illunaria) resting on @ twig; showing mimicry of stem and spiniform processes. +4. (After Poulton.) A Madagascar spider (Cowrostris mitralis) is described by Elizabeth G. Peckham” as sitting motionless on a branch and resembling a woody excrescence with projections or spiniform processes, figure 47. Other spiny spiders of the Epeiride probably -have similar protective mimetic features, as pera spinea and Acrosoma arcuata. CO. L. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. 265 The larva of the Early Thorn Moth as described and illus- trated by Poulton® bears a strong resemblance to the twig upon which it rests, even to spiniform processes, axils, and buds (figure 48). Packard” cites a striking case of mimicry in 49. Figure 49. Australian Pipe-fish (Phyllopteryx eques) and frond of sea-weed in lower right hand corner; showing mimicry. +4. (After Gunther.) the caterpillar of another genus of moth (Schizura), where the spines and tubercles resemble the serrations of a leaf ‘‘so that when feeding on the edge of a leaf, the Schizure exactly imi- tate a portion of the fresh- -ereen serrated edge of a leaf includ- ing a sere, brown, withered spot, the angular, serrate outline of the back ‘corresponding to the serrate outline of the edge of the leaf.” The Australian Pipe-fish Phyllopteryx, previously mentioned under the head of spines for protection, shows the mimicry of a plant by an animal to a striking degree. This fish closely imitates a seaweed (figure 49) and Giinther®® gives the following description of the spines and tilaments on the species Phyllop- teryx eques: “There is a pair of small spines behind the middle of the upper edge ot the snout, a pair of minute bar- bels at the chin, and a pair of long appendages in the middle of the lower part of the head. ‘The forehead bears a broad, erect, somewhat four-sided crest, behind which there is a single shorter spine. A horizontal spine extends above each orbit. There is a cluster of spines on the occiput, and from these nar- row appendages are prolonged. On the nape of the neck isa Am. Jour. Scr.--FourtH Suries, Vot. VJ, No. 33.—SEPTEMBER, 1898. 266 CO. E. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. long spine, dilated at the base into a crest, and carrying a long forked appendage. The back is arched, and on the under side are two deep indentations. The spines on the ridges of the shields are the strongest ; they are compressed, are not flexible, and each terminates in a pair of short points. There is one pair of these spines in the middle of the back, and one on each of the three prominences of the abdominal outline; they terminate in flaps, which are long and forked. There are also very long compressed flexible spines without appendages, which extend in pairs along the uppermost part of the back, while a single series extends along the middle line of the belly. Small short conical spines run in a singie series along the middle line of the sides, and along the lateral edges of the belly ; and there is a pair of similar spines in front of the base of the pectoral fin. The tail, which is about as long as the body, carries the dorsal fin; it is quadrangular, and has sharp edges. It carries along its upper side five pairs of band-bear- ing spines, which terminate in branching filaments.” * The Horned Toad Phrynosoma bears considerable resem- blance to the joints of the Prickly Pear, with which it is often associated, and it may be suggested that the likeness both in form and spinescence represents mimetic characters. VI. Prolonged development under conditions favorable for multi- plication. (1B,.) The prolonged development or existence of a stock under favorable conditions for multiplication may be considered as one of the primary influences favoring the production of spines. This implies abundance of nutrition and compara- tively few enemies outside of other individuals of the same or closely related species. Under a proper amount of increased nutrition, the vitality and reproductiveness of a stock are raised; and other things being favorable, it is found that the stock will give expression to what has already been described as free variation. Hypertrophy is also very apt to be one result of abundant nutrition, so that structures of little or no use may be developed, and some of them comprise certain features which are often called ornamental. In the excessive multiplication of individuals, it is evident that there must be a great number of natural variations, and that some of these will affect the pairing of the sexes in such a manner as to accentuate and delimit certain variations. Even- tually, there also comes a struggle for existence in which favor- able modifications have a decided advantage. In this way, it * The artist who copied Giinther’s figure for Lennis ‘‘ Synopsis der Thierkunde,” 3d ed., by H. Ludwig (vol. i. p. 770, 1883) connected the fish with the adjacent fronds of seaweed so as to form a single organism, C. FE. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. 267 is believed that the great amount of differentiation found in some isolated stocks has been brought about. Primarily then, a favorable condition for nutrition is assumed, which is fol- lowed by excessive numerical multiplication; while the natural variations are augmented and governed by the action of repro- ductive divergence for which such conditions are favorable. Secondarily, these variations are subjected to the influences of cannibalistic selection, defense, offense, sexual selection, and mimicry. In illustration of the amount of differentiation attained by a single stock under favorable conditions, the Amphipod Crusta- ceans, Gammarus and Allorchestes, found in lakes Baikal and Titicaca, respectively, may again be noticed. {m respect to the number of species, Gammarus is very sparsely distributed over the world, though in Lake Baikal alone a hundred and seventeen species have been described by Dybowsky.”” In contrast to this, it may be mentioned that but four fresh-water species have been discovered in the whole of Norway. In Lake Baikal, all the depths explored (to 1373 meters) have furnished species. Those living near the surface are vividly colored, yet apparently make no attempts at con- cealment. Many of the species are also highly spinose, though not sufficiently armed to be protected from the fish. As these Crustaceans are voracious creatures, the spinose character has probably been favored by the agency of cannibalistic selection. The lake has a number of species of fish for which the Gammaride furnish excellent food, but the presence of a species of seal, predaceous fish, as tain moths, the caterpillars as soon as they acquired arboreal habits met with favorable conditions in respect to food, temperature, etc., and that Figure 50. Ailorchestes ar- as spines and tubercles arose by ee igt ae normal variation, such features being gorsal ge ee found useful for protection, were 9™™, (After Faxon.) therefore preserved and augmented. well as the native fishermen keep the re fish below the danger point, thus allowing the Gammaride to become Ae very abundant. Vif Similarly, in Lake Titicaca, there s "WSs i is a wonderful specific development ANLIE ‘e of a kindred Crustacean, Allorchestes. S Gi es One of the most spinose species (A. 7 = = ‘: armatus) is also the commonest, and aad 1S Wis according to Faxon’ occurs in count- Y2— ~~ less numbers (figure 50). J pr’ Ds Packard™ shows that, among cer- ff ie \ \ ae if | se oa Vi 268 C. L. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. The differentiation of Achatinella has already been discussed (p. 182) as affording a striking instance of free variation among the Mollusca. The evolution of the Tertiary species of Planorbis at Steinheim, as described by Hyatt,” furnishes another example, though in neither case has the differentiation of structures proceeded far enough to result in spines. The costate form (Planorbis costatus) was tending toward that end, but did not attain it. The series of Slavonian Paludina in the Lower Pliocene, as elucidated by Neumayr and Paul,” show a somewhat further advancement. The species in the lowest beds (typus Paludina Neumayr?) are smooth and unornamented. Higher in the strata, they are angular and carinated, and at the top of the series, the shells are carinated, nodose, and subspinose (typus Paludina Hernest). The living American genus Z’ulotomais closely related to the most differentiated species (P. Hwrnesi), and its approach to spinose features is more pronounced. Under the phylogeny of spinose forms (pp. 18,19) an outline of the lite history of the Brachiopod Atrypa reticularis and derived species was presented. This being one of the com- monest types of Brachiopods in the Silurian and Devonian, often forming beds of considerable extent, it seems quite likely that its prolonged development under favorable condi- tions for multiplication must have had an effect on the amount and kind of variation. It has been uoticed by Brady’ and others, that in the Forami- nifera, Globigerina bulloides, Orbulina universa, ete., the pelagic forms comprise two varieties which are generally dis- tinct, a spinous form and another with small minutely granular shells. The bottom specimens of the same species are also commonly without spines and often smaller. The interpreta- tion seems to be that the large specimens indicate an abundance of nutrition which has also produced hypertrophy of the normal granules into spines. Some bottom specimens are large, but they are usually abnormal and of a monstrous or pathologic nature. From the foregoing examples, the conclusion to be drawn is that, with full nutrition, there comes a numerical maximum, and naturally with this a corresponding number of normal variations. Some of these modifications, as spines, have arisen by hypertrophy. After having thus originated by growth force, they may or may not be of use for offense, defense, or concealment, or in any way give their possessor a distinct advantage. [To be continued. | Chemistry und Physics. ae 269 Semen TIPLTC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. A Laboratory Guide in Qualitative Chemical Analysis ; by Warts, M.A. 8vo, pp. villi, 190. New York, 1898 (John Wiley & Sons).—The purpose of the author in writing this book, as he tells us in the preface, was to introduce a method which, as he has found in his own teaching, has a “ tendency to obviate thoughtless and mechanical work on the part of the stu- dent.” The volume is divided into three parts. Part I com- prises the Analytical Course, Part If the Theory and Part III the Descriptive Part ; to which are added as appendices a list of apparatus and two sets of chemical labels. The object of the analytical course “is to introduce the subject of qualitative analysis in such a way as to develop the powers of observation, inductive reasoning and memory and at the same time to give a knowledge of chemical facts and methods which will be of use in the further study of this and related subjects.” In general the methods of Fresenius are followed though with some changes. In the second part the student’s knowledge of theory is supple- mented by additional matter directly connected with analysis, the chapter on ions and ionization being especially valuable. In the third or descriptive part, the radicals are classified alphabeti- cally, the properties upon which their analytical reactions are based being briefly given. The novelty as well as the excellence of the method developed in the Analytical Course seems of itself to justify the addition of this book to our analytical manuals. As a laboratory handbook it will prove most useful; being much smaller than the treatise of Fresenius, which must always remain the standard of reference. G. F. B. 2. A Short Course in Inorganic Qualitative Analysis for Engineering Students; by J. 8S. C. Wetts, Ph.D. 12mo, pp. vill, 294, New York, 1898 (John Wiley & Sons).—This volume contains a short analytical course intended-for the use of students who have only a limited time to devote to the subject. In the first section the grouping of the metals is considered, with the reactions of the several groups. in the second, the grouping and reactions of the acids are similarly treated. The third section is devoted to the analysis of actual compounds, especially of com- mercial products. ‘The book is copiously supplied with ‘tables of scheme reactions,” following the tables of group separations and those of separations of members of the groups. G. F. B. 3. Introduction to Electro-chemical Experiments; by. Dr. Fevix Orrrer, Translated (with the author’s sanction) by Edgar F. Smith. 12mo, pp. 144. Philadelphia, 1897. (P. Blakiston, Son & Co.) Practical Exercises in Electrochemistry; by Dr. Fer.ix Oxtret. Translated (with the author’s sanction) by Edgar F. . 270 Scientific Intelligence. Smith. 12mo, pp. 92. Philadelphia, 1897. (P. Blakiston, Son & Co.) The extensive introduction of electrical methods into chemical processes has given rise to the necessity of making electrochemi- cal principles a part of higher education. In these little books Dr. Oettel has given in a complete form an outline of these prin- ciples and has thus done a service in this direction. The first volume is devoted rather to practical chemical electro-technics and the second to research methods. Dr. Smith’s translation is an excellent one, as was to be expected from his well known position as an authority in this branch of chemical science. The books will do a good service in instruction. G. F. B. 4, Remarks on Colloidal Glass; by C. Barus. (Communi- cated.)-—Following the suggestions in my earlier experiments, given in this Journal (3), vol. xli, p. 110, 1891, I have since been enabled to impregnate glass with water to such an extent as to make it fusible below 200° C. The solution occurs with contrac- tion of bulk relatively to the ingredients and increasing com- pressibility, substantially as already stated, (1. c.) Heated in a gas burner in air, the new. clear glass melts, swells up enormously with loss of water to a white porous pumice resembling pith. Long boiling in water turns it white superficially. I am now able to announce the following results: Glass as a colloid is miscible in all proportions with water. If these solutions are sufficiently concentrated, they coagulate at ordinary temperature and the congealed aqueous glass is not different in general appearance from common giass. The melting point of the coagulated aqueous silicate frequently lies below 200° C., probably above 150° C., depending on the glass. Brown University, Providence, R. I. Il. Grouocgy AND MINERALOGY: 1. Late Formations and Great Changes of Level in Jamaica ; by J. W. Spencer. Abstract prepared by the author of a paper in the Transactions of the Canadian Institute, vol. v, pp. 324-357, 1898.—This paper is descriptive of the physical features of Jamaica which bear upon the evidence of great changes of level in late geological times, and extends the conclusions set forth in the author’s work upon the “Reconstruction of the Antillean Continent.”* Speaking in a broad way, Jamaica is a dissected tableland, sur- mounting another but submarine plateau, extending from Haiti to the Yucatan banks, now submerged to depths of 3,000—4,000 feet. These banks have the form of old base-planes of erosion, but they are traversed by deep valleys more than 2,000 feet below the summit of the platform. Even within the limit of the sub- marine plateau mass, the channels reach to a depth of 9,600 feet, or more than 5,000 feet below the surface of the drowned plains. * Bull. Geol. Sci. Am., vol. vii, pp. 103-140, 1894. Geology and Mineralogy. 271 Here as everywhere, when studied, the valleys have in all respects the features of those of the plateau regions of Mexico and other countries. And they head in embayments of the land, receiving as tributaries the principal rivers of the district. The modern topographic features of Jamaica date back, practi- cally, only to the middle Miocene period; for the larger part of the island is covered by old Miocene white limestones. But the subsequent denudation has been enormous, for although the for- mation still reaches a thickness of 2,000 feet in some places, yet in others the dissection of it has penetrated the whole mass. Upon this old Miocene surface no Mio-Pliocene formations occur until those at the close of the period, showing it to have been one of long-continued elevation. Upon these white limestones there was a subsequent mechani- cal deposit of marls, with pebbles (made up in part of older frag- ments), and in other localities there were gravels and loams (according to the source of the materials). These accumulations rise to a height of 500 feet in stratified beds, still nearly horizon- tal in contrast to the upturned beds of the underlying white lime- stone. They contain a few shells of modern species. The formations have been found to correspond, in position, with the Lafayette of the continent, or the Matanzas of Cuba, which have been provisionally placed at the close of the Pliocene period. Overlying the Layton formation, where this has not been removed, and other formations found near the surface of the country, a mantle of stratified loams and gravels has been laid down. This occurs up to an elevation of 600 feet. It has been named the Liguanea formation, and has been correlated with the Columbia of the continent and the Zapata of Cuba. While no fossils have been found in this fragmental deposit, yet its stratified beds, occurring adjacent to the coast high above the sea, indicate its origin at sea-level. Thus it appears that the island was submerged to 500 or 600 feet during two distinct epochs, since the Mio-Pliocene period. The paper describes the broad undulating features characteriz- ing the Mio-Pliocene period. These have since been dissected by great deep valleys, extending from the land to the submerged plateau, formed subsequent to the Layton epoch; and from the depths to which they reach in the submerged plateau, the inference drawn is that the land stood 10,000 feet, or more, higher in the early Pleistocene period than to-day. The Layton formation, during this elevation, was enormously degraded, so that in many localities only remnants are found in protected places. Jamaica affords a favorable region for studying the contrast between the undulating topography developed near base-level of erosion dur- ing the Mio-Pliocene period of more extensive lands than to-day, and the great and enormously deep valleys of the post-Layton or early Pleistocene epoch. The molding of the submarine plateau is supposed to have occurred during the Mio-Pliocene period, while the deeply-drowned valleys are continuations of those of the land, which are of post-Layton age. 272 Scientific Intelligence. In contrast with these two features of erosion, that of the post- Liguanea epoch of submergence has been of small proportions; indeed, the post-Liguanea elevation is so recent that it has not passed beyond the stage of making narrow deep cafions. On account of this formation overlying the remains of the Layton series the different features of erosion, up to an altitude of 600 feet, are geologically preserved, while at greater altitudes they are not so easily distinguishable from those produced before the Liguanea epoch; yet when one has become familiar with the features of erosion, the respective epochs are generally recogniz- able. The post-Liguanea cafion-making epoch was characterized by an elevation of 150-200 feet more than at present; for the continuations of the existing rivers are traceable to that depth across the submerged coastal plains. The subsidence which caused the drowning of these valleys reached to an elevation of 10-25 feet below the present level; since which time the coral reefs of the coast have emerged to this amount. Numerous as these oscillations appear, all of them, since the post-Layton elevations have been of comparatively small and diminishing proportions. These changes of level of land and sea have occurred on the other West India islands and on the con- tinent; and from the amount of work accomplished, the Pleisto- cene period seems to have been one of long duration. Outside of Jamaica, the geological features of that beautiful island would not be of special interest, except that here we find additional evidence, both upon land and the adjacent sea, support- ing the theory of the high continental conditions of the West Indian region in the early Pleistocene period, when the land stood more than two miles above the present altitude, uniting North and South America, as is set forth in the ‘ Reconstruction of the Antillean Continent.” 2. Resemblance between the Declivities of High Plateaus and those of Submarine Antillean Valleys; by J. W. SPENCER. Tranactions of the Canadian Institute, vol. v, pp. 359-368, 1898.— This paper is a sequel to the “ Reconstruction of the Antillean Continent,’* as in itthe analysis of the slopes of the drowned val- leys had not been considered. Both in the land and in the submarine valleys, their gradients are of two kinds: Those of rivers which are flowing over continental plains or upon the surface of high tablelands, where the declivities of the streams are so gentle as to be often reduced to even a foot per mile; (2) where the valleys are descending from higher to lower plateaus, in which case the descent is over a series of precipitous steps, separated by short gradation planes, marking pauses in the elevation of the land. Thus, if the mean descent of such a valley be taken, an average gradient would be entirely misleading. While the mean slope may reach from 100 to 200 feet per mile, it is found that in reality it is composed of perhaps twenty abrupt steps, with almost level flats between. Or the steps may reach a * Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. vii, pp. 103-140, 1894. Geology and Mineralogy. 278 height of five hundred feet or more. Such features are seen descending from the Mexican plateaus (of 8,000 feet in altitude) to the Gulf of Mexico. The valleys end abruptly in amphitheaters indenting the floors of the tablelands and dissecting them. In the drowned Antillean valleys, long reaches have been dis- covered with slopes of only a toot per mile, like that of the Mississippi, or of some plateau valley. These are separated by abrupt steps, similar to the succession of those descending from the margins of the Mexican tablelands. This point of analogy between drowned and land valleys, as well as the occurrence of short amphitheaters indenting the edges of the submarine plateaus, when carefully compared, very greatly strengthens the conclusions drawn in the “ Reconstruction of the Antillean Continent ’— namely that the valleys traversing the submarine Antillean plateaus were of land origin, and indicate the depth to which the West Indian continent has sunk, even to a depth of two miles or more. 3. Die Hruptivgesteine des Kristianiagebietes, Part IIL; Das Ganggefolye des Laurdalits ; by W. C. Broaceer. (Videnskab. Skrift. I Math. Natur. Klasse, 1897, No. 6, Kristiania, 8°, pp. 376.) —The already classic work, which Prof. Brogger has been conducting for many years, upon the igneous rocks of southern Norway, is well known to all petrological geologists. The appear- ance of the present important -volume, giving as it does the results of much careful observation and study both in the field and in the laboratory, will be greeted with the greatest interest and attention by all who are interested in the many problems connected with igneous rocks. The special phase of the region which is handled in this memoir is the nephelite-syenite and the attendant varied and peculiar dike rocks which accompany it. Of the many subjects which are discussed it is only possible in this brief notice to summarize the more important. There is given first a full description of the nephelite-syenite, which receives the varietal name of /aurdalite. ‘This is character- ized by an unusual amount of lime and magnesia. It is accom- panied by masses of pulaskite, a rather acid type, low in alkalies and poor in nephelite, and by mica-syenite. All of these are regarded as differentiation products of the normal augite-syenite (laurvikite) of the region. The accompanying dike rocks are divided into two main classes: (a) the dark colored, generally basaltic types, rich in ferro-magnesian components (lamprophyres) for which the author proposes the name of melanocratic rocks (uéAas, dark and xparéw to rule) ; and (0) the light colored types of which the feldspars are as a rule the chief minerals and ot which the aplites are a repre- sentative class; for these the name of deucocratic rocks (AevKds white) is suggested. (It appears to the reviewer that these terms would have had a greater use and precision if they had been con- structed as nouns instead of adjectives, since the terms they are proposed to replace are nouns, i. e. direct names of objects.) 274 Scientifie Intelligence. The melanocratic rocks described are camptonites, kersantites, vogesites and monchiquites of various types; together with minettes, rich in soda and containing aegirite, and farrisite. Farrisite is a new type, consisting of barkevikite, colorless pyroxene, a little lepidomelane and traces of olivine, iron ore, apatite, etc,, mixed with a colorless tabular tetragonal mineral of the scapolite group which plays the part of the feldspathoid and makes up about 35 per cent of the rock. The structure is fine- - granular and megascopically the rock is deep chocolate-brown in color and very compact. Another new type belonging to this class is heumite, a dark-colored, compact fine-granular rock com- posed of barkevikite and biotite with alkali feldspars as chief components and with smaller amounts of nephelite, sodalite and diopside. The leucocratic rocks are nephelite-porphyry, tinguaite, sdlus- bergite, bostonite, foyaite (Brégger uses this term to designate normal nephelite-syenites with trachytic structure while those with hypidiomorphic granular structure he terms “ ditroites”) and hedrumite. The last-named rock type is defined as the chemical and mineralogical hypabyssal equivalent of pulaskite, possessing trachytic structure and therefore composed chiefly of alkali feld- spar and poor in nephelite. In addition syenitic aplites are described under this group of alkaline type—the Jlestiwarites of Rosenbusch. Of all these types chemical analyses are given and the mineral composition and systematic position are thoroughly treated. In the concluding portion of the work the bearing of the facts observed on theoretical petrology is discussed and it is shown that these dike magmas are to be regarded as derived from the laurdalite magma by differentiation, the melanocratic and leuco- cratic types being complementary derivatives. Many questions of general interest are handled including a masterly discussion of the “kern” hypothesis of Rosenbusch which it is shown can be only accepted in a modified form. The latter portion of the memoir is indeed full of suggestions and will furnish material for thought to all petrologists. . L. Vee 4. Baddeckite, a new variety of Muscovite ; by G. C. Horr- MANN. (Communicated.)—This interesting variety of muscovite was met with about half a mile from the town of Baddeck, Victoria County, in the province of Nova Scotia, where it occurs, in the form of minute isolated scales, small scaly aggregations, and thin scaly layers, distributed through a highly plastic clay ; which also contains a large proportion of fine crystalline, white, pearly scales of kaolinite, some minute crystals of white quartz and small particles of pyrite and calcite. The mineral has a fine copper-red color, a pearly luster, and affords a tile-red streak. With water it forms a highly plastic mass. Its specific gravity, at 15°5° C., is 3252. Before the blow-pipe it fuses, at about 4°5, toa shiny black slag, which on continued heating in the reducing flame becomes magnetic. It d { f ( | —— Geology and Mineralogy. 275 is decomposed by strong hydrochloric acid, with separation of slimy silica. An analysis by Mr. R. A. A. Johnston, upon very carefully prepared and apparently perfectly pure material, showed it to have the following composition : — Es ae) epee 48°96 MERCI ee ee 2) By Oe MPUMMPEGRAN Ge fe ke ee, OD ES ee ry kt eee Ee Ae =A 2012 i al a eee ae eat 2-65 ee ee ee pret Ss ie 3-47 Es a ye Se ep eon 0-22 i arer (direct estimation) ..-..--5. .-- 3°78 99°92 These figures afford a ratio for RO: R,O,:S10,: H,O closely corresponding to 1:3:8:2 giving the formula H,(Ca,Mg,K., Na,) (Fe,Al,),Si,O,,, and assuming the hydrogen to be basic, the quantivalent ratio for R’: R’: Si of 3:9: 16 or for bases to silicon of 3:4 agreeing with that required for some varieties of muscovite. The mineral is therefore a hydro-muscovite in which a very large proportion of the alumina ordinarily present is re- placed by ferric oxide, and to ‘this may be ascribed its excep- tional behavior before the blow-pipe; its comportment with strong acids; as likewise its noticeably high specific gravity. The name Laddeckite is given by the writer to this mineral from the above mentioned locality where it was first found. 5. A Text Book of Mineralogy with an extended Treatise on Crystallography and Physical Mineralogy; by Epwarp §S. Dana. 593 pp. 8vo, with a colored plate. New York, 1898 (John Wiley & Sons).—A new edition of this work is announced as nearly ready; the following are quotations from the Preface: “The remarkable advance in the science of Mineralogy, during the years that have elapsed since this text-book was first issued in 1877, has made it necessary, in the preparation of a new edi- tion, to rewrite the whole as well as to add much new matter and many new illustrations. The work being designed chiefly to meet the wants of class or private instruction, this object has at once. determined the choice of topics discussed, the order and fullness of treatment and the method of presentation. In the chapter on Crystallography, the different types of crys- tal forms are described under the now accepted thirty-two groups classed according to their symmetry. The names given to these groups are based, so far as possible, upon the characteristic form of each, and are intended also to suggest the terms formerly applied in accordance with the principles of hemihedrism. The order adopted is that which alone seems suited to the demands of the elementary student, the special and mathematically simple groups of the isometric system being described first. Especial 276 Scientific Intelligence. prominence is given to the ‘normal group’ under the successive systems, that is, to the group which is relatively of most common occurrence and which shows the highest degree of symmetry. The methods of Miller are followed as regards the indices of the different forms and the mathematical calculations. In the chapters on Physical and Chemical Mineralogy, the plan of the former edition is retained of presenting somewhat fully the elementary principles of the science upon. which the mineral characters depend; this is particularly true in the department of optics. The effort has been made to give the student the means of becoming practically familiar with all the modern methods of investigation now commonly applied. Especial attention is, therefore, given to the optical properties of crystals as revealed by the microscope. Further, frequent references are introduced to important papers on the different subjects discussed, in order to direct the student’s attention to the original literature. The descriptive part of the volume is essentially an abridg- ment of the sixth edition of Dana’s System of Mineralogy, pre- pared by the author (1892). To this work (and future Appen- dices) the student is, therefore, referred for fuller descriptions of the crystallographic and optical properties of species, for analyses, lists of localities, etc., also for the authorities for data here quoted. In certain directions; however, the work has been expanded when the interests of the student have seemed to demand it; for example, in the statement of the characters of the various isomorphous groups. 6. Lor dans la Nature; by KEK. Cumenecre and F. Ropertaz. Premier Fascicule, 106 pp., Paris, 1898. (P. Vicq-Dunod et Cie, Editeurs.)—This is a work of quite unusual character, in that it presents the subject of the occurrence of gold in nature in com- plete form from tke various mineralogical, chemical, and geologi- cal standpoints. We have first a description of the crystalliza- tion of gold, then a summary of the composition of that from the different localities, and a general description of the occurrence of associated minerals. Following this is a brief chapter on the various minerals containing gold in nature and then an excellent digest of the gold regions in the different parts of the world. It is stated that the next fascicule will take up the subject of the distribution of gold in the geological formations, ancient and modern, auriferous gravels, and auriferous conglomerates, with a special study of the Transvaal. The work as thus far published can be highly commended, and in its complete form will doubtless prove of much value. A series of thirteen excellent plates, which represent natural specimens of exceptional beauty of crystallization and interest of form, deserves very high praise. Se Botany. 277 HI. Borany. 1. The Illustrated Flora of the Northern States and Canada.* —When it was announced a few years ago that we were soon to have an illustrated flora of northeastern America, and that the preparation of this novel work was to be in the hands of Professor N. L. Britton, American botanists received the news with great interest. It was generally understood that on a number of fundamental points, such as the selection of both generic and specific names of plants and the conception of specific limits, the author of this proposed work was at vari- ance with the usage of the distinguished botanist whose man- ual was then the only existing standard work covering north- eastern America. It was, of course, assumed that in this new book those principles and conceptions would be worked out, and consequently, as the three volumes of the Illustrated Flora have appeared from time to time, they have been received with an interest doubtless greater than that which they would otherwise have aroused. Besides the desire to see the treatment of certain groups by Professor Britton and his associates, there has been a further anticipation of each volume on account of the illustra- tions—a unique feature in an American work of this scope. Alto- gether, then, this book must be regarded as one of the most important recent contributions to the literature of systematic botany. The Illustrated Flora, as stated, has been prepared by Professor Britton, with the aid of a number of specialists and draughtsmen ; and in the execution of the work the author has had the helpful codperation of Judge Addison brown. As we glance over the volumes, we are impressed with the neatness of their general appearance. The cuts, generally three on a page, are symmetri- cally arranged, dividing the space with the equally symmetrical descriptive text ; and the accepted names, synonyms, descriptions, etc., have each their distinctive type. In the adoption of the so-called Engler and Prantl system of arrangement, though as stated it is accepted with slight varia- tions, the authors are to be congratulated, as that system, better than any other yet devised, gives us a near approximation to a natural arrangement of all plants. In capitalization, too, the book is certainly to be highly commended, for it adheres to good English usage, capitalizing the initial letters of all substantive specific names and all of personal or distinctly geographical origin. In fact, the work may be considered ultra-conservative on this point, adhering to the capital initial for geographical adjec- tives, a usage which many botanists, more conservative on the whole than the present authors, are tending toabandon. Another point which it is gratifying to see emphasized is the pronuncia- * An Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States, Canada and the British Possessions; by Nathaniel Lord Britton, Ph.D. and Hon. Addison Brown. In three volumes. New York. 1896-98, (Charles Scribner’s Sons.) 278 Scientific Intelligence. tion of personal specific names. In the Introduction it is recom- mended that such names be pronounced as nearly as possible as the men referred to would have pronounced them. In this way not only is a great deal of historic interest maintained, but there is the avoidance of many practically impossible Latin syllables. The names adopted in this work are, as was expected, largely those of the so-called Botanical Club Check List, though in a number of cases other names, for some reason, have been substi- tuted. This is not the place to discuss the nomenclature ques- tion—it would become too extensive a subject were one to take up its various phases. A recent paper* has shown very conclu- sively that the principles upon which the Check List is based are inconsistent, and consequently we can but regret that such names as will be only short-lived and which add confusion to the tangle of synonymy have been used in this work. The English names, too, have received a great deal of atten- tion, but unfortunately the authors seem to have lost sight of their true value and place. To many people it seems that if English names are to be given for the plants, they should be such as are actually used in colloquial speech by people who do not use the scientific appellations. Non-botanical people know only a comparatively limited number of plants—the commonest or most conspicuous or useful species—and for those they have their own names, sometimes imported from Europe, sometimes suggested by some characteristic of the plant, or often apparently a mere ran- dom name which has become fixed. Such names for a few Species are numerous and often very different, and it is no simple matter to determine which are in most general use, but it is only such which should be used as colloquial names for plants. Ina number of cases these standard names for showy plants are given, but in case of groups too inconspicuous or too difficult of separa- tion for non-botanical folk to notice, the authors have manufactured a series of very uncolloquial designations—generally translations of the Latin names. Much time and thought must have been expended to accomplish what seems, unfortunately, a thankless task. Who that cannot say Scleria reticularis will ever say ‘Reticulated Nut-rush,” or if he cannot say Aster multiformis will he be likely to speak of the “ Various-leaved Aster ” ? It is indeed a surprise in a work so ready to take up modern ideas to find the metric system of measurements quite ignored in the first volume. In the second volume, however, published after a number of adverse criticisms, the metric equivalents of the English units are given in a note, but the measurements are all given in the old standard feet, inches and lines. It is not in these somewhat superficial matters alone, however, that a manual of systematic botany should be judged. Its worth as a working guide can be told only by use and by an examination of the descriptions, keys, ranges, specific limits, and, in this case, the illustrations. Reference has already been made to the neat- *B, L. Robinson, Bot. Gaz., xxv, 437. a a Botany. 279 ness of the pages due in part to the studied symmetry of the descriptions; but this is secured at a very dear price, for through the carefully estimated symmetry of the text the most important point in scientific description, namely clearness, is lost. Most plants have not been over-described in the space allotted each species, but many trivial varieties (or, as generally treated here, species), which differ from the typical plants only in one or two details, could best be distinguished from those species by a mere phrase ; while here that critical phrase is lost to the eye in a maze of unimportant details. For example, take Houstonia ciliolata and longifolia on page 214 of the third volume. These forms differ from each other only in minor and inconstant characters, yet an examination of the text will show that many general points in one description are repeated in the other, quite obscuring the essential differences which should be brought out. Again if the essential features of each species were in same way emphasized or contrasted with the distinguishing points of related species, much would be gained toward the clearness and ready usefulness of the work. In the Appendix this seems to be realized; but it would vastly increase the real value of the book as a field or herbarium companion if this method had been adopted before the last few pages of the third volume. Intimately associated with the descriptions are the figures. These, as a whole are very attractive ; but here, as in the descrip- tions, the test should not be the mere superficial appearance, but the presentation or omission of specific characters and the accuracy of details. From a general examination it would seem that in groups where the specific characters are largely habital the figures will prove of considerable service. In such groups, unfortunately, as require accuracy of detail and the representa- tion of special parts, the figures are often most disappointing. A few groups should be made exceptions to this statement; for instance, in the Waiadacee, in which the text is by the late Doctor Morong and the figures are mainly reduced from the larger ones of his monograph, the details are very well brought out. In some groups, on the other hand, there seems not a little carelessness in either the drawings or the descriptions; at any rate, they are decidedly at variance. In the genus Carex, for example, it is surprising to find accompanying the deseription of C. crinita and the figure of a crinita perigynium a good habital sketch of C. gynandra. Carex Raeana is a slightly different case. Pro- fessor Britton reduces to C. Raeana C. miliaris var. (?) aurea, Bailey, a very different form; and he has figured as C. Raeana the latter plant. A comparison with Doctor Boott’s plate of C. Kaeana shows the Illustrated Flora figure to have striking differ- ences. The leaves of Salix Barclayi are described as serrulate, yet in the figure the plant is represented with entire leaves. Senecio sylvaticus is distinguished from S. vulgaris principally by the simple involucre, lacking an outer short series; but the figure shows an involucre with the outer series of S. vudgaris. Other 280 Scientific Intelligence. careless drawings have been noted, but these cases are sufficient to show the caution which must be exercised in referring to the illustrations. Another unfortunate feature of the drawings, not so much due to carelessness, is the omission of important details which must be relied upon, in many cases, for determination; or often the drawing of details in one case and their omission in contrast- ing cases. In Aster, for instance, very important characters are found in the involucre, yet hardly an involucre in the whole genus is drawn with sufficient accuracy of detail to be of much help. On the other hand, enlarged drawings are made in many cases of both ray and disk flowers, quite useless details without any readily accessible characters ; and sometimes there is a drawing of a single involucral bract with no intimation whether it came from the outer, inner, or intermediate series. In one group of Aster in particular, the section Biotia includ- ing the well-known A. macrophyllus and A. corymbosus, it was important that the illustrations, if any, should be perfectly accu- rate; for in treating this group alone Professor E. 8. Burgess has described no fewer than ten new species and fourteen new varieties, besides reviving three old species. In view of the extended and most painstaking study which he has given this group, it was hoped that the presentation of his conclusions would make quite clear the diverse forms which constitute it. In this matter, how- ever, we must confess great disappointment: from the descrip- tions alone, it is difficult to feel certain which of the new forms one has in hand. There are doubtless quite recognizable differ- ences in the plants; but when the successful use of the key de- pends upon one’s interpretation of the exact shade of difference between “predominant glands large, capitate” and ‘ predomi- nant glands minute, scarcely capitate,” the student cannot help wishing for good enlarged figures of the glands. - In two cases there are drawings presumably intended to show the glands, but, as no scale of measurement is given, it is impossible to compare even those with satisfaction. In attempting to make out these forms the student might make fair progress, after all, were he not hampered by the discrepancies between the descriptions and fig- ures and even between the figures themselves. The second species of the group, Aster tenebrosus, is described as having “leaves very thin and smooth”; yet in the figure the leaves are represented as hairy as those of A. Schreberi, with “leaves... rough above, with scattered siender appressed bristles.” The basal leaves of A. curvescens are said to have “a broad shallow sinus,” and those of A. nobilis have ‘the sinus deep, broad, or the lobes overlapping”; yet in the figures it is difficult to detect a shade of difference in the sinuses, The basal leaves of A. roscidus are described with “the sinus deep,” and the stem leaves are “chiefly orbicular and not cordate, with short broadly winged petioles, rarely slender-petioled”; but in spite of the description the accompanying figure shows an elliptic-ovate basal — — = —- a Botany. 281 leaf tapering gradually to the petiole, and similar but smaller sessile stem leaves. With such inconsistencies as these between descriptions and figures it is of course impossible to form any just opinion as to the validity of the species which are here de- scribed. Throughout the work, as was expected, the tendency seems to be to regard as species many forms which have often been re- garded merely as varieties. In many cases this course seems the proper one in view of recent studies and increased data. For instance, the separation of some forms from Pyrola rotundifolia seems quite proper: P. asarifolia, at any rate, is a plant with very different foliage and range, and its rose-colored flowers are expanded some weeks before those of the more southern white P. rotundifolia. Amelanchier rotundifolia, a species of north- ern river-banks, blooms in late May and in June, and matures its fruit in late August or September, long after that of A. Cana- densis has fallen. It is a pleasure to see this plant put on the same basis as A. Canadensis and A. oligocarpa ; but it is not quite clear how the Rochester Code allows the specific name rotundifolia, first applied as a varietal name to this plant in 1803, when there is already the European A. rotundifolia, Decaisne, founded upon Crategus rotundifolia, Lam. Encyce., i, 84 (1783). On the other hand, many of the old varieties, here raised to specific rank, seem to have less upon which to rest. The /Zows- tonias, Hl. ciliolata and H. longifolia, already referred to, are well marked as extreme variations from //. purpurea, but with a large proportion of specimens falling between these different forms and showing many combinations of their characters, it is hard to see how they can be counted as of specific rank. In treating Sa/sola, Professor Britton keeps apart as species S. Kali and S. Zragus. How, after the observations of M. Constantin,* these plants can be regarded as more than forms of the same Species, is not easy to understand. According to M. Constantin, when the seashore Salsola Kali, with coriaceous calyx and fleshy leaves, creeps up the rivers, the calyx becomes membranous and the leaves less fleshy, thus passing directly into the so-called S. Tragus. Contrasted with the treatment of Sa/sola the case of one of the common aquatics, Myriophyllum humile (M. am- biguum) may be taken. One form of the plant is very small with short leaves, and it grows in shores (MZ. ambiguum, var. limosum, Torr.). Another form, appearing very different, becomes even two feet long, has fine elongate-capillary leaves and grows in water (IZ. ambiguum, var. capillaceum, Torr. and Gray.) Yet Professor Britton (in this as in his general treatment of the group, closely following the late Doctor Morong) gives no recognition to these extreme forms, considering them “only conditions of the plant dependent upon its environment.” What but environ- ment, we may ask, has produced the peculiarities of Sa/sola Tragus ? * Jour. de Bot, 1887, 44. Am. Jour. Sct.—Fourts Srerizs, Vou. VI, No. 33.—SEPrEMBER, 1898, 19 282 Scientific Intelligence. In spite of the general tendency toward the elevation of minor forms to specific rank, there are a few noteworthy cases where well recognized forms have been reduced to other species. Rosa lucida, a species which with A. humilis has given eastern botan- ists more difficulty than almost any other common plant, is well treated, as formerly proposed by Mr. Best, as a variety of the latter species. In some other cases the reductions are less happily made. The case of Carex miliaris, var. (?) aurea has been cited. The related C. miliaris, var. major, Bailey, is unwisely reduced, it seems to us, to C, miliaris, Michx. The plants are in reality quite as different from one another as Carex filiformis and its variety datifolia, treated by Professor Britton as a distinct species, C. lanuginosa, Michx. In discussing the specific limits and the figures in certain groups, mention has been made of the keys to species. These, of course, can be tested only by continuous use. Already the course of regular work has given an opportunity to try them in certain groups where carefully planned keys are important. In the genus Aster the key is based primarily upon the most obvious character of the plant,—the leaf—and, so far as it has been tested, with the exception of the group just discussed, it proves to be very helpful. In Salix, on the contrary, the key promises to be of little use, even to one somewhat familiar with the group. This is due to the illogical divisions, some of the primary groups being based exclusively on the staminate flowers, and their secondary divisions on the capsules. The points already discussed, with the exception of accuracy of descriptions and figures, are matters to be decided in part by individual judgment; but there is one other essential to the good treatment of a flora, the geographical range of each species, in which absolute facts alone can be consulted. In determining the range of a given species it is possible to get an incomplete view by consulting a single large herbarium. A broader view may be gained by consulting a number of herbaria receiving large collec- tions from different sources, and a still broader view is possible by consulting the more accurately prepared local floras. The most satisfactory results possible are gained by a combination of these methods, and it is asking none too much of our monographers to take advantage of all such opportunities as are open to them. Yet in the statement of geographic ranges the Illustrated Flora is exceedingly disappointing. The New England States, for example, have given issue to many lists and local floras, a number of them works of great accuracy, and the specimens upon which these publications are based are deposited in public herbaria or in private collections accessible upon request to critical students of systematic or geographic botany. In view of these standard publications and readily accessible herbaria, it is a surprise to find that in the statement of ranges of scores and scores of well known New England plants, their occurrence in the local lists is quite ignored. Botany. 3 283 _Stellaria borealis (Alsine borealis, Britton) is one of the com- monest plants in northern New England, extending northward to northern Labrador. The eastern range, as given in the Lllustrated Flora, is ‘‘ Rhode Island to northern New Jersey . . Ascends to 5000 ft. in New Hampshire.” Ranunculus multifidus is a common plant from central Maine southwestward throughout New England, yet the range given for that species (as Ft. delphinifolius) is “Ontario to Michigan, south to North Carolina and Missouri.” Nasturtium sylvestre (Roripa sylvestris, Bess.) grows near streams in Newfoundland and Maine (its occurrence in Maine reported in Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, xix, 340), but the range is stated “from Massachusetts to Virginia and Ohio.” Myriophyllum alterniflorum is a common plant in Maine waters and it extends to eastern Massachusetts. Its occurrence in Maine was published on the same page as the note on WW. Farwellii, a species which Professor Britton has included from that State; yet in stating the range of WW. alternifiorum no intimation is given that it grows in the United States. Ligustrum vulgare is one of the commonest shrubs in rocky woods of eastern Massachusetts, recorded as a wild plant by Menasseh Cutler as early as 1785. The range here given is “Ontario and western New York to Pennsylvania and North Caroliva.” Polygonum Careyi is locally abundant from northern Maine to Rhode Island, and its occurrence in Maine was given in Doctor Small’s Monograph of the genus, and in his preliminary list (Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, xix, 353) Maine specimens are cited; yet now the same author gives the range “ Ontario to Rhode Island, New Jersey and Pennsylvania.” But perhaps the strangest thing of all is to see our common Lobelia spicata entirely excluded from New England by the range “ Ontario to the Northwest Territory, south to North Caro- lina,” etc. When we consider the multitude of species overlooked or ignored in a region so well represented by good local lists as is New England, it is easily seen what must be the experience of those who examine the Illustrated Flora with eyes familiar with plants of an area less thoroughly explored than that here taken as a standard, In one other particular the Illustrated Flora is often disap- pointing. It aims to give in the synonymy of each species the recent current names of the plant. This is a good point and one which will be of great assistance to those who come face to face for the first time with the strange names here taken up; but if this detail could have been more carefully attended to, the useful- ness of the book as a reference work would be enhanced. It is a disappointment in looking for some familiar name to find it absent, even as asynonym. One of our common elders has been known as Sambucus racemosa, but that name is not mentioned in the 284 : Scientific Intelligence. treatment of the genus. An Arctic-alpine form of Campanula rotundifolia has been known to us as var. Arctica, yet that name is not given as a synonym of var. Langsdorfiana. A common Luzula in the White Mountains and northern Maine has been familiar as L. spadicea, var. melanocarpa, but under its more recent alias, Juncoides parviflorum, Coville, the more familiar synonym is not mentioned. In the so-called Botanical Club Check List the plant which we have known and which is now kept up as Puccinellia maritima, was called Panicularia maritima ; yet for some reason this name does not occur in the Illustrated Flora synonymy. One of the familiar White Mountain grasses has long passed as Agrostis canina, var. alpina, Oakes. In the Botanical Club Check List, Professor Scribner made a new com- bination, Agrostis rubra, L., var. alpina; but now in the Illus- trated Flora the plant is called Agrostis rubra, and both the Check List name and the other are quite omitted from the synonymy. In many particulars, then, the Illustrated Flora is hardly what we should like to see it. In most groups where the rep- resentation of minute details is important the figures can be used only with hesitation. The descriptions also, to one whose time is of value, are far from satisfactory. Printed in one style of type and often filled out with non-essential details, they are not readily interpreted. Unfortunately, too, the descriptions and the accompanying figures are often contradictory ; and in the state- ment of geographic ranges there has been so general an ignoring of well known and accessible data, that one can feel little confi- dence that the ranges of most species are given with even approxi- mate accuracy. On the other hand, there are fortunately some notable excep- tions to the general run of figures. In the Naiadacew, Alismacee, Graminew, Juncacee, Polygonacee, and a few other families, most details are well brought out and the illustrations promise to be helpful. In the adoption of the Engler and Prantl system of arrangement too, the [Illustrated Flora has taken a wise step ; and in spite of its inaccuracies and inconsistencies, when one wishes to gain from the Illustrated Flora only a general impres- sion of the plant, it is certainly a great convenience. As a work for such reference it will find a welcome place in many libraries. M. L. FERNALD. OBITUARY. Proressor JAmMes Hatt, State Geologist of New York from 1836 to 1898, died at Bethlehem, N. H., on August 7th, at the advanced age of eighty-seven years. A notice is deferred until another number. “Iron Rose” and Adularia _A lotof extra fine specimens of ‘‘ Iron Rose” Hema- tite, purchased by Mr. English while in Switzerland iast May, has just been placed on sale. They range in price from $1.25 to $12.50 each—considerably cheaper for the same extra fine quality than we have previously had them. Also a magnificent lot. of the very choicest crystals of Adularia, some of them twins of rare beauty; 35c. to $8.00 ; a. few groups of exceedingly high!y modified crys- ‘tals of Sphene, $2.00 to $1.00, a large lot of good loose crystal of Sphene, 10c. to 35c.; a few excellent erys- tals of Rutilated Quartz, 75c. to $8.00. OTHER FINE EUROPEAN MINERALS. - A large number of the best of Mr, English’s recent purchases in Europe have been ‘held back for our fall trade, and many other most desirable minerals, previ- ously announced, were purchased in such large lots as to make our present stock searcely show the resnlts of the summer's sales But a few of these can now be _ mentioned—for further particulars see our FALL BULLETIN which we expect to have ready for free distribution by the middle of September. Crystallized Hes- “Site, 75c. to $10.00; very fine crystallized Pyrrhotite, $2.00 to $6.00: superb ‘twins of Cassiterite, 50c. to $4.00; splendid crystallized Pyromorphites, $1 to $6.00: large Phenacites from Norway, $2.00 to $6.00; beautiful Flos-Ferri from Austria, 50c. to $1.50; a grand, large lot of English Barites, Fluorites, Calcites, Iridescent Dolomite, Hematite and Quartz, etc.; groups of extra - large Tridymite crystals, 35c. to $3.50; Whewellite, crystallized, 50c. to $7.50; ’ foe Epidote crystals and groups from Tyrol, 25c. to $2.00; Rhodochrosite in _ ~*~ scalenohedrons ; crystallized Bornite ; splendid loose crystals of Vesuvianite - from Vilui; several fine groups of Dioptase, Manganite, Boracite, Pyrargy- ~ rite, Crocoite, Erythrite, etc.; also many rare species, such as Argentopy- _ rite, Argyrodite, Aikinite, Connellite, Ettringite, Fuggerite, Homilite, Knopite, Lehrbachite, Sarcolite, Rittingerite, Sternbergite, Vauquelin- ite, Zeunerite. -SOUTH AMERICAN MINERALS. Ry: Just a few names as a suggestion of the importance of our recent aecessions— _ EBuclase, Parisite, Palladium, Lewisite, Derbylite, Baddeleyite, Fama- tinite, Schwarzembergite, Percylite, crystallized Stannite. Rs NEW MINERAL SPECIES FROM GREENLAND. Be) Neptunite, $2.00 to $7.50; Epididymite, $12.50 to $15.00; Elpidite, $5.00 to $7.50. A MOST IMPORTANT FIND IN COLORADO e will be fully described in our forthcoming FALL BULLETIN; also countless other recent additions. MINERALS FOR BLOWPIPE ANALYSIS. This department of our business is having a well deserved boom, for never before has our stock been so large or so good. Our new list, now in press, will - be more than double the size of any previously issued. ae oe * CHEAP EDUCATIONAL SPECIMENS ; AT LOWEST POSSIBLE PRICES AND OF MOST TYPICAL QUALITY. LOOSE CRYSTALS IN GREAT PROFUSION. Send for FALL BULLETIN, ready about September 15th. GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists ; 64 East 12th St.. New York City. CONTENTS, Art. XX.—Transition Temperature of Sodie Sulphate, a New Fixed Point in Thermometry; by T. W. Ricuarps XXI.—Distribution and Quantitative Occurrence of Vana- dium and Molybdenum in Rocks of the United States; by W. F. HittesRanp_. 2 20o.0 us sae 2 oa XXIT.—Electrosynthesis; by W. G. Mixrnr..-...22. ive XXIII.—Notes on Species of Ichthyodectes, including the new species I, cruentus, and on the related and herein established genus Gillicus; by O, P> Hay... 2.2. XXIV.—Determination of Manganese as the. Pyrophosphate ; by..B.. A;Gooce and M.: Avustiw i322 > Sa XXV.—Occurrence of Dunite in Western Massachusetts; by Gy Co Marrans 225 02 ou, vo al XX VI.—Origin and Significance of Spines: A Study in Evo- lation: by .C, E. Brecher...) 230) See SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Laboratory Guide in Qualitative Chemical Analysis, H L. WELLS: Short Course in Inorganic Qualitative Analysis for Engineering Students, J. 8. C. WeELts: Introduction to Electro-chemical Experiments, F OETTEL, 269.—Remarks on Colloidal Glass, C. Bares, 270. Geology and Mineralogy—Late Formations and Great Changes of Leyel ia Jamaica, J. W. Spencer, 270.—Resemblance between the Declivities of High Plateaus and those of Submarine Antillean Valleys, J. W. SpancerR, 272.— Kruptivgesteine des Kristianiagebietes, Part IIf, W. C. BroaGur, 273.—Bad- deckite, a new variety of Muscovite, G. C. Horrmann, 274.—Text Book of Mineralogy with an extended Treatise on Crystallography and Physical Miner- alogy, E. S. Dana, 275.—L’or dans la Nature, f. CUMENGE and F. ROBELLAZ, 276. ; Botany—illustrated Flora of the Northern States and Canada, N. L. Britton vand ADDISON Brown, 277. Obituary—Professor JAMES HALL, 284. THE AMERICAN Hpitrorn: EDWARD S. DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS i Bei eiacins GEO. L. GOODALE, JOHN TROW BRIDGE, en 2 a BOW DITCH awp W. G. FARLOW, or Campriner, | _Proresson: O. C. MARSH, A. E. VERRILL anv H. 8. WILLIAMS, or New Haven, Prorzssor GEORGE F. BARKER, or Pumapetpnia, '» Proressor H. A. ROWLAND, or Barrimorg, Mr. J. S. DILLER, or Wasurneron. FOURTH SERIES. VOL. VI-[WHOLE NUMBER, CLVI.] No. 34.—OCTOBER, 1898. ‘NEW HAVEN, CONNECTIOUT. BOS, _ TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 125 TEMPLE STREET. Published monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6.40 to ign subscribers of countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should made either by money orders, registered letters, or bank checks. GREAT REDUCTION IN EN DLICHITES. Few minerals equal this one in point of beauty, perfection of crystals, diversity of types and all that goes to make up a “ fine thing” in the eyes of the mineral- — ogist. Collectors and museums generally have purchased extensive series. The owners of the mines at Hillsboro which yield the crystals, give assurance that practically the entire ‘‘specimen output” has come to us, and we continue to offer the finest material on the market. As a special inducement they are now offered at 4 prices heretofore obtained, Choice crystallizations which have sold 4t $1.00 to $8 00 each, are 50c. to $4.00. Single crystals, rare and much sought after at 50c. to $2.00, are now 15e. to T5c. Yet these singles are not recommended in view of a small lot JUST RECEIVED. Singles, couples and groups of 3 to 10 crystals. The best groups are not oyer lf in. diameter and without gangue. Crystals ave of dazzabag adamantine luster, clear amber yellow with red terminations; about 35 to 35 in. thick, and 4 to 1 in. long. Collectors find them indescribably. lovely, ake properly displayed in our black glass-top boxes. Certainly the one who had the joy of unearthing them, was justified in calling them nature’s ‘‘jewels.” Picture a bit of fancy work in the jewelers’ art—a miniature match-stick of amber with a head of pale ruby. Bunch a few together and you have a dainty and delicate cluster. The similarity ceases with the double terminations. Quality uniform; varying size makes the prices 50e. to” $3.00. (Find was limited; if you wish one of the larger ones order at once.) VALUABLE COLLECTION OF INSECT AMBERS from the Baltic Sea. Made years ago by an officer in the Scandinavian Consular Service. The speci- mens average from 1 to 2 in. diameter; polished, showing many different varieties of flies, gnats, mosquitoes, orasshoppers, caterpillers, spiders, larvae, beetles and other curious examples of insect life. They are perfectly preserved, and generally labelled with the scientific name. Also specimens of sea alge, leaves, sticks and other plant remains. The clear amber makes a showy display, and the cee are always interesting. Staurolite twins altered to Talc, 5c. to 15c. each. Native Lead, Clinohedrite, Roeblingite and other new species. Cryst. Melanotekite- New types of Wolframite, Jarosite, etc., etc. SCHOOL MINERALS. We furnish specimens for educational and experimental work at lowest rates. Detached crystals; microscopic mounts; collections; individual specimens and pure material by the pound for chemical purposes. LARGE ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE AND PRICE LIST MAILED FREE. Dr. A. E. FOOTE, WARREN M. FOOTE, Manager. 1317 Arch Street, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S. A. Established 1876. ais Chet . 5 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE [FOURTH SERIES. ] Art. XX VII.—The Compressibility of Colloids, with Appli- cations to the Jelly Theory of the Ether; by C. Barus. 1. COLLOIDS in view of their varied and frequently anoma- lous physical properties,* not to mention their tremendous biological importance, offer a fascinating field of research. I have, however, undertaken the present experiments rather with ulterior motives, because of their bearing on the elastic propertiest of glass, geologically considered. Apart from this, certain practical difficulties have presented themselves in the course of my work for which I hope the present paper will suggest aremedy. ‘Thus, in endeavoring to ascertain the effect of pressure on solution,t I was invariably confronted by the difficulty that the solute precipitated by pressure collects at the bottom of the piezometer tube, is segregated from the bulk of the solvent and therefore no longer in place for solu- tion on removal of pressure. Methods which work faultlessly for fusion are thus apt to fail when applied to solution. Now if it can be shown that the physical properties of a solution vary but slightly in presence of a colloid, that the former may be made viscous enough to retain the precipitate in place dur- ing compression, I see no reason why the fusion methods are not adapted for the study of solutions. A final inquiry of great interest is the compressibility of well coagulated colloids, seeing that compression is apt to be accompanied by the breakdown of stress in a solid medium. Indeed I here encountered some astonishing phenomena, and a * On analogies in the thermal behavior of india rubber jelly, muscular tissue, etc., see Bjerken, Wied. Ann., xliii, p. 817, 1891. + See my paper in this Journal, xli, p. 110, 1891. ¢ Bulletin U. S. Weather Bureau, No. 12, p. 18 et seq., 1895. Am. Jour. Scl.—FourtH Series, Vou. VI, No. 34.—OoToBER, 1898. 20 286 C. Barus—Oompressibility of Colloids. large part of the present paper will be devoted to them. I say astonishing, as I have been able to force little mercury pro- jectiles, often less than ;/;™" in diameter, though a solid wall of coagulated jelly over 15°™ thick, by the directed action of hydrostatic pressure applied on the outside of the wall. I know of no other case of well-defined persistent motion, per- formed by bodies in a highly viscous medium, and resulting from the breakdown of mechanical stress within it, wholly without the action of external forces “acting at a distance.” 2. The earlier literature of the subject is meagre and I may refer regarding it to a paper by G. de Metz,* to whom some of the best data are due. He accentuates the variable character of the constants observed and certain changes (gelatine) in the lapse of time. Papers like those of Fraas,t Maurer,t and others quoted by the former, refer to the elastics and to the viscosity of colloids, in a way differing from that here con- sidered. As I do not in the present paper aim at reaching more than an estimate as to how far the elastic properties of a solvent are modified, when it is made thoroughly viscous by the addition of a suitable quantity of colloid. I have therefore subjected the bodies to pressure in capillary tubes, a method which though it does not admit of the application of very high pres- sure, has the undeniable advantage of exhibiting the progress of the experiment to the eye throughout. I have already described the precaution necessary in a former paper§ in con- nection with an extensive survey of the compressibility of liquids, and need therefore only state here that the body to be examined is introduced into a well annealed capillary tube of fine bore between two terminal threads of mercury. One of these (the upper) is sealed in place ; the lower is movable and transmits the applied pressure. The lower meniscus of the upper and the upper meniscus of the lower thread are observed by aid of a cathetometer, through a clear glass boiling tube, of the kind frequently described in my high temperature work.| 3. It is sufficient for the present purposes to examine two classes of colloids, representing extremes of compressibility. In the first case of low compressibility water is to be the sol- vent and gelatine and albumen were selected. In the second case (high compressibility) ether is the preferable solvent and solutions of pure india rubber are thus available. A solution of 10 per cent by weight of clear gelatine in water sets quite firmly at ordinary temperatures and is not too *G. de Metz, Wied. Ann., xli, p. 663, 1890. + Fraas, Wied. Ann., lili, p. 1074, 1894. ‘+ Maurer, Wied. Ann., xxviii, p. 628, 1886. This Journal, III, xxxix, p. 478, 1890. || Cf. Bull. 54, p. 88, U. 8S. Geolog. Survey, 1889. : P. 3 ~~ ee ee eee eee —~ €. Barus—Compressibility of Colloids. 287 viscous at higher temperatures to admit of introduction into a fine capillary bore. Greater difficulty is experienced with the 20 per cent solution. Albumen is advantageously introduced in the natural state as white of egg. Considerable trouble was encountered in charging the tube with india rubber, though a 5 per cent solution in ether was manageable. The presence of traces of sulphur is apt to foul the meniscus, while the absorption of water from air by con- densation is unavoidable during filling. The remarkable volume-elasticity of water makes it a diffi- cult body to observe by the present method. Thus for a thread 10™ long, the motion of the meniscus will scarcely exceed 4 millimeter per 100 atmospheres. For longer threads and higher pressure the case is proportionately favorable, but in no practical case is an accuracy of more than 3 or 4 per cent to be looked for, quite aside from the compressibility of the glass. The latter is best eliminated and sufliciently so for the present comparisons, by examining all the samples as far as possible in the same tube. For ether the case is 2 to 8 times more favorable, depending on temperature. 4. The following data, selected from a large number of simi- lar experiments, will best exhibit the results obtained. In the tables 9 denotes the temperature of the thread of total length Lin em., while / is the decrement of length for the pressure _ p (in atmospheres) stated. Hence//Z, the decrement of length per centimeter, is also the decrement of volume at the given temperature and pressure. The solvent and colloidal solution may be conveniently compared in two ways: one is to plot i/L varying with p for each substance; the other to compute the mean compressibility 8 within the same pressure interval (usually about 200 atm.). TABLE 1.—Compressibility of water and colloidal solutions of gelatine and albumen in water. Water. Gelatine 102. Albumen (Natural). 6, L p U/L 6, L p U/L 6, L p U/L 23° Bue 0000) ) ao Coes) dig 2) 38 0 -0000 Wac™ 83 037 mae 1a = ete Fae St 039 160 OP Me ose et ee me 128 061 226 Oe dee chat pyeth e 191 093 100° Oo. “0000 100° QO -0000 teas eh eee re-re™ 83 eth. 21*1™ 116 058 futee PE ser a ; 180 GL {gi aca 211 100 aS .. of AEE Ge ye” 244 ios eee 282 133 ee che alg ah HR ies. Corresponding values of //Z and p are given for water, gelatine and albumen in aqueous solution in Table 1. At ordi- 288 C. Barus—Compressibility of Colloids. nary temperatures water and albumen on graphice representa- tion show nearly the same compressibility, so far as the present method goes; at 100° gelatine is throughout less compressible than water, the difference being as large as 10 per cent. In Table 2 I have computed the compressibilities 8 for each of the three cases, at different temperatures 8. Observations were made in triplets, beginning and ending in the same low pressure at each temperature. This eliminates change of tem- perature due to cooling of the water bath. The-colloids were kept liquid throughout; though the albumen turned white Suan at the higher temperatures, it did not at once set rmly. TABLE 2.—Compressibility of water and of colloidal solutions of gelatine and albumen in water, Water. Gelatine 104%. Albumen (Natural), 6, L p ie Ooo i.e p ~_ Bx 108 6, L p > pas 2363 | 5 on D1 4.> 5 ” 20 5 . Nt a 160 AS.) BOs Loy 2 eek 12:3. ee re 100° 10 ne 93°6° 5 Eve 28°8° 4 i Teese 198 DO abe Oeren 165 50) T2*3°S) eee — oe os SS EEE — OO 25-8 12 a O75 4 =< 20S re NO Fre La er 178 ae 29°2° 12 a 49°5° 4 ue 20°4°™ 18S vod 12°49" > S1OZs ee SO60" 18 Ey Bea + ac 2014" 18a) oe 124° - i 6aee 36°8° 30 oes ey 1 3k ZO Ss pad 49. 12°56. 10 ae 43°5° 30 ae 59°6° 1 ae 20°53 186" 50, 125°) a 53°3° 31 Be TEGO GS 2 oa 20°6°R!' T8152)" ae 100° 10 L. GED 11 ae ee A aloo 51 ice 195 52 100° 12: age Aen Reopens BS) eS. The results are not unlike the preceding set. The com- pressibility throughout remains very nearly that of water. * Coagulating but not set. Threads break off, observation difficult. q : | es : i C. Barus—Compressibility of Colloids. 289 Neither for gelatine nor for albumen is an increase of com- pressibility with temperature certainly indicated, whereas this is definitely the case with water. It is difficult to state whether these detailed results are real. I will pass it over, mentioning merely that it is always a delli- cate question to decide whether the heat generated on com- pression has all been dissipated. In a cooling water bath, moreover, the residual effects of thermal expansion are apt to be superposed as the compression results. Finally in case of coagulated albumen, threads break off and are lost in the opaque body. The endeavor was now made to prepare as concentrated a solution as could be filled into the fine capillary bore. The ingredients were weighed out for a 20 per cent solution, though the concentration may have been less. It coagulated firmly, showing marked elasticity in threads. Measurements were first made for the coagulated thread as will be shown below, § 7 et seq. After this the tube was kept at 100° for some hours and examined from time to time. The earlier results contain no additional information and will be omitted. The final data are given in Table 3. Compressibil- ity 8 refers to the total interval from p=0 to the value of p given. TABLE 3.—Compressibility of a 20 per cent solution of gelatine in water. 6, L U/L p 8 x 10° 100° ‘0003 q Ss OL 056 114 49 103 216 48 156 319 49 185 381 49 126 268 47 082 171 48 038 87 +4 003 8 ae These new data practically coincide with the former albu- men and gelatine (10 per cent) values; if anything the former show greater compressibility. They coincide nearly with the compressibility of water at 25°, and fall definitely below the water compressibility for 100°. Little or no effect is therefore observed by the additional concentration of the new solutions. 5. Table 4 contains results similar to Table 1 for ether and an etherial solution of caoutchoue (not vulcanized). If the volume increment //Z be laid off in terms of the correspond- ing pressure p, it is found that the curves for the colloidal solution and the solvent ether coincide very nearly both at low temperature and at high temperature. Since in the former 290 CO. Barus—Compressibility of Colloids. ease the colloid is at a lower temperature (24°) as compared with ether (29°), this would indicate greater compressibility for the india rubber solution. Even at 100° this state of things is not quite wiped out. These results thus recall the case of the preceding paragraph. Here again, however, I do not wish to insist on these detailed observations, because of manifold sources of error incident to the method. The present results demonstrate all that I asked of them in showing that to ascertain the effect of the colloid on the compressibility of the solvent, it is necessary to use some much more sensitive method than the direct capillary tube comparisons of the present paper. TABLE 4.—Compressibility of ether and of an etherial solution of caoutchouc, about 5 per cent by weight. Kther. Caoutchouc-ether solution. 6, L p 1/L 6, L p U/L 29° 20 "0000 23°9° 45 ‘005 14 Ge 100 137 Teg oe ae 123 Ly an 20 200 291 at 20713 195 OT. 300 423 286 38 400 540 me ap. 100° 10 ‘0000 100° 57 "021 LGo65° 100 ‘0357 8:93°™ 148 51 at Oe 200 °0653 ab 107 221 71 300 ‘0876 298 88 400 "1060 ae a 6. The last two paragraphs, therefore, show in a general way that the compressibility of a colloid is essentially deter- mined by the solvent for a wide range of concentration and throughout enormous variations of viscosity, so long as the solution is liquid, however viscous it may be. In so far as compressibility is decreased, the decrement will not exceed the amount corresponding to the displacement produced by the mere bulk of colloid present. The essential identity of behavior of a solvent in the pres- ence or absence of dissolved colloid seems first to have been definitely expressed in 1888 by von Tiezen-Hennig,* reasoning from the results of electrolytic experiments. | In this place I may add a correlative result obtained in my experiments on the solution of vulcanized india rubber,t where it is shown that the melting point of the coagulated colloid is practically independent of the solvent contained. * “ Ueber scheinbar feste Electrolyte,” quoted by Bjerkén, 1. ec. + This Journal, III, xlii, p. 359, 1891. C. Barus— Compressibility of Colloids. 291 7. As has been stated, these inferences refer specifically to _liquid colloidal solutions. The interesting question now pre- sents itself: In what respect does compressibility change when the liquid colloid thoroughly coagulates,* or changes in relation to viscosity from a viscous liquid to a soft solid. The results for coagulated gelatine solutions are given in Table 5; but the datum # is here, at the lower temperature, merely a superior limit compressibility, for reasons which I shall presently explain. §8. The true compressibility is probably less than 4 8; indeed no true compressibility may have been measured. As temperature rises (33°, 41°, 51°), approaching the melting point, the normal compressibilityt of the solvent water is rapidly approached here, as was the case in Table 2 for albumen. Stress therefore breaks down the friable solid, triturates it as it were, the colloid being altogether too soft to resist the advancing column of mercury appreciably like a solid. Whenever a sufficient number of internal discon- tinuities is at hand (unstable configurations, virtually) the solid is proportionately liquid. TABLE 5.—Coagulated colloids. Gelatine 10 per cent. Albumen* coagulated at 100°. GB ?p W/L Bx 10° 0, L 3° 0 .000 — 99° No motion of me- ao 97 1 10 12:7 niscus observed as far 210 2 10 as 2007™, At higher 0 0 — pressures threads of Another sample : mercury pierce the 94° 0 +0000 and 22 core and make further 13°2™ 105 23 26 foe ee 1m possi- e. 5k am 0 0000 — ta 104 49 47 *Heated about 10 minutes, the : : ai ao 0000... =. past day after ‘scttiaell) Mentoous baa” 92 38 cM fouled by sulphur corrosion. 51° 0 -0000 — reac 117 a5 G 8. The compression of the solid colloid is accompanied by characteristic phenomena (as has just been intimated), deserv- ing special examination. They are shown in the annexed figures, where the contiguous threads of mercury (below) and colloid (above) meeting at the lower meniscus are alone repre- sented, the walls of the capillary tube containing the threads being ignored. * That time for setting is essential here has already been emphasized by de Metz, Fraas and others (1. c.), and in the above work with albumen. + Cf. § 11, relative to suggestions of Carus-Wilson. 292 C. Barus—OCompressibility of Colloids. When pressure continually increases (very gradually), the meniscus in | passes into the conoidal form 2, thence into the unstable figure 3, from which presently a drop is shot off, upward. This exceedingly minute projectile may penetrate the whole column of coagulated colloid, 13°" or even 20™ long. The phenomenon repeats itself at consecutive intervals even at constant pressures. Fias. 1, 2, 3, 4. Deformations observed on compression of a coagulated colloidal thread, by a mercury meniscus advancing from below. With the 10 per cent gelatine coagulum, on one occasion, I counted twelve of these little projectiles (on another thirteen, etc.), each less than ;'; mm. in diameter and disposed at regular intervals, i. e. nearly equidistant in the axis of the column of coagulated (solid) colloid. The top one rose 12 through the medium and against gravity, the lowest about 1™ above the meniscus. On removing pressure five of them gradually dropped back upon the meniscus, which in the telescope soon resembled a bunch of silver grapes. When the tube is allowed to stand vertically over night with pressure removed, all drops often fall out of the colloidal column before morning. This motion of droplets, up or down, is equally evident to the naked eye. At other times and particularly with older or abused col- umns, balloon-shaped projectiles even ‘5™™ high break off and walk up leisurely through the colloid, say at a rate of 2°™/e¢, The motion on close inspection is apt to be jerky. In such cases, a trail of exceedingly small droplets, scarcely -02™™" in diameter, is apt to be seen in the axis of the tube, where there was no such trail before, or even in advance of the large drop. The phenomenon is best seen after slow cooling of the thread. On change of pressure slow creeping of drops across the crosshairs of the telescope is a frequent occurrence. Irregu- lar dispositions of the drops were also often observed. To further elucidate these phenomena additional experi- C. Barus— Compressibility of Colloids. 293 ments were made with the 20% gelatine solution, after thor- ough coagulation. In two experiments I was fortunate in breaking off very short mercury threads while the colloid was still liquid, to indicate the nature of the strain above the meniscus. In one case this drop, originally ellipsoidal in form, sharpened upward as pressure increased, until at about 150 atm. the conoid completely exploded, giving rise to about fifteen small projectiles distributed along the lower 10° of the column of coagulated colloid. The motion, which is extremely swift at first, of the order of several meters per second, as I judge, dies down gradually within 5 to 10 minutes to the merest creeping. A full protocol of a similar experiment on a continuous column, thoroughly coagulated after slow cooling from 100°, is given in Table 6. A drop of mercury originally nearly round in appearance was here also present just above the meniscus. As pressure increased, accompanied by the sharpening apex of the conoidal meniscus already described, the base of the drop in all cases remained apparently convex, while its sides sloped even more steeply than the meniscus of the column of mer- eury. It may have been reéntrant and the cone hollow, but I did not notice this. TABLE 6.—Compression of a coagulated 20 per cent gelatine solution. 0 L p Remarks. 2¢ em atm 24° 16°325 16 16°310 92 (1) ake 115 (2) 16°310 130 (3) 16°305 . 160 (4) at od 170 (5) 16°310 200 (6) 16°300 265 (7) ie ~ 300 (8) Tube breaks. * The tube originally showed a good meniscus (obtained by slow cooling from 100°) and a detached, apparently round drop of mercury a few millimeters above it. (1) Both meniscus and drop sharpen conoidally, with the apices directed upward. (2) Further sharpening. The drop shoots off one little projectile, tadpole- shaped, ‘015°™ long, which penetrates upward alone, very fast at first, slowing up gradually to zero. The motion continues visibly several minutes. Another projectile follows in the same way. Both eventually stop about 4°™ above the meniscus and ‘5°™ apart. (3) Two more projectiles shot off consecutively from the drop. The two former rise but slightly; the latter come to rest below them. (4) The top (original) projectile now rises, tadpole fashion, to 8°" above the meniscus. The others gradually meet and coalesce, rise without meeting the first. Meantime new projectiles have been shot off by the drop, which suc- cessively rise, forming a close group 4™ high. Simultaneously the very sharp meniscus of the lower mercury column has been firing projectiles through the ~ 294 CU. Barus—Compressibility of Colloids. 9. At first sight these phenomena seem to be of a capillary nature. Drops of oil break off in Plateau’s well known experi- ments more slowly but otherwise in much the same way. The tendency to jerky motion and much else suggests the action of surface tension. A moment’s reflection shows, however, that surface tension cannot be the primary motive force,* since droplets of mercury often less than ‘01° in diameter are to be projected through a coagulated (solid) colloid, a distance of 10° or more. Again these projectiles often start afresh in their motion (ef. Table 6), when many centimeters above the meniscus. In these fine bore tubes (diameter *031°") capillarity necessarily plays an impor- tant part; but it is of entirely subordinate interest and I shall not further mention it. The real phenomena is elastic in character. The original meniscus in figure 1 loaded with a uniform pressure upward from below, is deformed in accordance with a shear symmetri- cally around the axis of the tube. The colloidal meniscus yields very much as any elastic disc secured at the edges and uniformly loaded would do. It is strongest at the edges, which are sustained by the glass walls of the capillary throughout the length of the colloidal column, and weakest at its axial points. As pressure increases the strain gradually reaches the limit of narrow dissepiment of colloid into the drop, replenishing it in substance but giv- ing it the appearance of a grape cluster with apex upward. (5) Further projectiles shoot off from the drop. ‘They induce the 4°™ group to penetrate farther upward. The top group is stationary. . ‘ (6) Meniscus shouting into the drop at its base: the drop discharging many projectiles from its apex. They induce motion in the preceding group (without reaching them), which in their turn actuate the earlier group until finally the upper (original) group moves nearly to the top of the column. Various projec- tiles have coalesced. Distribution of projectiles from the meniscus upward is now as follows: Meniscus -2..-+--: 700°" ~=Projectile.. 5°73°" Projectile_.... 13°41 “Drop,” clustered-. “21 Py eee, Ge 05S eee Projectiles see he: "38 2, ase ee Meier Original (6 . oe . . oS Gi eeteti be SBI =e Opa Projectile f 14°62 SC) Tak Stig i ee 3°99 ce a! 8°52 Top 73 cc . . By aa 45 3.33 Yi1013 mipneeeee 16°13 eget eae eee 3°13 ae Ce odee 1 Fa ie Beit Wash a 3 90 ok _-12°40 (7) Further projectiles shot off from drop, which is now smaller but still in place. Top projectiles stationary. (8) After the tube breaks retrograde motion of the projectiles is observed, often covering 4°". The experiment has been spoiled by the accident, however, release of pressure being too sudden. Next day the projectiles are found to have ageregated in clusters of 2-6, irregularly along the unbroken column. Some have reached the meniscus. The drop is gone. *The relevant formule are given in my paper in this Journal, III, xxxvii, p. 339, 1889. C. Barus—Compressibility of Colloids. 295 rupture (fig. 3), until finally (fig. 4) the elastic resistance breaks down and axial rupture is the result. To account for the motion of the projectile in fig. 4, it is to be remembered that the colloid is solzd however soft it may be, and that therefore, in fig. 1, pressure is not. transmitted upward appreciably more than a few centimeters above the meniscus. The surfaces of like stress are conoids symmetrically around the axis and with their apices in it; but these conoids rapidly become more shallow and flatten out horizontally from the meniscus upward. In fig. 4, however, the central parts of the colloid between the projectile and the apex of the meniscus is in a dascontinuous or quasi-triturated state; 1. e. solidity has here broken down with the advance of the projectile, tempora- rily at least, even though the whole of this part of the colloidal column is under pressure. The projectile has, as it were, ploughed out a channel. Through this discontinuous or quasi-triturated canal pressure is transmitted as through a fluid. Hence the projectile is urged upward by hydrostatic pressure applied against its lower hemisphere and transmitted through the channel in question. The upper hemisphere of the projectile is pushed in this way continually against the unbroken coagulated colloid, whose elastic resistance is as yet too weak to resist the motion. But the discontinuous or triturated colloid behind the pro- jectile gradually seals itself up under pressure, which is there- fore transmitted less and less fully. The elastic resistances in front thus gradually increase in relative effectiveness until rup- ture is no longer possible. The strain ceases to break down, the projectile stops. 10. One of the chief characteristics of the phenomenon is its repetition a dozen or more times, with gradually decreasing intensity, even at approximately constant pressure. This is less directly explained since the properties of the essentially com- pressible coagulate with respect to viscosity and rigidity are here brought into play, with the addition of a property to re-cohere or re-cement under pressure. Pressure is brought up to the meniscus through mercury transmission instantaneously. It is transmitted through the coagulated colloid only to relatively short distances into the column above the meniscus. When this is ruptured, pressure is at once transmitted upward through the triturated channel, but the intensity of pressure experienced at any axial point of the colloid will be less as the point lies higher; for it is incon- ceivable that pressure can be transmitted through the extremely narrow channel of viscous body instantaneously. Thus a wave or a single swell of pressure gradually movesupward. Now if the colloid near the meniscus under full pressure has the 296 C. Barus—Compressibility of Colloids. property of re-cementing into complete coherence, a gradually more marked relief of pressure will occur above the meniscus: for this pressure is slowly dissipating itself* throughout the whole upper column, access to which is shut off below. Hence in the lapse of time the original conditions will occur; there will be fresh rupture at the meniscus and a new projectile until the whole column has in this intermittent manner been subjected to constant hydrostatic pressure at the menisens, Briefly, pressure is transmitted upward as an advancing wave whose amplitude diminishes with the distance above the meniscus. This is followed by gradual subsidence of pressure throughout the column, and anon by a new pressure wave of like rapid motion upward and diminishing amplitude, but of less intensity ; and so on. Fie. 5. Distribution of pressure, p, axially along the height, h, above the meniscus. The annexed diagram, fig. 5, will make my meaning clearer. Let the height of the axzal point be laid off vertically and pressure horizontally. Let g be the pressure-gradient for which rupture ensues at the meniscus (ordinate zero), pressure being here constant. Then the curve 1 may represent the dis- tribution of pressure in the solid colloid at the instant of rup- ture; 2, the distribution immediately after rupture ; 3, the dis- tribution at a much longer time after rupture, when the upper part of the tube has partially accommodated itself to the new conditions, pressure increasing at the top of the colloidal column and decreasing gradually near the meniscus. Finally, in tue lapse of time, 4 represents a pressure distribution having the same initial gradient g and conditioning fresh rupture. *The volume decrement of a relatively small volume becomes the reduced volume decrement of a relatively large volume. C. Barus—Compressibility of Colloids. 297 The scheme is to be repeated ona smaller relative scale for succeeding ruptures, and to be inverted for relief of pressure. 11. Looking at these facts as a whole, I conclude that no true compressibility (implying pure hydrostatic stress) has been measured for the coagulated colloid. The results are merely an evidence of compressibility and what is observed is a shear made possible by this compressibility. Hence the change from the very viscous fluid colloid to the coagulated (solid) colloid, looked at from the point of view of viscosity, is alsoa profound change in relation to compressibility. It is a change from compressibility to incompressibility relatively speaking, a change from the properties of the solvent liquid to those of the colloidal solute, supposing the body to be taken a little distant in temperature, either side of the melting point. Con- tinuous colloid with liqnid inclusions may therefore be inferred for the coagulated state, whereas in the liquid state the colloid is discontinuous. Carus—Wilson* has ingenuously interpreted the stress-strain diagram of a metal particularly with reference to the yield points which terminate in permanent set, by the aid of Andrews’ vapor-pressure diagram. The large abrupt yields of low temperatures gradually vanish as temperature rises and the metal becomes more plastic. Some such comparison might be instituted here. 12. What has impressed me as specially interesting in these experiments with coagulated colloids is their possible bearing on the dynamic manifestations of the ether. Following the lead of well known great thinkers, the hypothesis which attributes to the ether a jelly-like constitution, dynamically speaking, is familiarly in vogue to-day. The phenomenon of the electric spark and the above experi- ments on the breakdown of mechanical strain as evidenced by the motion of the mercury projectiles are closely analogous. In both cases, there is an originally continuous and, I will say bluntly, a solid medium. When breakdown occurs there is in each case motion into the continuous strained medium, through the channel of broken down, discontinuous or triturated medium left in the wake. Finally there is recementation resulting in a new continuous medinm. Now the point I wish to accentuate is this, that we may dis- tinguish between the same solid jelly-like medium in the con- tinnous and in the discontinuous or triturated state, in the sense pointed ont above; that the former transmits stress like a solid locally, showing rigidity, whereas the latter transmits it like a liquid, and in proportion as the degree of discontinuity Is greater, virtually imparts hydrostatic stress. The same ether *C. A. Carus—Wilson, Phil. Mag. (5), xxix, p. 200, 1890. 298 C. Barus—Compressibility of Colloids. may therefore act, as the case may be, either as a liquid or a solid, just as, in the above experiments with gelatine, one and the same originally continuous and homogeneous body mani- fests itself in both roles, under the same conditions. If this be admitted, I think that one may form at least a conception of a mechanism by which many ordinary dynamical phenomena may be looked upon as ether manifestations ; and elsewhere | may endeavor to give a few tentative examples among many which I have entertained. If in rigid dynamics, a body or a molecule can only move by breaking down the solid ether in front of it and leaving triturated ether in its wake, force* is needed to start it or in any way to change its state of motion. On the other hand, the body if sustained in place would resist such breakdown. Stress sufficient to break down the solid ether along given lines of force need not do so when the obstacle of a fixed body intervenes. In general, I hold the association of motion with the actual flux of a stress conveying fluid after the manner set forth in the present paper, not an unhappy conception, at least from the point of view of the law of the conservation of energy. Brown University, Providence, R. I. * During motion, stress in the continuous ether in front, and pressure in the discontinuous ether behind the body or molecule, may in the first instance be snpposed to be in equilibrium. Note that fixity is an essential property of such an ether. C. Rk. Keyes—Holian Origin of Loess. 299 Art. XX VIII.—Lolian Origin of Loess ; by CHas. R. KEYEs. TuHatT the formation of loess deposits has ever been aided, to any appreciable extent, by the wind, has never, in this country, gained muchcredence. Almost without exception the aqueous hypothesis has been accepted in explanation of the deposits in the Mississippi Valley, in spite of the many grave difficulties presented in its general application. Of late years, some American glacialogists have begun to suspect that possibly more than one agency has been involved in the production of the loess; that water is the principal agency in some cases, and in others the wind; while in some deposits both are concerned, or both kinds exist side by side. The accompanying notes are presented on account of their direct bearing upon the eolian side of the question. They are confined to the deposits of the Mississippi Valley. The loess bordering the Iowan and other ice sheets is not considered— ohly those deposits that cover the bluffs of the great rivers of the region. Hence, for convenience, they are called by the long-used name bluff deposits. The prime reason for excluding from the present discussion the loess of the former ice fronts, is that it doubtless had a very intimate connection with the glacial agencies. Another reason is that the observations herein recorded were made largely upon the Bluff deposits alone. From this it might be inferred that an attempt is made to differentiate two great deposits of loess—one water-laid and the other wind-driven. Such is not the case. No means of discriminating between the two kinds of loess are yet known to be formulated. Should, however, the suggestion offered for the formation of the Bluffs loess be the correct one, the presence from bottom to top in the one, and the absence or existence only near the top, in the other, of limonite tubules, and an unusually prom- inent jointed structure may possibly prove to be reliable criteria. The nature of the fossils should also furnish a key to discrim- ination. The areal distribution of the Bluff loess is peculiar. Prof. Chamberlin has recently* stated it as follows: “The loess is distributed along the leading valleys. These embrace not only the great valleys, the Missouri and the Mississippi, but some of the subordinate valleys, as the Illinois, the Wabash and others. The loess is found along the Missouri River from southern Dakota to its mouth; along the Missis- * Journal of Geology, vol. v, p. 795, 1897. 300 C. R. Keyes—EHolian Origin of Loess. sippi River from Minnesota to southern Mississippi; along the Illinois and the Wabash from the points of their emergence from the territory of the later glacial sheets to their mouths. Along these valleys the loess is thickest, coarsest and most typi- cal in the bluffs bordering the rivers, and grades away into thinness, fineness and non-typical nature as the distance from the rivers increases. In some instinces the loess mantle rises to the divide and connects with the similar deposit of an adja- cent valley, but the law of progressive fineness and thinness still holds. This relationship is such as to create a very strong conviction that the deposit of the loess was in some vital way connected with the great streams of the region.” The Bluff loess is not to be confounded with other similar fine silts that are found mingled with the glacial drift occurring in many localities and that are, by some writers, called loess. Along the Missouri River the Bluff loess forms a belt fifteen to twenty miles wide. From the mouth of this river to the Towa line at least, the deposits appear to be much heavier and the belt much wider on the left bank than on the right side of the stream. The same seems true of the Mississippi River, at least south of St. Louis. The characteristic great thickness and coarseness at the river’s edge, and, away from the stream to the margin of the belt, the gradual change of the deposit to greater fineness and less depth is everywhere apparent. Missouri’s great river, in its course across the State, passes from the drift-covered region to the driftless, and crosses and recrosses from one area to the other. The belt of Bluff loess lies sometimes on driftless areas, sometimes on what appear to be older silts, and then on drift and sands having a glacial origin. It appears. to occupy the tops of the bluffs irrespective of underlying formations. The Missouri River has long been known to bea streain that is heavily ladened with silt. Vast bars exist along its course, often a mile or more wide, and continuous on one side or the other the whole length from Dakota to its mouth. These bars are bare for a period of two or three months in the spring. During this time and immediately after the June floods they constitute boundless mud-flats which soon dry. During certain periods of the year, marked by high winds, great “‘ dust storms” prevail on the Missouri and middle Mis- sissippi rivers. Down or across the valley sweep the strong currents of air, catching up the light silt particles from the river bars, whirling them about, and rolling them in dense yellow clouds up and out of the valley, and over the high bluffs into the open country beyond. The heavy dust-clouds rise high into the air. A score or more miles away from the stream, the latter’s course is marked by the dark pall that hangs over it. C. R. Keyes—Eolian Origin of Loess. 301 To the inhabitants of the region these dust-clonds often become almost unbearable. Dust is everywhere. It sifts through the closed windows and doors of the houses, cover- ing everything within. Out-doors all is yellow with an impal- pably fine powder. Man and beast suffer while the storm lasts. The north and east side of the river suffers more and oftener than the south and west side. This is on account of the pre- vailing winds coming from the southwest in the spring and summer, when the silt bars are bare and dry. The north and northwest winds are most frequent during the winter when the ground is frozen or covered with snow. The length of the “dust storm” varies. It may last only a single day, or it may continue through three or four days. The total number of days out of the year during which the dust clouds are driven with greater or less severity, is about thirty. During five-sixths of this period, the wind blows from the south and west. | The observations here recorded were made chiefly at Jeffer- son City during the years 1895-7. The measurements were made at the State capitol, which is located on the very brink of a high cliff, rising from the river’s edge. The dust clouds thus came directly off of the flood-plain below. Numerous other notes were taken, but no accurate measurements made, at other places along the Missouri, as at Omaha, St. Joseph, Leavenworth, and Kansas City, and at St. Louis and elsewhere on the Mississippi. The amount of dust brought up out of the valley at the Missouri capital and deposited on the top of the bluff was, in the several instances particularly noted, about one one- hundredth inch in aday. An open book placed in a protected nook was after a few hours so covered with dust that the print could not be distinguished. For the period of 25 days this would indicate a deposit of about one-quarter inch in a year, which is probably not far from an average for the margin nearest the river on the north side; while on the south side of me stream the total annual deposition would be very much ess. The amount deposited each day at any one place depends to a large extent upon the relation of the direction of the wind and that of the stream valley, very much less silt dust being carried out when the direction of the wind is directly across the valley than when the two directions are at an angle. In the latter case when the bare silt areas are exposed to the full sweep of a strong breeze, the dust rises high in the air and is carried far inland. The observations already noted were made chiefly at the point where there was a direct sweep of about ten miles. The daily amount carried would be, therefore, Am. Jour. Sci.—Fourts Serizs, Von. VI, No. 34.—OctTopnr, 1898. 302 CO. LR. Keyes—Kolian Origin of Loess. somewhat in excess of what it would be for the whole stream. One-tenth instead of one-fourth of an inch might be perhaps ore nearly correct for the mean yearly deposition. St. Joseph, Kansas Oity, Glasgow and St. Charles should have unusually heavy deposits of loess. There is another factor to be taken into consideration in estimating loess deposition. Loess is not governed by the ordinary laws of erosion. While the deposits. are subject to degradation and the action of running water, neither of these agencies is as destructive as in the case of most other soft materials. Loess is porous, and absorbs as a sponge most of the rain-waters falling upon it. Only the severest freshets erode it appreciably. Its capacity for resisting weathering and erosion are well shown by the perpendicular sides of road cut- tings made in it, where the marks of the pick and shovel remain visible for several years. Loess districts appear to be areas of exceptional fertility. Plant life flourishes luxuriantly even when in adjoining tracts not covered by the deposit only a scant vegetation is supported. The peculiar porosity of the loess gathers in the maximum amount of water, holds it, and gives it out again gradually, during the dry season. The belt is one of unusual dampness and there is within its limits always an abundance of moisture for plant life. . The plant roots penetrate the loess to great depths, and this is perhaps the main cause of the marked vertical cleavage developed in many of the deposits. The roots, instead of spreading out a few inches beneath the surface as in most soils, in loess appear to penetrate straight downward much farther than is usually the case. In decaying, the exterior corky layer of the rootlets lasts much longer than the other parts. As the interior disappears the outer tube finally collapses, leaving a flat band or ribbon-like film that long resists further decay and finally only the insoluble mineral particles. If it can be shown that the cleavage is eminent from bottom to top of some deposits and only at the top of others, a criterion might be established for distinguishing between wind and water deposits. The dense vegetable growth well protects the loess from the destructive effects of wind and water. When once deposited the silt particles are only with great difficulty disturbed. Silt dust blown up from the valley strikes the thick vegetation and is acted upon in the same way that it is in water when the current is checked. The particles come to rest around the roots and gradually build up the ground. Each year’s vege- tation is on a little higher level than the last. A characteristic feature of some loess deposits is the small, cylindrical, concretionary masses that are commonly called loess J C. R. Keyes—LHolian Origin of Loess. 303 tubules. They are sometimes lime; sometimes iron. The origin of the latter appears to have been overlooked. As the plant roots begin to decay they accumulate around them crys- talline coatings of iron pyrites, which finally form little pipes one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch or more in diameter, and several inches long. The pyrites soon changes to limonite. Along the Missouri River, all stages of tubule formation are readily made out—from the decaying rootlet, with a thin film of pyrites on it, though the crystalline aggregate of pyrites, to the pyrite-limonite cylinder. Around all of the roots pyrites does not form. Whether or not the pyrites is deposited on the roots of a particular plant is not known. The fact that the tubules are very abundant in certain spots and sparingly dis- tributed or absent altogether in others suggests that the nature of the plant has something to do with their occurrence. As a possible means of discrimination between water-laid and wind-formed loess the tubules may prove an important eriterion. Should they occur at all levels in a deposit, the indication would be that it had accumulated among plant growths; whereas if they are found only at the top, it would be suggested that the vegetation did not cover successively every layer of loess, but only, as at present, the upper part. The chemical process of the accumulation of the iron pyrites around the decayed roots of the plants in the loess is doubtless analogous to the formation of the principal sulphide ores of lead, zine and iron in the same region of south Missouri. It is a comparatively rapid process under favorable circumstances, different rates of deposition prevailing with the different ores. A decade or even less is probably ample time for the accumulation of iron pyrites to a thickness of a quarter of an inch. The process is in all likelihood in operation at the present time and the deposition of pyrites in tubules, as well as the zine and lead in the rock crevices, is going on to-day as rapidly as it has ever gone on in the past. The fossils of the loess have never received the critical atten- tion that they deserve. A careful consideration of them promises very. fruitful results. Their real significance and possible usefulness as a means of discriminating between loess deposits having different origins can only be merely alluded to here. In proportion to the great amount of study that the loess has received from many individuals, it is a rather remark- able fact that the fossils have received so little notice. What little special consideration they have had is contradictory, and is from a biological rather than from a geological standpoint. R. E. Call and B. Shemik have both collected largely the loess fossils; but the conclusions reached are diametrically opposed. The one argues that the organic remains when compared with 304 CO. LR. Keyes—Kolian Origin of Loess. the same species now living in the same region presented a marked depauperation, attesting a much more rigorous climate in glacial times than at present. The other writer, after ex- amining a much greater amount of material, from a very much larger area, shows that the loess fossils are not only not smaller in size, but if anything slightly larger than existing indi- viduals. Some fifty species of animal remains are credited to the loess formations of the upper Mississippi Valley. Among these are several vertebrates. Whether or not the latter really belong to the loess or are to be regarded as having been incorporated by slipping and over wash of the deposit, is not known. Mollusean shells form the great bulk of the loess fossils. With the possible exception of half a dozen isolated exceptions none of the species are bivalves. The large majority are land forms, with a few water species that do, however, inhabit small temporary pools. In the Bluff loess more than nine- tenths of the total number of individuals belong to species that are found only in unusually damp situations. They are those species that to-day occur most abundantly in the loess areas. ‘The species having an optimum habitat that is not excessively moist have not been observed to occur abundantly in the Bluff loess, though they flourish in the country border- ing the loess belts. These loess fossils are apparently those forms that have lived among the plants of the belt. On the death of the animals the shells simply dropped down on the ground beneath and were covered. On the other hand, there occur in the loess of the ice fronts shells of mollusks that do not now live in the region. Such are Helicina occulta Say, Patula strigosa Gould, the boreal species of Pupa, and other northern forms. The loess fossils should be studied with reference to their possible use as a means of discriminating between loess deposits having differ- ent origins. The presence of vertical root remains and limonite tubules, from the bottom to the top of the Bluff loess, the luxurious- ness of vegetation covering the loess belts, the “dust ” storms on the larger silt-ladened streams, the peculiar relations existing between the prevailing winds and the distribution of the loess deposits, all point to fruitful sources of inquiry regarding one of the most obstinate problems in Pleistocene geology. -A possible means is suggested of discriminating between deposits lithologically similar, that are doubtless formed by very differ- ent agencies and under very different conditions. The infer- ence to be drawn is that the eolic processes have been at work upon certain deposits in the Mississippi Valley in a manner and to an extent that has been, heretofore, little appreciated. Darton and Keith—Dikes of Felsophyre and Basalt, etc. 305 Art. XXIX.—On Dikes of Felsophyreand Basalt in Paleo- zoic Locks in Central Appalachian Virginia ;* by N. H.. Darton, U. 8. Geological Survey. With notes on the Petrography by ArTHUR KerrH, U.S. Geological Survey. THE occurrence of igneous rocks in the central and northern Appalachians is very unusual, for the detailed work in various portions of the province from Alabama to New York has only resulted in the discovery of a dike in central Pennsylvania and the small group of dikes west of Staunton, Virginia, which I described in 1890.+ 2mires 3 BASALT Scare WA * ELSOPHYRE 4 0) 6 * % \9# 7 MONTEREY **as° Knob IG BB} MC DOWELL Fig. 1.—Map of a portion of central Appalachian Virginia showing location of dikes. In 1896 I had opportunity to extend my observations farther west and discovered{ additional basalt dikes and a very inter- esting series of dikes of an acid character which Mr. Keith has found should be classified as “felsophyre.” The region in which all these dikes occur is an area of about 120 square miles, lying mainly in Highland County, in the central western portion of Virginia. Two dikes were found in the adjoining portion of Pendleton County, West Virginia. The region is in the * Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. + This Journal, vol. xxxix, pp. 269-271, with petrographic notes by Mr. J.S. Diller. + Announced at meeting of Geological Society of America, Dec. 28, 1896. 306 Darton and Keith—Dikes of Felsophyre and center of Appalachian uplift which in the Crabbottom valley west of Monterey attains unusually great altitude. The distribution of the rocks of each of the two principal varieties is shown in Fig. 1. The basaltic rocks at Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 were described in the publication above referred to. They are all small dikes, Nos. 2 and 4 cutting Lewistown (Heldersberg) limestone, and No. 5 rising at the contact of Romney shale (Marcellus) and Monterey (Oriskany) sandstone. Nos. 4 and 5 are associated with friction breccias composed of a variety of more or less altered sedimentary rocks. The other dikes of basalt discovered in 1896 are of similar character but some of them are of larger size. The outcrop No. 16 at Sounding Knob is on the top of a high anticlinal mountain of Tuscarora (Medina-Oneida) quart- zite, the igneous rock rising as a steep-sided neck about 80 feet above the crest line. The altitude of its summit is nearly 4,500 feet. The outcrop No. 9 is a dike which extends down the west side of Monterey mountain in the great Crabbottom anti- cline cutting through Martinsburg (Hudson) shale and Shenan- doah (Lower Ordovician-Cambrian) limestones. Its width varies from 30 to 120 feet and its course is nearly due north- west. The dikes Nos. 13, 14, and 15 are along probably one line of intrusion trending northeast, but they appear not to be connected at the surface. At No. 15 there are showings of friction breccia of somewhat altered sedimentary rocks. - The acid rocks have only been observed within a radius of a few miles from Monterey. The dikes are small and inconspic- uous. ‘The best exposure is on, the upper forks of Straight Creek, three miles east-northeast of Monterey. Here the rock occurs in several large white masses rising in a low knoll with an area of only afew square yards. The material is hard, fresh, and very characteristic. A few rods south at No. 5 there isan exposure of basalt, and a short distance west are two small exposures of narrow dikes of the weathered acid rock. The are all in Rockwood (Clinton) shales. The relations of the rocks to one another in these exposures could not be determined, owing to lack of continuity of outcrops. Near the mouth of Straight Creek, at No. 15, there is a small exposure of the acid rock cutting the Monterey sandstone. The dike near Mon- terey, No. 20, is exposed along the roadside about a half mile northeast of the village cutting Romney shales. It can only be traced fora few yards. In the Crabbottom valley three exposures were discovered, at Nos. 21, 22, and 23, in the She- nandoah limestone along the road from Hightown to New Hampton. A half mile north of Hightown, at No. 21, two small dikes of decomposed and weathered felsophyre are seen in the roadeuts penetrating Shenandoah limestone. At Nos. 22 and 23 several other small dikes are exposed. They are Basalt in Paleozoic Rocks in Central Virginia. 307 deeply decomposed. It is possible that Nos. 21, 22, and 23 are along one line of fissure. If so, it is one coincident with the crest of one of the highest anticlinals of the central Appalachian region. No. 21 appears to be in the same fissure as the basalt dike No. 9, but the continuity of the two rocks could not be traced, owing to woods and debris. Further details of the occurrence and geologic relations of these dikes will be shown in the Monterey folio of the Geologic Atlas of the United States now in course of publication by the Geological Survey. Notes on the Petrography. By ARTHUR KBITH. The eruptive rocks above described by Mr. Darton comprise two classes of very distinct nature and appearance. ‘The first, or basic type, is similar in all respects to the basic rocks oceur- ring in dikes and sheets in the Jura-trias sediments and to a less degree in the Paleozoic and Archean rocks. The first material obtained in this region was described by Mr. Diller.* Subse- quent investigations by Mr. Darton revealed additional dikes and the existence of a second class of eruptives which are first described in this paper. This later discovered group‘is of a decidedly acid composition and more nearly approaches the granite-rhyolite than any of the other large rock families. Appended is a chemical analysis of a typical sample of the acid rock, as determined by W. F Hillebrand in the Laboratory of the U. 8S. Geological Survey. For comparison a_ partial analysis of a typical basic rock is adjoined as determined by the same analyst. No. 18. No. 5 SiO, 69°56 43°38 rey. 31 Al,O, 15°52 Fe,O, 1°67 FeO 1°19 MnO 07 CaO 1°20 14°02 SrO trace BaO 10 MgO 41 K,O 4°68 56 Na,O 4°46 1°64 Li,O trace ; H,O below 110° C. "34 H,O above 110° 67 EO 08 CO, none Ss trace Cl, FI, not tested for 101°26 *This Journal, vol. xxxix, pp. 270-271. 308 Darton and Keith—Dikes of Felsophyre and The percentage of silica in the typical specimen of acid rock No. 18 is seen to be entirely characteristic of granite. The same may also be said of the other chemical constituents. Silica only appears as free quartz in the groundmass, being entirely absent from the phenocrysts. The amount of it in the groundmass, moreover, is relatively small. In this feature of inconspicuous quartz, taken in connection with the trachytic aspect of the rock in the hand specimen, these acid eruptives resemble the syenite-trachyte family. The minerals, however, and the chemical proportions show that it is of the granite family, and in its name the porphyritic aspect should be recog- nized foracomplete description. The grain of the groundmass is micro-crystalline, but since it has not the true granitic aspect, the term “granite” or its allied terms cannot be properly applied. Neither does the groundmass contain glassy portions or any matter which can be definitely stated to be felsitic, owing to the alterations of the rock due to weathering. As a whole, however, the rock is more nearly a porphyritic felsite than anything else, and should, therefore, be designated as a fine “ felsophyre.” The basic eruptives exhibit no changes, either in chemical composition or in component minerals, from the usual types of the Jura-trias basic rocks. A brief description of each of the specimens and thin sections follows, from which the variations of the rocks can be seen. The localities from which these sections are taken are shown upon the accompanying map, fig. 1 (p. 305), by corresponding numbers. , Busice Rocks. No. 5.—This rock in the hand specimen consists of a rather coarsely crystalline aggregate in which porphyritic individuals of olivine and augite are prominent. The groundmass is fine and of a dark gray or black color. On the weathered surfaces decay has brought out the crystals of feldspar slightly. The olivines are green and yellowish brown in color and appear_ unaltered. The greenish color in some of the olivine is due perhaps to small replacement by chlorite. The augites are of a dark gray or blackish gray color and show fresh cleavage faces. Aside from these two porphyritic minerals and the small feldspars upon the weathered surface, no other minerals cau be detected in the hand specimen. Under the microscope this rock differs greatly in appearance from the following sections and has a very decided porphyritic character. The phenocrysts are composed of augite and Basalt in Paleozoic Rocks in Central Virginia. 309 olivine; the former are of a yellowish gray color with darker, brown borders, the latter in particularly brilliant colors and frequently with sharp, crystal faces. The groundmass is very fine and consists of plagioclase, magnetite, augite, and a little olivine. In the case of the olivines, there seems to be a grada- tion between the coarse phenocrysts and the grains in the groundmass. Oonsiderable numbers of magnetite crystals are included in the augites near their borders, and also appear to a limited extent in the olivine. Slight decomposition has pro- duced stains of limonite and small growths of chlorite in the eracks of the olivine. The large percentage of magnetite in groundmass renders it comparatively opaque. This rock bears - strong resemblance to the section (No. 1) described by iller. No. 11.—This specimen is somewhat weathered, being taken from the surface, and contains many faces stained with iron. It is of a dull gray color and very finely crystalline. No por- phyritic minerals appear and the only minerals which can be detected by the magnifying glass are here and there small feldspar laths or an occasional feldspar cleavage face. The texture of this rock, as seen under the microscope, is uncommonly fine for the basic eruptives of this region, and the mineral composition is likewise more than usually simple. The bulk of the rock consists of a fine mass of plagioclase crystals with a marked parallel arrangement. Intermingled and in part included within these feldspars are great quantities of minute, black crystals, the majority of which are magnetite. The only other constituents which occur in any quantity are the small individuals of mica, apparently biotite, which are compressed between the feldspar crystals and many minute individuals of augite. Considerable secondary limonite is present, probably derived from the decomposition of the iron oxides. Certain very small grains have the appearance of olivine, but are diffi- eult of determination. The chief characteristic of the rock is its high feldspathic content and the parallel arrangements of the feldspars, which indicate flow structure. No traces of glass were observed. No. 15.—This rock is of fine grain and dark gray to black color. Weathering extends to a depth of half an inch from the surface and produces a light gray color with considerable stain- ing of iron. At the same time the attitude and size of the feldspar crystals in groundmass is brought out by kaolinization. In the fresh portions crystal faces and cleavage planes of the feldspar are very frequent. From this groundmass porphyritic crystals of augite of considerable size stand out prominently. Smaller porphyritic crystals of olivine are present in less num- bers. Fine black specks of magnetite are dotted through the 310 Darton and Keith—Dikes of Felsophyre and rock and appear most prominently upon the lighter weathered surfaces. ) In the thin section appears the ordinary ophitic arrangement of the Piedmont diabases. The texture is rather finer than usual in these rocks. The minerals consist of a great mass of feldspar intergrown with and enclosing numerous magnetite crystals and patches. Many crystals of olivine of somewhat porphyritic appearance interrupt the ophitie structure, and around their borders the feldspar laths have a tendency to parallelism. Secondary decomposition has proceeded to con- siderable extent in these olivines, resulting in patches and cracks filled with chlorite and leucoxene. In many cases limonite is deposited in the same situations. Frequent small individuals of augite appear between the feldspar laths, and small, patchy individuals of calcite are also to be seen. These do not usually have crystalline outlines. One erystal of augite of somewhat prophyritic appearance is intergrown with magnet- ite. No. 16.—Few macroscopic characters are well defined in this rock. It is of a dark, gray color, weathering to a lighter gray upon exposure. The feldspars of the groundmass, which are extremely fine and invisible upon fresh surfaces, are brought out in the lighter gray portions affected by the weather. Por- phyritic crystals of augite are sparsely distributed through the rock, and patchy phenocrysts of feldspar appear here and there in the groundmass. In one layer these have a tendency to an amygdaloidal appearance. A few scales of biotite are also to be detected. The presence of olivine is shown in the partly weathered portions by a greenish color of the rock, and also a few phenocrysts of the same mineral are sparingly distributed. In this section the rock is holocrystalline and displays no evidence of glass. -The plagioclase laths are comparatively small and their arrangement is more nearly parallel than ophitic. The body of the rock is mainly composed of these crystals. Intermingled with them are fine crystals of augite, olivine, and magnetite, the latter in unusual abundance. No additional features of interest appear in this section. Acid Kruptives. In the hand specimen these eruptives have a decided light gray color, which passes, in the weathered specimens, to white or yellowish white, according to the amount of decomposition of the feldspars. The texture is in general fine. The ground- — mass is light gray in color; from this stand out the white feldspar and the dark biotite and augite phenocrysts. Decay Basalt in Paleozoic Rocks in Central Virginia. 311 first attacks the albite phenocrysts, which are kaolinized, as a rule, even in the comparatively fresh specimens. Thus two classes of phenocrysts are distinguishable among the feldspars on the hand specimens, these being the weathered albites and the clear, unaltered orthoclase. These general characteristics are shared by all of these acid eruptives thus far discovered, and the chiet variations occur in the coarser or finer texture of the phenocrysts. No. 18.—In this specimen is found the coarsest crystallization of these acid eruptives. The groundmass is of the same dove color as in the preceding rock and has an equally fine grain. Lhe proportion of phenocrysts of biotite and feldspar is unusually great, and perhaps one-third of the rock is composed ofthem. The biotites appear in flat, hexagonal crystals with sharp outlines. The division of the feldspars into kaolinized and fresh individuals is strongly accented. ‘The rounded exteriors of the fresh feldspar phenocrysts are so clear and transparent as to strongly resemble quartz; on their broken surfaces, how-. ever, the cleavage faces stand out prominently. A few pheno- erysts of augite are also to be seen, but are very far inferior in numbers to the other minerals. The phenocrysts of feldspar and biotite are about equal in amount. In the corresponding thin section the minerals are in a much fresher condition than in most of the sections and more satis- factory determinations can be made. The general appearance of the rock is the same as in the other sections, and its simple composition is admirably shown. It is seen to consist of a microcrystalline groundmass, with phenocrysts of orthoclase, plagioclase, and biotite. In the arrangement of the crystals of the groundmass no order or system is to be discovered. The _ phenocrysts are perhaps slightly larger and more frequent than common in these rocks, but they consist of the usual minerals, ~ feldspar and biotite. The outlines are sharp and clear and the erystallographic planes are, in many cases, well defined. The biotite crystals are of a greenish brown color and strongly pleochroie, and occasionally they contain small portions of the feldspathic groundmass. A slight tendency to parallelism also appears in them. In one ease the biotite and feldspar pheno- erysts are intergrown. The feldspar in this case appears to be orthoclase. The gronndmass is a microcrystalline aggregate, chiefly of feldspar, quartz, and many extremely small crystals of magnetite or ilmenite. Such of the feldspars as can be determined comprise both plagioclase and orthoclase. No traces of glass are to be seen. There appear to have been practically no disturbances of a dynamic nature in the body of the rock, as the cracks in the larger minerals are very few, and the extinctions are not wavy. One biotite crystal shows a slight 312 Darton and Keith—Dikes of Felsophyre and bending, as if due to some movement after its formation. In the groundmass there is a Small amount of secondary chlorite in extremely: small particles, and an even smaller amount of muscovite, both apparently due to decomposition by weather- ing. No. 17.—This rock has the typical aspect of the acid erup- tives. It consists of an extremely fine groundmass of a light gray or dove color, through which are distributed large pheno- erysts of feldspar and smaller ones of biotite. The feldspar phenocrysts do not differ so greatly from the color of the groundmass as to be conspicuous. Dark scales of the biotite, however, stand out very prominently. The feldspar pheno- erysts are in part bright and clear and in part kaolinized, thus separating the feldspars into two groups. The biotites are in flat, hexagonal crystals and are very sharp and clear. No features appear in this section which were not observed in No. 18 except a slight tendency to parallelism of the feld- spar crystals in the groundmass, particularly around the outlines of the phenocrysts. This is quite marked in several cases. The phenocrysts consist of biotite and plagioclase. In a few cases doubtful orthoclase appears, in which the mineral was nearly removed in the making of the section. The amount of mag- netite is decidedly less than usual, and some fine chlorite, apparently derived from original biotite in the groundmass, marks the progress of decomposition by weathering. A little of the groundmass is included in the phenocrysts, but usually their outlines are sharp and perfect. No. 19.—This specimen, like the preceding one, is badly weathered. The general gray or dirty white color of the rock is varied by the limonite stains at the surface and in the pheno- erysts, and by the prominent black biotite phenocrysts. Many _ of the large feldspar crystals have been entirely removed, leaving only the cavities which they once filled. The biotite crystals appear as fresh and unaltered as in the other specimens examined. The phenocrysts in general are slightly smaller than in the other specimens. This is true, perhaps, of the biotite in greater degree than of the feldspars. The proportion of the rock which the phenocrysts make up is somewhat less than usual, the biotite crystals in particular being plainly fewer. One or two doubtful cases of augite were also observed. In this slide the proportion in size between the pheno- erysts and the individuals of the groundmass is considerably changed. The phenocrysts are much smaller, while the ground- mass is so much coarser that most of its individuals appear dis- tinetly as separate crystals. The two series, however, are still greatly different in size and the rock is accordingly porphyri- Basalt in Paleozoic Rocks in Central Virginia. 318 tic. The phenocrysts are of the same minerals, biotite, how- ever, being comparatively scarce. The feldspar phenocrysts also have a tendency to develop in rudely radiating bunches of stubby crystals. These are, for the most part, plainly plagio- clase, but there are many doubtful instances in which it is probable that the mineral is orthoclase. Much the greater part of the groundmass consists, as before, of minute plagioclase erystals closely felted together and clamping small individuals of biotite, quartz, and the iron oxides. In the latter considera- ble decomposition has taken place, giving rise to limonite and limonite stains, and outlining by these colors the network of feldspar crystals. Occasionally inclusions of the groundmass are seen in the feldspars, but they are more rare than in the preceding sections. The feldspar phenocrysts are sharply out- lined and the erystal faces seem to have suffered practically no resorption. No. 21.—The material of this specimen is very badly decom- posed, but owing to the striking texture of the rock, its nature is seen as clearly as in the fresh specimens. The same grayish groundmass appears, in which minute feldspar individuals can be detected by their weathering. The usual phenocrysts of feldspar and biotite are conspicuously developed and attain sizes as great as in the preceding section. Only one or two augite crystals, however, were detected. The decomposition of the ferrnginous minerals has stained the exterior of the rock, and limonite has concentrated in those phenocrysts which were most thoroughly decomposed, giving them a yellowish appear- ance instead of the white color usual in the fresh rock. This section is of a strongly porphyritic aspect. The pheno- erysts of biotite are large and well-shaped; areas representing probable feldspar were nearly worn away in the preparation of the section on account of its weathered condition. The groundmass consists of a finely felted mass of feldspar, chiefly plagioclase, with many small crystals of biotite, ilmenite or magnetite, and a little quartz. Owing to the weathered condition of the rock, the ferruginous minerals have oxidized considerably, and stains and bodies of limonite are frequent. Portions of the felds- pathic groundmass are enclosed in the biotite crystals. These latter are, for the most part, fresh and show slight decomposi- tion to chlorite. The brown color andthe pleochroism are both strong. No. 22.—This section, like the preceding, is much weathered and deeply stained with limonite. It has also a strongly por- phyritic appearance. The phenocrysts consist of plagioclase, doubtful orthoclase, biotite, and augite. The crystals are large and the outlines are sharp and clear. Included in the augite 314 Darton and Keith—Dikes of Felsophyre and and in the plagioclase are portions of the groundmass of greater or less size and also of biotite and magnetite. In this section decomposition by weathering has proceeded to great lengths, and the smaller feldspars in the groundmass, and to some extent the phenocrysts, have decomposed with a production of consid- erable chlorite, calcite, and limonite. The groundmass consists of the finely felted, holocrystalline aggregate of plagioclase, orthoclase, biotite, augite, maguetite, and calcite with a few crystals of quartz. General Nature of the Dikes. The general distribution of these acid and basie dike rocks in an east and west belt has been already mentioned. Beyond that rude arrangement it is difficult to decipher anything systematic. In the basic¢ rocks, while they all have the same physical appearance, contain the same minerals, and bear a decided family resemblanee to each other, there are three dis- tinct types of texture. These are the basaltic, the diabasie, and the porphyritic textures. The porphyries appear upon the west side of Jack mountain, one of which has been described by Diller and another in these pages. The rock with the ophitic texture of diabase appears in section 15, in one of the southwestern outcrops. The remainder are intermediate in appearance between these, sometimes inclining to one type, sometimes to the other. In these also the feldspars have fre- quently a decided fluidal arrangement, both through the body of the section in a general way, and around the larger crystals. The same arrangement appears to some extentin the porphyritic type. Section No. 16, taken from Sounding Knob, displays ‘the most clearly fluidal arrangement. In this area of the basalt it is evident, from the appearance of the rock mass upon the ground, that it was an old voleanic neck and was produced by an injection of considerable height. Aside from these features, there seems to be no arrangement discernible. As the chemical analysis shows, these basic eruptives are of the same class as those which appear in direct connection with the Jura-trias sediments. Under the microscope, also, they have the same appearance and contain the same minerals. Inasmuch as these Jura-triassic eruptives in some cases pass from the Jura-trias sediments into the Silurian sediments, the occurrences here are plainly in the same line. They offer, therefore, nothing especially novel. The acid eruptives, how- ever, constitute an entirely new class of such phenomena. They have not been observed, within the writer’s knowledge, at Basalt in Paleozoic Rocks in Central Virginia. 315 least in thesouthern Appalachians. Rocks of somewhat similar appearance have been found by the author in various portions of the Archean mass east of the Silurian sediments, but the re- semblance of the two groups is not sufficient to warrant any deductions. Beyond the fact of their eruption through the Silurian sediments and their location upon the great anticlinal regions, there are no facts of distribution which throw any light upon their cause. In one case, at Hightown, the acid lava appears to occupy the same fissure as that filled in one por- tion by the basic lava. In this case the acid eruption may represent an opening upon the same line of weakness at a separate time, or itmay occupy afissure slightly divergent from the basic fissure, the contents of each not coming into actual contact. The exposures upon the ground are insufficient to settle this question. Considerable variations of texture appear in these acid rocks, but no system is to be observed in their distribution other than a growing fineness toward the boundary of each body. In their extremely weathered condition, as shown by Mr. Darton, they easily escape observation and they may possibly be more widely distributed than is now known. 3816 Spencer—Diaphorite from Montana and Mexico. Art. XXX.—Diaphorite from Montana and Mexico; by L. J. SPENCER. DIAPHORITE being a rare mineral known from only a few localities, it seems worth while to record two new occurrences. A stephanite specimen from the Lake Chelan district, Okano- gan County, Washington, recently acquired by the British Museum, shows crystals of dolomite, quartz, galena, pyrargyrite and diaphorite. On a measured crystal of diaphorite the fol- lowing forms were noted: a, b, m, 7, #, wy, y, @ and (212). The Mexican crystals of diaphorite from Santa Maria de Catorze, in the state of San Luis Potosi, are associated with crystals of miargyrite, dolomite, quartz, pyrites and blende ; they are very rich in faces and several new forms have been noted. Except for the lamellar twinning sometimes present on freislebenite, the three minerals andorite, diaphorite and freislebenite are very similar in appearance, and can only be distinguished by measuring the crystals. Between them an interesting morphotropic relation exists, which reminds one of the relation between humite, chondrodite and clinohumite. Sp. gr. Chem. comp. Andorite ____.- 40 2 as ¢ = 0°9846 + 1% 076584 5°35 RS . Sb.S8s Diaphorite-._ ~~ 2002.6 +6 ==0'°9839 31): 07346 5°9 ah Freieslebenite.. 3a: 0.:°¢ = 09786 2.1: 09277; 63 5RS . 28b.S8z B = 87° 46” The vertical axes are in the ratio9:10:13. The same rela- tion can also be extended, though less perfectly, to stibnite on the one side, and to bournonite, etc., and galena on the other. This suggests that in composition also diaphorite should fall be- tween andorite and freislebenite. Brongniardite,* which has an intermediate formula, namely 2RS.Sb,S,, agrees in specific gravity and in its external characters with diaphorite: it there- fore seems highly probable that brongniardite and diaphorite are identical. It is hoped to be able to collect sufficient mate- rial (measured crystals of diaphorite) for analysis, in order to definitely prove the identity here suggested. British Museum of Natural History. * The so-called cubic crystals of brongniardite have recently been shown to be stanniferous argyrodite (Min. Mag., 1898, xii, p. 5). é Browning and Howe—Detection of Sulphides, etc. 317 Art. XXXI.—On the Detection of Sulphides, Sulphates, Sul- phites and Thiosulphates in the presence of each other ; by Purtip E. BRowNING and Ernest Howe... [Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale University—LXXIV. ] Some three years ago R. Greig Smith* published a method for the detection of sulphates, sulphites and thiosulphates in the presence of each other, which promised much toward the solution of this most difficult problem. The method may best be described in the author’s own language: To a solution of the salts of the above mentioned acids “barium chloride is added in excess, together with a good quantity of ammonium chloride, which, like many salts of ammonium, potassium and calcium, acts as a flocculent or coagulant, and facilitates the filtration of the barium sulphate. Hydrochloric acid is next added, drop by drop, until it is evident that there is no further solution of barium sulphite and thiosulphate, and that only the sulphate remains undissolved ; the solution is then filtered through a moistened double filter paper, which should be free from ‘pin holes.’ The filtrate will probably be clear, but if not it should be returned to the filter for a second filtration. When too much thiosulphuric acid is present, the clear filtrate will visibly become clouded, or from being whitish will be- come more opaque; if this occurs the solution should be thrown out, and a fresh portion made more dilute. A solu- tion of iodine is added to half of the filtrate until the color is of a permanent yellow tinge ; a white precipitate indicates the presence of a sulphite which has been oxidized by the iodine to sulphate. In the absence of a decided precipitate traces of sulphite may easily be detected by comparing the treated and untreated halves of the filtrate—a procedure which very often saves a good deal of time, as it is unnecessary to wait until a clear: filtrate is obtained. The two halves are mixed, and if the yellow color disappears more iodine is added, the solution filtered and the filtrate divided into two halves as before. With a slight turbidity filtration may be omitted. Bromine water is added to one of the halves when any thiosulphate in _ the original solution shows itself as a white precipitate of barium sulphate, readily seen on comparing the two test tubes. The thiosulphate is by iodine converted to tetrathionate, which is oxidized by bromine water to sulphate.” Three objections to this method as described will readily occur to the reader : first, the readiness with which the thiosulphate is decomposed by free hydrochloric acid; second, the comparatively large * Chem. News, vol. lxxii, 39. Am. Jour. Sc1.—Fourts Series, Vou. VI, No. 34.—OctToBer, 1898. 318 Browning and Howe—Detection of Sulphides, ete. amount of acid necessary to effect the complete solution of the barium sulphite and thiosulphate when precipitated with the sulphate as compared with the amount required to prevent the precipitation ; third, the lack of delicacy necessitated by a com- parison of portions of a colored solution in looking for small precipitates. The work to be described was undertaken to overcome these difficulties and to test the accuracy of a modi- fied method. Solutions of potassium sulphite and sodium thio- sulphate were made approximately decinormal and standard- ized in the usual manner against an iodine solution of known value. It was found that by making a solution containing sulphates, sulphites and thiosulphates very faintly acid, the sulphates and thiosulphates were held completely in solution ~ when the barium sulphate was precipitated. The extreme sensitiveness of a thiosulphate to the decomposing action of free hydrochloric acid suggested the possible substitution of acetic acid to hold the sulphites and thiosulphates in solution. This being a weaker acid, we hoped to avoid the decomposi- tion of the thiosulphate into sulphur and sulphurous acid, or at — least to delay the decomposing action. The results of these experiments appear in the following table : TasueE I. Volume Hydrochloric Acetic NaS,0; cm?® of acid (1: 4) acid. taken. water. drops. drops. erm. Result. 1 10 2 We 0°01 No sulphur in 20 minutes. 2 10 2 if 0-1 Sulphur in 45 seconds. aye) ahOe 3 e 0'1 Sulphur in 15 minutes. 4 10 ied 8 0°01 No sulphur in 20 minutes. 5 10 8 8 0°1 Sulphur in-90 seconds. 6 100 oe 10 0‘! No sulphur in 20 minutes. yey ah) ity 10 0°25 Sulphur in 15 minutes. Bien? pk: ae 10 0°5 Sulphur in 60 seconds. 9. ~. A00 aE 10 1:0 Sulphur in 30 seconds. From these results it would seem that the decomposition of a thiosulphate is more rapid in presence of hydrochloric acid than in presence of a much larger amount of acetic acid. Our next experiments were directed toward a determination of the effect of adding stannous chloride to bleach the color of the free iodine and bromine used in the oxidation and of acidifying with acetic acid, before treating with barium chlor- ide. That is to say, the process as we used it, consisted in acidifying the solution to be tested with acetic acid, adding barium chloride, filtering to remove precipitated sulphate (always present in the sulphite), adding iodine to the filtrate until the color was permanent, bleaching with stannous chlor- Browning and Howe—Detection of Sulphides, ete. 319 ide, filtering off the sulphate which represents the sulphite originally present, adding bromine in excess to the filtrate and again bleaching with stannous chloride to increase the visibility of the sulphate which now represents the thiosulphate origin- ally present. The details of experiments in which the sulphite was taken alone and oxidized with iodine are given in Table IT. Tasre II. K,SO; Volume BaSO, precipitated taken. of water. after oxidation grm. cm’. with iodine. Remarks. (4) 01 10 Very abundant Plainly visible before add- ing SnCl.. (2) 0°01 10 Abundant Plainly visible before add- ing SnCl.. (3) 0:001 10 Distinct More distinct after adding = | SnCl,. mee (4) 0:0005 10 5) Bair Hardly visible before add- | ing SnCl.,. (5) O-000!r 10 Faint Invisible before adding SnCl.,. A corresponding series of experiments was made in which hydrochloric acid was substituted for acetic acid and essentially | the same results were obtained. A similar series of experiments was made to test the effect of treating the thiosulphate in an acidified solution, first with iodine and then after filtration (if a precipitate had formed) with bromine. In the experiments of division A hydrochloric acid (a few drops) was added before treating with barium chloride, and in those of division B acetic acid was used simi- larly. Stannous chloride was employed to bleach the excess of iodine and bromine. Taste III. Na2S20; Volume BaSQ, precipi- BaSQ, precipi- taken. of water. tated by action tated by action grm. em*. of iodine. of bromine. Remarks. A. me O"1 10 Distinct Abundant Sulphur separated in 30 seconds. @>5)0:01 10 Faint Abundant No sulphur in 90 . seconds. 3 0°001 10 None Distinct No sulphur in sev- eral minutes. 4 0:0005 10 None Faint No sulphur; SnCl, necessary. 5 0:0001 10 None Very faint No sulphur; SnCl, necessary. 320 Lrowning and Howe—Detection of Sulphides, ete. B. Oe, to 10 Faint Abundant No sulphur sepa- rated in 1 min. 2 yOVOn 10 None Abundant No sulphur sepa- rated in several minutes. 8 0001 10 None Distinct No sulphur. 4 0°0005 10 None Faint No sulphur; SnC), necessary. 5 0:0001 10 None Very faint No sulphur; SnCl, ; necessary. From these experiments the advantage of the use of acetic acid becomes apparent, as does also the use of stannous chloride in increasing the delicacy of this indication, so that a small fraction of a milligram may easily be detected. If relatively large amounts of thiosulphate are present with small amounts of sulphite, we have sometimes found it advan- tageous to manipulate so that even the slow decomposition of the thiosulphate by acetic acid may be avoided by first attempting precipitation with barium chloride in a dilute ammoniacal solution. By this method the barium sulphate and sulphite are separated from the thiosulphate and identi- . fied—the sulphate by its insolubility in dilute hydrochloric acid, and the sulphite by the action of iodine upon the acid filtrate from the barium sulphate. After filtering, the thio- sulphate may be detected in the filtrate by the use of iodine and bromine as described above. ‘Table IV gives some results by this treatment. | TaBsre IV. Na.S;0; BaSO, BaSO, taken. precipitated precipitated grm. by iodine. by bromine. Remarks. (1) 01 None Abundant (2) 0°01 None Good (3) 0-001 None Fair SnCl, necessary. © (4) 0°0005 None Faint SnCl, necessary. (5) 0°0001 None —— None : As will be seen, the test for the thiosulphate by this method of treatment is not so delicate, probably on account of me- chanical holding of the barium thiosulphate by the precipi- tated sulphate and sulphite. Having determined the limits of accuracy of the method as applied to the sulphite and thiosulphate taken separately, our next experiments were directed toward an investigation of the eee ee ese, ——* . a 4a ee ot Gi Browning and Howe—Detection of Sulphides, etc. 321 working of the method when these two acids are found together in solution. Sulphates, almost invariably present with sulphites, are of course quite easily separated by filtration and treating with the barium salt in acid solution. Sulphides if present in the solution would seriously interfere with the working of this method if not removed, being readily oxidized by the iodine or bromine to sulphite, sulphate or, should sulphur also separate, to thiosulphate. We found in course of our work that in attempting to neutralize a mixture of freshly prepared alkaline sulphide together with a sulphite we often obtained a precipitate of sulphur. After the removal of the sulphide and sulphate, we were surprised to find on treating with iodine scarcely a trace of sulphite. On treating with bromine however an abundant indication of thiosulphate was obtained. It is well known of course that thiosulphate may be found by boiling a sulphite with sulphur, but that this reaction should take place so readily and completely seemed to us rather unusual. For the removal of a sulphide before proceeding with the tests for sulphite and thiosulphate Grieg Smith recommends the passing of carbon dioxide through the solution until the escaping gas gives no indication of hydrogen sulphide, but Bloxam* calls attention to the tedious and wholly unsatisfactory character of this method of removal and recommends a mixture _ of zine chloride, cadmium chloride, ammonium chloride and am- monia. We have found that the addition of zinc acetate toa faintly alkaline solution accomplishes the same purpose in an entirely satisfactory manner. The sulphide used in our work was freshly made by passing hydrogen sulphide through a dilute solution of sodium hydroxide. When portions of this solution, still alkaline, were treated with zine acetate in excess, and the zinc hydroxide and sulphide removed by filtration, the filtrate gave no test for either sulphite or thiosulphate by the application of iodine and bromine as described, and the vapor evolved on boiling caused no darkening of lead paper. The following table shows the results of a few experiments in which tests TABLE V. K.SOs NaS205 BaSO, precipitated BaSO, precipitated taken. taken. after oxidation after oxidation gTm. grm. with iodine. with bromine. 0-1 0°01 Abundant Good. 0-1 0:001 Abundant Distinct. 0°01 0-1 Good Abundant. 0°001 0-1 Faint Abundant. 0°001 0:001 Fair Fair. * Chem. News, Ixxii, 63. 322 Browning and Howe—Detection of Sulphides, ete. were made for the sulphite and thiosulphate, after removing a considerable amount of the sulphide in the manner described, and of the sulphate by acidifying and adding barium chloride. The method as we have minditied it may be summarized as follows: To about 0:18" of the substance to be analyzed dis- solved in 10° of water or more, add sodium, potassium or ammonium hydroxide to distinct but faintly alkaline reaction. The solution should be neutral or alkaline rather than even faintly acid, owing to the readiness with which sulphur sepa- rates. To the alkaline solution add zine acetate in distinet excess and filter. The precipitate may be tested for hydrogen sulphide, on acidifying, in the usual manner. To the filtrate add acetic acid, a few drops in excess of the amount necessary to neutralize, and barium chloride, and filter through a double filter. To the filtrate add iodine until the solution takes on a permanent yellow tinge, and then bleach with stannous chlor- ide, best after adding a few drops of hydrochloric. acid to prevent the possible precipitation of a basic salt of tin. A precipitate at this point indicates the sulphite. Filter, add bromine water in faint excess to the filtrate, bleaching again with stannous chloride. A precipitate on adding bromine indicates a thiosulphate originally present. é pat fh af & , “y ae - Hidden and Pratt—Twinned Crystals of Zircon. 323 Arr. XXXII.—Twinned Crystals of Zircon from North Carolina ; by W. E. Hippen and J. H. Prarr. THE zircon crystals to be described in this paper were found at the Meredeth Freeman Zircon Mine in Henderson County, North Carolina. The mine is located near Green River and about two miles nearly south from the railroad station now known as Zirconia. This is the mine from which Gen. Thomas Clingman procured one thousand pounds of zircons as early as 1869 and which became later a large pro- ducer. The crystals occur in a saprolitic rock that was prob- ably a biotite gneiss. The attention of one of us was drawn to some peculiar erystals of zircon in May, 1888, by a miner who was then regularly employed in washing out zircons from the rock of this region. This miner stated that some of the men were finding ‘“‘zircon-crosses” which they were wearing as orna- ments, some having them “ sewed to the lapels of their coats ” and others “using them as watch charms.” At first, no seri- Bi PB? ous attention was paid to the miner’s statement, for at that time it was impossible to visit the mine and verify it and besides .staurolite seemed suggested by this description. 3 a ‘te “1s aaa a eR By. Specimens of these “crosses” were received during the same month, but unfortunately they were badly broken in transit. During the following summer the locality was visited by one of us, but all work had ceased at the mines. The dump was carefully searched over for the “ zircon-crosses ” but with- out success. The miners, while they well remembered the finding of these crystals, had not saved any specimens of them. The foreman, Mr. Edward H. Freeman, had fortunately pre- served a small collection of different crystals found at this mine and it was from this collection that the crystals described in this paper were selected. Mr. Freeman stated that the “zircon-crosses ” were obtained from only one portion of the mine and that some were found about 14 in. long by 2 in. thick. He also said that they were very easily broken if care- lessly handled. All the zircon from this region occurs as erystals which vary in size from 1™ to 30™™ in the direction of the ¢ axis and from 1™™ to 25™™ in that of the horizontal axes. The color _ varies from gray to grayish and reddish brown. The common type is the prism of the first order, m, 110, terminated by the unit pyramid of the same order, p, 111. A few crystals have been observed with the prism terminated by the steeper pyramid, ~, 331 alone and also a combination of 324 Hidden and Pratt—Twinned Crystals of Zircon. this form with the unit pyramid. Rarely the crystals have the ditetragonal pyramid #, 311, in combination with the unit pyramid. Fig. 1 represents one of a rarer type of erystals which is a combination of the prisms of both orders, m, 110 and a, 100, terminated by the unit pyramid, p, 111 and the more acute pyramid w, 331. The only type of twinning heretofore known for zircon* is that with e, 101 as twinning plane, forming geniculations like those of rutile and cassiterite. The same law of twinning was observed on the Henderson County zircons, but the erys- tals are cruciform as shown in fig. 2. * This Journal, xxi, 507, 1881, Hidden; Phil. Mag., xii, 26, 1881, Fletcher ; and Dana’s Mineralogy, sixth edition, 1892, p. 486. Hidden and Pratti—Twinned Crystals of Zircon. 325 Besides this type the Henderson County zircon exhibits a series of twin crystals in which the twinning planes are parallel to pyramids of the first order. Five new twinning planes have been identified by us. Of these, four are parallel to the pyramidal faces, p, 111; d, 553; v, 221 and wu, 331, and are represented by figs. 3, 4,5 and 6 respectively; the fifth is parallel to the pyramid ¢ (774).* The twin crystals are usually well developed and doubly terminated, the faces being somewhat vicinal but with sharp edges, thus enabling the faces and twinning planes to be readily identified by means of the contact goniometer. The measurements were very satisfactory and close to the cal- culated angles, as shown in the following table: Twinning Measured angles m ~ m- Calculated planes. — o's —_ angle. p (111, 1) 95° 10’; 96°30’ 95° Average 95° 33’ 95° 40’ d (553, 8) Bee Ls 233 20% ~ 241. 407 a EL? 23 112 50 0) (774, 4) HG 30.- LiG: 15" 30’; 115° 15” oe 115 49 LES 30 m@ezal,2) «121 «30; 122 30 a 122 12 u (331,3) 138; 139°10’; 140; 139° 30’ me 4) 939° 18 139 35 The re-entrant angle formed by mam over the twinning plane is the same as the angle of divergence of cA c. These prismatic edges being very sharp, the re-entrant angle could be measured very accurately with the contact goniometer, the measured angles agreeing within half a degree of the calculated angles. The minerals associated with the zircon are the following : Pyrite, in cubes partially changed into limonite; fluorite, pale * Dana’s Mineralogy, sixth edition, 1892, p. 482. 326 Hidden and Pratt—Twinned Crystals of Zircon. purple etched fragments; quartz crystals; ilmenite, in minute grains (rare); small octahedrons of magnetite; orthoclase ; massive garnet; parallel growths of auerlite upon unaltered gray and brown zircon ; very good crystallized green epidote ; allanite in masses, as large as 50 pounds; well crystallized brown sphene, most of the crystals are altered to xanthitane ; and vermiculites with broad foliz often four to six inches in diameter. The thanks of the writers are due to Mr. Freeman, who generously presented the crystals used in the preparation of this paper. C. D. Walcott—Brachiopod Fauna of Rhode Island. 327 Art. XXXIII—Wote on the Brachiopod Fauna of the Quartzitic Pebbles of the Sens Conglomerates of the Narragansett Basin, Rhode Island; by CHARLES D. W ALcoTT. THE first notice we have of the fossiliferous pebbles of the Carboniferous conglomerates of the Narragansett Basin is by Professor Wm. B. Rogers, who in 1861 announced the discovery by Mr. Norman Easton of pebbles carrying fossils of the Pots- dam fauna in the Carboniferous conglomerate north of Fall River, Mass. Professor Rogers thought the forms distinct] recognizable to be Lingula of two species, Z. prama and 7A antiqua Emmons.* ) In 1875 Professor Rogers announced the discovery of impressions suggestive of the foscil Lingule mentioned by him from Fall River in the pebbles in the conglomerate at Newport, Rhode Island.t He thought that the pebbles were derived from rocks probably closely connected in time with the Braintree Paradoxides beds. During the past two or three years Professor N.S. Shaler and Mr. J. B. Woodworth have been sending me fossiliferous ebbles picked up on the beach on the northern shore of artha’s Vineyard, and at several points along the shore of Narragansett Bay. Among these I find remains of two large Linguloid brachiopods which appear to be identical with Obolus (Lingulobolus) affinis Billings and O. (Z.) spissus Billings, from the Lower Ordovician rocks of Great Belle Island of Newfoundland. The material is somewhat imper- fect, but in comparing it with the series.of specimens from the typical locality in ‘Newfoundland, the two species appear to be present. There is also a new species, which I have named Obolus (Lingulella) rogersi, which occurs both in the quartzitic pebbles in the Narragansett Basin, and with O. (Z.) aginis and O. (L.) spissus in Newfoundland. __ The geologic horizon of the sandstones on Great Belle Island which carry the brachiopods is not far above the shales carrying an Upper Cambrian fauna. It is quite probable that the horizon represents the passage beds between the Cambrian and Lower Ordovician. The exact locality from which the quartzitic pebbles of the *The Fossiliferous Pebbles of the Potsdam and Carboniferous Conglomerate North of Fall River, Mass.; Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Proc., vol. vii, 1861, pp. 389-391. +On the Newport Conglomerate; Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Proc. vol. xviii, 1875, p. 100. 328 C.D. Walcott—Brachiopod Fauna of Rhode Island. Carboniferous conglomerates were derived is not, and probably will not be known. The fact that Great Belle Island is the only locality at which this peculiar group of brachiopods has been found points strongly to that region as the probable source of the fossiliferous pebbles of the conglomerate. If so, this strengthens the view of Professor Shaler that the con-. glomerates are of glacial origin, as it is evident that no other means of transportation than the glacier would carry pebbles of the size of those in the conglomerate so great a distance as that from the St. Lawrence Valley to the Narragansett Basin. No other fossils have been found in the pebbles other than the brachiopods. ; O. E. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. 329 Arr. XXXIV.—The Origin and Significance of Spines: A Study in Hvolution; by CHARLES EMERSON BEECHER. [Continued from page 268.] VII. By repetition. (B,,.) _UNvER the consideration of spine production by repetition, it is proposed to include local repetition or duplication of spines on or about a primary spine, the limit of this repetition resulting in a generally spinose condition. : It has been shown that intermittent stimulus produces ' growth, and furthermore that growth can only take place with proper nutrition. Under local stimulus, the currents of the circulation or forces of nutrition are set up in an organism toward the center of stimulation. The nutrient matter is brought to this point, and more or less of it is expended in building up a structure which is the reciprocal or direct resultant of the stimulus. Now, since all motion is primarily rhythmic,” and the repetition of parts an almost universal character among organisms,’ it would appear that the foregoing conditions would be favorable to the repetition or reproduction of the structures. In this way, it is easy to account for the growth of spines that cannot be explained as the direct result of external stimuli (A), or by any process of decrescence (C, D). The nature of the influence seems to be similar to induction in electrical physics, or to the force or stimulus of example in human conduct. Stated as a concrete case, a simple spine produced by any primary cause may be taken, and it will be granted that the vital or physiological adjustments produced in its growth and maintenance have brought about or induced an harmonic con- dition in the adjacent tissues. Subsequent growth will most naturally repeat the previous structures, so that in addition to the primary spine, there will be other smaller spines on or _ about it, together constituting either a compound spine or a group of spines. Carrying this repetitionary process to a maximum, there would result a generally spinous condition. Asa possible illus- tration of this, no class of organisms probably exhibits so many kinds and series of repetitions of all sorts of external struc- 4 tures as the Echinodermata, and it is significant that this is a ; typically spiniferous sub-kingdom. _ ___Except in a few classes of organisms, compound spines are 7 relatively rare as compared with simple spines. They are very _ common among the Radiolaria, which furnish the greatest com- plexity occurring anywhere in the organic world. (See Plate oe FL ee ee a. coy 330 CO. E. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. I.) They are also quite frequent among the Echinoidea, but more rare among the Asteroidea and Crinoidea. Compound antlers are especially characteristic of the modern Deer family, though compound horns are but rarely found elsewhere among the mammals. The Prong-horn Antelope of America is the only living species of hollow-horned ruminant having this character. It, of course, is not intended that extra pairs of horns, which being separate, and often originating on different portions of the skull, should be considered as com- pound horns in the sense employed here. Likewise compound spines arising through suppression of organs or structures are not to be included here, as the compound thorns on the Honey- locust representing aborted branches. DLA, 52. FIGURE 51. Acontaspis hastata. A Radiolarian, showing multiplication of spines by repetition. 200. (After Haeckel.) FiGuRE 52. Strophalosia keokuk. An attached Brachiopod, showing the spines extending from the ventral valve to and along the surface of attachment. x2. FiguURE 53. A Gastropod shell (Platyceras) to which are attached a number of Strophalosia keokuk. Natural size. The fin-spines of fishes are often compound, and sometimes are made up of several elements asin the spines of Hdestus (£. vorac). Quite a number of Mollusca develop compound spines, as In many species of Spondylus and Murex. ‘They are also not uncommon among the Orustacea and Insecta. Compound spines are infrequent in the Brachiopoda, being developed in but few species (Sperifer hirtus”). The For- aminifera also present but few examples (Polymorphina Orbignir’). | J] : { Ce ee ee ee ee ae } ; . i RT ee ee eS 0. E. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. 331 A number of generally or highly spinose types will now be noted to illustrate the limits of the repetition of spiny struc- tures, the first spines having probably arisen through the operation of some primary cause, and the derived or secondary spines being produced, it is believed, by the law of repetition. The Radiolaria have already been frequently mentioned, but as they are the most spiniferous of all classes of animals, and represent the highest degree of spine differentiation attained (figure 51 and Plate I), another brief notice will be of interest. These spines furnish characters of high taxonomic value, although generally speaking they seldom have more than spe- cific importance among other classes. The Echinoidea and Asteroidea must also be noticed in this connection, though from the nature and origin of their spines, they do not con- form to the mode of spine growth in other classes. Productus, Productella, Strophalosia, Aulosteges, and Siphonotreta represent highly spinose genera among the Brachiopoda. Strophalosia is a form in which the ventral valve is cemented to some object. Whenever the valve rises well above the object of support, the spines are free like those frequently present on the dorsal valve; otherwise the spines» extend root-like along the supporting surface (figures 52, 53). Aulosteges presents a still further tendency to complete spi- nosity, for not only are both valves covered with spines, but the deltidium also. Spondylus (figure 30) and Murex are well-known types of very spiny forms of Mollusca. Acidaspis, Terataspis, ete., hold the same place among the Trilobita; Echidnoceras, Lithodes, etc., among the Decapoda; and the Spiny Box-fish (Diodon), Pipe-fish, ete., among the Pisces. The higher ani- mals also furnish examples of extreme spinosity, as in the Horned-Toad (Phrynosoma), the genera of Ceratopside, gigan- tic Cretaceous Dinosaurs, and the Echidna and Porcupine. All these forms present numerous spines, some of which cannot be explained as having arisen directly from external stimuli, for they are in comparatively well-protected regions out of the way of external stimuli. Neither can all of them serve for offense and defense, as they are often not located in the most advantageous positions; nor are they differentiated out of any previous ornaments or special structures. In fact, no factor of spine genesis except the one of repetition seems to be sufficient to account for their development. VII. Restraint of environment causing suppression of structures. | 3 The previous categories of spine production (I-VII) have been brought about by some process of growth or concrescence 332 C0. #. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. through external and internal agencies. There still remain for discussion the formation of spines by processes of decrescence caused by extrinsic restraint (C), or intrinsie deficiency of growth power (D). The lack of vitality or growth force gen- erally stands so directly as the result of an unfavorable environ- ment, that it is often difficult or impossible to distinguish between their action. Furthermore, as in the case of many parasites, it may be seen that the environment may be quite favorable as regards temperature, nutrition, etc. ; but unfavor- able in respect to motion and use of sensory and motive organs. From the almost universal degradation and retrogression of parasitic forms, it is necessary to consider these as intrinsically deficient, and therefore lacking in the qualities of growth force which normally favor a progressive evolution. Here, also, there are apparently two intimately associated causes. In an attached animal, the absence of stimulus from disuse of an organ tends toward atrophy, and the retrogressive development serves to affect many organs in the same manner. The direct and indirect results of the restraint of the environment may therefore be expected to shade imperceptibly into each other, with only the extremes sufficiently distinct for separation. The influence of an unfavorable environment as effecting the character and growth of plants and animals is well shown in desert or arid regions, and the flora has been made the sub- ject of especial study by Henslow.” In such regions, the first thing to impress the observer is the small size of the species. Next to diminutive size, the scantiness of life is a striking feature, for large areas are common in which life is almost wanting. An examination of these plants reveals a series of characters not usually present elsewhere, among which may be mentioned the development of a minimum amount of surface, constituting what is known as consolidated vegetation ; next their uniform gray color, due either to excessive hairiness or a coating of wax; and lastly, their frequent spinescent characters. The spines on desert plants are a feature of such general occurrence that it has led to the notion that vegetable spines are always associated with unfavorable conditions and are therefore suppressed structures. This is probably incorrect, for in plants as in animals, spines may be developed by the progres- sive differentiation of previous structures; as in the angular edges of the leaf-stems of many Palms becoming spiniferous ; or, as will be shown, suppressed structures may arise from deficiency of growth force. In all cases, spines may or may not serve for protection. Thus, while they are not always an indication of unfavorable environment, those occurring on desert plants may generally be so considered, for they are C. B. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. 333 developed out of structures which are normally of vital physio- logical importance. An animal or plant having spines and living in a favorable environment, involving freedom of motion for animals, and abundance of nutrition without extremes of temperature or dryness for both animals and plants, will, it is believed from the discussions and analyses of spine genesis in its various phases, develop these features in most instances, without the sacrifice of organs and structures having important physiolog- ical and motor functions. Thus, ordinarily, among animals it is found that spines arise as excrescences or outerowths of exoskeletal or epidermal tissues, without seriously affecting the function of the organ or organs upon which they are located. Such cases may clearly belong to the most progressive series, and in fact usually occur there. On the other hand, if it is found that a leg, a wing, a digit, or other organ is developed into a spine, this is always accom- plished by a process of retrogression, resulting in the greater or lesser suppression of the part in question. It is also seen that this kind ef spine occurs most frequently in retrogressive series or in others showing arrested development, and the necessary interpretation seems to be either that the environ- ment is or has been unfavorable, at least so far as the particu- lar organ or set of organs is concerned, or that the vital power has declined. Both influences are intimately associated, and the latter is often the direct result of the former. The stunting effects of aridity and barren soil on our com- mon plants is familiar to all. Among the plants of the desert is found every evidence of similar stunting combined with adaptations to resist the unfavorable conditions of deficient water supply, excess of radiation, ete. The diminution in size - applies not only to stature, but to the leaves and branches, especially the parenchymatous tissues or parts of the plant engaged in aéreal assimilation. Consonant with these changes, the drought and other conditions produce a hardening of the mechanical tissues, which is of great aid in resisting the ‘extreme heat. and dryness ‘of the desert. Sometimes a deposit of wax affords a similar protection. The reduction of the leaves takes place in various ways. They may simply become smaller in every dimension and finally be reduced to mere scales, or an aphyllous condition may be established. They may grow narrower and narrower until only the hardened veins or midrib remains; or leaves may be developed only for a short time, and, in the case of com- pound leaves, after the shedding of the leaflets, a spiniform leaf axis remains, as in Astragalus FF ragacantha® (figures 55, 56). The suppression of branches tends towards the same end; Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtH SERIES, Vou. VI, No. 34.—OcTOBER, 1898. 23 334 C0. EL. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. namely, either to their complete disappearance or to their par- tial suppression into hard spiniform processes or thorns. Thus, both leaves, branches, and other parts of the plants may become reduced to their axial elements, bringing about what is com- monly termed spinescence. The spiny character of these plants is therefore one of the results of an arid environment, and it may or may not be of sufficient frequency to give an especial character to a particular desert flora. There is, moreover, a secondary influence which has an effect in determining the abundance of spinose plants in desert as well as in many other situations. This relates to the destruction of the edible unarmed species by herbivorous ani- mals, and the comparative immunity of the spiny types. Thus, in old pastures, the prevailing flora is apt to be one that is offensive to grazing animals. This character is generally given by poisonous plants or those having a disagreeable flavor, or by those whose form or spiny structures afford protection. This secondary influence by grazing animals may have had some effect in determining the particular abundance of spiny plants in certain desert regions, and their comparative infre- quency in other similar regions. In either case, the unfavor- able environment brings about a suppression of structures, and one type of this action results in the production of spines. These represent the limits of retrogression before the part becomes entirely obsolete. Wallace has criticised Henslow’s views on the origin of xerophilous plants and their distribution. It is believed that the views here offered remove some of the objections, and bring the opinions of these authors into greater accord. Under arid conditions, bracts, stipules, leaves, and even branches may become spinescent. Some forms in which the spinose character has not as yet become permanently fixed by - heredity, when transported or found living in moister and richer soils, develop normal leaves or branches, and lose their spinescence ; others, like the Cactus, retain their spines under similar changes; while still others, as Acanthosicyos norrida,”* cannot be artificially cultivated, and have become truly xlero- philous types. As examples of plants which lose their spines by cultivation, the Pear, species of Rose, Plum, ete. (Henslow), may be cited. According to Henslow,” others, as Onomis spinosa, have an especially spiny variety (horrzda) living on sandy sea-shores, while in more favorable natural situations, the same plant becomes much less spiny, and under cultivation loses its spines. M. Lothelier* also found that by growing the Barberry (Ler- beris vulgaris) in moist air, the spines disappeared, the paren- chyma of the leaves being well formed between the ribs and . C. FE. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. 335 veins. Dry atmosphere and intense light both favored the production of spines. Henslow” cites the genus Zilla as a desert plant in which the branches are transformed into spines, Hcehinops for a similar modification of the foliage, Fagonia for spiniform stipules, and Centaurea for spinescent bracts. As further illustrations taken not only from desert plants but also from others com- monly found in dry, rocky, or unfertile situations, the follow- ing examples may be taken, some of which are familiar cultivated species. The stunting of branches into spines is common among neglected Pear and Plum trees, and is a normal character in the Hawthorn, Honey-locust, Cytzsus (figure 54), Vella, etc. Leaves transformed into spines are characteristic of the Cactaceze of America, the columnar Euphorbiacez of Africa and southern Asia, and are also familiar in the half- shrubby Tragacanth bushes (figures 55, 56) so common in southern Europe, especially in the eastern portion, and in the ordinary Barberry (figure 13). Spiniform stipules are usually present in the species of /?obinza, of which the Common Locust (Robinia pseudacacia) furnishes a well-known illustration (figure 57). Spiniform bracts are best known among the Thistles (Cirsium lanceolatum, C. horridulum, etc.). 54. 55. 56. 57. FIGURE 54, The spiny Cytisus (C. spinosus), showing suppression of branches into spines. (After Kerner.) FIGURE 55. A single leaf of Tragacanth (Astragalus Tragacantha) from which the three upper leaflets have fallen. (After Kerner.) FIGURE 56, Leaf axis of the same, from which all the leaflets have fallen. (After Kerner.) FIGURE 57. Twig of Common Locust (Robinia pseudacacia), showing spines representing stipules. As the restraint of an environment acting on an animal so generally results in the disuse and atrophy of the organs affected, most cases will have to be considered under the head of disuse. Therefore, while the environment is the primary factor, its influences are mainly exhibited through secondary or resultant conditions. In some cases, however, it is possible 336 C. H. Beecher-—Origin and Significance of Spines. to interpret a vestigial or suppressed structure directly into terms of an unfavorable environment. Thus, if the probable origin of the vestigial hind legs of a Python is considered, it leads to the belief that they represent legs which were of functional importance to some of the early ancestors of this snake. The gradual elongation of the body and the consequent change from a walking or direct crawling habit to a mode of progression chiefly by horizontal undulations, necessarily brought the legs into a relation with the environment which was unfavorable either for their function or growth. Their suppression is complete in most snakes, but in the Python, the hind legs are represented by two spurs or spines (figure 58). On the interior of the body they are supported by ves- tiges of femora and ilia, showing their true affinities with hind limbs. Some snake-like Batraclhians (as Amphiwma and Pro- teus) still retain short and weak external limbs. These would undoubtedly soon be lost by a change from aquatic to terres- trial or arboreal habits. 58. 59. FIGURE 58. Portion of skin of Python, showing the spurs which represent the suppressed or vestigial hind legs. x4. (After Romanes.) FIGURE 59. Bones of suppressed legs of Python. All but the claw-like termination are internal. x4. (After Romanes.) In explanation of the nodes and spiniform processes on the epitheca of Michelinia favosa, it may be suggested that they represent aborted corallites, or attempts at budding. This coral belongs to the order Porifera, which has been shown by the writer’ to have very pronounced tendencies toward pro- liferation, and on the interior of the colony, these attempts result in the production of mural pores. Most of the species of Michelinia are hemispherical or spherical. J/. favosa is inclined to be pyriform in shape, rising above the object of support, and thus presenting a rather large epithecal surface. Manifestly the lower side of the corallum is unfavorably situ- ated for the growth of corallites, and any efforts at prolifera- tion on the part of the peripheral corallites is apt to result in stunted outgrowths. There is here a very close connection C. FE. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. 337 between restraint of environment and deficiency of growth force. If the whole corallum is taken into consideration, the restraint of the environment may be taken as preventing the growth of corallites on the lower side. If one of these single stunted corallites is considered, it may be said that the defi- ciency of growth force through lack of nutrition caused its suppression. IX. Mechanical restraint. (C,.) Among the factors of spine genesis, mechanical restraint is probably of the least importance. It can only rarely happen that an organism is forced to grow a spine contrary to the natural tendencies of normal development. Yet as there are occasional types of spiniform structures which can best be explained as due to the mechanical restraint of the environ- ment, it is necessary to notice them in order to make the cate- gories of origin as complete as possible. The illustrations will be taken chiefly from the Brachiopoda and Trilobita. The recent Brachiopod Miihlfeldtia truncata is semi-elliptical in outline, and has a very short stout pedicle which holds the shell so closely to the object of support that the beak is truncated from abrasion and resorption. In speci- “mens attached to a small branch of a coral, thus allowing the cardinal extremities of the shell to project beyond the object of support, the ends of the hinge are generally rounded. Speci- mens growing on a large flat surface have the cardinal extremi- ties angular or submucronate. Similar variations are to be observed in other living species of Brachiopods (Cistella, some Dallina, etc.). Some of the extinct genera show more highly developed cardinal extremities which are often very character- istic of certain species, though considerable variation is found to exist. It is evident that these elongated hinge lines have arisen from the mechanical necessities of a functional hinge, and their greater or less extent is also to a degree dependent upon the nature of the object of support which furnishes a stimulus to the growing ends of the hinge. A marked exam- ple is shown in Spirifer mucronatus, with the cardinal angles extended into spiniform processes (figure 60). Similar features are presented by many other Al \S species of Spirifer, Orihis, Leptoena, seues 60. Dorsal view Stropheodon ta, ete. of Spirifer mucronatus, De- In the Trilobites, the pygidium, or vonian. Showing spiniform abdominal portion, consists of a number ©"dinalangles. xg. (After . Hall and Clarke.) of consolidated segments, and the seg- ments of the thorax are successively added in front of this tail 60. piece. The first thoracic segment is therefore formed between 338 OC. L. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. the cephalon and pygidium, and its form is mechanically in agreement with the requirements of the animal for bending the body, and with the adjacent margins of the cephalon and pygidium. In a way, it may be said that the segment is moulded by the adjacent parts, and may therefore take its form from the cephalon (figure 61), or from the pygidium, as in the examples following: 61 62 63 FIGuRE 61. Jllenus (Octillenus) Hisingeri, Ordovician, Bohemia. A Trilobite showing spiniform pleural extremities of first thoracic segment, corresponding to the genal spines of the cephalon. x4. (After Barrandet?.) FIGURE 62. Chetrurus insignis, Silurian, Bohemia, Pygidium and six thoracic segments. x. (After Barrande.) FIGURE 63. Deiphon Forbesi, Silurian, Bohemia. Lntire specimen showing spiniform pleural of segments corresponding in direction to those of the pygidium, (After Barrande.) Figure 64. JLichas scabra, Silurian, Bohemia. Pygidium with three thoracic segments, showing spiniform ends of pleura. x#. (After Barrande.) FIGURE 65. Paradoxides spinosus, Cambrian, Bohemia. Pygidium and six free segments. x#. (After Barrande.) During growth, the new segments are added in front of the anal segment, so that after the number of abdominal segments is complete the thorax is increased by the successive addition of what in earlier moults were pygidial segments. By this means, the pygidium generally controls or determines the char- acter of the segments of the thorax. If the pleura of the pygidium are extended into spiniform processes, the pleural ends of the segments are also spiniform, as in Lichas (figure 64), Ceraurus, Cheirurus (figure 62), Deiphon (figure 63), Acidaspis, Dindymene, ete. C. E. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. 339 Likewise, if the pleura or their distal ends are directed poste- riorly nearly parallel to the axis, the mechanical necessities of motion require that the portions of the free segments pointing backward should be free, thus making the ends of the thoracic pleura generally appear as retrally curved spiniform extensions. Extreme examples of retrally directed pleura accompanied by small pygidia are shown in Paradowides (figure 65), Holmia, Olenellus, Hlliptocephala, etc. Genera having the ends only of the pleura directed backward are generally less inclined to form spiniform terminations. In contrast with these, it is found that all the Trilobites having the pleura directed out- wards and with entire pygidial margins, do not ordinarily develop long pleural spines; as Asaphus, L[llenus, Agnostus, Phacops, Calymene, ete. The examples of the caterpillars of moths belonging to the Schizuree, described by Packard®™ as mimicking the serrations of the leaves upon which they feed, have previously been noticed in this essay, under the head of mimetic influences. The initial cause of the spines may possibly be explained as in part due to the mechanical conditions. During their early existence the larve feed on the lower side of the leaves, and have no spines. Later they feed on the edges of the leaves, and at the same time acquire dorsal spines. The conformation of the animal to the serrated edge of the leaf would produce corresponding elevations and depressions on the back. The location of these would be fairly constant from the habit of the animal of feeding chiefly between the denser leaf veins which determine and terminate the serrations. The raised parts of the animal would receive the greatest amount of stimuli, and at these points spines would naturally appear. The processes producing the spines noticed in this category ({X) are classed with others under decrescence, for the reason that the growth is restrained or controlled by mechanical necessities. If the restraint were absent, it is probable that a more expansive growth would take place or that other struc- tures would be correspondingly benefited. Re Oe Bistses? (CS DY: In causing the reduction or atrophy of an organ, the effects of disuse have generally been recognized by most observers. In this way, the origin of many of the so-called ‘ rudimentary organs” has been satisfactorily explained by Darwin” and others. Two classes of structures are evidently comprised within the common definition of rudimentary organs, namely, nascent and vestigial organs. Nascent structures indicate the beginnings or initial stages 340 C. EL. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. of organs, while vestigial structures are the remnants left after the functional suppression of organs. The suppression is usually caused by unfavorable conditions or by disuse, which | produce either a retardation of growth or a retrogressive de- velopment. In both cases, the results are similar. By retarda- tion, an organ is prevented or restrained from functional devel- opment and is therefore useless as a normal organ. By retrogression, an organ gradually reverts to an initial type, loses its function, and becomes a vestigial structure. In most instances, a change of food or habit, or the substitution of a new and functionally higher structure, causes the disuse of some organ, which, under previous conditions, was of use to the animal. Nascent structures, or the beginnings of organs, are gener- ally made up of active tissues that only require stimulus and nutrition to perfect their function. On the other hand, sup- pressed or vestigial structures are composed of comparatively inert tissue and are in consequence largely made of the mechanical elements of secretion of the organism. It may therefore be considered that true rudimentary or nascent organs are potentially active, and suppressed structures are inert. It is with the latter class, the inert, that a study of spine genesis by atrophy is chiefly concerned. The gradual loss of function through disuse, and the con- sequent loss of nutrition with the concomitant rapid decres- cence of active tissues, brings about a change in the ratio of active and inert structures. The progression of this process naturally results in the production of a structure having a maximum of inert or mechanical tissues, and a minimum of active constituents. Moreover, it has already been shown that the axial elements are the most persistent, and therefore the last to disappear; also that the peripheral appendages and out- growths of any organ first show the action of decrescence. Evidently, the conditions here described are favorable for the production of spines out of an organ primarily possessing dis- tinct active functions. The axis of an organ gives the neces- sary form, and the hard tissue the structure, so that the whole will conform to the definition of a spine given early in this paper; namely, a stiff, sharp-pointed process. The restraint of the environment was found to be one cause for decrescence of organs. Another, which is properly the subject matter of the present section, is disuse; and lastly, it will be seen how the deficiency of growth force may bring a similar suppression of structures. There is considerable difficulty in selecting particular exam- ples which will conform clearly to the strict requirements of these three categories. In a certain sense, some of the exam- a 4 Pi I ae SN Re Rag ESRI Se pes ee a an Oe ee D> C. E. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. 341 ples of spines produced by decrescence may belong to more than one category. However it does not prevent the accept- ance of any one of the three as primary causes. Thus, it may be urged that disuse has caused the atrophy of leaves into spines among many desert plants, or produced a similar reduction of the limbs in a Python. While this may be true from one point of view, yet the manifest unfavorableness of the eviron- ment in both, seems to be a sufficient reason for making it the primary factor. On the other hand, many parasites show- ing similar atrophies are not dependent upon a large number of active organs for their food and maintenance. After find- ing a host, an abundance of food is at hand, and the environ- ment may be considered a favorable one. All the organs, except those of nutrition and reproduction, then become more or less nseless and dwindle away, leaving vestigial organs, or disappearing altogether. Furthermore, a change of habit, as from climbing to flying, will necessarily cause the atrophy of some of the structures used for climbing, and the hypertrophy of others for flying. Most of the examples illustrating the production of a spine through the atrophy of an organ by disuse are to be found in the legs and digits of animals. The process bears consider- able resemblance to the formation of spines on many plants by the suppression of leaves, branches, etc. They will be noticed here, although properly these vestigial structures among ani- mals are more strictly of the nature of claws, or at the most, spurs. Many parasitic plants, especially among the Balanophoree, are reduced to a simple stem bearing the inflorescence. The leaves are represented by scales which are often spiniform, though seldom of sufficient stiffness to entitle them to be called spines. In desert plants, many of which have a similar type of growth, the hardening of the mechanical tissues by the effects of drought has converted similar leaf structures into spines, while the parasitic plants are not normally sub- jected to such continuous dryness and extreme heat, and there- fore the mechanical tissues seldom become hardened. Parasitic animals, especially among the Crustacea and in- sects, often show a reduction in the number of joints in the legs, and even in the number of limbs themselves. The terminal claws generally persist, and are sometimes longer than the rest of the leg; as in the Itch mite, Sarcoptes Scabei, and in the female of the parasitic Copepod Lernwascus nema- toxys (figure 66). Among many aquatic Crustacea and Limuloids, the specializa- - tion and segeregation of the ambulatory and swimming append- ages towards the head or anterior regions of the body have 342 OC. EF Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. produced a corresponding suppression of appendages on or near the extremity of the abdomen. This statement of fact is the basis of the principle of cephalization of Dana,” who applies it especially to the Crustacea, as follows: “ There is in general, with the rising grade, an abbreviation relatively of the abdomen, an abbreviation also of the cephalothorax and of the antenne and other cephalic organs, and a compacting of the structure before and behind; a change in the abdomen from an organ of great size and power and chief reliance in locomotion, to one of diminutive size, and no locomotive power.” Audouin’s law that among the Articulata, one part is developed at the expense of another, may be also noticed here as affording a further explanation of the suppression of the posterior append- ages correlative with the greater development of the parts anterior to them. Ina Crustacean using its tail for propulsion, as the Lobster (H/omarus), the telson is broad and flat, and the - adjacent segment has a similar development of the appendages. In other forms, as the Horse-Shoe Crab (Zzmulus) and the Phyllocarids, the tail is not used for propulsion, and at best serves chiefly as a rudder, while some of the legs on the anterior part of the abdomen or on the thorax are large and strong and are often provided with paddles. These groups, the Limuloids and Phyllocarids, show a greater or less suppres- sion of the last abdominal appendages, and in many genera, the body terminates in a spiniform telson or tail spine. The process of suppression may or may not result in a spine. In the crabs, the abbreviated abdomen is folded under the cephalo- thorax, and in Lepidurus and Pterygotus the telson is a scale or plate-like organ. For the most part, however, the abbrevia- tion of the abdomen and the suppression of its appendages have reduced the telson to a spine, as in Zamulus (figure 67), EHurypterus, Stylonurus, and Prestwichia among Limuloids ; and Olenellus among the Trilobites. In addition to a telson spine, the Phyllocarids have two lateral spiniform cercopods, the three spines together constituting the post-abdomen, as in Ceratiocaris, Echinocaris (figure 68), ALesothyra, ete. Although the last abdominal segments of the Horse-Shoe Crab have lost their appendages and show evidences of sup- pression, yet the tail spine is a large and useful organ, for it is of just the proper length to enable the animai to right itself after being overturned, which it is unable to do with its feet alone. The process of natural selection has doubtless in this way contributed to the development and retention of the long spine. This use cannot be ascribed to the-tail spines of the Phyllocarids, though they evidently were important aids in directing movement, and also offered some degree of protection. - The terminal claws on the phalanges of the wings of some 4 | i “r= C. FE. Beecher—Origin and Significance of Spines. 348 birds are nearly all that remains of the external fingers, or digits. In the Hoactzin of South America (Opisthocomus eristatus), the young bird has a thumb and index finger, both provided with claws, and climbs about much like a quadruped, using its feet, fingered wings, and beak. According to Lucas,“ a rapid change “takes place in the fore limb during the growth of the bird, by which the hand of the nestling, with its well- developed, well-clawed fingers, becomes the clawless wing of the old bird with its abortive outer finger.” Similar claws or spurs occur on a number of other birds, some having functional wings, as in the example just described, and others having only vestiges of wings, as in the Wingless Bird of New Zealand (Apteryzx, figure 69). 66 67 68 70 Figure 66. Female of Lerneascus nematoxys. stereopticon views. ©. H. Ricnharpson: The Washington limestone in Vermont. WARREN UPHAM: Fluctuations of North American glaciation shown by inter- glacial soils and fossiliferous deposits. Time of erosion of the Upper Mississippi. Minnesota, and St. Croix Valleys. G. FREDERICK Wrigut: Supposed ‘Corduroy Road” of Late Glacial age, at Amboy, Ohio. The age of Niagara Falls as indicated by the erosion at the mouth of the gorge., A recently discovered cave of celestite crystals at Put-in-Bay, Ohio. M. A. VurpER: Changes in the drainage system in the vicinity of Lake Ontario during the Glacial period. Joun CrAwForD: Recent severe seismic movements in Nicaragua, J. W. SpencER: Another episode in the history of Niagara River. Evidence of recent great elevation of New England. BENJAMIN HOWARD: Geography and resources of the Siberian Island of Sak- halin. G. F. MartHew: The oldest Paleeozoic fauna. N. H. WincHELL: The oldest known rock. The origin of the Archean igneous rocks: C. R. Van Hise: Joints in rocks. K. ©. Hovey: Notes on some European museums. W. O. Crossy: History of the Blue Hills complex. AMADEUS W. GRABAU; Paleontology of the Cambrian terranes of the Boston basin. EK. M. Souvietue: Diamonds in meteorites. Harry F. Rep: The periodic variations of glaciers. (Papers presented by the Geological Society.) ARTHUR Ho.Liick: Some features of the drift on Staten Island, N. Y. N. 8S. SHaLer: Loess deposits of Montana. Spacing of rivers with reference to the hypothesis of base-leveling. H. L. Farrcuitp: Glacial waters in the Finger Lake region of New York. H. F. Rew: The stratification of glaciers. WarrREN UpuHamM: Evidence of epeirogenic movements causing and terminat- ing the ice age. G. FREDERICK WRIGHT: Clayey bands of the glacial delta of the Cuyahoga River at Cleveland, O. H. Foster Bain and A. T. Leonarp: The Middle Coal Measures of the western interior coal field. CHARLES R. KeyrEs: The principal Missourian section. H. B. Parton: Tourmaline and tourmaline schists from Belcher Hilti, Jefferson Co., Colorado. : A. C. LANE: Magmatic differentiation in the rocks of the copper-bearing series. Note on a method of stream capture. C. R. Van Hise: The volume relations of original and secondary minerals in rocks. W. G. Ticut: The development of the Ohio river. F. P. GuLuiver: Classification of coastal forms. Dissection of the Ural Mountains. Note on Monadnock. C. WiLtLARD Hayes: The Continental divide in Nicaragua. (Papers presented by the National Geographic Society.) Marcus Baker: The Venezuela-British-Guiana boundary dispute. JOHN Hype: Considerations governing recent movements of population. GiFFORD PincHoT: Some new lines of work in Government forestry. W. J. McGee: The development of the United States. M. S. W. JEFFERSON: Atlantic estuarine tides. Hrenry GANNETT: The forestry conditions of Washington state. CHARLES H. Fircu: The five civilized tribes and the topographic survey of Indian territory. R. U. GoopeE: Bitter Root forest reserve. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 369 SECTION F. Zoology. ALPHEUS HyYATT: Evolution and migration of Hawaiian land shelis. A new classification of fossil Cephalopods. J. B. Smita: Notes on the habits of some burrowing bees. A new method of studying underground insects. A. S. PacKARD: On the systematic position of the trilobites. On the Car- boniferous fauna of Rhode Island. On the markings of Nodontian larve. F. P. GorHAM: Some points in the Odgenesis of Virbius zostericola Smith. A new species of pigment producing pathogenic bacillus. C. S. Mino7T: On the types of vertebrate embryos. On the embryology of the rabbit. H. 8S. Wittiams: Variation versus heredity. L. O. Howarp: The proposed attempt to introduce Blastophaga psenes into California. C. L. Maruatt: The records for 1898, of Broods VII and XVII, of Cicada septendecim. W. H. AsumeaD: On the genitalia of ants, and their value in classification. EB. O. Hovey: Naples station: general description and notes on methods of work employed there. General statement of types and figured specimens of fossil invertebrates in the American Museum of Natural History. Measurements of two large lobsters, recently added to the collections of the American Museum of Natural History. Wm. H. Datu: On the present state of our knowledge of the North American Tertiary mollusk-fauna. C. R. Eastman: Some new points in Dinichthyid. W. GRABAU: Moniloporidz, a new family of Paleozoic corals. JOHN MurpocH: An Historical notice of Ross’ rosy gull, Rhodostethia rosea. T. JAcKsON: Localized stages in growth. THEO. GILL: On the piscine ancestors of the Amphibians. Jas. Lewis Howe: Variation in the shell of Helix nemoralis in the Lexington, Va., Colony. 8S. H. Gage: Hibernation, transformation, and growth of the common toad (Bufo lentiginosus americanus.) The transformation of the brook lamprey (Lampera wilderi) and parasitism among lampreys. W.L. Poteat: Leidy’s genus Ourameeba. C. M. Weep: The winter food of the chickadee. T. Jackson: Ink and paper for museum labels. W. B. ALtwoop: Notes on life history of Protoparce carolina. The life history of Schizonewra lanigera. EDWARD S. Morse: Remarks on Aphorphora. Harrison G. Dyar: The phylogeny of the North American Eucleidz. G. W. FreLD: On the anatomy and physiology of the spermatozoa of inverte- brated animals. C. B. DavENroRT: Fauna of Cold Spring Harbor. Section G. Botany. BRADLEY M. Davis: The carposporic type of reproduction of Rhodophycee. _ H. J. Wesper: Origin and homologies of blepharoplasts, Notes on the strand 3 flora of Florida. W. J. Beat: Leaves of red Astrachan apples immune from the attack of Gymnosporangium macropus. The work performed by the Agricultural College _ toward a Botanical Survey of Michigan. Some exampies illustrating modes of seed dispersion. Remarkable decrease in the size of leaves of Kalmia angustifolia, apparently due to reduction of light. Byron D. HAusTEeD: Starch distribution as affected by fungi. Half shade and vegetation. Influence of a wet spring on parasitic fungi. Ernst A. Bessey: The comparative anatomy of the pistils of apocarpous families. W. R. SHaw: The blepharoplast in the spermatogenesis of Marsilia. C. S. CRANDALL: Observations on the relative moisture content of fruit trees’ in winter and in summer. H. L. Boutey: Some investigations bearing upon the symbiotic mycoplasm theory of grain rust. | 370 Screntific Intelligence. C. O. TownsenD: The effect of an atmosphere of ether upon seeds and spores. Ropwrey H. True: The toxie action of a certain group of compounds. C. L. PottuarD: Types of vegetation on the keys of South Florida, K. F. Smitu: Potato as a culture medium, with some notes on a synthesized substitute. Some little used culture media which have proved valuable for species differentiation. Observations on Stewart’s sweet-corn germ. D. T. MecDou@at: Temperature and transportation of desert plants. W. Auwoop: The brown spot disease of apple leaves, Phyllosticta pirina, and fungus forms associated therewith. On the occurrence of a yeast form in the life cycle of Sphaeropsis malorum Peck. H. VON SCHRENK: Notes on some diseases of Southern pines. D. G. Farrouitp: The Botanic garden at Buitenzorg, Java, CHARLES HK. Bessey; Notes on the relative infrequency of fungi upon the Trans- Missouri Plains and the adjacent foothills of the Rocky Mountains. KATHERINE K, GOLDEN and ©, G, FERRIS: Fermentation without live yeast cells. KATHERINE K. GOLDEN: Deterrent action of salt in yeast fermentation. O. F. Cook and D. G. FarrRcHILp: Fungus gardening as practised by the Termites in West Africa and Java. 8. M. Bascock and H. L. Russetu: The biology of cheese-ripening. LILLIAN SNYDER: A bacteriological study of pear blight. Merton B. Waite: Life-history and characteristics of the pear-blight bacillus. G. H. Hicks: Effect of fertilizers on the germination of seeds. B. M. DueGar: Development of the polien grain in Symplocarpus and Peltandra. E. J. DuRAND: The embryology of Taxus. K. M. WireGanp: Notes of some monocotyledonous embryo-sacs. Studies relative to the perigynium of the genus Carex. J. M. MacFARLANE: Observations on some hybrids between Drosera intermedia and Drosera filiformis. K. Summons and R. H. B. McKENNEY: On the rapidity of circumnutation moye- ments in relation to temperature. THOMAS H. KEARNEY: General characteristics of the Dune flora of South- eastern Virginia. Vegetation of the wooded fresh-water swamps of Southeastern Virginia. CHARLES Louis PoLLARD: On the validity of the Genera Senna and Chamecrista. Species characters among the violets. W. W. RowteeE: Notes on Arctic willows. EDWARD 8. BurGEss: Some steps in the life history of asters. T. H. MacsripEe: The Pleistocene and plant-distribution in Iowa, K. B. CopELAND: A self-registering transpiration machine. L. R. JONES: Methods of studying the sap pressure of the sugar maple. RopneEy H. True: Notes on the physiology of the sporophyte of certain mosses. W. W. RowWLEE and GreorGE T. Hastinas: The seeds and seedlings of some Amentiferze. P. BEVERIDGE KENNEDY: The morphology and taxonomic value of the fruits of grasses. L H. PamMet: The caryopsis of the Graminiz. The ecological distribution of Colorado and Wyoming plants. F, WituiAM RANE: Fertilization of the muskmelon flower. Notes on destroying Comptonia asplenifolia. Length of. time from blossoming until seed develop- ment of Leucanthemum vulgare. (Papers presented by the Botanical Society.) M. L. FERNALD: Note on the influence of eskers upou plant distribution in Maine. K. M. WIEGAND: Some peculiar features of synapsis in the pollen-mother cells of monocotyledons. Is the present treatment of the species of Hydrophyllum a natural one? y HERMAN VON SCHRENK: The future growth of Taxodiwm distichum. JoHN F. COWELL: Progress of work on the Buffalo Botanic Garden. B. M. Duagar: The nucleolus during the division of the pollen-mother cells in Begonia. KE. J. DuRAND: An apparatus for washing. Material killed by certain fixtures. Houuis WEBSTER: Notes on the occurrence near Boston of some fleshy fungi. B. M, Duee@ar: The influence of temperature upon Sporotrichum globuliferum. A, B. Skymour: North American Ustilaginee. , | Miscellaneous Intelligence. 371 Section H. Anthropology. D. G. Brinton: Typological analysis. Anthropological terminology. J. W. PowELL: Sophiology, or the science of the evolution of opinion. W. J. MeGre: Papago medicine. Some definitions in anthropology. W. H. Hotmes: Anthropological problems of the Pacific Slope. Museum presentation of anthropology. ALIcE C. FLETCHER: The significance of the garment, a study of the Omaha- Tribe. AcE C. FLetcHER and W. MatTrHews: The earth lodge. J. C. Fintmore: The harmonic structure of Indian songs. Francis LA FLuscue: Ritual of the Sacred Pole of the Omahas. (Phonograph Records. ) JEANETTE R. Murpuy: The survival of African music in America. CoRNELIA HorsrorD: Some of the evidences that Northmen were in Mass- achusetts in pre-Columbian times. G. A. Dorsry: Subjects relating to the physical anthropology of North American Indians. , A. L. Kroeser: The Smith Sound Eskimo. Hueu H. Lusk: The Maori of New Zealand; his history and country. DEAN C. Worcester: ‘“ Moros,” or Malay pirates of the Southern Philippines. The Philippine Islands and their people. H. C. Mercer: The tools of the American pioneer. The origin of domesticated animals. MM. 4H. Savitie: Burial customs of the ancient Zapotecans of Southern Mexico. Notes on the Lacandon Indians of Mexico. Frank H. Cusuine: Tomahawk and shield. Examples of primitive fire- working from Florida. THOMAS WILSON: Art in prehistoric times. Prehistoric musical instruments. Arrow-points, spear-heads and knives. WILLIAM WALLACE TOOKER: Problem of the Rechahecrian Indians of Virginia. The Swastica and other marks among the Nastern Algonkins, a preliminary study. STanspuRY Hagar: The water burial time. R. J. FLoopy: Time-reckoning among early people. The rite of circumcision among the early races. DANIEL FoLKMAR: Anthropology, not sociology, as an adequate philosophy. M. A. CLANCEY: Science the basis of morals. A. HRpuicka: Anthropological differences between typical white and negro girls of the same age. Variations of the normal tibia. W. Z. Rivtey: Résumé of recent studies on the origins of European races. Presentation of a bibliography of the anthropology and ethnology of Europe. D. A. SARGENT: Typical American students, illustrated by charts and statues, G. W. Firz: A new kymographion; a new chronoscope. J. McKEeEN Cattreri: Anthropometric instruments, HuGo MUnstERBERG: Psychology and art. Mrs. C. Lapp FRANKLIN: The new theory of the light sense. _ WALTER Hoven: Social organization and laws of the Moki Indians. Korean Clan organization. FREDERICK Starr: The Otomies of Mexico. FRANK BAKER: The illusions of craniometry. MATILDA C. STEVENSON: Zuni witchcraft. Cu. H. Henning: Origin of the Confederacy of the Five Nations. Epwarp S. Morss: Is the stringed muiscal instrument pre-Columbian ? Pau Du Cuaittu: The Norsemen, the conquerors of Britain. DESIRE CHARNAY: The disappearance of the Cliff Dwellers, Section I. Economic Science and Statistics. B, E. Fernow: The College of Forestry at Cornell University. EpWARD ATKINSON: High wages in money, or what money will buy, the consequent of low cost of production. How to increase exports and how not. The inherent vice of legal tender. S. EpwarD WARREN: Local life by local times. A study of competition and suburban prices. Cora A. BENNESON: Executive discretion in the United States. 372 Scientific Intelligence. Mrs. DANIEL FOLKMAR: The short duration of school attendance: causes and remedies, K. L. CorrHELL: The progress of the maritime commerce of the world during the past fifty years. WoLrreD NELSON; Cuba: past, present, and future. KDWARD T. PETERS: Kxamination of the theory of rent. HENRY FARQUHAR: The price of wool. J. 8. WiLtison; The transportation problem. W. H. Hate: The formative period of a great city: a study of Greater New York. Joun Hype: Deviations from the normal in the annual rate of agricultural production. H. T. NEwcoms: Railway rates and competition. C. A. Haton: A sufficient social principle. R. T. Corpurn: Why uot try a North Aimerican Zollverein? WOLFRED NELSON: Nicaragua and the canal. C. B. Spaur: The gold standard and the unemployed. F. R. Rutrer: The effect of tariff legislation on the importation and domestic production of sugar in the United States. Joun Davipson: The ethical function of the economist. The development of colonial policy. Mrs. HELEN Davipson: The economic status of the nurse. Marcus BENJAMIN: American Industrial Expositions, their purposes and benefits. W. Fir: Scientific bookmaking. W. R. LAzeNBy: A plea for manual and industrial training in horticulture. Rospert T. Hitt: The economic possibilities of Cuba. W. Lane O'NEILL: On the United States’ alleged policy of imperialism, so- called, and in connection therewith, some reasons for and against the proposed Anglo-Saxon alliance. A. W. CAMPBELL: The economic value of good roads. S. Mortey WicKetTr: The study of political economy in Canada. ©. C. JAMES: The agricultural statistics of Ontario. THOMAS SouUTHWORTH: Canadian forests and the paper industry. Henry C. Botton: A catalogue of scientific and technical periodicals, 1665 to 1885. 2. British Association. — The sixty-eighth meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science was held at Bristol from September 7 to 14: this is the third time the city has been thus honored. The meeting was thoroughly success- ful both in scientific results and in attendance, as recorded in the issues of WVature for Sept. 8 and following dates. The inaugural address, delivered by the President, Sir William Crookes, was largely devoted to a discussion of the probable food supply avail- able in the future for the increasing population of the earth. After showing “that England and all civilized countries stand in deadly peril of not having enough to eat,” the speaker indi- cated that some comfort could be found in various directions, particularly in the probable solution of the problem of obtaining nitrates for enriching exhausted soils from atmospheric nitrogen by electrical means. The address also included an interesting account of recent progress in the departments of physics and chemistry, to which the speaker had especially devoted himself. “lustrated es 21 euts, was published Korat 21st. - It is the most elaborate- bulletin we ever issued. It de- scribes the Recent Additions to our stock of Speci- mens and Loose Crystals, gives our new list of Minerals for Blowpipe Analysis, and our new and very complete Book List. If you have not received it, ~ drop us a postal and we shall be pleased to send it to you A LARGE SHIPMENT FROM JAPAN. Several thousand crystals of Topaz, large and small, Be a couple of drawers full of Orthoclase crystals and win a lot of Smoky Quartz crystals, ete, Ss 350 CRYSTALS OF CELESTITE. A new find at the old Strontian Island locality. One to two inch erystals, 5c. h; 14 to 3 inch crystals, 10¢ ; larger crystals, 15c. to 31.00: extra large, seum-size sana $1.00 to $3. 50. Bi ROXBURY GARNETS. ree. lot of. good specimens of dodecahedral garnets in a nearly white mica-_ ‘10e. to $2.00; loose. ane 5e. to 15e. see A * - ae hes 1000 good octahedrons, # to 4 inch, at 5 for 5c. up to 5c. each. ae of _ them show unaltered Magnetite i in the center, and their faces are bested hol- lo a out es the Chessy Cuprites. a ENDLICHITES FROM NEW MEXICO. } ‘ ecently secured 100 selected specimens of Endlichite, which we believe are the finest now on sale. The flashy beauty of the bright yellow crystals makes ‘specimens incomparably superior to’the old-time “Lake Valley Endlichites. te $10.00. GEORGIA RUTILES. ‘recently finished the development work on one of the choicest lots of small ry ee and matrix specimens of Rutile ever seen. 50c. to $10.00. . _ COUNTLESS one RECENT ADDITIONS 2 Be lay | in the largest and best stock we have ever had. Over 300 distinct s and ° very many varieties are now sold by weight at from 5c. per pound up. w list, just issued, is the most elaborate one ever published. College pro- is be able to effect a large pene by ee their laboratory supplies ait: slccus. 25c. in paper, 50c. in cloth; illustrated with 87 escribes every mineral, giving species number, species, crystallo- ¢ system, hardness, specific gravity, chemical Romposition and llustrated Price-Lists, 4c, Bulletins and Circulars Free. - a tS: GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists, § G4 East 12th St., New York City. AM ene waive v: . sy ne oc . Sate edt Cais OM Sek Brae, eR aS, CON TENTS. : Hes te ak Capea ah : one E Arr. XXVII.—Compressibility of Colloids, with Applica- | J tions to the Jelly Theory of the Ether; by C. Barus .- 285 | § XX VIII.—Eolian Origin of Loess; by C. R. Kryzs __-- -- 299. ne XXIX.—Dikes of Felsophyre and Basalt in Paleozoic Rocks in Central Appalachian Virginia; by N. H. Bee ae and “Ay IOMIPA yo Se oe Ss ee 305 XXX.—Diaphorite from Montana and Mexico; by La Boe z SPENCER 0-0 (0052-5. -2-4.-1/424.-227 135 XXXI.—Detection of Sulphides, Sulphates, Sulphites and Thiosulphates in the presence of each other; by P. EH. Brownine and E. Hown._..-) 2 le Bil XXXII.—Twinned Crystals of Zircon from North Core ike by: W.: EK. HippEen: and J. H. PRAT? 75236302 323° XXXUI—Brachiopod Fauna of the Quartzitic Pebbles of the Carboniferous Conglomerates of the ‘Narragansett Basin, RB. 1; by C.D. Wancorn:. 222-24) apes XXXIV.—Origin and Significance of Spines; A Study in - Evolution; ‘by C., EB. BEncner > (os 2-52.22 ; SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENOE. Chemistry and Physics—Neon and Metargon, companions of Argon in Atmos- pheric Air, Ramsay and TRAVERS, 360.—Metargon, DEwAR: Density and Boil- ing Point of Liquid Hydrogen, DewAR, 361.—Boiling Point of Liquid Ozone, TROOST, 362. ; Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—American Association for the Advancement — of Science, 363.—British Association, 372. OT urvey Rr BaD NOVEMBER, 1898. Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818. 7 AMERICAN || JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Eprrorn: EDWARD S. DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS || Prorzssors GEO. L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, _ H.P. BOWDITCH ann W. G. FARLOW, or Camprines, | WILLIAMS, or New Haven, Prorzssor GEORGE F. BARKER, or Puitapetrxt, Proressor H. A. ROWLAND, or Battimorz, Mr. J. S. DILLER, oF Wasutneron. FOURTH SERIES. VOL. VI-[WHOLE NUMBER, CLVI.] No. 35.—NOVEMBER, 1898. NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. 18 O87: TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 125 TEMPLE STREET. _ Published monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6.40 to oreign subscribers of countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should made either by money orders, registered letters, or bank checks. - an JAROSITE. am From Lawrence Co,, 8. D., a large consignment of neat groups has just arrived, similar to those soa two months ago which ‘sold at sight.” They are brown tabular rhombohedrons, the old type from other localities being of cubic aspect. Without the aid of a lens, their sharp edges and brilliant planes reveal the curious habit distinctly. Some measure over 5™™ across. While not flashy they are attractive, and may be classed as the best Se yet found of this species. Find limited. 50c. to $3.00 With the Jarosites came more Scheelites and the new prismatic type of Wolframite. . ; ; é : : ; 25c. to $1.00 UTAH MINERALS. A large shipment just in yields the following, at low prices: CUBIC PYRITE, Tooele Co., loose and. th Kaolin, Identical with those introduced by us four years ago, but better, Crystals are symmetrical, sharp and lustrous, 1 to 3°@ sq. Neat groups, . 25c. to $2.00 TYROLITE, Tintic, foliated masses of bright blue color, 25¢e. to $2.00 BROCHANTITE, Tintic, clear geen sels of f uncommonly fine quality, eroups, . ; j 50c. to $2.00 FRANKLIN MINERALS. Every collection has itsseries and yet the best are alwaysindemand. During the last ten years our varied stock of fine Franklin things has probably averaged as large as the combined Franklin stocks of other dealers. FRANKLINITE. Simple and modified octahedrons, . ° 25c, to $3.00 RHODONITE. Large dull tabular crystals, . 50c. to $5.00 Also a few exquisite pink crystals, small and bright on snow-white Calcite, 25c. to 89. 50 AXINITE. Gemmy little crystals of clear yellow color in matrix, 50c. to $2.00 RUBY ZINC of rich color. Remarkably BRODY r 25c. to $1.00 CLINOHEDRITE, rare! Crystallized, ; $2.00 to $6.00 ROEBLINGITE, massive, . $1.00 to $8.00 NATIVE LEAD, described oe W. M. Foote in Aug. A. J. 8. Coating on Garnet and Caswellite, . aye 25¢. to $2. 00 NEW MEXICO. MELANOTEKITE. Distinct crystals with the massive mineral. Described m Aug. A. J.S., : 25c. to $3.00 WONDERFUL ENDLICHITES! See Oct. ‘adv. Cut prices. 50c. to $4.00 for the best groups. 10c. to 50c. for singies. - SCHOOL MINERALS. Crystals. Individual Specimens. Laboratory Material. Systematic Collections. High Quality. Low Prices. 126 pp. ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE 60 pp. COLLECTION” CATALOGUE PRES Dr. A. E. FOOTE. WARREN M. FOOTE, Manager. 1317 aren Street, Philadelphia, Pa., U. S. A. Established 1876. . te ee AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE [FOURTH SERIES. ] Art. XXXV.—Jrregular Reflection ; by C. C. Hutcurns. In photometric work it has been customary to assume the validity of Lambert’s fundamental law- of reflection; namely, the amount of light sent from one surface element 7 to another surface element 7 is proportional to SL sabes lel 7 b] where 7 is the line joining the two elements, and s and v are the angles made between 7 and the normals to the two ele- ments. The truth of this law seems to be borne out by com- mon experience. Thus a sheet of paper illuminated by perpendicular rays,—the globe of a student lamp, seems equally illuminated at all points of view, and other examples of a simi- lar nature will readily suggest themselves. This seeming agreement of fact with theory, however, does not do away with the desirability of an experimental investiga- tion of the subject. The matter has been dealt with for certain bodies, for instance the moon, photometrically by Zollner and others, and its total radiant energy with respect to phase has been measured by Ross and Very ; but the measurement in the laboratory of the total reflection of bodies at different angles of reflection is, as far as can be learned, new. Suppose a plane surface of small dimensions illuminated by perpendicular rays and seen at a fixed distance at different angles; then the effect produced at the point of view will be proportioned to the cosine of the angle of reflection, provided the plane surface is without specular reflection. Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH Series, Vou. VI, No. 35.—NOVEMBER, 1898. ee 374 O. CO. Hutchins—Irregular Reflection. The ideal surface imagined above, however, does not exist in fact; for to be without specular reflection it must possess irregularities large in comparison with the dimensions of the waves of the illuminating ray, and just in proportion as these Bee ee are greater does the surface depart from a true ane. It will furthermore be seen that a surface, say of very fine grain, might show specular reflection for long waves and irregu- lar reflection for short ones, and consequently, a different dis- tribution of reflected energy according to the length of waves in the illuminating ray. Consequently the results of any investigation of the matter should be given either for definite wave lengths or for the total reflected energy. In the following experiments surfaces of various character have been employed, in order to get ari idea of the manner of the reflection as determined by the character of the reflecting surface, and at the same time to see how widely the reflection may depart from and how closely it may approximate to theory. Apparatus. A divided brass circle has at its center a fixed pin, about which revolves an arm 60 long, and having an index for reading off the angles. The outer end of the arm has supports for holding the thermograph, which thereby points always to the center of the circle. The central pin is drilled for the reception of an upright wire, which latter carries the body under experiment. A num- ber of discs of sheet zinc 4° in diameter were provided, and upon these could be spread any body in powder form, by first coating the dise with gum-water. Solid bodies were worked into discs 4°" in diameter and secured to wires. Sunlight is brought into the room by a heliostat having a mirror silvered upon its first surface, and the beam of light is directed upon the body at the center of the circle, and set to receive the beam perpendicularly. An appropriate shutter is introduced into the path of the beam, and can be operated by the observer at the galvanometer by pulling a cord. The thermograph is the same instrument that has been employed in former heat investigations and will be found described in this Journal for May, 1892. The controlling magnet of the galvanometer has been in most cases adjusted so as to give the needle a period of about six seconds. The method of observation is as follows: The body under investigation and the beam of sunlight being adjusted as above mentioned and the shutter closed, the observer draws the cord C. C. Hutchins—TIrreqular Reflection. 375 and opens the shutter during the first swing of the needle. The deflection being recorded, the arm is moved by intervals of 10° and the deflection corresponding to each angle of reflec- tion thus obtained. The numbers so obtained will be propor- tional to the amounts of energy reflected at the various angles. To make them comparable with the theoretical values these numbers should be multiplied by such a factor as will reduce the galvanometer reading for zero degrees reflection to one, or one hundred. As it is impossible to obtain a reading at zero, and as exterpolation is uncertain, it is better to employ such a factor as will make the reading at ten degrees, the smallest angle of observation, equal to the cosine of that angle. These ’ reduced readings may then be plotted for comparison along with the curve whose equation is y=cosz. , Side view of the same. Devonian black shale (Genesee period?) near Jeffersonville, Montgomery Co., Kentucky. Fig. 4. Prioniodus armatus Hinde. The only specimen observed. x 18. Devonian black shale (Genesee period?) near Indian Fields, Clark Co., Ken- tucky. Fig. 5. Letorhynchus quadricostatum Vanuxem. Devonian black shale (Genesee period?) near Jeffersonville, Montgomery Co., Kentucky. Fig. 6. Lingula (Lingulipora) Williamsana n. sp. 6. A rather large ventral valve, probably rendered somewhat too acuminate by distortion. . ae Ventral? valve. . Ventral? valve. 6 Dorsal valve. Devonian black shale (Genesee period?) near J effersonville, Montgomery Co., Kentucky. Black Shale of Eastern Kentucky. RVataee zs See 395 396 EF. S. Havens—Separation of Nickel and Art. XXX VIII.—On the Separation of Nickel and Oobalt by Hydrochloric Acid; by FRANKE Stuart HAveEns. [Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale University.—-LXXV.] A QUANTITATIVE separation of nickel and cobalt by a process analogous to that published from this laboratory for the separation of aluminum and iron* has been put for- ward in a recent paper by E. Pinerta.t The process may be described briefly as follows: The hydrous chlorides of nickel and cobalt (0°3—-0°4 gms.) are dissolved in a little water and to the solution are added 10 to 12°™* of aqueous hydrochloric acid and 10° of ether, and the whole, contained in a little beaker surrounded with water and ice, is saturated with gaseous hydrochloric acid. The cobalt, which remains in solution, is decanted off and the yellow insoluble nickel chloride washed with a previously prepared solution of ether saturated with hydrochloric acid gas at a low temperature. The nickel is determined by known methods, preferably as the sulphate. The author claims very precise results for the process, but gives no experimental proof of his work. Previous to the appearance of this paper my experiments upon the solubility of nickel chloride in an ether-hydrochloric acid solution, such as used in our process for the separation of aluminum and iron, which is practically the same in proportions as that used by Pinerta to effect precipitation, had shown that, while nickel chloride is somewhat insoluble in such a mixture, the degree of insolubility is not sufficient for a quantitative separation. Since the appearance of Pinerta’s work I have been over the ground again and have reached the same conclusions as before, as shown in the following experiments. When a solution of 0°2 gm. of nickel chloride (free from iron and cobalt) in 7™* of aqueous hydrochloric acid, was saturated with hydrochloric acid gas at a temperature of —2° C. (obtained by immersing the container in a mixture of ice and salt) no precipitation resulted. When, however an equal volume of ether was added and the whole was again saturated with hydrochloric acid gas a‘yellow precipitate formed, while the supernatent liquid still remained of a deep green color. The solution was filtered quickly through asbestos in a filter crucible, and the clear filtrate after evaporation with sulphuric acid was electrolyzed. The metallic deposit of 0:0020 gm. proved to be pure nickel; for when dissolved in nitric acid it gave no test for iron with potassium sulphocyanide or ferro- * Gooch and Havens, this Journal, IV, ii, 416. + Gaz. Chim, Ital., xxvii, 56. Cobalt by Hydrochloric Acid. 397 ‘eyanide, and neither the apple-green hydroxide nor the black sulphide, prepared by the usual methods, showed any trace of eobalt in the borax bead. It is obvious, therefore, that nickel chloride is not fully precipitated under these conditions and that the green color of the solution is due to nickel in solution and not to traces of iron, as Pinerua has supposed.* A second experiment similar to the first showed a solubility of the nickel chloride represented by 0:0018 gm. of metallic nickel. It is evident, then, that the solubility of nickel chloride in this mixture of aqueous hydrochloric acid and ether thoroughly saturated with hydrochloric acid gas is not far from an amount represented by 0:0020 gm. of metallic nickel for every 14°™ of solution. Still another experiment, in which nickel chloride repre- senting 0:0020 om. of metallic nickel was treated with 14°™ of the ether-hydrochlorie acid solution and the whole saturated for one hour at a low temperature with hydrochloric acid gas without precipitation, showed the same thing. When the nickel chloride remaining on the asbestos was washed with about 40° of a mixture of equal parts ether and aqueous hydrochloric acid saturated with hydrochlorie acid gas, the washings evaporated with sulphuric acid and treated by the battery gave adeposit of metallic nickel weighing 0:0027 gm.— an amount proportionately less than that found in the filtrate proper. Although employing a mixture of aqueous hydrochloric acid and ether saturated with gaseous hydrochloric acid for the precipitation, Pinerta has advised the use of pure ether sat- urated with gaseous hydrochloric acid for the washing. In my experiments with such a mixture I find that in it the hydrous nickel chloride is practically insoluble and that 30° of the washings of the precipitated chloride with such a mixture gave no deposit of nickel by the battery. - It seemed possible, therefore, that by reducing the water present to the lowest possible amount necessary to dissolve the chlorides to be treated the precipitation of the nickel might be made more complete. The experiments of the following table were made to put this idea to the test. : Solutions of the pure chlorides of nickel and cobalt, carefully purified and freed from other metals and each other, were, after conversion to the form of the sulphate, standardized by the battery. Weighed portions of these solutions were taken in a small beaker, evaporated to dryness, the dry salts dissolved in as little water as possible (about 1™*), 10 to 15°™ of ether added, and the whole saturated with hydrochloric-acid gas, the beaker being meanwhile immersed in running water * Loc. cit. 398 FF. S. Havens—Separation of Nickel and Cobalt, ete. and cooled to about 15°C. When saturation was complete the precipitated chloride was caught on asbestos in a filter crucible, washed thoroughly with a previously saturated solution of ether, dissolved in water, evaporated with sulphuric acid and determined as metallic nickel by the battery. The cobalt in the filtrate was recovered by evaporation and electrolysis in like manner. Experiments (1), (2) and (8) of the accompanying table show that by this process the nickel is thrown down quantitatively, and experiments (2) and (3) show that in the presence of a few milligrams of the cobalt salt the separation of a small amount of nickel is sharp. The residue of nickel in these experiments gave no test for cobalt with the borax bead. When, however, the cobalt is present to the amount of a few centigrams as in (4), (5) and (6), the precipitated nickel chloride, which forms a hard mass, includes the cobalt salt so that even a large quantity of washing solution (100° was used in experiment 6) cannot remove it. Nickel taken Cobalt taken as the as the : hydrous Nickel hydrous Cobalt chloride. found. Error, chloride. found, Error. 1) 0:0068 0:0066 —0-0002 Pane . eee 2} 0:0090 0:0090 0:0000 ~—-0-0030 ee ats (3) 0:0090 0:0091 +0:0001 0:0123 070127 +0-0004 (4) 0:0469 0:0490 +0:0021 0°0700 te rae (5) 0:0468 0°0503 +0:0085 0:0700 ar a (6) 0:0472 0°04938 +40:0021 0:0700 sen ee From the experiments described it is obvious that the process as proposed by Pinerua will not give a complete precipitation of the nickel chloride. Nickel chloride is, however, practically insoluble in pure ether saturated with hydrochloric acid gas and can be separated from small quantities of the soluble cobalt salt in that medium. In the presence of even a few centi- grams of the cobalt chloride, however, the process is not prac- ticable on account of the inclusion of the cobalt by the massive nickel chloride. It is possible that by repeated solutions and reprecipitations the nickel salt might be sufficiently freed from the cobalt, but the process must naturally be lorg and tedious. In closing the author wishes to express his gratitude to Pro- fessor Gooch for kind suggestions. F.. A. Lucas—Contributions to Paleontology. 399 Art. XX XIX.—Contributions to Paleontology; by F. A. Lucas. [Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.] 1. A New Crocodile from the Trias of Southern Utah. THE following genus and species is based upon the imper- fect anterior portion of the lower mandible of a crocodile com- parable in size with Zomistoma among living and Thoraco- saurus among extinct species. The mandibular symphysis is long, though less than in Zomistoma, and includes a consider- able portion of the splenial. The teeth are very close to one another, being separated by an extremely thin partition of bone, and the tooth row lies in a broad shallow groove. The teeth are set obliquely, raking decidedly outwards, and they are com- pressed from before backward, the antero-posterior diameter being slightly less than the transverse. The two anterior teeth are round in section and vastly larger than the others, the end of the jaw. being expanded for their accommodation. The surface of the bone is somewhat pitted, there is a deep narrow groove along the side of the jaw and there is no notch for the upper canines and no depressions for the reception of any of the upper teeth. The genus is characterized by the antero- posterior compression of the teeth, their closeness to one another, and by the great size of the two anterior teeth. The name LZeterodontosuchus ganei is proposed for the genus and species, the specific name being given in honor of the dis- coverer Mr. H. S. Gane, by whom it was transmitted to Mr. Whitman Cross of the U.S. Geological Survey. The speci- men is from Clay Hill, Southern Utah, and is from the Trias at the top of No. 10 of the section given by J. S. Newberry on page 99 of the Report of the Macomb Expedition. The horizon is said by Mr. Cross to be the same as that from which teeth of a crocodile—probably a Gelodon—and of a species of Palcoctonus were obtained by him in the Telluride, Rico, and La Plata Quadrangle of southwestern Colorado. Type No. 4136, U.S. Natl. Museum. 2, A New Species of Dinictis (D. major). Among some specimens collected by Mr. N. W. Darton, of the U. 8. Geological Survey, in 1897 is a species of Dinictis which proves to be new and the largest species of the genus yet discovered. The distinctive characters are the size of the animal, the feeble development of the mandibular flange for the protection of the upper canine, the robust character of the ; 400 fF. A. Lucas—Contributions to Paleontology. feet and the presence of an ungual shield. The species, repre- sented by the greater part of the skull, and many important portions of the skeleton, was the size of a small Puma, Felis concolor, but with much heavier feet. The upper canines are moderate, compressed, flattened on the inner face, with a slight keel on the antero-internal face and well-marked, serrated keel on the posterior edge. The anterior cusp is obsolete on the second, lower premolar, large on the third lower premolar. The mandible is rather deep, convex on the lower edge, and with the flange for the upper canine almost obsolete. The metapodials are stout, those of the hind feet especially so, being a trifle heavier, though slightly shorter, than the corre- sponding bones in a jaguar, Felis onca. The ungual phalanges have a well-developed shield. Some of the principal measure- ments are as follows: Length,.of. femunsji622) t.26 sone or ‘230 Articular breadth, of femur. 4.2, 2S-t.. 2 042 Length of tibia—a little shortened -..-._-_..-.-- 180 Length of third: metatarsal: _. +222 255 eee 070 ee “upper molar series .-. 2222 054 ere OMENS aire ON Anke Se ieee oie 065 Maen a - «in Dinictis felind 22 Uae ROL PEO Agee a eth « in Dinictis bombifrons +055 The name of Dinictis major is proposed for this species on account of its size. The specimen was obtained by Mr. N. H. Darton in the massive sand at Bird Cage Gap, Bad Lands of Western Nebraska. Type No. 3957, U. 8S. Natl. Museum. O. C. Marsh— Value of Type Specimens, ete. 401 Art. XL.—The Value of Type Specimens and Importance of ther Preservation ;* by O. C. Marsa. In the present state of Natural Science, there are too many obstacles in the path of the original investigator. That this is the case in the study of botany, we may well believe, as authorities of that Science have frequently placed the fact on record. It is certainly true that everyone who does original work in systematic Zoology, either among the living or extinct forms, meets many difficulties at the start in endeavoring to ascertain what others have done before him. The literature of the subject is often discouraging from its extent, and especially from its uncertainty. If the work in hand requires the comparison of type specimens, the difficulties greatly increase, and often prevent definite conclusions. The type will frequently be found the most important element in the problem, far more so than the literature, however extensive. This is more especially true among the extinct vertebrates, with which the present communication mainly deals. (1) Zhe Value of Type Specimens. The value of a type depends first of all upon whether it is a characteristic specimen, worthy of being the representative of a new group of individuals. Without this distinctive quality, its importance is greatly diminished. If, for example, the specimen first described is immature, its essential features may thus be obscured, and its value as a type much diminished. On the other hand, a very old animal may be uncharacteristic. The teeth of a mammal, for instance, may be worn down or even lost, so as to make the normal dentition uncertain. This is true of recent forms, but is more important if the type belongs to an extinct fauna, as then the chance of duplicating it is much less. The value of a type specimen again may depend largely upon its completeness. Among the invertebrates, especially those now living, types are usually complete enough to show the more important features. This, however, is far from being the case among extinct forms, particularly from the older formations, and the records of Paleontology are burdened with the names of many fragmentary fossils, types of species practically unknown. *Read before Section B, International Congress of Zoology, Cambridge, England, August 23, 1898. 402 O. UC. Marsh— Value of Type Specimens Among the vertebrates of the past, the case is much more serious, and here especially reform in methods is a pressing necessity. rom the nature of the case, the older extinet forms are usually represented by fragmentary remains, the investigation of which is one of the most difficult problems offered to natural science. A single tooth or a vertebra may be the first specimen brought to light in a new region, - and thus become the sole representative of a supposed new form. The next explorer may find more perfect fragments of the same or similar forms, and add new names to the category. A third investigator, with better opportunities and more knowledge, may perhaps secure entire skulls or even skeletons from the same horizon, and thus lay a sure foundation for a knowledge of the fauna. As the number of described forms increases, the necessity of a direct comparison of types becomes imperative, and the comparative value of each type specimen is thus brought into notice. It will then frequently be found that not a few are uncharacteristic, while others are too incomplete to disclose their own essential features, and hence of little aid in indica- ting the affinities of forms found with them. Type specimens that do not show characteristic features are, of course, of little value to science, and many such prove a delusion and a snare to the investigator, however faithfully he may endeavor to study them. The imperfect types require still more labor to decipher them. Not afew specimens to-day are types, for the simple reason that they are imperfect. If they had been entire when described, their true nature would have been recognized, and much confusion in nomenclature have been avoided. The chance preservation of some marked features may, indeed, give a hint as to what the whole specimen once was, but too often a suggestion only is thus offered, while the real nature of such types must always remain in doubt. A type in Paleontology should consist of the remains of a single individual, and this should stand as the original repre- sentative of the name given. A second specimen, or even more, may be used later to supplement the first, but not to supplant it. This, however, has been done by some authors, with the natural result of causing endless confusion in the nomenclature. The Selection of Type Specimens. The descriptions in Paleontology are too often descriptive only, and not comparative. This, if well done, is preferable to long academic discussions in regard to the affinities of a oe “ee by and Importance of their Preservation. c AOS specimen of which the main characters are not known, or not placed on record. A vertebra of a reptile or the tooth of a mammal, if perfect and characteristic, may form a type that will be distinctive enough for the present requirements of the investigator. What the future may demand, will depend upon the advance of knowledge in that branch of science. In the choice of specimens worthy of being types, I can only suggest a course that seems to me the proper one. I believe experience has already shown that to make types of incom- plete or uncharacteristic specimens is seldom of permanent advantage to an author, and almost always a lasting injury to the branch of science he represents. There are more good specimens waiting to be found than any naturalist can possibly describe, and one such specimen is worth many of inferior grade. I may perhaps be permitted to mention, in this connection, my own experience in the matter of type specimens. As a student in Germany, years ago, I had my attention called par- ticularly to this subject, and was then strongly impressed with the importance of using only good specimens for first descrip- tions. This rule I have endeavored to follow. My researches, especially in western North Aierica, have resulted in the dis- covery of more than one thousand new species of extinct verte- brates, and of these I have described about five hundred. Had I been satistied to use inferior specimens as types, I might have increased the number by one-half at least. No small part of the present literature of the paleontology of vertebrates is based on names applied to fragments, and a long period of more accurate work will be required before these can be rejected or incorporated into the digested knowl- edge of the subject. I recall one collection of types of extinct vertebrates, published in a single volume, and near a hundred in number, the greater part of which are uncharacteristic frag- ments, well fitted to burden science for all time with a legacy of uncertainty and doubt. Such work isa positive discourage- ment to all future investigators in the same field, and its value to science may well be questioned. The necessity of greater care in selecting type specimens, in Paleontology, at least, needs no argument to any student of the science who has done sufficient original work to appreciate the increasing difficulties of accurate investigation. To those who have had less experience, a word of warning, I trust, will not be in vain. 404 O. C. Marsh— Value of Type Specimens (2) The Preservation of Type Specimens. The careful preservation of their own type specimens is a sacred duty on the part of all original investigators, and hardly less so of those who are the custodians of such invaluable evidence of the progress of natural science. Local museums, as a rule, are less desirable repositories of type specimens than private collections, since the former usually can have little hope of permanent care, while the latter, if important, have a fair chance, by gift or purchase, of becoming part of a large endowed museum, where those in control are more likely to appreciate the importance of types, and carefully preserve them. For the preservation of type specimens, fire-proof buildings are indispensable. I recall no less than five Museums of Natural History, in America, that have either been destroyed, or their contents consumed, or seriously damaged by fire, since I became actively interested in natural science. Several others, in the meantime, have had narrow escapes from the same danger, so that I regard all type specimens as insecure that are not preserved in buildings practically safe from fire. Another danger to which type specimens are subject, is loss or injury during transit, when loaned or otherwise sent away from their regular place of deposit. This evil has become so serious, that some museum authorities do not permit type specimens to leave the building. This I regard as a wise regulation, and it is now in force at New Haven, and various other scientific centers. | If a type specimen is important, the investigator will come to the type. I once made a long pilgrimage to a famous uni- versity town, mainly to see a single bone, the “tibia” of an extinct reptile, according to the description, and the type of a new genus. I found the bone in good custody, and well pre- served. It was not a tibia, however, but a radius, and this fact changed the classification based upon it. Had that bone been lost or destroyed, a new animal of strange proportions might have existed on the records of Paleontology, if not in Nature. That bone fortunately is still preserved, a witness whose testimony is conclusive. When fossil skeletons are discovered in position, the best methods of preservation, especially of types, requires the retention as nearly as possible of the bones as found. One fore and one hind foot, at least, should always be kept in the rock, and all impressions in the matrix carefully preserved. and Importance of their Preservation. 405 The importance of indelibly marking type specimens, and the separate parts of each, so that they may be studied essen- tially as found, is also evident. If a type is restored with plaster or other substance, the limits of each should not be so obscured that investigators cannot distinguish them. These are not imaginary precautions. Cases of the kind mentioned are not uncommon in vertebrate paleontology, as every worker knows. One well-known skull, with portions now preserved in two museums, is restored in one of them, as an original, and is thus misleading. Type specimens preserved from other dangers may be injured unintentionally. Among the rare specimens damaged by zealous but unskillful hands in the house of their friends, three of the most important to paleontology, a reptile, a bird, and a mammal are well-known examples, and not a few others both in this country and America might be mentioned if it were proper to do so on this occasion. Such lack of intelligent custody of types will make the work of future investigators much more difficult. An indirect way of preserving type specimens is by means of casts. These, if accurately made, may be of much service, and, in fact, an insurance on the original specimen. They may often save an investigator a long journey, and in case the type itself is lost or destroyed, the copy may prove of great value in indicating what the name was intended to cover. Another indirect means of protecting type specimens would be to publish catalogues of them, giving the places where they are preserved. Such a list of a single group would be of great service to any one investigating it, and could be renewed from time to time whenever necessary.. It would be well if everyone who described a species also stated where the type was deposited. In time this would become the established usage, and thus greatly facilitate the preparation of catalogues of types and their places of preservation. Paleontology has been called an exact science, but its records up to the present time do not bear out this statement. If, as I believe, it will yet be worthy of such a distinction, one means of its advancement will be for those who represent it to select better type specimens, and preserve them more carefully. In all branches of Natural Science, type specimens are the lights that mark the present boundaries of knowledge. They should be, therefore, not will-o’-the-wisps, leading unwary votaries of science astray, but fixed beacon lights to guide and encourage investigators in their search for new truth. Am. Jour. Sci.—Fourts Series, Vou. VI, No. 35.—NOVEMBER, 1898. 406 O. C. Marsh—Origin of Mammais. Art. XLI.—The Origin of Mammals ;* by O. C. Marsa. THE question under discussion is not new, but one of a series of similar nature and difficulty. The origin of Birds, of Reptiles, of Amphibians, and of Fishes really precede it, and offer less difficulties in solution. The answer to each, in my opinion, belongs to the future, and how far it may profitably be sought in the present limited state of our knowledge is a fair question in itself. Too often in the past, a discussion on the origin of Mammals has seemed a little like the long philosophico-theologico con- troversies in the middle ages about the exact position of the soul in the human body. No conclusion was reached, because, for one reason, there were no facts in the case that could settle the question, while the methods of investigation were not adapted to insure a satisfactory answer. The present discus- sion is on a much higher plane, and the previous speakers have made an admirable presentation of their side of the case. I cannot, however, quite agree with them as to the value of the facts and theories they have presented, and shall consider the question from another point of view. The Mammals, as we know them to-day, are classed by them- selves, yet contain such diverse groups that it may fairly be regarded an open question whether all have a common origin. The attempt to ascertain whence they came is likely to bring out indications that they may have had several sources of origin, and this, if so, may help to explain the great diversity among them. + It is of course evident that some of the most characteristic features of recent mammals, for example, the hairy covering, the circulatory system, and the milk glands, cannot be used in a comparison with fossil forms. The osseous’ structure only is now available in the early mammals and other vertebrates, and in this alone points of resemblance must be found if different groups are connected genetically. In considering the relations of reptiles to mammals so far as the fossil forms are concerned, which seems to be the main question before us to-day, I have only time to speak of the skull, and shall refer to some of its salient features already mentioned in this discussion ; namely, the teeth, the squamosal bone, the quadrate, the occipital condyles, and with them the lower jaw. ‘These perhaps may serve as crucial points in dis- tinguishing the skull of a reptile from that of a mammal, even if they fail to indicate a near affinity between them. * Remarks in the general discussion on the Origin of Mammals, at the International Congress of Zoology, Cambridge, England, August 25, 1898, 0. C. Marsh— Origin of Mammals. 407 The different kinds of teeth seen in the reptiles regarded as mammalian in type, I consider of comparatively small import- ance, for the reason that the same general forms of teeth are to be found, not merely in the reptiles supposed to be nearest to mammals, but also in other groups widely different. In the Crocodiles, for example, the extinct genus Votosuchus, recently discovered in Patagonia, has all three kinds of teeth well dis- tinguished. Again, some of the Dinosaurs, especially the genus Zriceratops, have teeth with two roots, a supposed mammalian character. In some Fishes, also, (Anarrhzchas) three kinds of teeth may be seen. It is more than probable, therefore, that the peculiar resemblance between the teeth of mammals and those of the lower vertebrates is merely one of parallel development, the adaptation being along similar lines, and in no sense an indication of genetic affinity. The great development of the squamosal bone in Theriodont reptiles is not alone, for somewhat similar proportions are found in some other reptiles, for example, in the Plesiosaurs, where the squamosal is very large, and wrapped round the quadrate. In some of the Dinosaurs, also, (Zorosaurus) the squamosal has an enormous development, while the quadrate remains of very moderate size. The quadrate bone, always present in Birds, Reptiles, and the other lower vertebrates, is well-known as the suspensorium of the lower jaw, which meets it with a concave articular face. The quadrate, however, appears to be wanting in mammals, or at least has not yet been identified with certainty. What represents the quadrate bone in mammals, is a vexed question in itself, and some of the best anatomists in the past, Cuvier, Owen, Peters, Huxley, and others, have endeavored to solve the problem. The tympanic bone, the incus, and the malleus have each in turn been regarded as the remnant of the quadrate, but up to the present time the question has not been settled. It is not improbable that the quadrate may have coalesced with the squamosal. The occipital condyles of mammals, as well known, are two in number, and separated from each other. This is not the case with any true reptile, although the contrary has been asserted. The nearest approach appears to be where there is a single bifid condyle, cordate in shape, with the two lobes meeting below, as in some reptiles and a few birds, but not separate as in mammals and amphibians. Finally, in all known mammals, recent and extinct, the lower jaw is composed of a single piece, and has a convex con- dyle meeting the skull by a distinct articulation. All reptiles, even those supposed to be nearest the mammals, have the lower jaw composed of several pieces, and these show distinct sutures between them, a profound difference that must be explained away before an approach can be made between the two classes. ; 408 O. C. Marsh—Origin of Mammais. It may fairly be said that the separate elements of the lower jaw, if present, would naturally be looked for in the Mesozoie mammals, and this point I have long had in mind. I may safely say that I have seen nearly every species of Mesozoic mammals hitherto described, and have searched for evidence on this point without success. I have also sought for the separate elements in the young of recent forms, but without finding any indications of them. Beside the crucial points I have mentioned in the skull, there are others of equal importance in the skeleton, which I must not take time to discuss, but will venture to allude to one of them in passing. I refer to the ankle joint, which, when present, is at the end of the tibia in mammals, and in reptiles between the first and second series of tarsals. When we really find an approach between these two classes, the ankle joint will probably show evidence of it. Having thus shown, as I believe, that we cannot with our present knowledge expect to find the origin of mammals among the known extinct reptiles, and that in attempting this we are probably off the true line of descent, it remains to indicate another direction in which the quest seems more promising. Since 1876, when Huxley visited me at New Haven, and we discussed the probable origin of both Birds and Mammals, I have been greatly impressed by his suggestion that the mam- mals were derived from ancestors with two occipital condyles, and these were doubtless primitive Amphibians. I have since sought diligently for the ancestors of birds among the early reptiles, with, I trust, some measure of success, but this is a simple problem compared with the origin of mammals which we have before us to-day. In various interviews with Francis Balfour, in 1881, at the York Meeting of the British Association, we discussed the same questions, and agreed that the solution could best be reached by the aid of Embryology and Paleontology combined. He offered to take up the young stages of recent forms, and I agreed to study the fossils for other evidence. His untimely death, which occurred soon after, prevented this promised investigation, and natural science still suffers from his loss. Had Balfour lived, he might have given us to-day the solution of the great question before us, and the present discussion been unnecessary. The Birds like the mammals have developed certain charac- ters higher than those of reptiles, and thtis seem to approach each other. I doubt, however, if the two classes are connected genetically, unless in a very remote way. 0. C. Marsh—Origin of Mammals. 409 Reptiles, although much lower in rank than birds, resemble - mammals in various ways, but this may be only an adaptive _ likeness. Both of these classes may be made up of complex _ groups only distantly related. Having both developed along _ similar lines, they exhibit various points of resemblance that _ may easily be mistaken for indications of real affinity. In the Amphibians, especially in the oldest forms, there are hints of a true relationship with both Reptiles and Mammals. _ It seems to me, therefore, that in some of the minute primitive _ forms, as old as the Devonian, if not still more ancient, we may _ yet find the key to the great mystery of the Origin of Mammals. 410 LT. L. Walker—Causes of Variation in the Art. XLI.—Causes of Variation in the Composition of Lgneous Rocks ; by T. L. WALKER. [By permission of the Director of the Geological Survey of India.] Many attempts have been made to explain the causes of the variation observed in the composition of igneous rocks. This is particularly the case in “ stocks” and dikes in which varia- tion reaches its maximum. TF requently the border facies are more basic, though this does not always hold true. The Car- rock Fell massive in the Lake district in England, the Meissen syenite eruptive in Saxony and some of the large nickel-bear- ing stocks in the Sudbury Nickel district in Canada are good examples of such differentiated eruptives. In all the above cases the border facies are basic—gabbro, norite, diorite, ete., while toward the center there is an increased acidity till syenite or granite is reached. The transition can generally be traced step by step, proving that the rocks so different chemically and mineralogically belong to the same eruptive and form a geo- logical unit. A.C. Lawson has shown that in the dikes of the Rainy Lake district in Ontario the dike rock near the wall is fine-grained and quite basic—toward the center the rock becomes gradually coarser in texture and more acid in compo- sition. Dikes do not show the very wide variation noted in stocks. This may be due to their much smaller dimensions and consequent more rapid solidification. I propose to review briefly the more common theories advanced to explain the phenomena above referred to and to call attention to the part which gravitation seems to play in causing heterogeneity in eruptive rocks. During the last few years many theories have been advanced to explain the differentiation of igneous rocks. It is probable that most of these theories are applicable in certain cases, but it is equally probable that no one theory gives a satisfactory explanation of all the phenomena observed. Better results may be attained by considering the manifold relations of fused magmas and tracing the influence of each of these relations on the homogeneity of the fused mass. The differentiated erup- tive massive is the volume in which the history of these changes is more or less imperfectly recorded. } Fragments of country rock are often torn loose by the ascending molten magma and absorbed, thus causing the margin of the mass to be more acid or more basic than the more cen- tral portions of the stock or dike. This is a cause of variation, but cannot properly be spoken of as differentiation. It is not to be regarded as a chief cause of variation. If the difference in chemical and mineralogical composition were due to this Composition of Igneous Focks. 411 cause, we would expect to find the more acid facies of the eruptive in contact with the more acid country rock and the more basic facies in contact with the more basic country rock. These conditions are not always fulfilled—often quite the reverse. We are therefore justified in concluding that the absorption of inclusions of country rock plays only a very subordinate part in prodncing the variations observed in erup- tive rocks. Quite recently Johnston—Lavis* has drawn attention to the part played by osmotic force in the production of variations in igneous rocks. Suppose a laccolitic eruptive to be quite homo- geneous at the time of its intrusion, then, according to this writer, there would be a gradual interchange between the magma and the country rock—wmaterial passing by osmotic force from the magma to the country rock and wice versa. It the magma were acid and the country rock basic the former would become basic toward the contact and the country rock would become more acid. The laccolite would be basic on the borders and would become gradually more acid toward the center, where it would possess the composition of the original magma. True, this would seem to account for the variation within the eruptive, but what must we conclude with regard to the heterogeneity caused in the country rock? We would expect the metamorphosed country rock to resemble (chemi- cally) the eruptive near the contact, while the less metamor- phosed rocks would be less changed chemically. This, however, is at variance with the conclusions based on analyses of series of rocks from contact areas. Several series of analyses of con- tact products agree in demonstrating that no important chem- ical change accompanies such contact metamorphism. Homogeneous salt solutions become heterogeneous if slight difference of temperature be maintained in different parts of the solution. A solution placed in a long horizontal tube will become slightly concentrated in the cooler end of the tube. This principle of Soret’s was first used to explain differentia- tion in rock magmas by Teall.t Supposing the magma to be an homogeneous mass at the time of intrusion and regarding it as a solution, we would expect that the “‘ dissolved”? would con- centrate in the cooler parts adjacent to the country rock. Since the basic borders are characterized by the bases CaO, MgO and FeO, they or their silicates are regarded as the “ dis- solved.” More recently Harkert has criticised this theory of differentiation and concludes that it can account for only slight a oa of variation in the composition of igneous rocks, Natural Science, + British Petrography, 1888, p. 404. ¢ On the Gabbro of Carrock Fell, Quart. Journal Geol. Soc., 1894. 412 T. L. Walker — Causes of Variation in the variations. According to Soret’s principle, the concentration is proportional to the absolute temperature. Thus, in order to have twice as much of these dissolved bases or their silicates at the border as at the center of the eruptive, we would require to suppose that at the time of solidification the absolute tem- perature at the center was twice that at the border. Suppose the temperature at the border of the magma were 700° C. or 973° absolute temperature, then the absolute temperature at the center would have been 1673° C. or 1946°. Are such differ- ences in temperature to be expected? Scarcely. Besides Soret’s principle has been established for only very dé/ute solu- tions and for only slight variations in temperature. The sepa- ration of masses of nearly pure ilmenite as border facies on basic eruptives would, as pointed out by Harker, require much greater difference of temperature, as the proportion of iron in these masses is often twenty-five times that contained in the central part of the eruptive. Such great differences in tem- perature would give rise to convection currents in the magma which would render differentiation quite impossible. It should not be forgotten, however, that in all probability differentiation and solidification were in progress at the same time, so that we should compare the proportion of the “ dis- solved” contained in the very narrow strip along the border, not with the proportion contained in the present center, but with that contained in the magma which occupied the center at the time when the first border strip solidified, since the present central rock is more acid than the magma which occu- pied the center during the earliest stages of differentiation. Similarly the next narrow strip should be compared with the magma which occupied the central portions of the eruptive reservoir at the time when the narrow strip in question solidi- fied. In this way the argument of Harker is weakened though not destroyed. Vogt* accepts Soret’s principle as having been a prominent cause of differentiation and even of the formation of marginal deposits of sulphide ores such as the Canadian and Norwegian nickel deposits, and of deposits of titanic iron ores such as those of Baie St. Paul on the Lower St. Lawrence. He is of the opinion, however, that magnetic forces may have had an influence in localizing minerals rich in iron, after their crystalliza- tion from the magma. _In this connection it is interesting to notice that minerals rich in iron are generally among the first to crystallize and that in differentiated eruptive areas they are almost invariably concentrated as border facies. Harkert maintains that the tendency to homogeneity in * Stockh. geol. Foren. Forh., xiii, 1891, pp. 520-683. t Loc. cit. Composition of Igneous Rocks. 413 solutions plays a more prominent part in the production of variation in igneous rocks than the tendency to heterogeneity as emphasized in the case of Soret’s principle. Suppose a magma of homogeneous composition to become cooled along the border so that some of the constituents begin to crystallize out on the wall rock. The first to separate would be the minerals characteristic of basic borders. The deposition of these minerals from the magma would introduce heterogeneity into themagma. Diffusion would tend to restore homogeneity, thus causing a movemert toward the border of the substance necessary for the continued formation of the minerals which had separated. The result is the same as that attained by Soret’s principle, but the causes are quite different—the one is the tendency to homogeneity, the other to heterogeneity. Harker’s view is based chiefly on the fact that the basic borders are composed of the minerals which are among the first to erystallize from molten magmas. Such early crystallizing minerals are—olivine, various pyroxenes, biotite, basic plagio- clases, iron oxides and sulphides. On the other hand acid plagioclase, orthoclase, quartz and muscovite, which characterize more acid rocks, are generally absent from the basic borders. The basic minerals crystallize along the border just as a erystal grows when suspended in a saturated salt solution—by appro- priating the salt within its “court” (Hof), which in turn is constantly being replenished by diffusion (the tendency to uniformity) from the more distant parts of the solution. Some homogeneous salt solutions, if allowed to remain at constant temperature fora long time, become gradually more concentrated in the lower strata.* It is very probable that similar concentration occurs in complex silicate magmas, par ticularly near the temperature of solidification. An eruptive magma would therefore tend to become acid above and basic below. Since the margin becomes cooled comparatively quickly, the rock which solidifies along the border will have had very little time to become differentiated and will conse- quently possess nearly the same composition as the original homogeneous magma. ° Differentiation and solidification pro- gress simultaneously, and hence the rocks farthest from the border will have suffered the greatest differentiation and will vary most in chemical composition. In the upper horizons of the eruptive there would be a gradual increase of acidity toward the center; the middle horizons would show very little differentiation while sections through the lower portions of the reservoir would show an increased basicity toward the center. All of these cases are well known in field explorations. * Gouy and Chapéron, Ann. chim. phys., 1887, p. 387. Tae 414 T. L. Walker—Causes of Variation in the It is improbable that this is ever the only cause tending to produce variations in the composition of dikes and stocks. Frequently eruptive stocks possess basic borders and acid centers, but on the other hand there are a few well known eruptives where the central portion is much more basic than the margin. Vogt* says that in many Norwegian occurrences, the central portions are very basic, even to the extent of large masses of titaniferous iron ore. Though there are only a few such cases, yet they must be taken into account. Such oceur- rences are anomalies according to all the old theories of dif- ferentiation outlined above, but they are quite regular when considered in connection with the explanation offered in the Vertical. Horizontal. ad a i Upper. Middle. Acid. ~ Intermediate. Basic. wT Reece Berea AGid.} Intermediate. Basic. Ultra-basic. previous paragraph. In fact we should expect to find such cases. In order to obtain a section of a stock showing a basic border and an acid center, it is necessary that the original magma should have been basic, and to have a section from an upper horizon of the reservoir. If, however, the original magma were of an intermediate composition, say 60 per cent * Zur Classification der Erzvorkommen, Zeitschr. f. prakt. Geologie, 1894. Composition of Igneous Pocks. 415 _ $iO,, and we havea section from near the base of the reservoir, we would expect the border to possess the same composition as the original magma and the center to be basic. Similarly all sections from the middle horizons of reservoirs should show little or no differentiation. This is illustrated by the accom- panying diagrams. Suppose the reservoir, for the sake of easy representation, to be cylindrical. The four upper figures rep- resent sections through a differentiated massive resulting from a magma whose original composition was acid—the first figure representing a vertical section; the other three horizontal fisures form upper middle and lower horizons. Similarly the four figures in the second row represent sections of a massive whose original magma was of intermediate composition. The third row represents sections derived from a stock whose origi- nal composition was basic. A priori we should expect that the greater number of exposed sections of eruptive stocks would be from the middle horizons, that a much smaller number would represent the uppermost horizons and that a very small number would repre- sent the lowest horizons. This agrees exactly with the facts as revealed by geological field work, viz., most stocks as exposed show little or no differentiation, a much smaller number have basic borders and acid centers, while a very small number show acid borders and basic centers. The weakness of this theory consists in its fundamental - principle—that gravitation causes a concentration in some solu- tions. Some physicists deny this, but the men who have inves- tigated it most are quite confident that differentiation does take place. Indian Museum, Calcutta, Nov. 10th, 1897. i} 416 Wright and Kreider— Relation between Art. XLITI.—TZhe Lelation between Structural and Magneto- optic Lotation ; by A. W. Wrieut and D. A. KrerpEr. THE fact that any transparent, simply refracting, optically inactive substance when placed in a powerful magnetic field instantly acquires the property of rotating the plane of polar- ized light, and that the effect thereon is apparently of the same nature as that characteristic of certain specific atomic group- ings in molecules, as, for example, those containing the asymme- tric carbon atom, or of a particular molecular aggregation in certain crystalline units, such as sodium chlorate, naturally raises the question of relation between the two causes. Upon this subject literature furnishes no decisive records. Verdet’s admirable researches have brought to light many interesting facts in regard to the two rotations, but none upon the subject here proposed. It is known that when an optically active substance is placed in a magnetic field the two rotations are superposed, so that the resultant optical activity is the algebraic sum of the struc- tural and magnetic rotations. An interesting result is Verdet’s observation upon the behavior of iron and some other magnetic substances, to the effect that these, contrary to the general rule, rotate the plane in a direction opposite to that of the electric current or magnetic whirl. It seemed worth submitting to an experimental investiga- tion whether, if the optically active molecular structure or aggregation were effected in a magnetic field, it would be influenced thereby to an extent sufficient to show in its final optical properties, which would seem probable providing the interatomic or intramolecular forces are electrodynamic. Experiments on Tartaric Acid. Tartaric acid, three of the four isomeric forms of which are optically different, seemed applicable in this investigation, and upon it the first experiments were made. Ordinary dextrotartaric acid, when heated to 175° C. in the presence of water in sealed tubes, is gradually converted into equal amounts of the racemic and the inactive forms.* If the atomic arrangement in this molecule is subject to the influence of magnetic force, it might be expected that by effecting the above change in a magnetic field, the resulting product should differ from that ordinarily obtained. For instance, if the molecules or their factors possess polarity, the magnetic field should exert upon them a directive action, and it * Jungfleisch, Jahresb., 1872, 515. Structural and Magneto-optic Rotation. 417 might be expected that the resultant polarization would be influential in determining the final form assumed. In the following experiments two coils, made of german- silver wire carefully insulated by asbestos wrapping, furnished at once the required temperature and magnetic field. The coils were 160™" long, with an opening into which a tube of 16™" diameter would snugly fit. They were composed of four layers of wire each containing forty turns, one end of each layer being brought out so as to permit of connection in series or in opposition, thereby making it possible to eliminate the magnetic effect without altering the temperature. With the current strength employed, which was from two to three amperes, each coil, with layers connected in series, gave a cal- culated magnetic field of between forty and fifty C. G. S. units. The determinations were all made in pairs: one in a mag- netic, the other in a neutral coil; and the period of heating varied from two to four days for each experiment, this being the limit set by the unavoidable carbonization which, if carried too far, detracts from the delicacy of the polariscope reading ; while the incidental evolution of carbonic acid results in such an increase of pressure that, though the tube should withstand it, partial loss of contents by violent effervescence upon open- ing the tubes is inevitable.* As a rule the tubes contained 5 grms. of dextrotartaric acid with 3°™° of water and, in order to reduce the pressure by expelling the air, were sealed while the contents boiled. At the conclusion of the experiment the tubes were emptied into 50°™ flasks, from which the portions tested were filtered into the polariscope tube. Preliminary tests seemed to indicate a slight intluence point- ing toward a tendency of the molecules under these conditions to group in the same way, that is to produce one product more abundantly than the other. In order to determine certainly whether or not this effect was invariable, a series of some twenty determinations was made under carefully regulated conditions. The quantities of tartaric acid were accurately weighed and the water measured with equal care. To avoid any possible effect due to difference of pressure each pair of tubes was exhausted by a water pump and sealed off at the same instant and at the same length. The temperature of the two coils was accurately equalized, each being then protected from loss by radiation by means of loose coverings of asbestos and finally enclosed in the same *Tt may be worth observing that the glass tubes thus employed have so yielded to the pressure at the temperature of these experiments as to make their further use impossible, unless perchance reannealing should restore their strength. The glass, however, did not appear to be chemically acted upon as itis by meee water when heated to that temperature. i }. - eee’? Wee wom ots mn he 418 Wright and Kreider—Relation between wooden box, which was made long enough to permit of their being placed at sufficient distance from each other to avoid any appreciable interference in their magnetic fields. To counter- act any possible slight difference in the effect of the two coils, the tubes, after half of the time of heating, were changed from one coil to the other and the magnetic conditions with them. Finally, to avoid any variation in the action due to a difference of density in the two tubes, since the amount of water em- ployed was insufficient for a complete solution of the acid at the ordinary temperature, the tubes were agitated at certain intervals to insure uniform and equal density in each. With these precautions to have the conditions of each tube identical save in the magnetism, the series of determinations referred to failed to indicate any influence of the magnetic field, the rotation having been diminished by the same amount in each case. Experiments upon Racemic acid. Experiments were also made, under the same conditions, upon racemic acid; it being thought that this, being an equi- molecular union of both forms, would be more likely to show an effect when placed in a magnetic field more favorable to the existence of one form than the other. Finally a small per- centage of the dextro acid was added in the hope that a little excess of dextro would help the.turning, but in neither case was any effect noted. Experiments on Sodium Chlorate. Identical considerations led to a like investigation of the crystallization of sodium chlorate in a magnetic field. Landolt and others have found that ordinarily sodium chlor- ate will, if undisturbed during spontaneous evaporation, deposit equal quantities of dextro- and laevo-rotatory erystals. The experiments here recorded also confirm this observation in general. Presumably Landolt has not meant that the quan- tities of dextro and laevo crystals are exactly equal, but that they are practically so, and the number of determinations recorded in this paper, which are only a small part of the num- ber actually made, will show that while there is a tendency to form in equal amounts, there is almost invariably a slight excess of one or the other which often may be considerable, yet to all appearance wholly accidental. That there is nothing inherent in the individual mole- cules of this substance which possesses rotary power or which determines the optical activity of the crystalline aggregate, is Structural and Magneto-optic Rotation. 419 pretty well established. Its solution possesses no activity,* and Landolt} has further proved that even the supersaturated solution fails to exhibit the slightest optical activity. More- over, the form which the crystals assume can be influenced and determined by external causes. Thus it has been pointed out by Gernezt and by Landolt,§ in a slightly different way, that if into a supersaturated solution of sodium chlorate some fragments of dextro or laevo crystals are placed, only crystals - of a like nature result. These experiments we have repeated but not with the extreme results noted above. While invaria- bly there is a very marked preponderance of the same kind of crystals as those introduced, we have never failed of finding a very considerable quantity of the opposite kind. In order to put on record something more definite in regard to the rela- tive quantities of the two forms deposited under these circum- stances, we give in Table I the results of three experiments chosen at random from a considerable number. The rotation was determined by suspending 0°2 grm. of the finely powdered product in a liquid of the same refractive index, according to the method given at the end of this paper. TABLE I. Crystals deposited from a saturated solution of NaClOs, to which had been added : 2. A sprinkling of distinctly crystal- 1. A sprinkling of Resultant rotation | powdered dextro in divisions of scale. | Uryetals .. 0. + 4°36 | Large crop; all (1. €., 74%) Bice crystals, but powdered Jaevo | line. erystals _...--- —4:2 | (Eve14 (13%) J 3. One large and The six original five small dextro crystals, which had enystals,...... - + 1°86 doubled in size, were removed before test- ing the rotation. Rotation of an equal wt. of pure dextro or laevo forms, + 8°96 division. It has even been claimed] that the influence of a small per- centage of some other optically active body in solution with the sodium chlorate influences the formation of the crystals, a conclusion which, however, our results as recorded in Table LV, with comment, do not sustain. * Marbach, Poge. Ann., xci, 487. + Ber:, xxix, 2, 2410. Compt. Rend., Ixvi, 855. Loe. cit. || Pope and Kipping, Chem. News, Ixxv, 45. > nm’ Ir 420 Wright and Kreider— Relation between One convincing proof of the optical indifference of the ultimate molecule of sodium chlorate is found in the fact observed in one of our experiments, that from a filtered solution of pure dextro-rotatory crystals, upon spontaneous evaporation, a very decided excess of laevo crystals was obtained. In the light of these facts as to the optically indifferent nature of the molecule of sodium chlorate and the ease with which its optically active molecular aggregation in the erystal- line unit is influenced, it certainly is not unreasonable to suppose that, since this particular molecular aggregation results in the rotation of the plane of polarization in a certain direction, if by means of the magnetic field we introduce forces tending to produce rotation, it should result in a directive action upon the molecules in this field, thus producing a preponderance of those crystals whose optical activity corresponds to the field in which they were formed. In the theoretical consideration of the possible influence of magnetism upon the formation of optically active structure, it should be recalled that a very characteristic difference exists between natural and magneto-optie rotation, namely, that if a ray of polarized light is caused to retrace its path through an optically active natural substance, the plane is rotated in the opposite direction so that the resultant rotation is zero, while in the magneto-optic phenomenon the rotation is independent of the direction in which the ray travels, the rotation being increased as many times as the ray has passed through the medium. Moreover, structural rotation is active and specifi- cally equal in every direction, while the magnetic rotation varies from a maximum in the direction of the lines of mag- netic force, to zero at right angles thereto; in other words, varies as the cosine of the angle which the ray makes with the lines of force. However, the magnetic whirl by itself appears to be incapable of rotating the plane of polarization, at least to any perceptible extent. The molecules of the medium placed in the magnetic field seem to be essential to the phe- nomenon, from which fact it is evident that the action in the ether which takes place about the lines of magnetic force, causes a change in the orbit or nature of the vibration of the molecule, which consideration would still leave probable, dur- ing the period of formation at least, some influence of the magnetic field upon the molecular aggregation in the crystal- line unit of a substance such as sodium chlorate, in which there is nothing inherent in the molecule which determines the optical nature of its aggregation. Nor can this fact, that the natural and magneto-optic rota- tions are superposable without permanently affecting the struc- ture, be considered conclusive against the supposition, the j 3 Structural and Magqneto-optic Rotation. 421 experimental investigation of which forms the subject of this paper; unless indeed it should be possible by superposition of the magneto-optic rotation to completely reverse the structural rotation, i. e., so that the resultant rotation should be of oppo- site sense to the original structural rotation, under which cir- cumstances it might be possible that the molecules would rearrange themselves by swinging over into the enantiomorphic forms possessing that rotation, just as by external force the molecules in a crystal of calcite may be made to slide or swing from one position of equilibrium to another, or from one form to its twin, under the influence of pressure; the phenomenon being unaccompanied by any serious disturbance such as the disintegration of the crystal. However, since the magneto-optic rotation is small, even in the most powerful electro-magnetic fields, the facts observed would appear to be accounted for, and the reversal of the struc- ture would not be expected though an influence might be looked for during the period of formation of the body. To determine the truth or error of this supposition, as to the possible control of the final product, by securing conditions favorable to one and antagonistic to the other of the enantio- morphic forms, a large number of crops of sodium chlorate erystals were allowed to grow by spontaneous evaporation in magnetic fields with the results recorded in the following tables.* . TABLE II, Crystals grown over N-pole of a vertical bar magnet. Crystals. Excess by ; es ie on posh A, * | Dextro Remarks. No. Wt. No. Wt. % by wt. 1 7 extto... 5 aes -. onecrystal about “)Laevo.. 9 i A 4 notweighed 60 All large crystals. 9 WExtro.. 1°232 ap 0°675 68°8 ) Dextro crystals Py uaeVvO 2... 0°557 Lt \ larger than the laevo. Dextre. 7 0:857 35 0°317 i : ? 1 Laevo .. 42 0°540 ee eee oy " Dextro.. 31 0-418 at 0:083 555 Laevo -. 31 0°335 a ayes Table II shows the results of four crops obtained over the north pole of a bar magnet. Here the excess of dextro crys- tals in each case is conspicuous, and taken by themselves these results are misleading. Viewed in the light of the succeeding tables it appears probable that the uniformity here noted is purely accidental. * A thin ring of vaseline along the sides of the vessel was found very effec- tual in preventing the creeping of the solution during crystallization, Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtH Series, Vou. VI, No. 35.—NOVEMBER, 1898. = \ Wee TSS vA tee’ Se 3 7 Mok 429 Wright and Kreider—Relation between TABLE IIT. (a) Crystals grown over S-pole of the vertical bar magnet. Crystals. Excess by PARAMS LIT Kv: p ate aioe Be % of Dextro Remarks. No. Wt. No. Wt. by wt. 1 Dextro..- =. 1°258 ia Sakle Laevo rather larger. “( Laevo 22° 1°709 4. 0°451 42°4 Uncertain,0°333 grm, .. Excess if all this. . counts as laevo = -0°117 grm. 9 1 Dextro.. 30 2°040 ans 1°320 *( Laevo _. 64 0°720 34 aces. 73°9 All good size. Dex- 3 $ Dextro-- 75 0°510 3 Boe tro rather larger. *“(Laevo .. 77 0'677 2 0'167 43°0 4. {Dextro.. 58 0350 10 0107 "{Laevo ._ 48 0°243 mp aS” 59°0 5 1 Dextro.. 23 1610 2 0°129 _ 5 of laevo crystals *{ Laevo -. 21 1481 Jus! eee 52°1 large, remainder ’ - very small, 6. Resultant rotation __-....-- = — 05 472) Crystals distinct but ie 4 he ee tele’ — 01 49-4 \ small. Determined 8. AS PEP Hee ee — 0°63 49°8 by method given at 3. Be pA MTA! ASI «A — 1:96 39°1 | end of this paper. (6) Crystals grown under the N-pole. 10 § Dextro.. 34 0°450 i we All clear and beauti- “{Laevo .. 42 0525 8 0°075 46°1 fully crystallized. ml { Dextro.. 18 0°880 ahs hat? Irregular in size. Un- °{ Laevo _. 33 1°633 15 0°753 35°0 certain 0°045 grm. 12. Resultant rotation _.......- = — 3:5 305) Crystals distinct but i. a crete ss ae —19 39°4 | small. Determined 14, f ae al PS = tds Se — 2°8 34:4 { by method given at 15. 2 Mish Vo ee — 0°04 49°8) end of the paper. Here again, especially in (6), a curious preponderance, this time of laevo crystals, is noted: but providing the effect to be sought for is that due to the direction of the magnetic whirl the results in (@) and (6) are inconsistent, since in both cases the direction of the lines of force and hence of the magnetic whirlis the same. However, from what has been said in regard to the difference of the structural and magnetic rotations, it is evident that the sense of the resultant activity could not be predicted. In order to test the effect of a more powerful magnetic field a Jamin magnet was supported vertically, so that a thin glass, flat-bottomed beaker having a diameter marked upon it, - could be symmetrically placed over the poles and the crystals formed on each side of the dividing line be separately tested. But the result of a large number of crops so far as the opti- cal activity is concerned was disappointing. While an in- creased effect might have been expected or at least a verifica- tion of the experiments with the bar magnet, the results are ie Structural and Magneto-optic Rotation. 493 practically identical with those obtained without the use of any magnet. owever, there seemed to be a tendency to group over the poles. Though nothing very definite could be said about the observed arrangement of these clusters, it may be positively asserted that the distribution of the crystals under these cir- cumstances was different from that ordinarily obtained, that is without the use of a magnet. In order to get a still more intense field the Jamin magnet was supported horizontally with its poles in a vertical line and the crystallization was effected in a small vessel made of tin- foil of just the proper size to fit between the poles, so as to be in the strongest part of the field. Measurements proved the field at this point to be about 800 C. G. 8S. units. Some difii- eulty was experienced in getting the crystals to grow in this vessel, but by cutting a plate of thin glass to fit the bottom this difficulty was overcome, doubtless because the glass afforded more nuclei about which the erystals form. A number of crops thus collected failed to reveal any effect of this magnetic field upon the optical property of the crystals. Crystallization of Sodium Chlorate in Electrostatic Field. Incidentally the effect of an electrostatic field was also inves- tigated. For this purpose a Leyden jar was charged from an electric machine. The poles from the two surfaces, after being capped by fairly thick glass tubes in order to prevent dis- charge, were brought as close together as was permitted by the solution contained in a shallow, thin-glass, flat-bottom beaker placed between them. Several preliminary experiments were made, but no particular effect was noted upon the formation or arrangement of the crystals in this field, nor upon the resultant optical activity of the crop of crystals. Experiments on Ferrous Sulphate. The tendency of the crystals of sodium chlorate to group over the poles of the magnet, led also to some experiments upon the crystallization of an iron salt in a magnetic field. It was thought that because of its magnetic property the iron would show a more decided effect. A number of experiments fully confirmed this expectation. In each case the grouping over the poles was very conspicuous and unmistakable. There was, however, nothing definite in the arrangement of these erystals or of their axes beyond the marked tendency to form in the strongest part of the magnetic field. Sade BS iad 424 Wright and Kreider—felation between Method of determining the resultant optical activity of a crop of crystals, There is one point in the determination of the resultant optical activity of crops of crystals which does not appear to have been fully appreciated heretofore, which we would specially emphasize. It has been observed* that not all erys- tals which show a dextro or laevo rotation are necessarily pure forms. At times the twinning is almost if not entirely imper- ceptible, so that a crystal which may appear homogeneous and as a whole rotates the plane of polarization to the right or to the left, is found not to have the proper specific rotation, showing that in fact itis a combination of both forms with a preponderance of one or the other. It is evident, therefore, that in the determination of the excess of one or the other of the enantiomorphic forms in a crop of crystals, whether the basis of comparison be the number of crystals or their weight, an error might result. Among the many crops of crystals prepared during this investigation, a number of crystals of this kind appeared, some of which were more or less conspicuous for irregularities in structure and yet to all appearances were decidedly more like a single crystal than an aggregate, but the magnitude of their rotation was not commensurate with their thickness. Moreover, very often the crystals are small and intergrown to such an extent as to make an accurate investigation of their rotation very tedious and difficult, if not impossible. It is evident then, from both of these considerations, that greater accuracy and economy of time would result from a direct determination of the resultant rotation of the whole crop. This may be accomplished by the elegant method developed by Landolt,t founded upon Christiansen’s experi- ments,{ according to which the finely powdered crystals are suspended in a liquid of the same refractive index which has no solvent effect upon them. This method, with some slight modifications which we found desirable, was as follows. The crystals were finely powdered in an agate mortar, and in order to secure greater uniformity in size and thoroughness of mixture, passed through a very fine sieve. Having the crystals hot at the start greatly facilitates the attrition as well as the sifting. A mixture of absolute alcohol and carbon disulphide in the proportion of one part of the former to two of the latter furnishes a liquid of the same refractive index in which the crystals are entirely insoluble. Commercial “ abso- * Marbach, Pogg. Ann., xci, 486; Landolt, Ber., xxix, 2, 2412. + Ber., xxix, 2, 2404. ¢ Wied. Ann., xxiii, 298. Structural and Magneto-optic Rotation. 425 lute” alcohol will answer the purpose so far as the transpar- ency of the mixture is concerned, and any slight solvent effect can be eliminated by preparing the mixture in a test tube containing some powdered sodium chlorate, which is further required as an indicator since the carbon bisulphide must be added finally drop by drop till the maximum transparency is secured, then filtering into the polarimeter tube containing the powder to be tested. The greater specific gravity of the sodium chlorate necessi- tates continual rotation of the polarimeter tube in order to keep the powder in suspension. This was effected in a very simple way by slipping corks of proper size for the polarimeter over both ends of the tube and turning a slight groove in each, in which ran an endless string from two wheels on an axis directly above. By wrapping the tube with a small piece of sheet lead, sufficient weight was given it to cause a regular and smooth rotation when the wheels from which it hung were rotated by a small electric motor worked with one Grove cell. This simple device makes it possible, with a very little rigging, to rotate a tube in any polarimeter which may be at hand. Landolt has pointed out that the rotation should be main- tained at between 50 and 80 revolutions per minute, in order to have uniform suspension without the centrifugal action, In all of the experiments in which we employed this method, 0-200 erm. of the sodium chlorate was taken after the whole crop of crystals had been reduced to a uniform powder and thoroughly mixed. Liffect of the presence of optically active substances in the solvent medium. - During the course of this investigation the peculiar results obtained made it seem worth while to repeat the experiments of Pope and Kipping* previously referred to, since the sus- picion had arisen that their conclusions may have been based upon insufficient data, just as it might have been inferred from the results recorded in Table II of this paper, had not further experiment failed to verify it, that the magnetic field deter- mined the form of the crystals. Accordingly a five per cent solution of dextrose was pre- pared as they have stated and subsequently saturated with sodium chlorate. Three portions of this solution were filtered and allowed at the same time to crystallize by spontaneons evaporation in a place free from vibrations or any apparent cause of disturbance. Curiously each of the three crops was found to have an excess of dextro crystals. Popeand Kipping * Chem, News, Ixxv, 45. 426 Wright and Kreider—Relation between have announced that under these circumstances an invariable excess of laevo crystals should form, Three more crops were grown under the same conditions and curiously again these three all had an excess of laevo crystals. Other crops were then grown and the percentage of dextrose in solution increased, but it was found to have no effect, the crystals coming down one time with an excess of dextro and the next time with an excess of laevo, as is shown by Table IV, results which in no way differ from those obtained where the crystals are formed in the ordinary way. TABLE IV. % of Dextro. Remarks. 1. Resultant rotation ......----- = + 2°84 65'8 First set. Good crop 2 a Ler: epee he + 2°46 63°7 of sharp and clear 3. ‘ Nae he eye + 0°94 55'2 but small crystals. 4, 2 saben Tt steel A he — 0°37 A479 From mother liquor 5. ¥ ane Pe Cees he ete — 07 46'1 of 1-3. 6 f ES Medien RO, — 1°24 43°1 Gcod clear crystals. Crystals by Excess by INGLE Fag ev ioe Was Dextro. 5.97 0670 ae begae Clusters and frag- “iaeyo 22 Ge 0°825 022) 00°25) 44°8 ments made number uncertain, { Dextro..% 23 1060 rue 0°455 4 large crystals, of “) aeyo © lay 0°505 10 aes 67°7 which 3 were dextro and 1 laevo; remain- der small and all laevo. 9. Resultant rotation _..-s.._..: = — 0°55 469 From mother liquor of 7-8. 10, { Dextro-- 32 1-640 18S 20:86 Mother liquor of No. *“(Laevo .. 14 0°765 ES ie VnbS2 9 with addition of some of original so- lution. Large, fine crystals. 11 Dextro.. 104 2 ~ 15 0°147 *{Laevo _. 89 1:025 a eat 53°3 Uncertain, 0°031 gm. Pope and Kipping do not state the number of results upon which they have based their conclusions, but our experience indicates that, whatever be the undetermined cause* of this varying excess of dextro or laevo crystals, whenever several crops are allowed to grow under the same circumstances, each being portions of the same solutions, taken at the same time, the causes acting on each are likely to be the same, and to give rise to an excess of the same kind of crystals in each case. Therefore to determine whether or not any special influence is exerted by extraneous forces a sufficient variety should be given to the experimental conditions to assure the unmistaka- ble revelation of this influence. * Is it the influence of the first crystal formed? Structural and Magneto-optic Rotation. 427 TABLE V. Sodium chlorate from saturated solution by spontaneous evaporation. Crystals by Excess by pe Se eS (ae ee eS No. Wt. No. Wt. @of Dextro. Remarks. 4 jDextro.. 41 0:870 Tin OSE Pf bee... 34 0°500 Rin fy 63°5 2 Dextro-- 18 0°546 a ws * ( Laevo _- 24 0-630 6 0°084 46°4 All clear and large. 3 Dextro-_-_ 30 1:306 =e 0°130 Uncertain = 0°130 nf PeevO’ _ _ 30 1176 De os 52°6 erm. 4 Dextro__ 4 0°285 gh 0°183 *( Laevo -- Ve C102 = Je 73°6 5 Dextro-- 10 0°612 oY 3h Uncertain 0025 */ Laevo _- 18 1°127 8 0-515 35°2 erm. 6. Resultant rotation...-........ = —40 Diet eee evaporating 7. 4 fe wisiosoe ee 46 +0°6 53°3 to dryness (spon- 8. . eae Se —0°6 46°7 taneous). 9, ‘e 2 tat Ses vip nah aee Pade 42°93 Conclusion. The results obtained from these experiments show no marked and indisputable evidence of the influence of the magnetic field upon optically active structure. However, a review of the results seems to indicate a disturbance of the equilibrium by the magnetic field which results in a rather greater variation from the neutral crop of sodium chlorate erystals than is ordinarily obtained, but without revealing any definite influence in regard to the direction of the resultant rotation. It might appear that a force however feeble should be sufh- cient to exert a directive action upon the substance during the period of formation, which, if true, gives the results pre- viously discussed the greater weight, since even the strongest magnetic fields employed have failed to control the direction _ of the resultant activity. Sloane Physical Laboratory, Yale University, June 1, 1898. 428 Scientific Intelligence. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. On Crystallized Metallic Calcium.—The preparation of practically pure metallic calcium in the crystalline form, has been described by Moissan. For this purpose he has made use of the fact that metallic calcium is soluble in liquid sodium at the temperature of dull redness. On cooling, the calcium erystal- lizes out and on removing the sodium by means of absolute alcohol, white, brilliant hexagonal crystals of pure calcium are obtained. In an iron crucible, holding about a liter, are placed 600 grams of crystallized anhydrous calcium iodide and 240 grams of sodium; three times the sodium required by the equa- tion Cal,+Na,=Ca+(Nal),. The crucible is closed with a screw top and is then placed in a furnace and maintained at a dull red heat for about an hour, being occasionally shaken. On opening the crucible after cooling, it contains a blue mass of the melted salt upon which rests a cake of metallic sodium. This cake is broken into fragments and thrown into a liter flask con- taining 500° of absolute alcohol cooled by ice. When the eyo- lution of hydrogen has ceased, the liquid is decanted and an equal quantity of absolute alcohol is added. This washing is continued until the alcohol shows no residue on evaporation. The brilliant powder left behind is treated with absolute ether and then dried in a stream of dry carbon dioxide or hydrogen. It is preserved in a sealed tube. The yield is about 50 per cent of the theoretical quantity, about 40 grams being obtained in each operation. Crystallized metallic calcium may also be ob- tained by electrolyzing fused calcium iodide at a red heat, the negative electrode being pure nickel and the positive a graphite cylinder placed in a porous cup. On analysis. the metal thus obtained gave 98°9, 99°1 and 99°3 per cent of calcium in three samples. — C. #., exxvi, 1753-7, June, 1898. G, F. B. 2. On the Preparation and Properties of Calciwm Hydride.— The direct union of calcium and hydrogen to form a hydride has been effected by Moissan. The pure crystallized calcium above ~ described is placed in a nickel boat in a glass tube through which passes a current of pure and dry hydrogen, prepared by passing it successively through two red hot porcelain tubes, containing copper turnings and pure boron respectively. The gas is then dried by fused potash and phosphoric oxide calcined in a current. of oxygen. After the tube has been filled with hydrogen, the end is sealed and the gas pressure is increased to 30 or 40° of water. The temperature is then slowly raised and when it attains a red heat the calcium takes fire; the gas is rapidly absorbed and a white fused mass of calcium hydride is obtained. It hasa crystalline fracture, a density of 1:7, and is not dissociated at 600° in a vacuum nor at the temperature of melting Bohemian Chemistry and Physics. 429 glass in air. Even at a red heat, it is unchanged in air; though it takes fire in the blowpipe flame. Thrown into water, the latter is decomposed and its hydrogen unites with that of the hydride, producing calcium hydrate and hydrogen. Its composition is CaH, and it acts energetically as a reducing agent.—C. &., exxvil, 29, July, 1898. 6. PLB, 3. On an Improved method for determining Molecular Mass by the Boiling Point.—Early in the present year, Landsberger described* an improved apparatus for fixing the molecular mass of a substance by means of the elevation which it produces in the boiling point of a solvent when dissolved in it. In this appa- ratus the solution is kept at its boiling point by the passage through it. of the solvent vapor alone, thus avoiding superheating. WALKER and LumspEN have now proposed a modification of this method which consists in measuring the volume of the solution after equilibrium has been attained, instead of its weight. The apparatus consists of an inner tube, to contain the solution, about 3°" in diameter and 20 long, graduated up to 30°° from below, and contained within an outer tube 6° in diameter and about the same length. Through a stopper in the inner tube passes a ther- mometer and a tube to convey the vapor of the solvent, both going to the bottom. This vapor, generated in a side flask, passes through the solution in the inner tube, thence through a small hole near its top into the outer tube and on to the condenser. To fix the boiling point of the solvent, about 12°° of it are placed in the inner tube, and its vapor is then conducted through it from the flask until drops fall from the condenser at the rate of one every two seconds or so, when the thermometer is read. The tube is then transferred to an upright cylinder which it just fits and the volume of the solution is read to tenths of 1°. About half of the liquid is now poured off and from half to one gram of the substance under examination is added to the remainder in the tube. The vapor is then passed through this as before, the ther- mometer is again read and the volume measured. The latter operation may be repeated half a dozen times and the mean taken. The result may be calculated by the formula Constant * mass of substance ee ss a Elevation * volume of solution. The constants for the various solvents are obtained simply by dividing the ordinary weight-constants of these liquids by their densities at the boiling point. Since only one weighing is needed much time is saved, six determinations requiring only a half hour. The volume need be read only to 0°1° and the thermometer only to fifths of a degree. Alcohol or ether should preferably be used as the solvent, though acetone gives good results when pure. Values obtained with various substances in various solvents are given which show that the accuracy of the method is quite suffi- * Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xxxi, 458, March, 1898. 323. RE ee ise. 430 Scientific Intelligence. cient for ordinary preparatory or research work in organic or inorganic chemistry.—J/J. Chem, Soc., Ixxiii, 502-511, June, 1898. G. F. B 4. On the Chemical Effects of the Silent Electric Discharge.— An elaborate series of experiments has been made by Brertaxrtor on the chemical effects of the silent electric discharge, having reference specially to the union of nitrogen with compounds of carbon. The mixture under examination was enclosed in a nar- row space about a millimeter wide, through which passed the discharge from a coil having a Deprez contact-breaker and including a Leyden in circuit. The sparks were 12 to 15™™ long, the discharges being alternating. They were kept up generally for 24 hours. If the vapor pressure was high the liquids behaved like gases, but if low the reaction was slow. The intermediate products when examined were found to differ considerably from the final products. While the speed and nature of the reactions seem to be functions of the intensity of the discharge, actual sparking should be avoided. Final equilibrium depends in gen- eral upon the production of solid or resinous products having a low vapor pressure and a low conductivity. When nitrogen is absorbed the product resembles an amine or an amido derivative, being often:a poly-amine. Methane thus treated gives up half its hydrogen, yielding a solid body C,,H,,. If nitrogen be pres- ent, it is absorbed in amount rather less than one-quarter of the volume of the hydrogen set free, giving a solid body C,H,N,, alkaline to litmus and probably a tetramine. Ethane loses a third of its hydrogen and yields the same condensation product ; while in presence of nitrogen, the solid produced C,,H,,N, is analogous to that from methane. Ethylene condenses to a solid C.H,,; while with nitrogen the volume of this gas absorbed is substantially equal to that of the hydrogen set free, and the resulting alkaline solid is the same as with ethane. Acetylene yields first a liquid and then a solid which when heated is decom- posed with explosion and oxidizes rapidly in the air. With nitrogen the solid product C,,H,,N, is obtained. Propylene alone yields a solid C,.H,, and with nitrogen a whitish resin C,,H,,.N, Carbon monoxide is converted into carbon dioxide and the sub-oxide C,O,; and into a brown solid forming an acid solution when dissolved in water. With hydrogen in excess, the gases condense in equal volumes, giving (CH,O),, a mixture of polymers of formaldehyde. ‘With hydrogen and nitrogen, a con- densed formamide (CH,NO),, results. Carbon dioxide alone gives percarbonic oxide and the above sub-oxide. Mixed with two vol- umes of hydrogen, a carbohydrate is formed similar to that given by the monoxide. With one volume of nitrogen and three of hydrogen a residual gas is obtained consisting of equal vol- umes of nitrogen and hydrogen; and also a solid product which when heated with water gives an effervescing solution containing ammonium nitrite, and which may be considered as a compound of this substance with the amido compound given by the monox- Chemistry und Physics. | 431 ide. The author compares this action of the electric discharge to the interactions of water and carbon dioxide in plants. Similar interesting results were obtained with the alcohols and ethers, ethyl alcohol giving a solid C,,H,,N,O,.—C. &., exxvi, 561, 567, 609, 616, February, 1898. G. F. B. 5. Ona New Gas.—At the Boston meeting of the American As- sociation, C. F. Brus announced the discovery of a new gas, a constituent of the atmosphere and presumably elementary. Its chief characteristic is its enormous heat conductivity at low pres- sures.- In studying the heat conductivity of several gases in high vacua, early in 1897, he had observed that pulverized glass when heated evolved a considerable quantity of absorbed gas. And mak- ing use of his heat-conductivity method to detect the hydrogen present, he was surprised to find that at 36 millionths pressure the residual gas conducted heat twice as well as air and nearly as well as hydrogen; while at 3°8 millionths it conducted seven times, at 1°6 millionths, fourteen times, and at 0°96 millionth, 20 times as well. Under this latter pressure the time taken for the ther- mometer to cool from 15° to 10° was only 177 seconds; pure hydrogen requiring 288 seconds. Upon exposure to the air the glass reabsorbed the new gas. Upon subsequent investigation other porous materials were found to answer the same purpose. Charcoal made from pine-wood sawdust and highly heated evolved the new gas. Fine white siliceous sand when heated in vacuo also gave it, the conductivity at the pressure of 0°12 of a millionth being 42 times that of hydrogen. To free this new gas from the gases mixed with it, diffusion through a treated porce- lain tube was resorted to. Under a pressure of 1°3™", about 19° of gas diffused per hour. And after 36 hours the diffused gas being tested showed at 6 millionths a higher conductivity than the speci- men last mentioned for the same pressure; the heat conductivity of air therefore seems increased a hundred times, at very low pres- sure, by one diffusion. Since even when mixed with other gases, the heat conductivity of the new gas at very low pressures is 100 times that of hydrogen, the author thinks that when pure it may become a thousand times greater. Supposing the molecular speed to be proportional to the heat conductivity, the molecular speed of the new gas would be at least 100 times that of hydro- gen, or 105 miles per second. Moreover as the molecular veloci- ties vary inversely as the square root of the densities, the density of the new gas is only the 10,000th part of that of hydrogen or the 144,000th part of that of air. It should therefore extend 144,000 times as high as the air and hence must extend indefinitely into space. If, as is probable, less than a millionth of it is con- tained in the atmosphere, then it seems likely “that it not only extends far beyond the atmosphere but fills all celestial space at a very small pressure.” Hence the author, assuming the new gas to be elementary, has given it the name “Aetherion,” and sup- poses its molecule to be monatomic. He ventures the conjecture that it will be found to be a mixture of three or more gases, all S25 5 -- --te —-—- % See Lae. 432 Scientific Intelligence. very much lighter than hydrogen.— Abstract of paper communi- cated to this Journal by the Author. 6. Electricity and Magnetism ; a Mathematical Treatise for advanced undergraduate students ; by Francis E. Nipuer, A.M. 2d ed., revised with additions, 8vo, pp. xii, 430. St. Louis, 1898. (J. L. Boland Book and Stationery Co.)—Professor Nipher has succeeded in producing a text-book admirably adapted for higher class room work and we are not surprised that a new edition should so soon be called for. He tells us that he has made an attempt in it “to avoid wasting the time of the reader over puzzles and obscurities which are made difficult and called easy.” In this edition, he gives in the preface reasons for the treatment he has adopted and says: “It is for such reasons that the author has determined not to be guided by those of his reviewers who seem to think that the time of the student should be spent in rapidly acquiring a set of rules by means of which electrical machinery may be designed. The great advances in engineering have been made by those who applied their brains to useless things and made them useful. This is a sufficient reason why the engineer should be first of all a student.” G. F, B. 7. Electrical currents excited by Réntgen rays.—It has been shown by various observers that these rays can dissipate electri- cal charges. A. WINKELMANN shows that they can also charge bodies. He states that J. Perrin (Comptes Rendus, exxiv, p. 496, 1897) has also proved this independently and has arrived at practically the same result. Winkelmann, however, goes on more exhaustively to show that the air between the source of the X-rays and the charged body is broken up into ions; and he measures the ohmic resistance of different layers of air thus ion- ized. ‘The method of studying the resulting charges consisted in charging a condenser by the rays and in discharging this through a ballistic galvanometer. The sensitiveness of the galvanometer was such that the discharge of one microfarad charged with 0°032 volt gave a deflection of 2™. An electrometer was also used. It was shown that the electrical charges on plates of dif- ferent metals were not produced by the direct effect of the X-rays but were the result of the ionizing of the intervening air; for the plates could not be charged when they were coated with a layer of varnish which was permeable to the X-rays. If we adopt the hypothesis that the charging is due to the ions conveying charges, we find that the changes in resistance of the intervening air is explained: for this resistance depends on the number of ions in the unit of volume. This resistance was found to depend on the intensity of the Rontgen rays; on the number of breaks of the induction apparatus per second, and between plates near together, on the resistance in the current circuit. The specific resistance of air can thus vary greatly under the influence of the rays. The proportion of ionized molecules to the whole number of molecules in the unit of volume was found to be 4°6 x 10713. ‘This is the same order of magnitude as the result obtained for hydrogen by Prof. J. J. Thomson.— Wied. Ann., No. 9, pp. 1-28, 1898. J. 7. Geology and Mineralogy. 433 8. Reflection of Cathode rays.—H. STarKE proves by a method which he believes to be superior to those hitherto adopted, that cathode rays are reflected in different degrees by different metals. At perpendicular incidence, platinum reflects 36 per cent. This proportion does not change appreciably with changes of charging potential from 6000 volts to 9000 volts.— Wied. Ann., No. 9, pp- 49-60, 1898. : J. T. 9. Change of the energy of Cathode rays into light rays.— E. WrEDEMANN measures the proportion of energy of the cathode rays which is converted into light rays and finds that the propor- tion converted into light is of the same order as that in the case of photoluminescence and is very small.— Wied. Ann., No. 9, pp. 61-64, 1898. es 10. The Theory of the Coherer.—Since the discovery of Branly that electrical waves can diminish the resistance of tubes filled with fine metallic particles, many investigators have endeavored to ascertain the cause of the phenomenon. The recent experi- ments in wireless telegraphy have given great interest to this inguiry. D. van GuLIK reviews the various theories proposed, and in view of his own experiments inclines to the belief that the action is due to minute’sparks between the particles, which break down the separating oxide or intervening medium, and the torn off particles resulting from the disruptive sparks build a conduct- ing bridge. He objects to the new term “Frittréhren” intro- duced by Slaby.— Wied. Ann., No. 9, pp. 136-145, 1898. E. Dorn has carried out a very complete series of experiments to test the theories of the coherer. The degree of moisture of the pulverized substances greatly affected the results. Oxides of iron, of zinc and of copper appeared to possess the greatest con- ductibility ; aluminum and its oxides the least.—- Wied. Ann., No. 9, pp. 146-161, 1898. 55% 11. Absorption of light produced by a body placed in a magnetic field.—AvcustE Rieu discusses phenomena of absorption due to the Zeemann effect. A beam of light from the sun or an electric light is polarized by a nicol prism and sent through the axis of a powerful Ruhmkorf magnet. This beam is extinguished by a second nicol. Between the poles of the magnet is placed a sodium flame. The yellow light is not extinguished on turning the analyzer; on the contrary it becomes white and more and more intense. The author discusses the theory of the experiment from the point of view of Zeemann.— Comptes Rendus, July 25, 1898, p. 217. ae Il. Gronocy AND MINERALOGY. 1. 18th Annual Report of the Director of the U. S. Geologi- eal Survey, 1896-97 (Extract from 18th Ann. Rept., Pt. I), C. D. Watocort, Director; pp. 1-130, two folded maps. Washington, 1897.—During the year covered by this Report the sum of $568,690 was appropriated for the work of the United States eS -_ ~e —* % See SS 434 Scientific Intelligence. Geological Survey. The new work of establishment of perma- nent monuments resulted in running 10,840 miles of levels and establishing 1820 bench marks. Provision was made, by the sundry civil bill approved June 4, 1897, for the survey of the northern portion of the boundary line between Idaho and Men- tana, the first work of the kind assigned to the Geological Survey. Provision was also made, with an appropriation of $150,000, for the survey of the forest reserves. Progress was made in this direction, specially in South Dakota, Wyoming, Montana and Washington. The preparation of educational series of rocks was completed and their distribution to educational institutions begun. For the purpose of assisting the director in the internal work of the Sur- vey, advisory committees were established in petrography and chemistry, and Mr. Bailey Willis was appointed assistant to the Director in geology. The main branches of work of the Survey were continued along the lines of previous years with the accus- tomed energy and abundant results, a summary of which is given in the report. H. 8. W. 2. Summary Report of the Geological Department of Canada for the year 1897, G. M. Dawson, Deputy Head and Director; pp. 1-156. Ottawa, 1898.._Among the numerous items of interest of which a general summary is given here, attention may be called to the following: The experimental borings in Northern Alberta, at the mouth of the Pelican River and at Victoria on the Saskatchewan, have resulted in the discovery of the “tar sands” in the Pelican River boring, at the depth of 750 feet. Here maltha, or heavy, tarry petroleum was met with, and at 820 feet an exceedingly heavy flow of natural gas under high pres- sure was struck. These rocks, it will be remembered are of Cre- taceous age. In the Victoria well only the dark overlying shales have yet been penetrated, to a total depth of 705 feet. The investigation of Dr. Adams and Mr. Barlow in the Halibar- ton region bear out the conclusions of former work in showing that the Fundamental gneiss consists of granitoid-gneissic rocks in the form of great batholitic masses, the limestones, etc., of the Gren- ville series sagging down between and wrapping around the batholites as great mantles. These gneissic rocks, in parts of the area, have become more completely molten and have developed into truly intrusive granites which no longer merely arch up the overlying strata but break through and cut across them. Interesting results were obtained by Mr. Chalmers in tracing the Pleistocene shore lines of the St. Lawrence Valley. The traverse extended from Orleans Island westward to Lake Ontario and to Lake Nipissing. From his observations Mr. Chalmers concludes that the general upheaval of the St. Lawrence basin in the Pleistocene period was differential throughout, increasing to the westward. The greatest upheaval seems to have been immedi- ately to the northeast and north of the Great Lakes, and the maximum heights there will probably be found to be represented Geology and Mineralogy. 435 by a number of axes, or uplifted belts, not always in the same direction, but conforming more or less to the longer axes of these great bodies of water. The period at which this great upheaval of the region took place appears to have been that of the deposi- tion of the Saxicava sands, or rather during the latter part of that eriod. : Regarding the Carboniferous Flora of Nova Scotia, Mr. Whiteaves reports that “the fossiliferous sandstones and shales of the Union and Riversdale regions in Colchester and Pictou counties, are seen to lie unconformably beneath the fossiliferous marine limestones, sandstones and shales of Lower Carboniferous age. They hold plants and animals which in their broad general characters resemble those of the eastern American Carboniferous —if we leave out of consideration the types which occur in the ‘fern-ledges’ of Lancaster county in New Brunswick, described and regarded as Devonian. The fossils which show this affinity to types of Carboniferous age include, besides the presence of a protolimuloid crustacean closely allied to Prestwichia and erect trees of doubtful affinities, such genera as: Calamites, Astero- phyllites, Alethopteris, Sphenopteris, Cyclopteris, Cordaites, Spirorbis, Naiadites, (Anthracomya), Lepidodendron, Leaia, Carbonia, LEstheria, etc. All these have been’ found in the Riversdale and Union rocks, and the following species are com- mon to these rocks and those of Lancaster county, New Bruns- wick: Cyclopteris (Aneimites) Acadica, Lepidodendron corru- gatum, Stigmaria ficoides, var., Cordaites Robbii, (sometimes with numerous specimens of Spirorbdis covering the surface of the leaves,) besides closely related forms belonging to the genera Calamites, Asterophyllites, Alethopteris and Sphenopteris. From this it would appear that the strata of Union and Riversdale may be regarded as equivalent to those in Lancaster county, which have been described and held to be of Devonian age.” H.S. W. 8. The Geological History of the Isthmus of Panama and portions of Costa Rica. Based upon a Reconnoissance made for Alexander Agassiz; by Roxserr T. Hitz. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harv. Coll. Vol. xxviii, No. 5, pp. 151-285, figs. 1-24, plates i-xix. June, 1898.—A notice of this important paper is deferred until another number. 4, The physical geography of Worcester, Mass. ; by JosEru H. Perry; pp. 1-40, plates i-viii. 1898. 22 popular description of the surface features about W orcester, illustrating the drumlins and other evidences of glacial action. "The plates. are reproduc- tions of photographs finely prepared by J. Chauncey Lyford, the whole doing credit to the Worcester Natural History Society, which publishes the paper. H. S. W. 5. Handbuch der Mineralogie ; von Dr. Cart Hintze. Erster Band, Zweite Lieferung, pp. 161-320. Leipzig, 1898 (Veit & Company). —The second part of Volume I of Hintze’s Mineralogy (No 14 of the entire series) has just been issued. Its hundred and fifty pages are devoted to descriptions of native iron, copper, 436 Scientific Intelligence. silver, and gold. These subjects are treated, as is implied in this statement, with admirable fullness, particularly with reference to the geographical distribution, and liberal illustrations are intro- duced whenever called for. Mineralogists will be gratified to see this great work gradually drawing on toward completion. 6. Manual of Determinative Mineralogy with an Introduction on Blowpipe Analysis ; by Grorer J. Brusu. Revised and enlarged, with entirely new tables for the identification of min- erals, by Samurrt L. Penrierp, Fifteenth edition, pp. x, 312. New York, 1898 (John Wiley & Sons).—The thorough revision which Prof. Penfield has now given to Brush’s Determinative Mineralogy completes the work begun by him two years since. In the edition of 1896 (this Journal, ii, 459, 1896) the opening chapters descriptive of the blowpipe and chemical methods and reactions applicable to minerals, were carefully rewritten and made to embody the practical results of the author’s long experience in teaching. At the present time this introductory portion of the work has been further improved by the addition of a chapter upon crystallography and the physical characters of minerals, in which these subjects are concisely but clearly presented. More important than this, the determinative tables have now been rewritten, rearranged and enlarged so as to include all recently described species of definite character. The changes which have been made here are fundamental and highly important for the student, since in their present form the tables show with admir- able distinctness the fundamental differences in chemical compo- sition which form the basis of the grouping of the species. Hence the student who uses the tables intelligently is sure to learn a vast deal in regard to minerals, especially on the chemical side. Their value is much increased by the fact that in the case of most species the autbor has personally verified the reactions described. For nearly twenty years this admirable work has held a place of its own and has played a highly important part in scientific education. In its new form, with the changes and additions which bring it into harmony with the science of the present time, it cannot fail to be still more appreciated and to find even a wider sphere of influence. 7. The Law of Mines and Mining in the United States ; by DaniEL Moreau Barrincer and Joun Strokes Apams. Pp. exxv and 878. Boston, 1897 (Little, Brown & Company).—All those interested in the legal questions which are likely to arise in regard to mining properties will appreciate the value of the admirable and exhaustive treatment of the subject in the present volume. It opens with a table of cases referred to through the text; then follows an excellent geological preface designed to make the non-scientific reader acquainted with the different types of deposits and the conditions under which they occur. This is abundantly illustrated by figures drawn from well-known authors. The work proper is divided into twenty-five chapters, classified according to the special subjects discussed. An appendix gives — Obituary. 437 the United States statutes and land office regulations, dealing with the mineral lands, timber rights, privileges of miners, etc. 8. Canadian minerals.—In Part R of vol. ix of the Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Canada, Dr. G. Curistian HoFFMANN continues his investigations of Canadian minerals. Among the new occurrences noted, the following may be men- tioned: Baddeckite, a ferruginous muscovite from Baddeck, Nova Scotia (this Journal, vi, p. 274); chaleanthite, and argentiferous tennantite, from the Avoca claim, Lillooet district, British Colum- bia; xenotime from Calvin township, Ontario, in a crystalline mass weighing 312 grams; gahnite from Raglan township, Ren- frew Co., Ontario; gersdorffite in octahedral crystals from Koote- nay Mountain, near Rossland, British Columbia. OBITUARY. JAMES HALL, Even the chief traits and accomplishments of this remark- able man would demand a longer space than is available for this notice, and therefore only a few salient characteristics and events will here be mentioned. His strength and even his weak- nesses, his successes and his failures were of an extent seldom combined in a single individual existence. In years of activity also, he covered a period almost unparalleled for its length. Extreme longevity combined with persistent continuity of pur- pose, and the vast resources of the state of New York, must be accounted as a leading factor in any consideration of the scientific monument which this man erected for himself, and for which, in addition to personal work, contributions were levied from among several generations of assistant co-workers. The magni- tude of the private and public collections accumulated at Albany, the large sums spent for their investigation, and the elaborate publication of results, together with the amount and variety of the investigations carried on, attracted the rising and ambitious paleontologists of the United States to Albany for many years. This enabled the State Geologist to equip himself with some of the best talent in the country, and in a considerable degree deter- mined the quantity and character of the output of his department. The names of Gabb, Hayden, Meek, Whitfield, Walcott, Beecher, - _ Clarke, Schuchert, and others will serve to illustrate this point. As a lobbyist among over sixty annual legislatures he held a unique position in the State. In his successful adjustments to the kaleidoscopic and bewildering political complexion of this long period is shown his wealth of resource and adaptability. In his managerial skill and tireless energy he was alone and without a. peer. Am. Jour. Sci.--Fourtnm Srrizs, Vor. VI, No. 35.—NovempBer, 1898. 30 ee 3 ik} s 438 Obituary. In the present connection, his accomplishments in the domain of science are of chief interest, but in any estimate of this his rela- tions to the state and its scientific staff must not be lost sight of. With the possible exception of Barrande in Bohemia, no one has made known tothe world so many extinct forms of animal life from the Paleozoic System. This work forms the bulk of the famous series of quartos known as the “ Natural History of New York,” and is generally referred to as the “ Paleontology of New York.” Besides this voluminous work Hall published a great many memoirs and smaller papers in the annual reports of the State Museum, the reports of the State Geologist, in the pro- ceedings of learned societies, and in various scientific journals. Altogether, in the description of new genera and species of Paleozoic invertebrates his work forms the main structure around which similar work of other states cluster, and upon which other investigators have built. His energies were not wholly confined to the limits of New York, for in 1855 he was made the State Geologist of Iowa ; and in 1857, he held a similar position in Wisconsin. Many of his papers were based upon material from other parts of the continent, especially Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Canada. As a field geologist his best work was derived from a study of the Paleozoic sediments later than the Cambrian. His correla- tions of the New York formations with those of the Mississippi Valley and with Europe were of prime importance and helped to make geology more than a provincial science. In the year following Dana’s address on the origin of conti- nents, delivered in 1856 at the meeting of the American Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science, Hall proposed, on a similar occasion, his theory of mountain-building by previous regional subsidence, and maximum accumulation of sediments. Both of these theories have since become generally recognized. James Hall was born at Hingham, Mass., Sept. 12th, 1811. He was graduated from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy, — New York, in 1832, and continued his services there for some years as professor, first of Chemistry and Natural Science, and later of Geology. In 1842 he received the degree of M.A. from Union College, and that of LL D. from Hamilton in 1863, and McGill in 1884. He joined the organization of the Geological Survey of the State of New York in 1836, and remained in con: tinuous service up to the time of his death, which occurred August 7th, 1898. . a Our 32-Page Fall Bulletin, Illustrated by 21 cutis, was published September 21st. It is the most elaborate bulletin we ever issued. It de- scribes the Recent Additions to our stock of Speci- mens and Loose Crystals, gives our new list of Minerals for Blowpipe Analysis, and our new and very complete Book List. If you have not received it, drop us a postal and we shall be pleased to send it to you. A LARGE SHIPMENT FROM JAPAN. Several thousand crystals of Topaz, large and small, a couple of drawers full of Orthoclase crystals and twins, a lot. of Smoky Quartz crystals, ete. 350° CRYSTALS OF \CELESTITE. ‘A new find at the old Strontian Island locality. One to two inch crystals, 5c. each; 14 to 3 inch crystals, 10c.; larger crystals, 15¢. to $1.00; extra large, museum-size crystals, $1.00 to $3.50. ROXBURY GARNETS. A large lot-of good specimens of dodecahedral garnets in a nearly white mica- schist, 10c. to $2.00; loose crystals, 5c. to 15c. LIMONITE PSEUDOMORPHS AFTER MAGNETITE. Over 1000 good octahedrons, 2 to 4 inch, at 5 for 5c up to 5c. each. Some of them show unaltered Magnetite in the center, and their faces are frequently hol- lowed out like the Chessy Cuprites. ENDLICHITES FROM NEW MEXICO. | We recently secured 100 selected specimens of Endlichite, which we believe are _ the finest now on sale. The flashy beauty of the bright yellow crystals makes these specimens incomparably superior to the old-time Lake Valley Endlichites. 25c. to $10.00. GEORGIA RUTILES. We recently finished the development work on one of the choicest lots of small loose crystals and matrix specimens of Rutile ever seen. 50c. to $10.00, COUNTLESS OTHER RECENT ADDITIONS Are described in our Fall Bulletin, to which we would refer customers for further data. MINERALS FOR BLOWPIPE ANALYSIS. The enormous increase of sales in this department of our business has encour- aged us to lay in the largest and best stock we have ever had. Over 300 distinct Species and very many varieties are now sold by weight at from 5c. per pound up. Our new list, just issued, is the most elaborate one ever published. College pro- fessors will be able to effect a large saving by ordering their ahha res supplies from our list. 124 pp. Catalogue, 25c. in paper, 50c. in cloth; illustrated with 87 cuts, describes every mineral, giving species number, species, crystallo- graphic system, hardness, specific gravity, chemical composition and formula. 44 pp. Illustrated Price-Lists, 4c. Bulletins and Circulars Free. GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists, 64 East 12th St., New York City. XLIL SOR elation between Structural and Magneto-optie Ro- “i CONTENTS. Art. XXXV.—Irregular R flection? by C. C. Hurenins-- 373 XXX VI.—Occurrence of Sperrylite in North Carolina; by eR AR, sbi PNIDOEN Joe ou. A cee 381 | XXXVII.—Description of a Fauna found in the Deyonian — Black Shale of Eastern Kentucky; by G. H. Girry_... 384 XXXVIII.—Separation of Nickel and Cobalt by ead. chloric Acid; ;by F:.:S.. HAVENS... > 1. 2S XX XIX. _Soneibuons to Paleontology; by F. A. ‘Lucas 399 | XL.—Value of Type Specimens and Importance > of their Preservation; by 0. -C.: Marsn.*. 2—. 2222S eee i ers XLI.—Origin of Mawienale: ; by O. C.’ Marsa: 2 eee 406 XLIT.—Causes of Variation in the Composition of Igneous Rocks; -by ‘T.L; (WankKER: +.2.-2 - 252.2 ee tation; by A. W. Wrieur and D, A. Kremer .--..- 416 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Crystallized Metallic Calcium, Morssan: Preparation and Properties of Calcium Hydride, Morssan, 428.—Improved method for determining Molecular\Mass by the Boiling Point, WALKER and LUMSDEN, 429, | ——Chemical Effects of the Silent Electric Discharge, BERTHELOT, 430.—New | Gas, C. F. Brusu, 431.—Electricity and Magnetism : a Mathematical Treatise — for advanced undergraduate students, F. BW. ° NIPHER: Electrical currents ex- cited by Rontgen rays, A. WINKELMANN, 432.—Reflection of Cathode rays, H. STARKE: Change of the energy of Cathode rays into light rays, E. WIEDEMANN: Theory of the Coherer, D. vaN GuLIK and E. Dorn: Absorption of Aeey. pro- | duced by a body placed in a magnetic field, A. RiIGHI, 433. . ee Geology and Mineralogy—Kighteenth Annual Report of the Director of ee U: S249 Geological Survey, 1896-7, 433.—Summary Report of the Geological Depart- | | ment of Canada for the year 1897, 434.—Geological History of the Isthmus of | Panama and portions of Costa Rica, R. T. Hii: Physical geography of Wor- | | eester, Mass., J. H.’ Perky: Handbuch der Mineralogie, CU. HINTzZE, 435.— || Manual of Determinative Mineralogy with an Introduction on Blowpipe Analy-— sis, G. J. BrusH and 8. L. Penrietp: Law of Mines and Mining in the United | | States, D. M. Barringer and J. S. Apams, 436,—Canadian minerals, G. CG. } Horrwany, 437. rh Obituary—JAMES HALL, 437. THE . AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Epiror: EDWARD S. DANA. , ASSOCIATE EDITORS RoFESSORS GEO. L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, ecEL. 13 BOWDITCH anv W. G. FARLOW, oF Coe ‘ ¥ ROWRSSORS O. rey C. MARSH, A. E. VERRILL anp H. S. WILLIAMS, or New Haven, Prornson GEORGE F. BARKER, or PuitaDELPHia, _ Prorrsson H. A. ROWLAND, or BALTIMORE, Mr. J. 8. DILLER, or Wasurneron. FOURTH SERIES. VOL. VI-[WHOLE NUMBER, CLVI.] No. 36.—DECEMBER, 1898. NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. f59s: \ ~~ TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 125 TEMPLE STREET. blished monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6.40 to Soke bs of countries in the Postal Union. rie ERE should — Vat Ae he 4. 4 - * es oe + ooe ‘ ; CHRISTMAS. A few hints as to some acceptable presents selected from the largest stock of minerals in the world. They are for young people—or old either—for no one entirely lacks interest in nature’s works, A pretty collection will be sure to awaken a love of nature-study, and to one already the possessor of a collection, a few beautiful specimens will be a welcome addition. In our systematic collections, the specimens are typical and well selected ; many are quite showy and attractive. The two larger sizes are labeled-with complete printed label, and numbered to correspond to list; the fragments are numbered only. In the polished Oak Compartment Cabinets, they present an especially neat appearance. Lists sent free. No. 15, Dana Student’s Collection, 180 specimens averaging 214 by 2 in., $25.00. Drawer Cabinet and trays, $8.75 extra. JTotal weight, Kf about 125 Ibs. No. 16. Same, 11¢ by 114 in., $10.00. Compartment Cabinet, $2.40 extra. Wt. packed, 33 lbs. No. 17. Same; fragments averaging 34 in, diam. in Cabinet, $6.60. Wt. packed, 7 lbs. No. 21. Dana Pupil’s Collection. 120 spec., 1144 by 144 in., $6.00. Cabinet, $1.60 extra. Wt. backed, 19 lbs. No. 22. Same; fragments, 34 in., in cabinet, $3.80. Wt. 414 Ibs. No. 24. Prospector’s Collection. For practical use, 120 spec., 114 by 114 in., $7.00. Cabinet, $1.60 extra. Wt. 19 lbs. No. 66. Abridged Collection. 60 spec., 114 by 114 in., $3.00. Cabi- net, 80c. extra. Wt. 9 Ibs. . No. 67. Same, fragments, 34 in., in. cabinet, $1.90; postage, 35c. No. 72. Agassiz Collection. 25 fragments, 34 in., in cabinet, 75c.; postage, 18c. No. 80. Crystal Collection. 25 in cabinet, $3.00; postage, 15c. No. 86. Collection of 25 pean aa Minerals in cabinet, $4. 00; post- age, 15c. Following are geléated bright and showy crystallizations in shapely groups ~__ of 21g to 5 in. diameter. As odd paperweights or to adorn the shelf of the — collector they are equally desirable. Postage, 15c. to 40c. Rubellite, Pink Tourmaline. Slender crystals in lavender rock, 15e. to 50c. Quartz, Rock Cr ystal. Colorless hexagonal crystals, .25c. to $2, 00. Fluorite, ‘“ Fluor Spar.” Purple cubic crystals, 25c. to $1.00. Hematite. Jet black, often iridescent crystals, 25c. to $3.00. Sulphur. Gorgeous yellow crystals, 25c. to $1.50. Endlichite. Small lustrous crystals on dark gangue, 75c, to $3. 00... Wulfenite. Orange, red crystals, 50c. to $3.00. Also the following in polished pieces : Opalized Wood. $1.00 to $3.00 (unpolished, 25c. to $1.00). Agate, Moss or Banded. 5c. to $3.00. Verde Antique. 50c. to $1.00. Precious Opals. Choice assortment of finest quality stones just ee by us direct from Australia. Very low prices, $1.00 to $8.00 per carat, 14 % to | 2 carats each. = Dr. A. EK. KFOOTE, WARREN M. FOOTE, Manager. BOOKS AND MINERALS, 13174 Areh Street, Philadelphia, Pa., vU. S. A. Established 1876. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE [FOURTH SERIES. ] Art. XLIV.—Another Episode in the History of Niagara Falls; by J. W. SPENCER. [Read before American Association for the Advancement of Science, August, 1898.] CONTENTS: Summary of the Changing Physics of the River. Revision of the Episodes of Niagara River. The Newly-discovered Episode—the Niagara Strand. The Modern Episode. The Rise of the Ontario Waters. Explanation of the Narrows of the Gorge at the Whirlpool Rapids. Summary of the Changing Physics of the River. Four years ago, a paper was presented by the writer to the American Association for the Advancement of Science,* com- puting, for the first time, the age of the Falls, as based upon the changing episodes of the river. The data upon which the computations were made embraced not only the measurement of the modern rate of the recession of the Falls, but also the discoveries : (1) that the Niagara River did not formerly drain the Algonquin (Superior-Michigan-Huron) basin (which then emptied towards the northeast)+ ; (2) that the river for a long * “Duration of Niagara Falls,” by J. W. Spencer, this Journal, vol. xlviii, pp. 455-472, 1894. + Mr. F. B. Taylor has stated that the “ original hypothesis” of ‘‘a northern way of discharge of the upper lakes” was first suggested by Mr. G. K. Gilbert in 1886 (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. ix, p. 80, 1898). But it is manifest that Mr. Taylor is laboring under a misapprehension. The discovery of the evidence and the announcement of the hypothesis that the drainage of the uppermost three lakes was diverted from the Niagara River, by the discharge of their waters towards the northeast, was first communicated by the present writer to the meet- Am. Jour. Sci.—-Fourts Szrises, Vou. VI, No. 36.—DECEMBER, 1898. 31 440 Spencer—Another Episode in the History of Niagara. time descended only 200 feet in place of 326 feet, as to-day ; (3) that Foster’s flats recorded the amount of recession of the Falls during the earlier stages, when the Erie waters alone drained through Lake Erie, and cascaded over a diminished fall; (4) that when the Falls had receded to Foster’s flats, all the drainage of the upper lakes was turned into Niagara River ; (5) that again the descent of the river was increased to 420 feet (as first shown by Prof. G. K. Gilbert), which increase gave rise to a succession of cascades, after which the height was supposed to have been directly reduced to the present, level. The most important and continuous of these cascades was that over the Medina sandstone, still represented by rapids; and it may be most properly named the Gilbert Falls. These changing conditions in the physics of the river nec- essarily greatly modified the rate of recession of the Falls, and from their considerations, a new determination of their age became necessary. These calculations were only a stepping stone towards ascertaining the age of the Falls, and each addi- tion to our knowledge of the various phases of the river will enable us to approach a more accurate computation of the dura- tion of the Falls. There was also brought to light for the first time a means of determining the rate of the upward move- ment of the earth’s crust, and the evidence of the extinction of the Falls by the diversion of the waters of all the upper lakes into the Mississippi by way of Chicago. However, all the physics of the river were not satisfactorily explained. Thus the section of the cafion, about 4,300 feet* long, at the Whirlpool Rapids, is the narrowest and shallowest part of the gorge, not explicable by a changing character of the rock. Even the provisional explanation of the writer was not satisfactory to himself, and accordingly another was offered by Mr. I’. B. Taylor, which will be noted later. Subsequently, Prof. Gilbert estimated various depths of the river channel,t ing of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1888, of which an abstract appeared in the Proceedings of the Society for that year. That which Mr. Gilbert had written was as follows: ‘‘ The rate” (of recession of the Falls) ‘‘may also have been influenced . . . by variation in the amount of its volume” (i. e. of the Niagara River) ‘‘ due to change of climate or catchment basin. The catchment basin was formerly extended by including parts of the area of the ice sheet. It may haye been abridged by the partial diversion of the Laurentian drainage to other courses’? (Proc, A. A. A. Se., vol. xxxv, p. 223, 1886). This is the entire statement, implying the possibility of changes of outlet in any direction being a subject for consideration, and does not advance the dis- covery or hypothesis as stated by Mr. Taylor, although it announces the hypothesis of an increased discharge from glacial waters. * Originally only a length of 4,000 feet was taken. + See American Geologist, vol. xvili, pp. 223, 1896. Themaximum depth of the river had been found by soundings to reach 189 feet in the basin just below the modern falls; and 96 feet in depth immediately outside the end of the gorge. Mr. Gilbert estimated the depth of the whirlpool rapids at 35 feet; of the whirl- pool, 150 feet; of the channel at outlet of whirlpool at 50 feet; of the basin 441 Spencer—Another Episode in the History of Niagara. "UOUT[O. JO UMOZ 9YY pur osprazq qoddn oy} W09M40q IOALL OY} JO O8AN0d OY} SuIsso1o (a7) ‘oSpld §,MosuyOr Ysnosq) 98109 oy} Jo MONeAVOXO OY} JO4Je [YUN SMOIIVN OY] JV POYSTUIMIP JOU SVM JOATI OY} JO YJpvoiq OT} Jey} SULMOYS snyy ‘oes10S Ol WIGIIAM Yyuns sioyea oy} d10FOq IOAII OY} JO SyULG oT} YILM oploutood AjIvoU 0} puNoy Udaq Sey Se] S,.1o}SO,~ OAOGL UONdaS oY} JO opIs Yove WO oul, IN04U00 ‘TE ‘“WIPIM oqvliva sit SUIMOYS ‘oo105 vIeseINN oy} Jo deyy “[ aNnYIA Grass Id. 9: iO oO 5 : § JOA@) BOG UVIUL §2 tad Sal yy OZ TeAtoyuy anorwog ing that :0gNIZ ge at the Whirlpool Rapids diately above Foster’s flats at 100 feet Rec where actual surveys could not be effected. the peculiar feature of the gor while the rapids in front of Foster’s flats are reduced to 35 feet, and then the channel increases to 70 feet before pass- ing out of the cafion section. ’ imme 442 Spencer—Another Hpisode in the History of Niagara. recorded some change in the history of the river, the writer set to work to enquire why the channel appeared to be scarcely more than about 35 feet deep, while above it, nearer the Falls, its depth reaches to from 160 to 189 feet. This investigation has led to the discovery of an important episode in the history of the Falls, namely, that after the river reached its maximum descent of 420 feet, the surface of Lake Ontario was gradually raised 75 feet above the present level, and the waters stood in the Niagara gorge so as to reduce the descent of the river to 250 feet, before the final lowering of the Ontario waters to a level of 326 feet beneath those of Lake Erie. This discovery will be found to explain the greater shallowness of the channel at the Whirlpool Rapids than below or above. Revision of the Episodes of Niagara River. As previously described,* the first episode of the river was characterized by a cascade comparable in size to the American Falls, draining the Erie basin alone (whose discharge is only between one-fourth and one-sixtht that of the basins of the four upper lakes), and descending 200 feet into the lower lake, then at the level of the Iroquois beach. This condition pre- vailed until the cataract had receded about 9,000 feett from the mouth of the gorge§ (see figure 1). The commencement of the second episode was marked by the increase in the volume of the water, owing to the drainage of all the upper lakes being turned into the Niagara. This caused the river to broaden its channel so that the cafion, along the section of Foster’s flats (I, fig. 1) and for some distance above, is much wider than below. But the height of the Falls was not increased until after they had receded a further dis- tance of 6,300 feet, when Foster’s flats had been passed. That the height was not increased is shown ‘by the fact that the flats represent the floor of the channel at that time, * See Duration of Niagara Falls. + The discharge was measured by the Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. Report for 1869, p. 582. In the early part of the season, when the summer drainage was coming from the upper lakes, the discharge of the Erie basin was 16°3 per cent that of all the four lakes. Later in the season the discharge of Erie increased to 28°9 per cent. The mean discharge was 22°5 per cent. Consequently it would be better to accept this proportion in place of approximately one-fourth. ¢ Originally taken to the foot of Foster’s flats, 11,000 feet; but now to only where the gorge widens, near the Catholic College, for it appears that the lower part of the flats have been denuded away. § This section of the modern river has reoccupied the extension of the buried shallow preglacial depression or valley of Bloody Run, and this in part explains the change of course and the narrowness of this lower section. | The best development of Foster’s flats is 3,000 feet long, which measure- ment was originally used, but the full length is about 3,700 feet, to which length is now added a section of 2,600 feet of the cafion below, with a corresponding breadth. Spencer— Another Episode in the History of Niagara. 448 although this floor is now from 35 to 50 feet above the level of Lake Ontario; with the remains of a terrace considerably higher. The rugged features of the upper part of the flats indicate a transition stage. Had the descent of the river been increased to the maximum at this time, the excavating power of the Falls should have cut its channel deeply in the rock beneath the floor, of which Foster’s flats isa remnant. The correctness of this conclusion is shown by the deeper (see sec- tion, fig. 2) and wider channel above this section. The great power of excavation during the full height of the Falls is also illustrated just below the present cataract, where the thick bed of hard Medina sandstone, the same as at Foster’s flats, has been more than penetrated by the impact of the water, although this hard bed is far beneath the surface of the river. The upper end of the flats (see IF, fig. 1) marks the closing of the episodes of the first inferior descent of the river. The excavation of the deep basin between the head of Foster’s flats (see fig. 2) and the whirlpool shows the amount of work performed by the Falls during the next episode, when the descent of the full volume of the river was increased from 200 to 420 feet; but of the increased descent probably quite 170 feet* was situated in the lower part of the gorge and its extension to the retreating shore line of Lake Ontario, when the channel below the end of the gorge was excavated toa depth of a hundred feet below the present surface of the lake. It was the Medina sandstone, now exposed, which gave rise to a distinct cascade, before mentioned, occurring two and a half miles below the front of the main falls. This lower cata- ract, with an interrupted history, has not yet completed its work, although it has cut the modern secondary cation through Foster’s flats, having a width reduced to only 380 feet+ with vertical walls from 40 to 50 feet high. Here the river is esti- mated at 35 feet deep, although it greatly increases in depth below the flats. This portion of the river is still characterized by heavy rapids. While the main cataract was descending over Niagara lime- stone, just above Foster’s flats, and the lower or Gilbert Falls cascading nearer the mouth of the gorge (see section, fig. 2), there seems to have been an intermediate fall from the harder beds of the Clifton rocks; but as these do not give rise to a separate cataract to-day, there does not appear any reason to suppose that the intermediate cascade continued *The floor of Foster’s flats was 130 feet above the lake level as established when the Niagara River descended 420 feet, with the estimated depth of water in this portion of the cafon reaching 40 feet above it, or the descent of the lower fall and rapids amounted to 170 feet. + Surveyed by an engineer for Mr. George Holley. 444 Spencer—Another Episode in the Llistory of Niagara. long to be an _ important feature, although remnants of terraces corresponding to its height are traceable ni Fostaria flats, at the mouth of the whirlpool, and.perhaps a few hundred feet above this point, near the foot of the Whirlpool Jtapids upon the eastern side. This epoch of maximum volume and descent appears to have been of short duration, as the deep channel above Fos- ter’s flats is only 3,200 feet in length, and is limited by the barrier at the outlet of the whirlpool (fig. 2), which is a later remnant of a river floor similar to that of the flats below. Thesame hard Medina ledges are exposed as far as the foot of the Whirlpool Rapids. The deeper cauldron of the whirlpool behind its contracted outlet occurs only as an incident in the excavation of the gorge, for, in part, it was the site of a short fragment of an ancient buried channel, and it is not a record of the chang- ing episodes of the modern Niagara. The occurrence of the rocky ledge, at the mouth of the whirlpool, indicated that the maximum descent of the -river was reduced when the Falls reached this point. The dissection of this ledge by a _ channel, only 400 feet in width and 50 .feet in depth, is the work of the modern restoration of the lowest cataract, which was interrupted as will be ex- plained later. F, site of modern falls; Foster’s flats are located on the (dotted) Johnson’s ridge is a rocky barrier Sf Ml yl i t A similar remnant occurs at outlet of whirlpool. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF NIAGARA GORGE, showing the floor of the channel on (shaded) Medina shale, and the theoretical FIGURE 2, position of the Falls and profile of the river at the end of each episode—(1) Bbd, (2) Ccb, (3) Ddddd, (4) Hee, Rrr. I, position of the Iroquois Beach; X, position of the Niagara Beach; 2zz, the three deep basins. band of Medina sandstone at 35-50 feet above the lake. in front of the broad preglacial valley. | Spencer—Another Episode in the History of Niagara. 445 The Newly-discovered E/pisode—the Niagara Strand. The closing part of this last episode, and the next, during which the Falls receded to a point above the Narrows (tig. 2) of the Whirlpool Rapids has proved the most difficult of explanation. The writer provisionally adopted* a hypothesis by which the maximum height of the Falls was continued throughout this section. But the recent investigation shows that during this time the descent of the river was reduced from 420 to 250 feet, before it was increased to the present amount of 326 feet. Consequently, in the earlier writings upon: the history of the Falls, this important episode, and its effect upon the Falls, were unknown. | Below Foster’s flats, the sloping sides of the gorge are cov- ered with talus, while the section passing the flats is that of a newly formed cafion with vertical walls, except at the foot (showing a transition stage). Opposite the lower end of the flats, there is a delta deposit of river stones, some of which are more or less subangular, forming a sort of terrace within the cafion, rising to a height of 70-75 feet. Its occurrence shows first the excavation of the gorge, and then the rise of the waters in it to the named height, so as to have allowed the accumulation of the deposit. The evidence of this rise of the river is further demonstrated by the occurrence of terraces immediately below the end of the gorge, having a height of 50-55 feet, on which there is a beach-like gravel ridge at an elevation of 70-75 feet above Lake Ontario. This terrace with its surmounting ridge is here named the Niagara Strand. The further sinking of the water is shown in the terraces at about 35 feet, and at 5-10 feet. The rising of Lake Ontario to a height of 75 feet would back the surface of the river to not merely the whirlpool, but had the cafion been excavated, it would have extended the lake level to about the point of the inclined railway (opposite the middle of Whirlpool Rapids). This backing of the waters would naturally protect the floor from erosion, and would explain the shallowness of the section of the Whirlpool Rapids. The amount of work performed by the Falls during this episode of reduced descent of the river is represented by the excavation of the cafion for a distance of 6,800 feet,t+ to a point just above the railway bridges, figure 2 (less that portion of the rock which had been removed from the valley in preglacial times). The narrowness of the gorge at the Whirlpool Rapids will be considered later. * See Duration of Niagara Falls, cited before. + Of this distance, 2500 feet is the portion of the section between the Medina sandstone barrier at the outlet of the whirlpool and the foot of the rapids above, while through the Narrows the length is 4300 feet. 446 Spencer—Another Episode in the History of Niagara. The Modern Episode. The last episode, or that of the present day, is characterized by the waters sinking again, so that the descent of the river has been increased, and now amounts to 326 feet. But this change was not continuous, for the descent was 350 feet or somewhat more, while the falls were receding through Johnson ridge (see fig. 2), back of which there was a preglacial valley 90 feet deep, that upon being reached by the falls, caused the waters to be lowered to the present amount. The dissected rocky ridge is 4,800 feet across before reaching the buried valley behind it (at a point near the upper bridge). Here the river channel has a depth of 160 feet, although above the shal- low Whirlpool Rapids. Since passing this Johnson’s ridge the Falls, with their height as now seen, has receded a further distance of 6,400 feet—thus completing a section of 11,200 feet during the modern episode of two stages. The mean recession of the Falls is now 44 feet a year. With the last increase in the descent of the river, the lowest or Gilbert cascade was reéstablished, of which remnants occur in the rapids at Foster’s flats and at the outlet of the whirlpool.* The more shallow channel of the Narrows has also given rise to an intermediate cascade in the form of the Whirlpool Rapids, with the descent of about 60 feet. The Rise of the Ontario Waters. Further evidence of the backing of the waters in the Ontario basin may be seen in the former lagoon, behind Burlington heights, at the head of Lake Ontario, where the gravel beds of the Iroquois Beach epoch have been eroded and subsequently covered by silt. This deposit of from four to eight feet in thickness was accumulated in the quiet waters of a protected bay when Lake Ontario stood at about 70 feet above its present level, at which height it forms a conspicuous terrace and plain. The Niagara Strand is well marked in the small embay- ment behind the Iroquois Beach at the outlet of the Niagara gorge. farther down the river, it is well shown as a super- ficial deposit of waterworn pebbles and sand at a height of *This interpretation of the modern nature of the canon in front of Foster’s flats seems apparently to escape Mr. Taylor’s observation, as he quotes Prof, Gilbert: ‘‘The shoals at Wintergreen flats (i. e. those at Foster’s flats) and the Whirlpool Rapids are correlated with the epoch when the discharge of the upper lakes by way of the Trent and Mattawa Valleys left the Niagara River ard Falls too small and weak for deep excavation” (p. 80 of Mr. Taylor’s paper to be cited). As the modern cafion past Foster’s flats is all that is being excavated by the fulk volume of the Niagara River, the extraordinary appeal for a cause of its small- ness need not have been made to this evidently modern section had the rise of waters in the gorge been known, followed by the reéstablishment of the Gilbert Falls over the Medina sandstone, which falls in the form of the rapids are still continuing. Spencer— Another Episode in the History of Niagara. 447 about 70 feet. These gravels are very thickly strewn upon the almost flat surface down to an altitude of about 50 feet above the lake, surmounted by low ridgelets. It extends as a zone eastward of the river and marks the gradual lowering of the lake, which at the mouth of the gorge is more strongly marked by the terrace (at 50 feet) and capping ridge of gravel (seen also at the site of the Church at Queenstown. It is seen at the St. Catherine’s to the west. The Niagara Strand, east of the Irondequoit Bay, is represented by a sand terrace faintly sepa- rable from other delta deposits. West of Great Sodus Bay, it forms a strong terrace at about 40-50 feet above the lake, sur- mounted in places by a sand beach rising to 65-70 feet. At other points it is seen as the terrace plains of valleys. The cause of the temporary rise of the waters of Lake Ontario is easy of explanation. From the excessive tilting of the earth’s crust at the outlet of Lake Ontario, the water in the Niagara district rose (in so far as it affected the physics of the river) from a level 80 feet below that of the present day to about 75 feet higher than now. The subsequent withdrawal of the water was brought about by the St. Lawrence River cutting a deeper channel for itself, largely out of drift deposits, thus lowering the water of the lake to its present level. These conclusions are based upon the following evidence. The present channel of the St. Lawrence ordinarily varies from 60 to 80 feet, but there are deeper holes, one of which reaches a depth of 228 feet. In passing through the islands below the outlet of Lake Ontario, one is constantly observing fragmerts (sometimes of limestone rock) of the former bed of the river, now raised from 5 to 10 feet above its surface. But the first rocky barrier now crossed by the river is at the Galops Rapids, 75 miles below the outlet of the lake. The narrowest part of the river is here half a mile wide, with a depth, even on the rapids, of from 30 to 45 feet. Before the removal of the bar- rier by the river dissecting it, the water stood at from 100 to 140 feet above the present level. Many remaining points on the islands in the river rise to about a hundred feet or more. Upon the southern side of the St. Lawrence as at Cape Vin- cent, there is a series of terraces at 30, 40-45, 50-60, 80, and 90-100 feet within a mile and quarter of the shore. The northern shore rises to 100 feet, close to the river. The country at this height, or at slightly greater altitude, forms plains often miles in width, and extended across the channel of the St. Lawrence River, which is a groove excavated out of it. The material removed from the channel was largely drift, but not entirely. The plains characterizing the surface of the bar- rier to the Ontario basin are often in the form of terraces, bounded by abrupt steps (old shore lines or banks) rising to _ those of higher levels—notably at 90, 115, and 140 feet above 448 Spencer— Another Episode in the History of Niagara. the lake. The succession of plains can be traced for a long distance down the St. Lawrence, so that one may conclude that there has been comparatively little warping or unequal deforma- tion of the region, since the river began to deepen its channel. Thus it would seem that the dissected barrier had a height between 100 and 140 feet, and that the subsequent uplift of the region has been only about 25 feet more than at the mouth of the Niagara gorge. Thus the features of Lake Ontario con- firm the hypothesis of the recent rising of the waters in the Niagara gorge, which has been adopted to interpret one of the important episodes in the history of Niagara River. Eeplanation of the Narrows of the Gorge at the Whirlpool Rapids. The most important feature in the history of the river that has remained unexplained is the narrowing of the cation along the section of the Whirlpool Rapids. Mr. F. B. Taylor* has accounted for both the narrowness and the shallowness of the section somewhat as follows. He says that one of the princi- pal hypotheses for explaining the section of the gorge at the Whirlpool Rapids is that “the whole gorge, excepting always the whirlpool basin, has been made by the modern or post- glacial river Niagara, and that the magnitude of the gorge in the different sections is due to the variation of volume.” He says that this seems to be the simpler of the hypotheses and proceeds @ prioré to support his proposition by a lengthy brochure entitled “Origin of the Gorge of the Whirlpool Rapids at Niagara.” According to his supposition, the waters of the Huron basin, hitherto retained by an ice dam to the northeast, were now withdrawn from the Niagara discharge while the falls were passing the whirlpool section, thus reduc- ing its volume to one-ninth the present amount. Here it should be noted that by actual measurement, the drainage is between 4 and 4 (at different periods of the season of measure- ment). Until there is a more perfect determination, these are the only figures that we have to go by. Not only has he reduced the discharge of the Niagara to half as great as indi- cated by ascertained data, but he neglects to take into account the evidence of the buried channel at this point, which in part still remains intact upon the sides of the chasm, and which the modern. river has taken possession of. Such a depression is only characteristic of this section of the Whirlpool Rapids, for just at its foot the rocky walls are higher than those along the midsection. Mr. Taylor assumes that the preglacial gorge of the whirlpool ended abruptly, in an amphitheater, like modern cafions, and not by transition slopes (which everywhere mark the features of the preglacial erosion) from the buried * Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. xix, pp. 59-84, 1898. Spencer— Another Episode in the History of Niagara. 449 valley above the cauldron. Indeed the sloping features are preserved in the extension of the whirlpool valley, where not remodified by the modern Niagara, showing that we have not far to go for evidence. The diminution of the volume of the river would not explain the shallowness of the channel at the Whirlpool Rapids. We find to-day many small streams near the Niagara district which are excavating their cafions directly through the lower hard layers of the same strata as in the gorge, showing that the streams of insignificant volume are penetrating the rocks to the base-level of erosion as well as those of great magnitude. Consequently, Mr. Taylor’s hypothesis does not satisfy the shallowness of the Whirlpool Rapids, which demands a reduc- tion in the height of the falls, such as has been found to have obtained. The other question which the hypothesis of the glacial dam was hoped to explain was the narrowness of the section of the Whirlpool Rapids. If the waters of the Huron basin had been completely diverted from the Niagara drainage at this time, the narrowing but not shallowing of the cafion might be partly explained. But of it there appears no evidence. From the preservation of the river banks outside of the narrows of the gorge, the width of the channel is seen to have been main- tained at the full breadth and depth. This statement may be seen somewhat illustrated in fig. 1 (page 441), below which there is an explanatory note. The constriction applies to the gorge alone. ‘This section differed materially from the country above and below it, as here the Niagara River came to occupy a shal- low and small preglacial valley, which was filled by drift to the depth of forty or fifty feet, as seen in the banks of the deserted channel of the river beyond the edge of the chasm. The depth of the depression was greater in its center, and the river took possession of the deeper portion, and upon the removal of the drift, sunk within the narrow gorge. This is found to have been the case, for at the place where Mr. Taylor describes the pause of the falls, at the foot of the present Whirlpool Rapids, the surface rocky floor of the old valley at that point is 20 feet higher than in the deeper remains of the channel exposed above it; thus showing that there was a deeper medial chan- nel subsequently developed into the narrow chasms. This shallow-buried valley began in Johnson’s ridge, just above the railway bridges (see figs. 1 and 2), and extended to the whirlpool, whose cauldron is only the deeper extension of the same ancient channel. Accordingly it is readily seen that the length of the section of the Narrows and that of the preglacial depression coincide. When the Falls had retreated as far as the whirlpool, and. had removed the rocky barrier at its outlet, the buried channel 450 Spencer—Another Episode in the History of Niagara. would have been quickly reéxcavated by the current easily removing the drift filling. With the channel being thus deep- ened so rapidly, in loose material, it would cause a concentra- tion of the current within a narrow gorge, and materially augment the mechanical effects upon the floor of the cafion —thus deepening without broadening the chasm. Indeed, is not this feature of the contraction of the cation perfectly developed at the outlet of the whirlpool, where the whole vol- ume of drainage of all the upper lakes, by Niagara River, rushes, as out of a waste weir, through a channel only 400 feet wide, with an estimated depth of 50 feet? Thus there seems no reason to suppose that the volume of the river was, during this episode, reduced to one-fourth or one-fifth of the present amount,—as would have been the case with Mr. Tay- lor’s hypothesis, especially as the work of the Falls would have been greatly diminished by the reduced descent of its waters (as already described on page 445). A partial reduction of the volume of the water, at this time, was more than probable, but from another cause than that here discussed. In the “ Duration of Niagara Falls,’* it was shown that the Johnson ridge caused the waters of the Erie basin to rise te the point of discharging a portion of the waters of the upper lakes into the Mississippi, by way of a new outlet near Chicago. But the falls dissected Johnson ridge before there was an extensive drainage of the Niagara waters to the Mississippi; whereupon there was a lowering of the upper lakes below the Chicago overflow. At this distant day, it is difficult to estimate the exact amount of such discharge which may have been greater than at first supposed. The ter- races or shore-lines in the St. Clair outlet of Lake Huron, atan elevation of fifteen or twenty-five feet above the level of Lake Erie, apparently correspond with the level of the Erie waters, as they were being raised by the Johnson ridge before it was dissected by Niagara Falls. Thus the deserted shore-lines of - the lakes support the evidence of the partial drainage, at this time, of the upper lakes into the Mississippi. : The physical conditions as now described account more fully for the narrows of the gorge than any previous explanation, as the cause of its shallowness seems to have been made clear. This solution of a condition previously overlooked may possi- bly be found entirely sufficient, and it has an advantage of being in full accord with mechanical forces which we see at work in Niagara to-day. The new discoveries in the history of Niagara River, which have here brought about a revision of the episodes, will somewhat alter the estimate of the age of the Falls from 32,000 years, but whatever figures resalt they will doubtless approach more nearly the true age of the Falls. * Cited before. A. deF. Palmer, Jr.—Apparatus for Measuring, ete. 451 Art. XLV.—On an Apparatus for Measuring very High Pressures ; by A. DEFOREST PALMER, JR. SoME time ago, while I was investigating the relation between the electrical resistance and the pressure of pure mer- eury, Prof. Barus remarked that the results might be used by exterpolation in the calculation of very high pressures, and suggested that I undertake the construction of an apparatus to utilize this principle and determine the limit of pressure obtain- able with a tinned screw. After several disappointing pre- liminary trials the method described below was finally adopted and found to give very satisfactory results. ¥, Figure 1 is a sectional diagram of the piezometer. H.SO, Ba(OH). neutralized H.SO, taken. taken. by H2SOx4. found. Mean. Variation. em*, erm. erm. grm. grm. grm. (1) 10 0°21 0: 0884 0°0506 0°0498 0°0008 + (2) 10 0°21 0°0880 0°0503 0°0498 0°0005 + (3) 15 0°30 0'1328 0'0754 0°0748 0°0006 + (4) 15 0°30 0°1313 0'0751 0:0748 0°0003 + (5) 25 0°43 0'2168 0°1239 0°1246 0'0007— (6) 30 0°43 0'2600 0°1481 0°1495 0°0014— This investigation shows that the reaction between iodine and hydroxides of the alkalies and alkaline earths in hot solu- tion is regular and complete under analytical conditions, not being appreciably affected by the mass action of considerable excesses of iodine. The reaction is best applied in analysis by titrating the alkali with an excess of iodine, removing this excess by boiling, and estimating the iodine in the residue. While certain mechanical difficulties. may affect the extreme accuracy of the process as a direct means for analyzing alka- lies, the action is at all times regular and may be indirectly applied with fair accuracy to the analysis of various acids and possibly to other compounds. The reaction between iodine and alkali carbonates on the contrary is irregular and cannot be made the basis of any analytical process. Midden and Pratt—Associated Minerals of Rhodolite. 463 Arr. XLVII.—On the Associated Minerals of Rhodolite; by W. E. Hippen and J. H. Prarrv. In a recent paper on rhodolite, a new variety of garnet,* the authors gave a list of the associated minerals, and it is the purpose of this article to describe them more fully. All the minerals have been obtained from the gravel beds of Mason Branch, which empties into the Little Tennessee River about five and one-half miles below Franklin, the county seat of Macon County, North Carolina. These gravel beds have been mined quite extensively for rhodolite by means of hydraulic processes and the species herein described have been found wholly in the concentrates. When the minerals shall have been traced to their source, as they promise to be soon and mining 2 situ inaugurated here, this locality may be expected to become one of unusual interest to mineralogists and geol- ogists. Quartz.—Compact crystalline and granular quartz is abund- ant as rolled pebbles and rounded bowlders (rarely weighing above 20 kg.). Crystals are occasionally found but are of very ordinary character. Massive quartz enclosing rhodolite and iolite, often both in the same mass, are not uncommon. Quartz pseudomorphs.—An important characteristic of the locality is the occurrence of quartz pseudomorphs in the form of isometric dodecahedrons, bearing upon their faces markings exactly like those seen upon garnets. These crystals, some- times 1° diameter, are wholly perfect and are rarely irregularly grouped together. They are gray in color and apparently homogeneous, with the exception of numerous inclusions of minute red rutile and black menacecanite. ‘Their density, determined upon a single typical specimen, was 3°203, which was low for garnet and high for quartz. When pulverized and treated with the heavy solution to separate out the rutile and menaccanite, the remaining material was found to be a mix- ture of colorless quartz and the rhodolite variety of garnet. The manner of their original formation and what was the original dodecahedral mineral, offer peculiar problems, for the erystals are undoubtedly not ordinary pseudomorphs. They never show any projecting neck or rough broken surfaces such as would indicate a pre-existent cavity through which this material might have passed into a cavernous garnet. It is our intention to study sections of these erystals, to determine if possible, the relation of the quartz and garnet in them, whether there are parallel layers of these minerals or whether the optic * This Journal, vol. v, p. 294, 1898. 464 Hidden and Pratt—Associated Minerals of Rhodolite. axes of the quartz have a definite relation to the dodecahedral AXeS, Corundum.—About one-seventh of the heavier concentrates are corundum crystals, in the form of hexagonal prisms termi- nated by the base, some of which are 1™ in diameter. The surfaces and edges are usually rough, from natural corrosion while in place. The common color is gray, but pale blue, pink and amethystine shades are often found. Ruby-colored crystals also occur and some of them are nearly transparent. A few of the amethystine crystals would furnish fairly good gems. No corundum has, as yet, been found 7m situ in the valley and no matrix is to be seen left upon the erystals. Spinel Group.—This group constitutes about five per cent of the concentrates and seems to include the three species, pleonaste, gahnite and chromite. The gahnite has a density of 4°24—4'40 and has been analyzed by Dr. Charles Baskerville* with the following results: Ratio. Al,O, ma? Se ath ae 61°09 "599 =e Feet hae 7°78 °108 ZOOL SHS UE ee 27°44 "339 > G30; sae MgO PSs Aah heeee 3°30 083 99°61 From the above analysis, the mineral is shown to be the kreittonite or zine-iron variety of gahnite. The ratio of ZnO: FeO: MgO is close to 12:4:3, which would give for the formula of this gahnite (12Zn.4Fe.3Mg)O. Al,O,. The mineral has a clean glassy fracture like that of some dark obsidians and is deep bottle-green by transmitted light. The octahedron alone and in combination with the rhombic dodecahedron were the only forms observed on the crystals. The faces are never smooth but have an irregular and rounded appearance very similar to the so-called ‘fused quartz.” Smooth fragmentary masses are most common, varying in size from 3™™ to 1:5™ in diameter and are very free from inclusions. Of the chromite only a few small pieces were found, but these would seem to indicate that there is now or has been a rock of the peridotite character in this valley from which this chromite originated. No basic magnesia rocks are known to be exposed in this locality. The specimens are kidney-form and about 1™ in diameter. They have a very brilliant luster upon a fractured surface and are of a pitchy-black color. A specific gravity determination gave approximately 4°7. * University of North Carolina. ¥ : 4 Hidden and Pratt—Associated Minerals of Rhodolite. 465 Bronzite.—This mineral is rare but occurs as highly etched fragments which are pale yellow to deep brown in color and are perfectly transparent, a very exceptional quality of bronz- ite. A beautiful silky sheen sometimes shines out from it when held at the proper angle similar to that seen in the chrysobery] eat’s-eye. The largest piece weighed 13 grams and furnished a beautiful gem, much resembling the brown tourma- lines from Ceylon. With the hand dichroscope it exhibited beautiful brown and green colors. The specific gravity of the mineral is 3:43 and its fusibility 54 to 6. A little bronzite has been found associated with a very dark green massive amphibolite occurring as erratic bowlders. Lolite.—The iolite has been found abundantly embedded in small bowlders of a granular quartz. The rock has very much the appearance of a conglomerate with quartz as the cement- ing material, and it could be well called an iolite pegmatite. The surface iolite has undergone alteration and left the quartz cavernous and cellular, and only by breaking these bowlders open can the purer white iolite be obtained. This, however, is not entirely free from alteration, for it shows a thin silky to micaceous coating and shows internally minute scales of mica (biotite 4), which lie parallel to the basal plane. The rhodolite garnet is the only mineral as yet identified as occurring directly with the iolite, but staurolite, cyanite, pale green apatite and rutile seem to be present. The minute inclusions of mica give rise to a beautiful golden sheen when the iolite is viewed in the direction of the vertical axis in reflected light, thus promising a new chatoyant gem. No crystal planes have been observed, the mineral being columnar and varying from 3 to 25™™" in diameter and length. The color is pale yellow to greenish yellow. The mineral is nearly transparent but is wholly devoid of dichroism, so emi- nent a characteristic of the species. The analysis by Basker- ville identifies this mineral as iolite. The result of the analysis is as follows: Specific gravity = 2°54 Ratio Su lle ai ee ae 47°60 793 = 9°00 Pee Ok 8690 354 = 4:01 OO i sos os 2 P15 015 oo 10°73 rer 2 mae ese CIOs ial trace TAROT Hato, wae oe 3°14 174 =; args 466 Hidden and Pratt—Associated Minerals of Rhodolite. In the above analysis the ratios only approximate to the generally accepted formula, H,O.4(Mg. Fe)O .4A1,0, . 10Si0,, and it is undoubtedly due to a slight admixture of some hydrated iolite with the material analyzed. Cyanite, tremolite, fibrolite (?), hornblende, rutile and menac- canite occur, but of a too common order to merit any extended mention in this paper. Staurolite.—This mineral has a rich garnet red color and is perfectly transparent; being apparently free from its cus- tomary inclusions. Its specific gravity is 3°80. Only small fragments and rounded masses of the staurolite have been found and these were often mistaken by the miners for the pyrope garnet. Monazite and Zircon.—These two species occur abundantly as minute crystals and grains in the finer and heavier concen- trates. They rarely exhibit well-defined crystalline forms but are usually perfectly transparent and very brilliant. A few rough crystals of monazite were found that were decidedly green in color and were from 2-6™™ thick in the direction of the 6 axis. This green color would seem to indi- cate the isomorphous replacement of ThO, by UO, similar to the occurrence in the green xenotime of Brindletown, N. C.* Cyrtolite—Gentht has mentioned the occurrence in this valley of “peculiar dark brown crystals from 1-3™™" in size which may be zircon.” What are probably the same kind of crystals have been found in the concentrates with the rhodolite, but only two of these were saved. The exterior of the erys- tals is black or very dark brown, while the interior of one is a yellowish brown. The specific gravity is 3°71. L One of the crystals measured 6™ in the direction of the ¢ axis. Orienting the crystals according to zircon, the only forms observed were the prism of the second order a, 100 and the unit pyramid of the first order p, 111, which were identified by means of the contact goniometer, giving pap’ = 56° 30’, while for zircon pap’ = 56° 40’ 26”. The crystals were smooth and developed as represented in fig. 1, neither of them being doubly terminated. No analysis has as yet been made of these crystals, but they are undoubtedly hydrated alteration products and should be classified with the so-called malacon and eyrto- lite group. . Gold.—A small sample of slightly impure gold was finally saved, after much labor of rewashing the concentrates and * L. G. Eakins, this Journal, June, 1892. + Bulletin U. 8. Geol. Survey, No. 74, 1891, p. 49. a a nl aceite 28 — pe oe Ei > Hidden and Pratt— Associated Minerals of Rhodolite. 467 panning them down to a practical minimum. This sample weighed 1°75 grams and represented the gold from many hun- dred cubic yards of gravel and thus proved its rarity in this locality. This gold was assayed and the resulting button weighed 12757 grams. Its specific gravity was 17°88. The pure gold weighed after separation from the alloyed silver 1°1583 grams, showing the Mason’s Branch gold to be 90°77 per cent “ fine.” This is interesting because the neighboring Caler Fork (distant two miles N. E.) gold* had a “ fineness” of 90-10 per cent and thus a constancy is shown for the region generally. In the concentrates containing this gold, over 300 crystals of sperry- lite were found and also all the other characteristic minerals mentioned by one of us as occurring with sperrylite from Caler Fork.* Sperrylite.—The most important mineral found associated with the rhodolite is sperrylite. It was first found among the gold particles in a similar manner to that discovered by one of us on Caler Fork, in Macon County.* From the 12 grams of impure gold already mentioned, about 300 crystals of sperrylite were finally separated by using a strong pocket lens and a moistened needle point. The gold sands were spread out upon glass to avoid their jumping when touched, as the particles are prone to do from paper or wood. The crystals have sharper edges and are somewhat larger and brighter than those from Caler Fork. The entire “find” did not exceed one milligram in weight and the largest crystal was 0°4™" in diameter. The octahedron apparently predominates, though many of the crystals show an equal develop- ment of the cube and octahedron. On a very few of the crystals, there was a slight development of the pentagonal dodecahedron e¢, 210, represented by fig. 2, which was prepared by G. H. Edwards of the Sheftield Scientific School, who identified the faces by the fcllowing measurements : Measured. Calculated. pAG., 111x010 54° 56’ 54° 44! OA, br x tht 70 48 70 32 ane, 100A 210 26 28 26 34 These results prove that these sperrylite crystals are iso- metric and pyritohedral and, therefore, are like the original sperrylite from the Algoma district, near Sudbury, Canada. * This Journal, vol. vi, p. 381, 1898. 468 ITidden and Pratt—Associated Minerals of Rhodolite. One-half mile due north of the rhodolite placer mine, near the summit of Mason Mountain, a ledge of rock is exposed, which is composed almost entirely of impure rhodolite and biotite, with a very considerable quantity of the iron sulphides disseminated through them. Sperrylite has been obtained by panning the sands naturally concentrated in the crevices and cavities weathered in the ledge, which would seem to indicate that this ledge is one of the original sources, if not the source, of the sperrylite found in the valley below. In evnelusion the authors. wish to express their thanks to Prof. S. L. Penfield of the Sheffield Scientific School for his kindness in making many tests to positively identify the min- erals herein described. September, 1898, J. EL. Todd—Revision of the Moraines of Minnesota. 469 Art. XLVIII.—A Revision of the Moraines of Minnesota ; by J. E. Topp. For our knowledge of glacial deposits of Minnesota, so far as has been published, we are indebted almost entirely to the excellent work of Mr. Warren Upham. Even where others have been employed in detailed work, he has correlated and interpreted the data. The following criticism of his conclu- sions is done with the most friendly feelings and prompted only by the love of truth. It has seemed advisable that the present view should be presented, that the scientific world might judge for themselves regarding the comparative cor- rectness of the two views. When called to share in the work of unraveling the Pleisto- cene geology of Minnesota four years since, the impressions of the writer were mainly in harmony with those of Mr. Upham. It has been his province to examine the northwestern counties _ of the State, and it should be remembered that the interpreta- tion offered below is based mainly upon observations in the western half of the State. The work in Hubbard and Bel- trami Counties soon presented the case in a different light. From a comparison of our map (p. 471, scale, 70 miles to the inch) with those referred to below, the salient differences of interpretation will appear clearly. It will be seen that, according to Mr. Upham’s view, all of the moraines crossing Minnesota and Dakota have been formed by an ice sheet moving southward. Time not permitting us to follow the growth of his views, we take their ripe expression as given in the 22d annual report of the Minnesota Geological Survey. This southerly motion persists without much refer- ence to topography. The stages marked by the separate moraine as recognized by Mr. Upbam are as follows :* 1. The Altamont, extending into Southern Dakota and to Des Moines, Ia. : 2. Gary Moraine, extending to Mineral Ridge, near Boone, Towa. 3. Antelope Moraine, extending to Pilot Mound in Hancock County, Ia. 4. Kiester Moraine, extending into Freeborn and Faribault Counties. 5. Elysian Moraine, extending into southern LeSeur County. 6. Waconia Moraine, extending to Waconia, Carver County, Minn. *Tce Age in North America, pp. 545-. The Glacial Lake Agassiz, Mon. xxv, U.8. G.S., pp. 141-. 470 J. EL. Todd—Revision of the Moraines of Minnesota. 7. Dover Moraine, extending into southern Kandiyohi County. 8. Bergus Falls Moraine, which passes Fergus Falls and extends into Morrison County. 9. Leaf Hills Moraine, forming with the preceding the main portion of the Leaf Hills and extending into northern Todd and Morrison Counties, thence east-northeast nearly to Grand Marais on the north shore of Lake Superior. 10. The Itasca Moraine which surrounds Lake Itasca, runs south of Leach and Pokegoma Lakes nearly to Grand Portage on Lake Superior. : 11. Mesabi Moraine, which separates the two portions of Red Lake, lies along the divides of Cass and Winnibigoshish Lakes, thence forms the so-called Mesabi range and strikes Lake Superior at Pigeon Point. 12. Vermillion Moraine, which lies south of Net, Pelican and Vermillion Lakes. The following objections present themselves to this inter- pretation : First, it assumes that latitude had more to do with the move- ment of the ice sheet than altitude. This is contrary to what we learn either from the movements of existing ice sheets in Greenland and Alaska, or in the ease of the Dakota and Michigan lobes of the Pleistocene ice. It is true almost with- out exception that in the zone of ablation the ice seeks the lowest levels with a persistence nearly equal to that of water. There can be no question that the ice, at least in its later stages, lay in the zone of ablation rather than in the zone of accumuiation. The scheme presented above shows little or none of this rule. The ice is represented as vacating the Lake Superior basin and the Red River valley much sooner than it did the elevated region around Itasca. The abrupt rise along the northwest shore of Lake Superior of more than a thousand feet seems not to have exerted any perceptible influence on the direction of the Leaf Hills and Itasca Moraines. In the Mesabi Moraine southeast of Red Lake we find it rising from about 1200 feet at Red Lake to more than 1400 feet on a divide without apparently responding to the influence of the surface at all. In fact, instead of running westward down the slope, as would be analogous to known cases, Mr. Upham represents it as turning eastward so as to form a reéntrant angle. Second, it does not represent the ice as retiring in the proper direction to explain the formation of the early stages of Lake Superior, when it formed beaches 500 feet above the present lake around its western end and discharged through the St. Croix River. Nor is it in harmony with the subse- quent or contemporaneous retreat of the edge of the ice dur- J. L. Todd—Revision of the Moraines of Minnesota. 471 OvyeR Mor. March =~ SD == — J.E,TODD 4898 or THe MORAINES or MINNESOTA A REVISTON Sty MORAINES, SETS ZZ Diaection oF STRIE www, BEACH oF LAKE Agngs12 4 Reo OF * WSTRINQL s IPS 5 Ses wane asia. a Vite a PEN Ox ° ore el ed XO”. y/ t. ronbahic 1509 WINNIBIGOSHISH / 7240 : Acer LS aq Ds. eS Bec PL “ists ‘S08 os 52 z \ Cg < tM 2 whey Ke = ~ OND ‘, ‘% ian he Sung od, : . 2, STO Se $7 a3 eis p od, Teo 2X), aLenwoe 7) a y ‘ JAMESTOWN 1a? ing the different stages of Lake Warren. We might add also that it disagrees with the existence of seven or eight moraines as found by Professor F. H. King in the valley of the Upper Flambeaux River, as published in Vol. 1V, Geology of Wiscon- sin. This discrepancy seems to me surprising when we remem- Am. Jour. Sci1.—Fourts Series, Vou. VI, No. 36.—DEcemsBer, 1898, 33 472 J. L. Todd—Levision of the Moraines of Minnesota. ber that Mr. Upham strongly argues for the glacial character of these early lakes. Third, it does not correspond with the directions of striz. This is particularly true of the striae at Duluth and Carlton. As reported in Mr. Upham’s paper in the 22d annual report of Geol. Survey of Minnesota, the strize are represented as being prevalently parallel with the axis of Lake Superior or extending west-southwest. Indeed, some are directed north of west. On the same map a number north of the Mesabi range are represented as extending southwest, indicating a decidedly westward movement of the ice in the region in the northern part of Lake County and also about Rainy Lake. Still more decisive are the strize found along the upper course of Big Fork in southern Itasca County, where the prevalent movement seems to have been westward. Unfortunately, we have not the evidence of strize to assist us in the western half of the State. Fourth, this view does not harmonize with the motion of the ice as indicated by bowlders. The White Earth Reserva- tion west of the great divide abounds in limestone bowlders. They are also abundant about Black Duck Lake and Turtle River Lake in Beltrami County, but are rare in the whole of the Mississippi River basin. This is difficult to account for, provided the ice moved for a long time southward from the Red Lake valley into the Mississippi basin. Mr. J. E. Spurr, in his report of 1893 (Minn. Geol. Survey), calls attention to the fact that the Mesabi range contains bowlders from the north entirely, while the moraine next south ‘is characterized by the constant presence of large bowlders of the coarse orthosyte and other rocks which are found chiefly from the Keweenawan province and so must have come in a southwesterly direction.” He also calls atten- tion to the fact that the area between the southern moraine, which is identified by Mr. Upham with Leaf Hills and the Mesabi Range, is covered with drift similar to that of the moraine mentioned. Fifth, it does not agree with later observations of morainic areas. As these will be more fully given in a subsequent sec- tion, we will simply indicate some of the more significant points here. In the northern part of Hubbard County and southern part of Beltrami, two moraines were found extending in approxi- mately parallel curves, convex toward the west, one of them forming a reéntrant angle south of Leach Lake. The moraine about Itasca seems quite as closely connected with the morainic areas southwest as toward the east, and from the topography it seems probable that the ice lingered toward ee J. E. Todd—fevision of the Moraines of Minnesota. 473 the south longer because it is at a lower level. Abont Detroit City and White Earth Agency the drainage is distinctly east- ward through the western moraine and down the valley south- ward. Thisis indicated by the character of the deposits, which are of a sandy nature and lying in terraces. Curving westward from the strongly developed north and south moraines upon the divide between the Mississippi and Red River basins, is a short spur south of the Wild Rice River in Norman County and ending abruptly along the Upper Herman beach. A similar westward branch of the moraine turns westward between Hill and Lost Rivers in eastern Polk County. This ends abruptly at a beach marking a lower stage of Lake Agassiz. This is on Section 31, T. 150-40. More- over, a broad channel with. terraces extends from a gap in this moraine southwestward to the beach, indicating a discharge of a stream apparently from the southern edge of the lobe occu- pying the Red Lake area into Lake Agassiz. The course of Clearwater and Red Lake Rivers, together with a certain sub- dued unevenness of a belt extending northwest from this point, seems to indicate the location of the edge of the ice in Lake Agassiz during the formation of the moraine. Having expressed thus definitely our dissatisfaction with the former interpretation, we proceed to outline one that seems to avoid these difficulties. During the occupation of this region by the ice sheet, we conceive that it moved mainly in two great lobes; one coming from the northeast through the valley of Lake Superior, the ~ other from the northeast and north in the valley of Red Lake and Red River. This latter divided so as to pass down both the James River in Dakota and the Minnesota River. During the Wisconsin stage the two principal lobes mentioned were probably confluent over the whole of Minnesota, except the southeast corner. This was indicated by Mr. Upham in the 9th annual report of the Minnesota Survey, and was followed with some modification by Professor Chamberlain in the 3d annual report of the United States Geological Survey. The main modification was that he conceived the lobes to be more separated by the divide along the Mesabi Range. As the ice receded and stood at intervals to form the different moraines, there was the growth of a long interlobular moraine, first northwest from Minneapolis to the Leaf Hills, thence north and later northeast, following approximately the present divide between the two main valleys, so as to finally connect with the Mesabi moraine. This would evidently derive its material from the western side of the Lake Superior lobe and the eastern side of the western lobe. As different stages were reached in the recession, this interlobular portion would 474. SJ. LE. Todd—Revision of the Moraines of Minnesota. lengthen along the intersection of the lobes toward the north and later toward the northeast. . ! As the lobes became more attenuated and separated, the moraines, though still having an acute angle ending in a more or less tapering ridge, would become more divergent toward the south. During the formations of successive moraines, this acute angle would be the scene of copious drainage from the adjacent sides of the two lobes. This drainage would be mostly toward the south. One result of this may be seen in the location of streams, as in the case of the upper portion of Otter Tail River and the Pelican, Buffalo and Wild Rice Rivers. There would also be abundant accumulations of sand and gravel in the form of terraces and plains between the two members of the interlobular moraine. But the matter will be more fully understood after a tracing of the moraines. The First, or Altamont, moraine was evidently formed when the ice was near its maximum stage in the Wisconsin epoch and probably when the Lake Superior lobe was con- fluent with the western lobe and its branch occupying the Minnesota valley; so that the moraine was formed extending as far south as Des Moines and thence northwest, passing a little east of Minneapolis and so on northeast quite directly toward Keweenaw Point. During the formation of the Second, or Gary, moraine, the two sheets of ice began to show their separate character and probably began to accumulate to an indefinite extent heavy deposits of drift extending west and northwest from Minne- apolis, possibly uncovered, at least in its later stage, as far west as Wright and Meeker Counties. From the appearance of blue till overlying the red in eastern Minnesota we may infer that some time previous to this stage the western lobe extended farther east. Whether this was before or subsequent to the main accumulations of drift northwest of Minneapolis is unde- termined. : During the formation of the Third, or Antelope, moraine, while we may suppose the Lake Superior lobe receded but little, or may, possibly, have advanced somewhat from its closer connection with the fountain of ice northeast. The slender lobe occupying the Minnesota valley receded to a point near the southern line of Minnesota upon the south, and on the south- west had withdrawn from the eastern slope of the Coteau des Prairies. Upon the east it seems to have receded into Meeker and Kandiyohi and Pope Counties. The prominent morainic accumulations along that line may have been partly accumu- lated at a previous stage. The valley of the north branch of Crow River lay between the Minnesota and Lake Superior lobe at this time. J. EL. Todd—Revision of the Moraines of Minnesota, 475 - The Fourth moraine, namely that crossing Lake Traverse and lying along the east side of Big Stone Lake and Minnesota River and connecting with the main moraine upon the east in Pope County, or Mr. Upham’s 7th moraine, is quite feebly developed, which corresponds to the reduced strength of the western ice lobe. This rapid recession from the west and south seems a natural consequence of its greater exposure to the warm southwestern winds. We are unable to follow Mr. Upham in his recognition of the Kiester, Elysian and Waconia moraines, for they seem to us based upon reéntrant angles of the Third moraine. It is probable that during the formation of the Fourth moraine the separation of the ice lobes had extended as far north as the Leaf Hills in the southern part of Otter Tail County. It is impossible, from our present knowledge of the region, to satis- factorily analyze the very complicated tangle of morainic ridges which are included under the general head of Leaf Hills. In eastern Clay County a spur of the western branch of the interlobular moraine indicates a Fifth moraine, which seems to have been overlooked by Mr. Upham. The junction of this moraine with the highest beach of Lake Agassiz is shown upon the map of Clay County in the second volume of the Geological Survey of Minnesota. At that time, if we inter- pret rightly, the reéntrant angle of the moraine extended probably as far north as the head waters of the Wild Rice; and considerable drainage from the western lobe escaped down the valley past Detroit by the upper course of Pelican River. Probably at the same time, although not certainly, the edge of the Lake Superior lobe was for ming the moraine which passes through range 39 along the east side of Otter Tail River and Otter Tail Lake past Osakis Lake and along Sauk River. It seems not improbable that the morainic portion in eastern Sherburn County belongs to this stage, and even as late as this the ice may not have withdrawn to any extent from the St. Croix River on the east. South of the Wild Rice another prominent moraine disap- pears in the bed of Lake Agassiz, which we will call the Sixth. At that time, if we comprehend rightly, the lobes had been separated along the line curving quite sharply eastward in southern Beltrami County. The ‘two members of the moraine pass on opposite sides of the lower Wild Rice Lake and become united and gradually disappear at a point on the divide north of Lake Bemidji. To this stage we would refer, with considerable confidence, the morainic accumulations about Lake Itasca, which, as we have before suggested, we consider a reén- trant angle pointing eastward, owing its existence to the ele- vated character of that region. The region about Itasca in 476 S. L. Todd—Levision of the Moraines of Minnesota. places reaches an altitude of 1750 feet, while upon the divide north of Lake Bemidji it is very little over 1400. This dif- ference in level may account for the remarkable extension of the Lake Superior lobe toward the northwest. This we con- nect with the moraine running east of Shell Lake in Beeker County and more distinctly developed south of Pine Lake and in northern Todd County. In the northeastern corner of that county it changes from an easterly direction to one due south, and includes the morainic accumulations west and east of St. Cloud. Its further development we do not venture to indicate. The western lobe seems to have continually receded more rapidly than the eastern, and we find again the short portion of a moraine—the Seventh—joining the lower Herman or Norcross Beach of Lake Agassiz in township 159-40. From that point it runs eastward south of Red Lake, probably connecting with a moraine along Big Fork in its eastern course north of Bow String Lake, though it has not been clearly traced. Corre- sponding in time to this is a moraine found running between Turtle Lake and Lake Bemidji, thence curving southwest, sonth to southeast through eastern Hubbard County and western Cass County to Gull Lake near Brainard. There is lying approximately parellel with this a moraine passing north of Cass Lake, crossing the Mississippi east of Lake Bemidji, thence curving toward the south and southeast, forming a prominent reéntrant angle on the south side of Leach Lake. Thence it runs west of south and joins the moraine just mentioned near Gull Lake. Both of these united are believed to correlate with the morainic ridges of inter- lobular character which lie in Crow Wing and Morrison Counties, the elongated portion trending northeast in northern Kennebeck County, also the ridges in the southern part of the same county and on the south line of Pine County. The dis- tinctly double character of this moraine at its northwestern extension seems to be a result of the unusual elongation of the lobe in that direction. It may be stated also that this seventh moraine shows an indistinct double character. During the formation of the Eighth, or Mesabi, moraine, we conceive that the two ice lobes had become separated to an indefinite extent, at least beyond the borders of Minnesota, and were forming between them the Mesabi moraine. If we are correct in this supposition, the moraine before mentioned along the Big Fork must have been extended south-eastward so. as to connect with the Mesabi. At this stage for some reason the push of the northern ice lobe seemed to have been more strongly southward toward the east; while the southern ice lobe, as in the preceding stage, still pushed strongly northwest. A reason for this may be found in the much steeper slope on J. EF. Todd— Revision of the Moraines of Minnesota. 477 the south side of the divide along Lake Superior. To this stage we refer the morainic ridge separating the two portions of Red Lake, the prominent points of the so-called Beltrami Island south of the Lake of the Woods, the outer portion of the Mesabi range. The course of the moraine aronnd the Lake Superior lobe we do not venture to point out, except to suggest that it may include the moraine south of Lake Pokegama and probably some portions in western Aitkin and Mille Lacs Counties, together with some portions of the singularly elon- gated ridges trending northeast, portions of which we have referred to the preceding stage. Our conception is that at this time the Superior lobe had become more attenuated and was traversed by channels draining southwest which first tended to form osars; and these eventually grew into interlobular moraines somewhat as McGee has found in eastern Lowa. During the formation of the Ninth, or Vermillion, moraine the ice lobes had retreated some distance from each other, and the northern was forming the Vermillion moraine as has been traced by Mr, Upham, while the Lake Superior lobe was form- ing the moraine south of Cloquet River; and probably the northeastern portion of the northeast ridge in Carlton County may have been formed at this time. In this way we venture to attempt a solution of the unusually perplexing problem of the morainie accumulations of the northwest. The first stage of Lake Superior, when its highest beach was formed and its outlet was by the Bois Brule into the St. Croix River, followed soon after the vacation of this ninth moraine. Before closing, we may add a few suggestions as to the pos- sible correspondence of the Minnesota moraines on the south side of Lake Agassiz with those traced by Mr. Upham and published upon his map in his work upon Lake Agassiz. We have little difficulty in correlating the first three moraines as has been done in the third annual report of the U. 8. Geolog- ical Survey. The fourth seems to correspond with the fourth as published in Bulletin 144, U.S. Geological Survey. This may have had upon its western member a double development because of the more rapid retreat of the ice from that direc- tion, which would explain the scattered development of the moraine along the Cheyenne River in North Dakota. The fifth seems to correspond in position with one indicated by Mr. Upham as following up the east side of the Cheyenne River and more distinctly developed south of Devil’s Lake. The sixth probably corresponds to the Tiger Hills or the Arrow Hills moraine, and the seventh to the moraine crossing the Manitoba and Northwestern R.R. near Mennidosa on the Little Saskatch- ewan; while the eighthand ninth moraines extend into regions unknown west of Hudson Bay. 478 Ortmann—Some new marine Tertiary horizons. Art. XLIX.—Preliminary Report on some new marine Ter- tiary horizons discovered by Mr. J. B. Hatcher near Punta Arenas, Magellanes, Chile; by ARNOLD E. ORTMANN, Ph.D. HAVING arrived in Punta Arenas in December, 1897, Mr. J. Bb. Hatcher directed his attention first to the study of the Tertiary deposits found near the Coal Mines of Punta Arenas. He collected a lot of specimens from these beds, and about the middle of February, 1898, his first shipment of fossils reached Princeton, together with a letter giving stratigraphical notes and a rough sketch of a section of the locality under discus- sion. The writer has examined the marine fossils of this col- lection, and thinks it important to give a preliminary report on these beds, since this collection shows that there are represented two new horizons different from and older than the Tertiary beds known in Patagonia (Patagonian and Suprapatagonian beds), which contain a marine fauna that is to be regarded as completely new to science. Although Philippi* has described a couple of species from Punta Arenas and the surrounding country, nothing was known liitherto as to the stratigraphical relations of these fossils. Now, Mr. Hatcher’s collection contains a number of Philippi’s species, and his notes show conclusively that they are not found in one and the same bed, but belong to three different horizons, one of which is apparently identical with Patagonian deposits, while the two others are different and older. While I do not propose to give a complete geology of these parts—leaving this task to Mr. Hatcher—I may describe the general succession of the beds under discussion, in order to show their relations to each other. The locality is situated on the bluffs of the northern banks of the Rio de las Minas, which cuts through the strata in a west-easterly direction. The dip of the beds seems to be to the west—quite different from that observed by Mr. Hatcher farther north.+ Mr. Hatcher distinguishes in his notes jive principal horizons. The jirst (the lowermost) contains only plant-remains (leaves, ete.), the second and third contain marine shells, the fourth represents the Punta Arenas coal, and the 77th (the uppermost) contains again marine fossils. He did not send any measure- ments of the thickness of the respective beds: only the verti- cal distance of the outcrop of the fifth bed on top of the hills from Punta Arenas is given approximately as 700 feet. Thus * Die tertiaeren und quartaeren Versteinerungen Chiles, 1887. + This Jourual, vol. iv, November, 1897, pp. 334 and 338. — Ortmann —Some new marine Tertiary horizons. 479 it seems that the total thickness of these five beds, together with the intermediate, non-fossiliferous strata, amounts to sev- eral hundred feet. Since the jirst and the fourth horizons contain only plant remains (the fourth being the Punta Arenas coal, a very black lignite, of which Mr. Hatcher has sent specimens), I shall dis- regard these beds, and discuss only the horizons II, III and Y. Beginning with the uppermost, the fifth horizon, overlying the coal mines, it is to be divided, according to the labels of the specimens, into three subdivisions. Horizon V_ proper contains most of the fossils: but there are a number of oysters, which are labelled below V, and above V. Thus it seems that the chief horizon V begins and ends with oyster beds. Now, it is very interesting that the oysters found “above V”’ agree in every respect with the large oyster of the Cape Fair- weather beds discovered by Mr. Hatcher.* This form is not found in any of the underlying beds of this section, but it is represented in horizon V and “below V ” bya form that agrees completely with what I have called Ostrea philippi,+ which is characteristic for the Suprapatagonian beds of Patagonia (Rio Chalia and Rio Chico). The list of the fossils found in horizon V proper is the following : Ostrea philippii Ortm. (= bourgeoisi Phil.) Pectunculus ibari Phil. (= magellanicus Phil. = pulvi- natus cuevensis v. Ib.)t{ Lucina promaucana Phil. Venus chiloénsis Phil. Cytherea splendida v. Ih. Crepidula gregaria Sow. (== Haliotis imperforata Phil.)§ Lamna sp. (Tooth). Disregarding the sharks-tooth, we have siz species in this bed. Four of them (Ostrea phil., Pectunculus ib., Venus chil., Crepidula gr.) have been recorded already by Philippi. Five species (Ostrea p., Pectunculus v., Lucina p., Cytherea s., Crepidula g.) are found in Patagonia, all of them in the Supra- patagonian beds, only two or three also in the Patagonian beds *See Hatcher, On the Geology of Southern Patagonia, this Journal, vol. iv, November, i897, p.345, and Ortmann, On some of the large Oysters of Patagonia, ibid., p. 356. I no longer believe that this oyster is identical with O. patagonica d’Orb. As to the identitication of the Patagonian oysters I differ from v. Ihring (Revista Museu Paulista, vol. ii, 1897): but this is not the place to discuss this question in detail. ff oee'l. ©. ps 356, pl. 11, fig. 2. { Sce v. Ihring, 1. c., p. 238, pl. 7, fig. 46, pl. 8, fig 50. The identity of these forms is shown by our series of specimens. _§ Haliotis imperforata of Philippi (1 ¢., pl. 12, fig. 2) is nothing else than a giant Beaviula gregaria. 480 Ortmann—Some new marine Tertiary horizons. (Ostreap., Lucina p.?, and Crepidula g.). Thus it seems— although the number of fossils is quite small—that the identity of our fifth horizon with the Suprapatagonian beds is war- ranted, especially, if we take into consideration that some of the species (Ostrea, Pectunculus, Crepidula) are very charac- teristic forms of these deposits. In the oyster bed “below V” only oysters of the type of O. philippi are found: a single upper valve from the same bed suggests also the presence of O. hatchert Ortm.,* but this valve is not sufficient to make the identification certain. The beds discussed above are separated from the third hori- zon by the coal underlying the fifth horizon and its subdi- visions. The therd horizon contains the following fossils : Ostrea torresi Phil. (abundant). Cardita spec. nov. Venus spec. nov. (No. 1} (also in horizon II). Venus ue nov. (No. 2). Cytherea (?) spec. nov. Glycimeris spec nov. Patella spec. nov. Trochus (Calliostoma) spec. nov. Trochita costellata Phil. (also in horizon II). Natica chiloénsis Phil. (also in horizon II). The difference of this fauna from that of horizon V is very striking. None of the species has been found in Patagonia, and most of them are new to science. Ostrea torresi is the only one previously recorded from this locality, and it is the only abundant form, the others being much rarer. TZvrochita costellata has been recorded from Lebu, Chile, and Watica chiloénsis from the island of Chiloé, both localities being regarded as of the age of the “ Navidad Stufe” of Steinmann. Pe The latter two species as well as Venus oe nov. (No. 1) are also represented in the second horizon. The second horizon, the lowermost in the series containing marine fossils, has yielded the following species : Ostrea sp. ? (only upper valves). Venus spec. nov. {= No. 1) (also in horizon III). Dosinia complanata (Phil.) Glycimeris ibari (Phil.) Lutraria spec. nov. Turritella spec. nov. (very abundant). Trochita costellata Phil. (also in horizon III). * See |. c., p. 355, pl. 11, fig. 1 (= O. percrassa vy. Ih., L, Cy p 22 + Or Acmeea spec. nov. tSee Philippi, l.c.. p. 249 and 250; Steinmann and Moericke, in Neues Jahr- buch f. Miner., etc , Beil. x, p. 593, 1896. Ortmann—Some new marine Tertiary horizons. 481 Natica chiloénsis Phil. (also in horizon III). Struthiolaria spec. nov. Acteon chilensis Phil. Bulla remondi Phil. This fauna again differs from that found in the third horizon, although there are three species (out of ten) identical. Glycimeris ibarz is the only form previously recorded. ve species (Dosinia c., Trochita c., Natica c., Acteon c., Bullar.) have been found in the Navidad beds of Chile, while none of them has been found in Patagonia. The list of fossils from Magellanes (Punta Arenas, Skyring Water, etc.) given by Philippi*) contains 17 species, one of which (Turritella patagonica) was inserted by a mistake (cf. |. ¢., p- 77), while Pectunculus bari and magellanicus are identical, thus leaving 15 species. Seven of these are represented in our collection, namely: 1. Haliotis imperforata (= Crepidula gre- garia, 2. Venus chiloénsis, 3. Panopea ibari (= Glycimeris abari), 4. Pectunculus ibari, 5. Ostrea bourgeoisi (=O. phil- upp), 6. Ostrea patagonica (probably = Cape Fairweather oyster), 7. Ostrea torresi. No. 1, 2, 4, 5 and 6 are represented in the fifth horizon, No. 7 in the third horizon, No. 3 in the second horizon. In connection with the general stratigraphical observations made by Mr. Hatcher, the paleontological facts set forth above seem to warrant the following conclusions: 1. There are represented, on the banks of the Rio de las Minas, near Punta Arenas, three different horizons yielding marine fossils, the uppermost of which may be subdivided into three subdivisions, and ¢wo horizons characterized by plant remains. The characteristic fossils of the series are given in the following table: Horizon : (¢. Oyster bed, composed of the Cape Fairweather oyster. Vv |b. Marine fossils: Ostrea philippii, Pectunculus ibari, ; Crepidula, ete. | a. Oyster bed, composed of Ostrea philippii. IV. Punta Arenas coal. Ill. Marine bed with Ostrea torresi. II. Marine bed with Zurritella, Natica chiloénsis, Struthio- laria, ete. I. Bed with plant-remains. 2. The marine fossils described by Philippi from this locality “heer Zor. 482 Ortmann—Some new marine Tertiary horizons. come from the horizons II, III, and V, and are not all of the same age. 3. Horizon V closely resembles the Suprapatagonian beds of Patagonia. No conclusive evidence has been found indicating the presence of the true Patagonian beds. 4. The horizons II and III have a few species in common. Both differ entirely from V, none of their species having been found in Patagonia. Thus these two horizons form a deposit that is paleontologically and stratigraphically well separated from the Suprapatagonian beds (and paleontologically also from the Patagonian beds). 5. There are some relations of the horizons II and III to the so-called Navidad beds of Chile (5 species). Since these latter beds show also very many relations to the Patagonian and Suprapatagonian beds, and since of the five Navidad species found near Punta Arenas none has been found in ' Patagonia, it is very probable that the Navidad series contains a number of horizons of different age, a part of which is to be compared with these two horizons of Punta Arenas, while another part is identical with Patagonian deposits.* ' 6. Since we have ample reason to consider the Suprapata- gonian beds as of Afzocene age,}+ the question of the geological age of horizon V seems to be settled. As to horizons II and Il], stratigraphical evidence points to an older age, perhaps ocene, and the general character of the fossils does not con- tradict this assumption. But it is well to be noted that very few, if any, direct confirmations of the Eocene age have been found by a comparison of the species with those of known Eocene faunas. On the other hand, Cretaceous age of these two horizons seems to be out of the question, since no charac- teristic Cretaceous fossils have been discovered, although such forms (Ammonites) are known from a locality not far away (Port Famine). I hope Mr. Hatcher will again direct his attention to these beds, and, if possible, settle the question of their relation to the Cretaceous deposits of Port Famine as well as the question of the lack of true Patagonian beds in this region. A com- plete account of the geology of these parts will be given by Mr. Hatcher after his return from Patagonia. Princeton University, September, 1898. * This view is supported by the thickness of the Navidad beds. Darwin gives 800 feet for the cliffs forming the Navidad beds (Geol. Observ. South America, 1846, p. 127). bore + Compare Hatcher, l. c, p. 337 ff, and Moericke, |. c., p. 593 and 596. 0. C. Marsh—Different Kinds of Fossils, ete. 483 Art. L.—The Comparative Value of Different Kinds of Fossils in Determining Geological Age ;* by O. C. Marsx, More than twenty years ago, my attention was called to the subject of the difference between the value of fossil Plants, Invertebrates, and Vertebrates, as evidence of the geological age of the strata in which they were preserved. On the com- parative value of these different groups of fossils then depended the solution of some grave problems in the geology of the Rocky Mountains. I therefore began a systematic investiga- tion of the subject, and gave the results in an address before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, in 1877.+ I stated the case as follows: “The boundary line between the Cretaceous and Tertiary in the region of the Rocky Mountains has been much in dis- pute during the last few years, mainly in consequence of the -uneertain geological bearings of the fossil plants found near this horizon. The accompanying invertebrate fossils have thrown little light on the question, which is essentially whether the great Lignite series of the West is uppermost Cretaceous or lowest Eocene. The evidence of the numerous vertebrate remains is, in my judgment, decisive, and in favor of the former view. “This brings up an important point in paleontology, one to which my attention was drawn several years since; namely, the comparative value of different groups of fossils in mark- ing geological time. In examining the subject with some care, I found that, for this purpose, plants, as their nature indicates, are unsatisfactory witnesses; that invertebrate animals are much better; and that vertebrates afford the most reliable evidence of climatic and other geological changes. The sub- divisions of the latter group, moreover, and in fact all forms of animal life, are of value in this respect, mainly according to the perfection of their organization or zoological rank. Fishes, for example, are but slightly affected by changes that would destroy reptiles or birds, and the higher mammals succumb under influences that the lower forms pass through in safety. _ The more special applications of this general law, and its value in geology, will readily suggest themselves.” In the statement I have quoted, I had no intention of reflect- ing in the slightest degree on the work of the conscientious paleobotanists who had endeavored to solve the problem with the best means at their command. I merely meant to suggest that the means then at their command were not adequate to the solution. * Abstract of Communication made to Section C, British Association for the Advancement of Science, Bristol Meeting, September 9, 1898, - ¢ This Journal, vol, xiv, pp. 338-378, November, 1877. 484 O. C. Marsh—Comparative Value of Different It so happened that one of the most renowned of European botanists, Sir Joseph Hooker, was then in America, and to him I personally submitted the question as to the value of fossil plants as witnesses in determining the geological age of forma- tions. The answer he made fully confirmed the conclusions I had stated in my address. Quoting from that, in his next annual address as president of the Royal Society, he added his own views on the same question.* His words of caution should be borne in mind by all who use fossil plants in deter- mining questions of geological age. The scientific investigation of fossil plants is an important branch of botany, however fragmentary the specimens may be. To attempt to make out the age of formations by the use of such material alone is too often labor lost, and must necessarily be so. Asa faithful pupil of Goeppert, one of the fathers of fossil botany, I may perhaps be allowed to say this, especially as it was from his instruction that I first learned to doubt the ~ value of fossil plants as indices of the past history of the world. Such specimens may indeed aid in marking the continuity of a particular stratum or horizon, but without the reinforcement of higher forms of life can do little to determine the age. The evidence of detached fossil leaves and other fragments of foliage that may have been carried hundreds of miles by wind or stream, or swept down to the sea-level from the lofty mountains where they grew, should have but little weight in determining the age of the special strata in which they are imbedded, and failure to recognize this fact has led to many erroneous opinions in regard to geological time. There are, however, fossil plants that are more reliable witnesses as to the period in which they lived. Those found on the spot where they grew, with their most characteristic parts preserved, may furnish important evidence as to their own nature and geologi- cal age. Characteristic examples are found among the plants of the Coal Measures, in the Cycads of Mesozoic strata, and in the fossil forests of Tertiary and more recent deposits. The value of all fossils as evidence of geological age depends mainly upon their degree of specialization. In the Inverte- brates, -for instance, a Linguloid shell from the Cambrian has reached a definite point of development from some earlier ancestor. One from the Silurian or the Devonian, or even later formations, however, shows little advance. Even the recent forms of the same group have no distinctive characters sufficiently important to mark geological horizons. * Proceedings Royal Society of London, vol. xxvi, pp. 441-443, 1877. Kinds of Fossils in Determining Geological Age. 485 If we take the Ammonites as another example from the invertebrates, the case is totally different. From the earliest appearance of this family, the members have been constantly changing, developing new genera and species, each admirably adapted to mark definite zones or horizons, and already used _ extensively for that purpose. The Trilobites offer another example of a group of inverte- brates ever subject to modification, from the earliest known forms in the Cambrian, to the last survivors in the Permian. They, too, are thus especially fitted to aid the geologist, as each has distinctive features, and an abiding place of its own in geological time. The above examples are all marine forms, and from their abundance, wide distribution, both in time and space, are among the best of all witnesses in marking the succession and duration of changes in geological history. If we turn now to the fresh-water Mollusca, we find among them little evidence of change from the Paleozoic forms to those still living, and can therefore expect little assistance from them in noting the succeeding periods during their life-history. Among the fossil Vertebrates, the same law as to specializa- tion holds good. The value of particular groups as witnesses of geological changes depends largely on their own suscepti- bility to change, and this is equally true of single genera and species. There are indeed some primitive vertebrates, espe- cially among tbe Fishes, that appear to have changed little during their geological life. The genus Lepidosteus is a good illustration, and hence it is of limited value as evidence of what has taken place during its known geological history. Other fishes, however, are much better witnesses of the past. The Reptiles as a class offer still better evidence of geologi- eal changes, and in many instances may be used to advantage in marking horizons. The great sub-class of Dinosaurs, from their beginning in the Triassic, show marked changes of devel- opment throughout the whole of Mesozoic time. During the Cretaceous, highly specialized forms made their appearance, and at the close of this period when all became extinct the last survivors were the strangest of all, reminding one, in their bizarre forms, of the last stages of the Ammonites, their cotemporaries. The Crocodiles, too, show great changes during Mesozoic time, and are thus of much value in determining geological horizons. So, also, are the Pterodactyles, and many other extinct reptiles, each according to the degree of special- ization attained. 486 O. C. Marsh—Different Kinds of Fossils, ete. The Mammals, however, are by far the most important class for marking geological time, as their changes and the high degree of their specialization furnish the particular characters that are most useful to the geologist in distinguishing definite zones, and the more limited divisions of the strata containing their remains. The few mammals known from the Trias are so peculiar that they can only give us hints of what mammalian life then was, but in the Jurassic the many forms now known offer important testimony as to the different horizons in which their remains are found. This is true also of the known mam- mals from the Cretaceous; all are of special value as witnesses of the past. During Tertiary time, however, the enormous development of the class of mammals, their rapid variations, and, most important of all, the highly specialized characters they develop, offer by far the best evidence of even the smaller changes of climate and environment that mark their life-history through- out. The ungulates alone will answer the present purpose as an illustration, and even one group, the horses, will make clear the point I wish to bring before you. Near the base of the Eocene the genus Hohippus is found, representing the oldest known member of the horse tribe. Higher up in the Eocene Orohippus occurs, and still higher comes Apihippus, near the top of the Hocene. Again through the Miocene more genera of horses, Mesohippus, Miohippus, and others, follow in succession, and the line still continues in the Pliocene, when the modern genus Aguus makes its appear- ance. ‘Throughout this entire series, definite horizons may be marked by the genera, and even by the species of these equine mammals, as there is a change from one stage to the other, both in the teeth and feet, so that every experienced paleon- tologist can distinguish even fragments of these remains, and thus identify the zones in which they occur. This is true of every group of mammals, although not to an equal extent, so that in this class we have beyond question the best means of identifying the age of Tertiary strata by their fossil remains. I have thus briefly pointed out some of the evidence on which a decision may be reached as to the value of the different kinds of fossils, Plants, Invertebrates, and Vertebrates, in deter- mining the age of strata. All evidence of this kind is of value, but it is the comparative value of each group that is the important point I wish to emphasize, and I have brought the matter before this Section of the Association in the hope that a better understanding on this question may be reached among geologists, in the interest of the science to which we are all devoted. O. ©. Marsh—Families of Sauropodous Dinosauria. 487 Art. LI.—On the Families of Sauropodous Dinosauria ;* by O. C. Marsa. THE subclass Dinosauria as known to-day, I have divided into three orders: the Zheropoda, or carnivorous forms; the Sauropoda, or herbivorous quadrupedal forms; and the Pre- dentata,:also herbivorous, and including several suborders ; namely, the Stegosauria and Ceratopsia, both quadrupedal, and the Ornithopoda, containing bipedal bird-like reptiles.t The principal characters of the order Sauropoda, here discussed, may be briefly stated as follows: Order SAUROPODA. External nares at top of skull; premaxillary bones with teeth ; crowns of teeth rugose, and more or less spoon-shaped ; large antorbital openings; no pineal foramen; alisphenoid bones ; brain case ossified ; no columellz; postoccipital bones; no predentary bone; dentary without coronoid process. Cer- vical ribs codssified with vertebree ; anterior vertebrze opistho- coelian, with neural spines bifid; posterior trunk vertebre united by diplosphenal articulation ; presacral vertebree hollow ; each sacral vertebra supports its own sacral rib, or transverse process; no diapophyses on sacral vertebree; neural canal much expanded in sacrum; first caudal vertebra biconvex ; anterior caudals proccelian. Sternal bones parial ; sternal ribs ossified. Llium expanded in front of acetabulum ; pubes pro- jecting in front, and united distally by cartilage; no post- pubis. Limb bones solid; fore and hind limbs nearly equal ; metacarpals longer than metatarsals; femur longer than tibia ; astragalus and calcaneum not fitted to end of tibia; feet plan- tigrade, ungulate ; five digits in manus and pes; second row of carpal and tarsal bones unossified ; locomotion quadrupedal. (1) Family Atlantosauride. A pituitary canal; large fossa for nasal gland. Distal end of scapula not expanded ; coracoid quadrilateral. Sacrum hollow; ischia directed downward, with expanded extremities meeting on median line. Anterior caudal vertebree short, with lateral cavities; remaining caudals solid ; chevrons single. Genera Atlantosaurus, Apatosaurus, Brontosaurus. Include the largest known land animals. Jurassic, North America. * Abstract of Communication made to Section D, British Association for the Advancement of Science, Bristol Meeting, September 12, 1898. + The Dinosaurs of North America, Sixteenth Annual Report, U. S. Geological Survey. 84 plates. Washington, 1896. Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH Series, Vou. VI, No. 36.—DECEMBER, 1898. 34 483 O. C. Marsh—FKamilies of Sauropodous Dinosauria. (2) Family Diplodocide. External nares at apex of skull; no depression for nasal gland; two antorbital openings; large pituitary fossa; dentition weak, and in front of jaws only; brain inclined backward; dentary bone narrow in front. Seapula with shaft somewhat enlarged at summit. Ischia with shaft expanded distally, directed downward and_ back- ward, with sides meeting on median line. Sacrum hollow, with three codssified vertebra. Anterior caudal vertebree procelian, with sides deeply excavated, and chevrons single; median caudals excavated below, with chevrons double, having both anterior and posterior branches; distal caudals elongate, with rodlike chevrons. Genera Diplodocus and Larosaurus. Jurassic, North America. (3) Family JMorosauride. External nares anterior; large fossa for nasal gland; small pituitary fossa; dentary bone massive in front; teeth very large. Shaft of scapula expanded at distal end; coracoid suboval. Sacral vertebre four in num- ber, and nearly solid ; ischia slender, with twisted shaft directed backward, and sides meeting on median line. Anterior caudals solid; chevrons single. | Genera Morosaurus, Camarasaurus (?) (Amphiccelias). Jurassic, North America and Europe. (4) Family Pleurocelide. Dentary bone constricted medi- ally ; teeth with crowns like those of Diplodocus. Cervical vertebrae elongate, centra hollow, with large lateral openings ; sacral vertebree solid, with lateral depressions in centra ; caudal vertebree solid; anterior candals with flat articular faces, and transversely compressed neural spines ; median caudal vertebre with neural arches on front half of centra. Ischia with com- pressed distal ends, and sides meeting on median line. Genera Pleurocelus, Astrodon (?). Jurassic, North America and Europe. Include the smallest known Sauropoda. (5) Family Cardiodontide. Teeth of moderate size. Upper end of scapula expanded; humerus elongate; fore limbs nearly equaling hind limbs in length. Sacrum solid; ischia with wide distal ends, and sides meeting on median line: Caudal vertebre biconcave; median caudals with double chevrons. Genera Cardiodon (Cetiosaurus), Bothriospondylus, Orna- thopsis, and Pelorosaurus. European, and probably all _ Jurassic. (6) Family Z7tanvsauride. Fore limbs elongate ; coracoid quadrilateral. Presacral vertebree opisthoccelian; first caudal vertebree biconvex; remaining caudals proccelian; chevrons open above. Genera Zitanosaurus and Argyrosaurus. Cretaceous (%), India and Patagonia. : ] a Kakle—Briotite-tinguarte Dike from Massachusetts. 489 Art. LIl.—A Biotite-tinguaite Dike from Manchester by the Sea, Essex County, Mass.; by ARTHUR S. EAKLE. THE dike described in this paper cuts through the augite- syenite of Gales rocks, 200 yards south of Gales Point, Man- chester, and was discovered in July, 1896, by Mr. J. H. Sears, while investigating the rocks of that vicinity. The writer has not seen the dike, and all of the data regarding its occurrence, and the material for the petrographical and chemical study, has been very kindly supplied by Mr. Sears. “The dike is 6 inches wide and is exposed for 20 feet, cutting the angite- syenite in a nearly horizontal position, six feet below the sur- face of the mass of syenite. It is only exposed at low water, as at high tide the entire mass of syenite is submerged.” The occurrence of this egirine dike in the immediate vicinity of the tinguaite dike at Pickards Point, which was first described by Sears* and lately shown to be an analcite-tinguaite by Washington,+ might naturally lead to the supposition that the two dikes would be similar in many respects, yet both macro- scopically and microscopically they are quite dissimilar rocks. The rock has a greenish-gray color and a slightly greasy luster, like tinguaites and rocks rich in nepheline. Small phenocrysts of feldspar are visible in the somewhat compact groundmass, and also much magnetite, mixed with biotite, occurs in brownish-black patches, giving the rock a mottled appearance. The structure is compact, holocrystalline, the rock resembling a phonolite, breaking with an even fracture and weathering to a light gray color. Under the microscope the principal constituents are seen to be feldspathic laths and plates with much nepheline and less amounts of egirine, magnetite and biotite. Besides these prominent minerals, hematite, a little sodalite, a few apatite and zircon needles, and minute sections of purple fluorite are present. The feldspar is the most abundant constituent and predomi- nates in lath-shaped sections, most of which have a broken, ragged appearance, due to frayed-out ends and a fibrous struc- ture. This fibrous appearance is evidently the result of lamel- lar intergrowths of the soda and potash feldspars, microcline and albite, forming microcline-microperthite. Some of the broader sections show a rather coarse intergrowth of the two feldspars, giving extinctions on different parts corresponding respectively to those of microcline and albite. The character- * J. H. Sears, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. xxv, 4, 1893. + This Journal, IV, vol. vi, p. 182, 1898. 490 Lakle-— Bbrotite-tinguaite Dike from Massachusetts. istic moire appearance of anorthoclase is lacking, the sections showing multiple extinctions and appearing more as perthitie¢ intergrowths than as homogeneous mixtures of the ‘two feld- spars. Carlsbad twinning is quite common. The visible phenocrysts are brachypinacoidal plates of albite which show basal and prismatic cleavage cracks, Nepheline is next to the feldspars in amount and plays the role of quartz, filling the interspaces formed by the network of feldspar laths. Having been the last mineral to form, most of it is consequently in xenomorphic, angular sections, but here and there a well-defined hexagonal plate is seen. The sections are mostly altered to a grayish, muddy, granulated material which is apparently a mixture of nepheline with kaolin and very fine granular quartz, the alteration proceeding to a hydrous aluminium silicate, with a separation of some free silica, rather than to a zeolite. They still retain their index above that of the neighboring feldspar and gelatinize to some extent with HCl, as shown by fuchsin staining. Afgirine is disseminated in the rock, in fragments and small crystals, in sufficient amount to give the rock its slightly greenish cast. Its crystallization preceded that of the feld- spars and it is now present as rounded crystals or broken, irregular fragments. The sections vary from deep grass-green to almost colorless, and the more deeply colored show a marked pleochroism, a = bluish green, 6 = grass green, c = greenish yellow ; the axis of greatest elasticity lies nearest c, and the extinction is practically parallel in most of the sections. Magnetite is common and marks the remains of plates of a former dark silicate. Most of this original silicate has entirely disappeared, leaving only the black patches of secondary mag- netite, but an occasional section shows a greenish-brown min- eral between the heavy.black borders, which from its absorption, parallel extinction, and characteristic shimmer, is evidently biotite or perhaps lepidomelane. From the similarity of all the black sections it is reasonable to infer that they were origi- nally this biotite, and since the analysis shows so little mag- nesia in the rock, the biotite must have been very poor in this oxide and high in iron. Washington notes the poverty of magnesia in all of the rocks of Essex County, so far analyzed by him. ” Sodalite is seen in small, colorless isotropic sections of low refraction and showing dodecahedral cleavage. The amount however is much too small to account for all of the chlorine in the analysis, and it is quite probable that most of the chlorine is due to impregnation from the sea water. None of the small amount of isotropic mineral in the slide is believed to be anal- cite, and the dike can hardly be included in the same class with the one at Pickards Point. Fakle—Biotite tinguaite Dike from Massachusetts. 491 _ The structure of the rock differs from that of a typical tinguaite, in that the component feldspar and egirine minerals do not occur as needles, but as much stouter lath-shapes and prismatic crystals, indicating a slower rate of cooling of the magma and thus producing a phase of tinguaite much less dense and more holocrystalline than common. The rock is classed here as a biotite-tinguaite, yet from the presence of many feldspar sections tabular to M, it can as well be con- sidered a.phase of sdlvsbergite. It stands intermediate between a quartz-free nepheline tinguaite and a nepheline egirine sélvs- bergite ; such a rock is described by Brégger from a dike between Tjose and Aklungen.* The analysis gives: LG Ee ees 60°05 LC RO RRRE ieee Spa Pema MP RYT i 9 (49 BESS IO ie ia 28 19°97 Pee ee 4°32 12) tpcg Sires ae en emeciced 2) emer ie eins Peery, A 0°79 ETO a ht ee me ee 0-91 HERO ves Siok tae oo ee 0:23 Pet let aie ty sae eed ARG) Sys Bee eae ee 7°69 BiCh iO es oo betes O15 PRN tot 455185325 es E28 Pia ia eden ie 1 Sipe i Me be ES 0°28 100°04 The specific gravity determined by the balance is 2°708. Access to the dike is very difficult, and all of the specimens obtained come from near the surface and have weathered enough to make it difficult to estimate, even approximately, the relative proportions of the mineral contents from the chemical analysis. The nepheline and biotite show the greatest amount of alteration and the rock has apparently lost some of its alkalies and iron from the change, through its exposed con- dition. The amount of silica and alumina is more than suffi- cient to combine with the alkalies to form the alkali minerals, - and the excess is present in the form of kaolin and secondary quartz. Fully 20 per cent of the slide appears to be nepheline, yet the percentage of soda will only allow for about one-half of this amount, and 14 per cent only of the rock is soluble in HCl. A calculation from the percentage composition, with due regard to the microscopical estimation, gives the following as an approximate mineral composition of the rock in its present state: * Die Eruptivgesteine des Kristianiagebietes, Part I, p. 99. 492 Hakle—Biotite-tinguaite Dike from Massachusetts. 47°16 Na,Al,Si,O,, 16°68 K,AI,Si,0O,, » 67°28 per cent feldspar. 3°44 CaAl,Si,O, | 9°61 Na,K,Al1,Si,O,, 8:09 H,Al,Si,O, 20°32 nepheline, kaolin and quartz. 2°62 SiO, | 6°00 Na,Fe,Si,O,,} 6°00 wgirine. 2°90 biotite. 3°50 Fe,O,(feMn)O} 6°40 biotite and iron oxides, 100° The remaining minerals, sodalite, apatite, zircon and fluorite, would probably form less than one per cent of the rock. The same relative proportions of the minerals in a perfectly fresh rock would require about one and one-half per cent more of combined alkalies, with a corresponding decrease in the com- bined silica and alumina. Mineralogical Laboratory, Harvard University, September, 1898. A. E. Verrill—New American Actinians. 493 Art. LII].— Descriptions of new American Actinians, with critical notes on other species, 1.; by A. E. VERRILL. Brief Contributions to Zoology from the Museum of Yale College. No. LVUI. Sagartia Lucie, sp. nov. Figure 1, p. 497. A SMALL, very smooth, highly contractile species. In usual expansion the column may be cylindrical; its height may be less than its diameter or twice as great; it is often distinctly fluted, but has no trace of adhesive suckers. Cinclides are not visible, but white acontia are emitted freely from the sides of the body,-irregularly, and from the mouth. The column is usually dark green, or olive-green, often tinged with orange, and is striped with 12 (sometimes 24) narrow bright orange or white lines, corresponding to the 12 larger tentacles and mesenterial interspaces. Tentacles, in the larger examples, 60 to 84, more commonly 48, arranged in four ill detined rows, long, ‘slender, tapered, capable of sudden contraction ; the length of the 12 inner ones is often twice the diameter of the body or more; the two directives (a, a’) are slightly longer than the other primaries. The tentacles are pale green or greenish white, sometimes tinged with salmon, and sometimes specked with white; the larger ones are often darker green at base, and whitish on the inner side of the base, especially the directives. Disk changeable, flat, concave or convex, greenish, marked with narrow dark radial lines and crossed by a conspicuous bar of flake-white, in line with and including the bases of the directive tentacles, and embracing the sides of the mouth; smaller radial white spots may stand in front of other tentacles. Lips light red, with several small lateral folds and two gonidial grooves. Height of column usually about -25 inch (5 to 8™™); diameter 4 to 6™" ; length of tentacles 6 to 10™™. New Haven, Conn., to Woods Holl, Mass., in tidal pools, from half-tide to low-water mark, both freely exposed and concealed under stones and in crevices. It is very abundant in the small tide-pools situated at about half-tide on the ledges of “ Outer Island,” near New Haven, where I[ have studied it during six seasons. In some of these pools the water is not more than one or two inches deep and in winter it freezes to solid ice each day; while in summer it becomes heated to 95° F., or even more, without injury to this apparently delicate actinian. Moreover, when rain falls during the recession of the tide, the sea-water in these small pools is 494 A. EK. Verrill—New American Actinians. washed away and replaced by fresh water for several hours, destroying most other kinds of marine life, but apparently without injury to this species. At least, I have found them as active as usual. the next day. Such pools are also exposed to heavy seas and the pebbles and cobble stones that often fill them are violently tossed about by the waves, and yet I have often found the actinians as lively as ever immediately after the severest storms. : It is, therefore, one of the hardiest species known. It expands freely and almost constantly in confinement. In the upper tide-pools it is often associated with young oysters and mussels, and with the common rock barnacle (Balanus balanoides). The English periwinkle (Zittorina littoralis) also abounds in the same pools. This Sagartia is often attached to the mussels and oysters, as well as to the exposed ledge and under sides of_stones, etc. Sometimes it is found on Chondrus crispus and other alge. Dr. W. E. Coe has found itin New Haven harbor, and informs me that he also found it common at Woods Holl, Mass., this season, but dur- ing the nine seasons that I spent at that station studying the fauna, between 1871 and 1887, I did not find it, though care- ful search was made every season for small organisms in suitable localities. The same is true in respect to the region _ about New Haven, which was carefully searched by me, during many years, from 1865 to 1890, without finding this species. So we must conclude that it has very much increased in num- bers in this region within a few years, like several other species. It may have been introduced from further south, on the oysters that are annually brought north, in large quantities, and planted in our waters. By My attention was first called to this species, as something new, in 1892, by my young daughter, Miss Lucey L. Verrill, for whom I have named it. She found it in the tidal pools at Outer Island, Conn. It was then much less abundant that at the present time. Specimens collected early in November often contain numer- ous small ciliated embryos, which may be seen swimming about inside the translucent tentacles. This species belongs to that section of the genus Sagartia for which Gosse proposed (1860) the name Z/oé, characterized by the smoothness of the column, no adhesive suckers being visi- ble. Our species is entirely smooth, and I have never seen any adherent particles of sand or mud. The typical species of Sagartia (S. miniata, ete.) have numerous small adhesive papille or suckers on the upper part of the column. The same is true of the genus or subgenus Cylista Gosse, 1860. Additional figures of this species have been prepared for a subsequent paper. A. E. Verrill—Neéew American Actinians. 495 Sagartia (Thoé) leucolena Ver. Sagartia leucolena Verrill, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., x, p. 336, 1865; Amer. Naturalist, ii, p. 261; Rep. on Invert. of Vineyard Sd., etc., pp. 444, 329, ete., pl. 38, fig. 284, 1874; Radiata North Carolina, this Journal, iii, p. 436, 1872. Cylista leucolena Andres, Attinie Golfes Neapel, p. 151, 1884. This species also has a smooth column, without any adhesive suckers, though the scattered cinclides show distinctly, as pores, when living specimens are viewed by transmitted light. Therefore it does not belong to Cylista, to which Andres referred it, for the latter has very evident suckers. It is easily distinguished from S. Lucie by its very elon- gated, often flaccid, column, which is translucent flesh-color or salmon-color, and by the pale translucent disk and tentacles, without any strong markings. This species lives in the same region as the preceding and is often associated with it, near low-water mark, under stones. It ranges southward to North Carolina. Actinia Bermudensis, sp. nov. Column smooth, changeable in form, usually, in expansion, about as high as broad, often broader than high, capable of contracting to a low hemispherical form, with tentacles entirely concealed, but it contracts rather slowly. There is a distinct, strong, submarginal fold, just below the acrorhagi. These are marginal, very large, hemispherical or verruciform, not very numerous (about 24), bright blue. They are often concealed by the fold below them. Tentacles numerous, usually 72 to 96, rather stout, elongated, arranged in several circles in the larger examples; when fully extended the longest are often as long as the diameter of the disk, or even exceed it. The mouth is large with a strong gonidial groove at each end, bordered by prominent lobes; sides of mouth with numerous small folds. Color of column usually bright cherry-red, sometimes dark red, crimson, or rose-red. Tentacles paler than the column, but usually of the same general color, or brighter. Lips often bright red or carmine. Acrorhagi bright blue.. Disk similar to the tentacles. Height of column up to 1°5 inches (30 to 40™™); diameter up to 1°75 inches or more (40 to 50™™). Bermuda Islands on the under side of large stones at and above low-water mark, especially at Bailey’s Bay and Castle Harbor. (A. E. Verrill and party, 1898.) Var. ferruginea. A variety, apparently of the same species, was occasionally observed, in the same localities, in which the color of the col- 496 A. EF. Verrill—New American Actinians. umn was plain yellowish brown ; tentacles a lighter tint of the same. Acrorhagi without differentiated pigment and hence not conspicuous. The form of the body and tentacles were the same as in the typical variety.’ | This species closely resembles some of the varieties of the common European species, but appears to differ especially in the less numerous and larger acrorhagi, and in the fewer and larger tentacles. Figures of this species will soon appear in the Trans. Conn. Aead. Science. Epicystis Ehr., Corall. rothen Meeres, p. 44, 1834. Phymanthus (pars) Andres, Attinie Golfes Neapel, p. 285, 1884 (non Edw.). The generic name Lpicystis was proposed for the Actinia crucifera Les., A. ultramarina Les., and A. granulifera Les., the first being put in Sect. a Therefore it is necessary to take the former as the type of the genus, which is evidently entirely distinct from the true Phymanthus. Epicystis crucifera Khr., Coral]. rothen Meeres, p. 44, 1834. Actinia crucifera Leseur, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., i, p. 174, 1817. Phymanthus crucifer Andres, Attinie Golfes Neapel, p. 286. MeMaurrich, Actinaria Bahama Is., p. 51, pl. ii, fig. 1, general, pl. iv, figs. 6-11, anatomy, 1889; Duerden, Journ. Inst. Jamaica, ii, p. 452, 1898. This species is common in crevices and holes of the coral reefs of Bermuda, where I collected specimens which were 6 to 8 inches in diameter of disk when fully expanded. It isa very handsome species, when living. Edwardsia Leidyi, sp. nov. Figures 2, side, 3, aboral end. Edwardsia, sp. Mark, Embryol. Mon., Mem. Mus. Comp. Zobl., ix, pl. xii, figs. 24-33, 1884 (development and structure). Column, in expansion, very long, slender, often flattened, soft. In the oldest stages observed by me it was still without external covering, but Prof. Mark figures it in one case with a loose and imperfect coating. Tentacles, in the oldest para- sitic stage seen by me, eight short, obtuse; in a later stage sixteen have been observed and figured by Prof. Mark. Mes- senteries eight, in the largest specimens studied. Color of column whitish, flesh-color, or pale rose, translucent, with eight longitudinal stripes of white or pale salmon-color. Length while parasitic, in extension, up to 1 inch or more (20 to 30"), diameter ‘5 to 1°5™™. The young, in various stages of growth, are frequently found as parasites in the interior of a common ctenophorus jelly-fish (Mnemiopsis Leidyi Ag.) on the southern coast of New Eng- land. Itiscommon at Wood’s Holl, Mass., and Newport, R. I. Several specimens of different ages are often found together. A. E. Verrill—New American Actinians. 497 The completely developed state of this species is probably unknown. Prof. Mark has figured a free stage, presumably raised from the parasite, with sixteen tentacles, in two un- equal cycles, and with a rudimentary mucous sheath. The latest stages raised by me from the parasite had but eight ten- tacles and did not form a sheath, though it was then con- siderably longer than the young of &. lineata V. having 18 tentacles. Hence I do not think it can be the young of the latter, as Prof. Mark suggested. Moreover, its colors are entirely different and the tentacles are much shorter and more obtuse. It is more likely to be related to #. pallida V. than to any of the other known species. It resembles some of the European species that are also parasitic in jelly-tishes, while young. It is very contractile and is protean in form. ___This parasite was first noticed by Mr. A. Agassiz in 1865, North Amer. Acal., p. 23, but he did not recognize it, at that time, as an actinian. I have a good series of drawings of it made in 1881-1883, showing its generic characters. Figs. 2 and 3 are by J. M. Blake, from life. 1 2. 4 _ Dactylactis viridis, sp. nov. Figures 4, 5, 6. _A free-swimming cerianthid found in the Gulf Stream. Column smooth, very changeable in shape, usually about twice as long as broad, in life ; sometimes pear-shaped with the basal region swollen and rounded at the end; sometimes top- shaped, with the basal end pointed ; sometimes most swollen in the middle. Usually there are no flutings, when expanded, but in some cases, when the base is swollen, it shows slight invections. The margin is plain and simple, tentaculate ; there appears to be a ter minal pore. Outer tentacles, in the largest two observed, 18 and 20, in a single circle, only slightly unequal in length and size, long, slender, regularly tapered, usually longer than twice the diam-. 498 A. EF. Verrill—New American Actinians. eter of the body, sometimes nearly thrice as long, in living specimens. Oral tentacles nearly equal in number to the outer ones, varying in length from one-fourth to one-half the length of the latter, smaller and more delicate, tapered, carried erect, or nearly so, while the outer tentacles are widely divergent or often recurved and bent in various directions. Color in life, light olive-green; tentacles translucent pale greenish. Length of column about °5 inch (10 to12™"); diameter about *25 inch (5 to 7™™); length of longest tentacles about 14°”. Taken several times by the ‘“ Albatross.” Among other places, at sta. 2587, N. lat. 39° 02’, W. long. 72° 38’; sta. 2749, N. lat. 839° 42’, W. oe 71°17’, Sept. 19, 1887; surface tem- peratures 71° and 67° F. Fig. 4 is by J. M. Blake; figs. 5,6, by A. H. Baldwin, both from life. This species somewhat resembles DY. digitata Van Beneden, taken near Bermuda (Plankton Exp. Anthozoa, p. 94, pl. vii, figs. 19-22, 1898), but the latter is much smaller, column 6°42™™ long in preserved specimens, and had 14 marginal and 10 oral tentacles. Possibly it may be a younger state of the same species. It will need specimens intermediate in size to deter- mine this. It is probably immature. —— ee Oo Chemistry und Physics. 499 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. On Hyponitrous acid and Hyponitrites—According to KIRSCHNER’S investigations, the hyponitrites may be prepared readily from potassium oxyimidosulphonate. Fifty grams of this salt is dissolved in 35° of boiling water. After cooling by means of ice, the solution is mixed with 10° of a concentrated sodium hydrate solution (1:1), the temperature of the mixture not being allowed to rise above 30°. After cooling to 10°, 90°° more of the sodium hydrate solution are added, the mixture is heated to 50° for half to three-quarters of an hour, and is then poured into a liter of water. This solution contains sulphate, sulphite and hypo- nitrite of sodium and also a little undecomposed oxyamido-salt and some hydroxylamine. By adding yellow mercuric oxide, -these last substances are destroyed. The liquid, after filtering, is made up to four liters and silver nitrate is added so long asa light yellow precipitate, consisting of silver hyponitrite, is pro- duced. By the addition of barium, strontium or calcium nitrate to a strongly alkaline solution of silver hyponitrite, a precipitate is obtained of the corresponding hyponitrite. It is washed with alcohol and ether and dried on filter paper. All of these salts are slightly soluble in water, have an alkaline reaction and evolve nitrous oxide with acids.. The calcium salt is the most stable. It loses its crystal water with difficulty and is not affected at the ordinary temperature by carbon dioxide. ‘They are represented by the formulas Ba(NO),.(H,O),, Sr(NO), . (H,O), and Ca(NO),. (H,O), respectively. On adding lead acetate to the sodium salt in alkaline solution, a yellowish-white precipitate of basic lead hyponitrite is produced; which on treatment with acetic acid yields the normal salt Pb(NO),, as a yellow crystalline powder, which explodes on heating. Copper sulphate added to sodium hyponitrite gives, on treatment with ammonia, a green amorphous powder having the composition Cu(NO),.Cu(OH),. Silver hypo- nitrite Ag.(NO), is obtained in crystals from a strong ammonia solution. It is decomposed by hydrogen chloride, yielding hypo- nitrous acid. The free acid does not decolorize an iodine solution nor does it set free iodine from potassium iodide. Bromine oxi- dizes it to nitric acid, though the reaction is not a quantitative one.—Zeitschr. anorg. Chem., xvi, 424-437, 1898. G. F. B. 2. On Experiments with Helium.—It has been shown by Travers that when an electric discharge is passed through a Pliicker tube containing helium at a pressure of about three milli- meters, the electrodes being of platinum, a reddish-yellow glow at first appears, which, passing through shades of yellow and green, finally becomes the phosphorescent glow characteristic of a vacuum. Evidently these changes are due to the gradual absorp- tion of the helium by the platinum which has been deposited by 500 Scientific Intelligence. means of the spark on the walls of the tube; since on heating, the helium is again liberated and the colors successively appear in the inverse order. The best defined line, obtained when the green glow is most intense, has the wave length 5015°6. Andif now the still remaining gas is removed, and the tube is gently heated, the absorbed gas is set free and the greenish glow reappears. It would appear therefore that the glow is not due to the last absorbed portion of helium, but comes solely from the lowering of the pressure arising from the absorption. Moreover, the author. finds that while hydrogen, nitrogen and gaseous carbon com- pounds, like helium, are more or less readily absorbed when sparked in presence of platinum electrodes, argon is taken up only in very small amount. And he has taken advantage of this fact to separate helium from argon; the process succeeding when only 2 per cent of helium is present. By means of a Sprengel pump, a mixture of these gases is kept in circulation at 3™™ pres- sure, through a Pliicker tube kept cool by a water jacket, for six hours. And now, on removing the residual gas, and heating the tube, the helium which is obtained contains only a trace of argon.— Proc. Roy. Soc., 1x, 449-453, 1897. G. F. B. 3. On Calcium nitride. —The recent noteworthy address of Sir Wm. Crookes as President of the British Association has given increased interest to every proposed process for rendering the nitrogen of the atmosphere available in agriculture. A purely chemical process of this sort has now been proposed by Motssan in connection with his production of metallic calcium.* In con- tact with nitrogen at the ordinary temperature, calcium under- goes no change. But as the temperature is raised, the metal changes from white to yellow, until, at a low red heat, it takes fire and burns in the nitrogen, absorbing it with great rapidity, and giving a bronze-colored nitride. The best result is obtained by placing the calcium in a boat of nickel, placed within a tube of the same metal, through which is sent a current of pure and dry nitrogen. Under the microscope, calcium nitride appears in the form of small transparent crysta!s yellowish-brown in color, having a density of 2°63 at 17°, and fusing at 1200° approxi- mately. Heated in hydrogen to redness, ammonia is evolved with production of hydride. Chlorine decomposes it with incan- descence giving the chloride. It burns in the air, and in oxygen, even below a red heat. Mixed with carbon and heated to 800° calcium nitride suffers no change. But in the electric furnace it is converted into calcium carbide. If the mixture be heated to 1200°, a small quantity of cyanide is produced. Heated to bright redness in a current of nitrogen dioxide, it is converted with incandescence into calcium oxide and nitrogen. In the absence of water, acids have no action on the nitride. Anhydrous alcohol gives calcium ethylate and ammonia. Thrown into water, it decomposes it with effervescence, producing ammonia and calcium * This Journal, IV, vi, 428, November, 1898. Chemistry and Physics. 501 . hydrate. Its composition was determined (1) by weighing the boat before and after converting the calcium into nitride; and (2) by decomposing a weighed quantity of the nitride with water. Four experiments gave 18°37, 18°21, 18°8i and 18°17 per cent of nitrogen and 81°63, 81°79, 81°19 and 80°49 of calcium; the formula C.N, requiring 18°92 of N and 81°08 of Ca. The author thinks that the production of calcium nitride industrially will solve the problem of the manufacture of ammonia from the atmosphere.— C. &., exxvii, 497-501, October, 1898. Gi By B: 4, On Sodium sub-oxide and peroxide produced by combus- tion.—The composition and the heat of formation of the sodium oxides produced by combustion has been studied by Forcranp. About 20 grams of sodium was melted in a tubulated glass retort, provided with a spherical condenser, also tubulated; a current of dry air, free from carbon dioxide, being passed through the appa- ratus. A little above its fusing point the sodium became cov- ered with a gray layer, which soon increased to form voluminous arborescent gray masses. If the operation be continued the gray mass takes fire, producing white vapors, which condense both in the retort and the receiver, leaving a yellowish porous mass which becomes nearly white on cooling. The three products were then analyzed. The gray mass gave 81°88 percent of sodium and 0°1512 gram evolved 22:05° of hydrogen when placed in water ; whence it was composed of 96°26 per cent of the sub-oxide Na,O mixed with 3°74 per cent of sodium. The white snow condensed in the cooled receiver gave 58°13 per cent of sodium, correspond- ing to the formula Na,O,, which requires 58°97. The white powder in the retort was also Na,O,, with a trace of moisture. The yellowish-white residue gave 64°24 and 60°18 per cent of sodium in two samples; and hence was a mixture in variable pro- portions of Na,O and Na,O,. Heated again in a current of dry air, it was converted into Na,O, with a trace of moisture. No trioxide Na,O, apparently was formed in this reaction. | In a subsequent paper, the author gives the results of his experi- ments to determine the heat of formation of these oxides. He finds for the sub-oxide Na,O, the following equation : Na, solid + Ogas= Na,O solid + 101°57 cal. For the dioxide, Na,O, : Na, solid + O, gas = Na,O, solid + 119°79 cal. And for the oxide Na,O Na, solid + O gas = Na,Osolid + 100°40 cal. —C. R., cxxvii, 364-366, 514-516, August, October, 1898. 5. On Aluminum nitride.—lIt has been pointed out big washed that aluminum nitride is obtained when an intimate mixture of finely divided aluminum and calcium carbide is heated in a porce- lain crucible by means of a blast, with free access of air. The product contains 15 to 20 per cent of nitrogen. Moist air decom- 502 Scientific Intelligence. poses it slowly, boiling water more rapidly, and alkalies very readily, with production of ammonia. Geology and Mineralogy. 505 tra; volume III gives memoirs on Rontgen Rays, ete. The con- tinuation of the Series is stated to depend upon the success of these opening volumes. Of their great value to all students and | workers in physics there can be no possible question, and it is heartily to be desired that the response of the public may be sufficiently prompt and gencrous to justify the publishers in going on with the work. Il. GroLocy AND MINERALOGY. 1. The Geological History of the Isthmus of Panama and Portions of Costa Rica. Based upon a reconnaissance made for Alexander Avassiz; by Roxpert T. Hit, with special determi- nations by William H. Dall, R. M. Bagg, T. W. Vaughan, J. E. Wolff, H. W. Turner, and Ahe Sjogren, with nineteen plates. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard Col- lege, vol. xxvill, No. 5 (Geological Series, vol. iii), Cambridge, -Mass., June, 1898.—This work of 285 pages, with nineteen plates and twenty-four figures, only claims to be a reconnaissance, yet it is a very thorough summary of the known geomorphology, geology and paleontology of the Isthmian and Central American regions, dealing with those problems which pertain to the union of the continents and the existence of pre-historic Isthmian straits. It is based upon two transcontinental sections, one of which was made across the Isthmus of Panama and the other across the Republic of Costa Rica, to which is also added the results of the late W. M. Gabb’s explorations in Talamanca, about midway between the two sections explored by Mr. Hill. Part I of the work deals with the geographic position of the Isthmian region, showing the independent position of the North, Central and South American orogenic systems; the physical dif- ferences between the lands surrounding the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico, the distinction of the present volcanic regions from those of voleanic quiescence and the relation of the volcanic mountains to.the areas composed of folded sedimentaries. The geomorphology of the Isthmus of Panama is dealt with at length, showing that this barrier between the oceans is an old _degraded land cut up into numerous summits and void of a well- defined axial backbone. Its topography is contrasted with that of the higher Andean region to the south and the Costa Rican plateau to the nortb. A summary of the topographic evidence shows the relative antiquity of the Isthmian land and that it is a remnant of a much wider area, the former seaward extensions of which in the now submerged marginal platforms are well shown upon profiles and maps. Part II treats of the geology of the continental section across the Isthmus of Panama, giving in minute detail every feature of the brief 40 miles which there separate the two oceans. All the rocks are described, beginning with the low recently elevated coral reefs on the e Atlantic side. The coast of both sides is. 506 Scientific Intelligence. indented by swamp levels, which for a distance at least from either sea are filled with formations containing Pleistocene sea shells, These are cut out of a matrix of greatly deformed Oligo- cene and Eocene rocks. Below and contemporaneous with the Eocene rock is a great series of igneous rocks, the latest of which is found interbedded with the Eocene Tertiary. These consist of tuffs of augite-porphyrite, olivine-basalt, trachyte, dolerite, ande- sitic lava and rhyolitic pumice. A summary of the ecological evidence shows that the Isthmian barrier was closed at the close of the Oligocene and has since remained land. Part III treats of the Pacific coast from Panama westward to Punta Arenas, Costa Rica, showing characteristic elements of the coast, including the wave-cut bluffs and elevated base-level plains which, found upon both the islands and the main land, show that the former are remnants which have been severed from the latter. Part 1V deals with a continental section across Costa Rica from Punta Arenas through San Jose to Port Limon. This describes the geomorphology and geology of this interesting sec- tion of 115 miles across the high volcanic plateau of Central America, which here rises to an elevation of nearly 11,500 feet. It is shown that several well-defined base-leveled marginal plains occur on both the Pacific and Atlantic sides of the continent as in Panama. Much information is given upon the great volcanic piles which rise above the sedimentaries of the lower coastal region, which represent vast accumulations of volcanic debris since Tertiary time. Attention is called to the line of interior basins in which the chief centers of population and agriculture are segregated, at altitudes of from 4000 to 5000 feet. A fine illustration is given of the crater of Turrialba volcano, the most eastern of the four great volcanoes along this section. A section is also given from the summit of this eminence to the Caribbean border which lies only-a short distance from its eastern shore, the details of which give much new information concerning the char- acter of the folded Tertiary sedimeataries and their inter Bedi with old volcanic extrusive lava. | At Gualava, altitude 1400 feet, there are disturbed sedimentaries containing inter esting fossils of the Vicksburg formation as deter- mined by Dr. Dall, which constitute the most southern known outcrop of rocks of that epoch. In this section the volcanic rocks ~ also contain the interesting species theralite, which was recently noted by Prof. J. E. Wolff in this Journal. In the basin valley of San Jose, about 5000 feet above the sea, ancient looking lime- stones were found which were largely composed of J oraminifera, Rudistes, shells of Inocerami and mollusca which very much resemble certain formations of the Great Antilles adjacent to the close of the Cretaceous and beginning of the Eocene Tertiary. The occurrence of true granite at Siquires is noted as well as the fact that granitic debris is found in the oldest sedimentary rocks, indicating the existence of a pre-Tertiary granitic plexus in this region. The interesting base-leveled, submerged, veneered and reélevated coastal plains of Port Limon are also described. Geology and Mineralogy. 507 A comparison of the Panama and Costa ltica sections is then given, together with an interesting tabular summary, page 236, of the known formations and events. In working out the great amount of original data concerning the detailed geology of these hitherto little known regions, the author was assisted by the minute studies of several specialists whose reports are of greatest value, among which may be men- tioned the reports of Dr. W. H. Dall on the Tertiary mollusea ; Prof. R. M. Bagg on the Foraminifera; Prof. J. EK. Wolff on the igneous rocks; Mr. H. W. Turner, who made valuable microscopic studies of certain peculiar and difficult earths of volcanic origin ; Mr. Ahe Sjogren, and Mr. T. Wayland Vaughan. The special reports by these authorities are published as appendices to the work and are each valuable contributions which should be sepa- rately noticed. Having secured in personal study and observation a foundation for making deductions, the author in Part V discusses the * Union of the Continents and the Problems of the Straits,” set- ting forth a résumé of the geology of the Central American main- land, showing the present condition of knowledge thereof so far as the incompleteness of exploration will permit. A concise résumé is made of the entire geologic sequence. Interesting facts are presented indicating the existence of a granitic basement, which show that there is room in this belt alone for much study. Atten- tion is called to the burial of the Paleozoic rocks between the southern boundary of the United States and the equatorial South America by the vast accumulations of the Mesozoic sedimentaries in Mexico and by volcanic and Tertiary material in Central America, the only outcrops of fossiliferous Paleozoic rocks known between these regions being the Carboniferous strata of Guate- mala and Chiapas as desciibed by Dr. Sapper. , The Pre-Cretaceous Mesozoic seems to be as problematical in these tropical regions as it is in the United States. The writer, however, calls attention to localities in Mexico and Guatemala which have striking stratigraphic analogy to the Red Beds of the western interior region of our own country. A chapter on diastrophism and vulcanism deals with interest- ing facts of orogenic history, the most important of which is oro- genic revolution of late Tertiary time, which, according to Mr. Hill, seems to have been the dominating factor in producing the present conspicuous features of Central American and Antillean geography, and to have been instrumental in producing the great east and west corrugations and troughs of the American Mediter- ranean which have been described by others as the river valleys of submerged continents. The evidence of former periods of marine connection in the Isthmian region is dealt with in exéenso. The conclusion is reached that there is some evidence that a land barrier severed the two oceans as far back in geologic history as Jurassic time and that this barrier may have continued through the Cretaceous 508 Scientific Intelligence. period. No evidence is presented or obtainable to show that this barrier was the present Isthmian region, however. The pale ontologic evidence indicates clearly the existence of an ephemeral passage at the close of the Kocene period which was closed near the end of the Oligocene, and there is no evidence of Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene or recent connection in the Isthmian section. The conception, carrying out, and publication of this valuable memoir is due to the munifticence of Professor Alexander Agassiz. We are informed that he has in hand the manuscript of another and larger report by Mr. Hill upon the detailed geology of the Island of Jamaica, a type study of the Antillean geology which will deal further with the problems of the origin of the tropical American lands. 2. Geology and Mineral Resources of the Judith Mountains of Montana; by W. H. Weep and L. V. Pirsson. From the Kighteenth Annual Report of the Director of the U. 8. Geolog- jeal Sur vey, Washington, 1898.—This paper is a very interesting discussion of the geological history and mineral resources of the Judith Mountain region in Central Montana. The Judith Mountains form an independent group of elevations of limited extent, rising at the highest point 6386 feet above the sea, or nearly 3000 feet above the surrounding plain. Like other similar districts in the northwest, the isolated position of the group, sur- rounded asit is by a broad expanse of Cretaceous rocks, has given rise to many interesting geological problems, for the working ont of which the conditions are peculiarly favorable. Perhaps the most interesting point brought out in the present memoir is the laccolithic character of the igneous intrusions which make up a large part of the mountains. This subject is very fully treated by Pirsson, with numerous illustrations, and the author proposes to discuss it in an early number of this Journal. -The character of the igneous rocks is given in the following summary: “The igneous rocks of the Judith Mountains are of acid-feld- spathic char acter, and are very like those characteristic of other Jaccolithic areas. They comprise granite-porphyry, syenite, syenite-porphyry, and diorite-porphyry in the main masses, with dikes and sheets of the variety of phonolite-porphyry called tinguaite-porphyry. While the intrusion of the former rocks has taken place according to well-known processes, it is believed that the phonolite-porphyry was formed by some process of differentia- tion in the main masses and was injected into the sediments above them by what may be called secondary intrusion. The granular- ity of the rocks depends on their chemica! composition and not on the depth at which they have been intruded.” As regards the sedimentary rocks, which are most extensively and regularly developed in the western part, the characteristic thick-bedded limestones of Carboniferous age cover much the larger part of the area. Between these and the Cretaceous of the plains (Dakota and Bentor) are parallel bands belonging to the Lower Cretaceous (Kootanie) and to the Jurassic (shales, Geology and Mineralogy. 509 thin-bedded limestones and sandstones). Within the Carbonifer- ous area and often involved here in the igneous outflows are lim- ited areas of Siluro-Devonian and of Cambrian. The relations of these strata to each other and to the igneous rocks are well shown in the colored geological map, as also in the many excellent sections. The discussion by Weed of these rocks and of the suc- cessive orographic movements in which they have been involved is highly interesting, but it is impossible to attempt to summarize it here. The final chapter is devoted to the ore deposits and coal of the region. 3. Fossil Meduse ; by Caartes D. Watcotr. U. 8. Geol. Survey Monograph, vol. xxx, pp. 1-201, figs. 1-26, plates i—xlvii. Washington, 1898.—Beginning with the study of some obscure _ siliceous nodules from the Coosa shales of Middle Cambrian age from Alabama, Mr. Walcott has produced, in this monograph, an example of the highest results of modern science in the interpre- tation of fossil remains. It is sufficiently remarkable that any reliable evidence of the existence of these jelly-like organisms existed in Paleozoic time; but the description and illustration of both the form and internal structure of fossil Cambrian Meduse with some two hundred and fifty figures of specimens selected _ from over 9000 examples could scarcely be imagined were it nota fact. : The Cambrian forms are referred by the author to a new family, Brooksellidz, of the suborder Discomeduse. The genus Brooksella is represented by two species, and Laotira by one species, all from the Middle Cambrian. The genus Dactyloidites Hall, with one species, from the Lower Cambrian of New York, is referred to the same family, Other Medusz, originally described by Torrell and Linnarssou from the Lower Cambrian, are referred to the genus Medusina, a name proposed to include all species of fossil Medusze whose generic characters cannot be determined. Under the name Hophyton, a number of markings, which have been supposed by many writers to be remains of plants, are fig- ured and their probable origin as trails of floating alg or in some cases of the tentacles of Medusz is discussed. Descriptions and fizures of the known fossil Meduse from the Jurassic and Per- mian of Bohemia and Saxony are also given, and together with the original description of the Coosa material form an important monograph of the present knowledge of this group. The illustra- tions are numerous both in text and plates and illustrate the sub- ject with a fullness never before attained. H. S. W. 4, The Cretaceous Foraminifera of New Jersey ; by Rurus M. Baae, Jr.; pp. 1-89, plates i-vi, U.S. Geol. Survey, Bulletin 88. Washington, 1898.—This bulletin contains a description of over a hundred species of foraminifera from the Matawan, Monmouth, Rancocas and Manasquan formations of the Upper Cretaceous. A bibliography is appended. H. 8S. W. 5. Some Lava-flows of the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, California ; by F. Lesiiz Ransome ; pp. 1-74, plates i-xi, U.S. 510 Scientific Intelligence. Geol. Survey, Bulletin 89. Washington, 1898.—In this paper are described a series of superimposed flows, associated with the Neocene andesite tuff, of the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, situated along the course of the Stanislaus River, which are said to stand chemically between typical andesites and typical tra- chytes and for convenience are called ‘‘latite”» by the author to distinguish them from the ordinary clastic andesites abundant in the same fold. See this Journal, v, 355, H. 8. W. 6. Bibliography and Index of North American Geology, Pale- ontology, Petrology and Mineralogy for 1896 ; by F. B. WrxKs; pp. 1-152, U. 8. Geol. Survey Bulletin, 149. Washington, 1898,— A valuable feature of these Bibliographies, which are annually prepared by the Survey, is the classified index which enables the student to find at a glance the new matter of any particular kind distributed in the numerous publications of the year, H. 8. W. 7. Report on the Geology of Southwest Nova Scotia, ete. ; by L. W. Barney. Geol. Survey of Canada, Ann. Rept., vol. im; Part M, pp. 1-154, plates i-v, and colored geological map of the ‘region. Ottawa, 1898,—This report embraces the results of sev- eral years investigations by the author in the western counties (Annapolis, Queens, Digby, Yarmouth and Shelburne) of Nova Scotia. The formations are the (1) Central granite axis. (2) Quartzite and slates like the gold- -bearing rocks of Halifax, without fossils but believed to be of Cambrian. age. (3) Micaceous, hornblendic and staurolitic strata, supposed to be metamorphic equivalents of Cambrian rocks. (4) Fossiliferous slates and iron ores, of Oriskany or Eo- Devonian age. (5) Red sandstones of Post- Carboniferous age, and believed to be of Triassic age. And (6) Trap associated with No. 5 The Silurian and Devonian Eade ‘of the ' NictaetDonieaee basin and of Clementsport and the Bear River basin are fully described, and additions, of both fossil localities and species, are made to what has already been reported by Sir William Dawson and others regarding these eastern Paleozoic faunas. Particulars are given regarding the present state of development of the gold districts of Queens aad Yarmouth Counties. H. Ss. W. _ 8. Report on a traverse of the northern part of the Labrador Peninsula from Richmond Gulf to Ungava Bay ; vy A. P. Low. Geol. Surv. of Canada, Ann. Rept, vol. ix, Part L, pp. 1-43, plates i-iv. Ottawa, 1898.—This reconnaissance survey is valuable in revealing the geographical as well as the geological features of this little known region. The rocks are chiefly ancient crystal- lines, metamorphic schists, eruptives, and auatined dolomites and arkoses, reported as of. Cambrian age. Hy Se Wes” 9. Report on the Geology of the French Pie Sheet ; by Rogpert Betz. Geol. Survey of Canada, Ann. Rept., vol. i Part I, pp. 1-29, and geological colored map. Ottawa, 1898.— ‘ { ‘ Geology and Mineralogy. 511 ‘This is a condensed report of the investigations in this region by the author and other members of the Survey covering several years. The map is on the scale of 4 miles to 1 inch; and the formations represented include Lanrentian, Huronian, Cambro- Silurian and Silurian of Niagara-Clinton age. H. S. W. 10. Le Granite des Pyrénées et ses phenoménes de contact ; by A. Lacroix (Bull. des serv. carte géol. de France, No. 64, pp. 68, pl. 3, 1898).—In this interesting work Professor Lacroix confines himself to discussing the details of observation on the contacts in the vicinity of Haute Arriége. The facts, which are given in considerable detail, lead him to believe that where the granite has come in contact with schists, these latter have been enriched in feldspar by transference of material from the granite and con- verted largely into gneisses; where calcareous rocks have been altered, it has been of the more usual type already well known and previously described with formation of various lime-bearing silicates. The endomorphic modification suffered by the granite when in contact with the calcareous beds, is its transformation into basie types, generally diorite, sometimes norite and even peri- dotite in border zones at the contact. This is believed to be caused by enrichment in basic oxides due to the melting up and absorption of masses of the calcareous beds. Attention is also drawn to the importance of mineralizing gases and vapors in the contact area, which the author thinks have not been sufficiently taken into account by previous investigators. He thinks that the action produced by deeply buried granite magmas is of quite dif- ferent character from that effected by those more nearly approach- _ing the surface, as those for instance in the Christiania region. es ae 11. Zgneous Rocks of Tasmania ; by W. H. TWetveTrReEs and W. F. Perrerv. (Trans. Australasian Inst. Min. Eng., vol. v, No. 62, 1898.)—Although this account is very short and confined mostly to general statement, it is none the less welcome in giving petrographers some notion of the rocks occurring in a hitherto little known region. Granites, felsites, augite-syenite, trachyte andesites, gabbro, basalt, diabase, limburgite, minette and perido- tites are among the various types briefly mentioned. i. NE: 12. On Sulphokalite.—In the course of a series of investigations of the phenomena of salt-bed formation, J. H. van’t Hoff and A. P. Saunders attempted to obtain an artificial salt corresponding to the composition, 3Na,SO,.2NaCl, given by Hidden and Machintosh for sulphohalite. With this end in view solutions containing sodium chloride and sodium sulphate were evaporated at the extreme temperatures of 25° and 70° centigrade. In the presence of a sufficient quantity of sodium chloride, the sulphate crystallized out, even at the lower of these temperatures, without water of crystallization, i.e. as thenardite. Thus, at both 25° and 70° the authors obtained well-formed cubes of sodium chloride, free from sulphate, and rhombic pyramids of thenardite free from chlorine. The double salt, however, was not formed, though its 512 Scientific Intelligence. formation was to have been expected under these circumstances. The authors also attempted to analyze the original mineral, but two independent specimens obtained from the same dealer proved to be chemically sodium chloride while their specific gravity was only 2°16, that given for sulphohalite being 2°489. The authors conclude, on the grounds stated, that for the pur- poses of their investigations they are not called upon to take such a double salt as 3Na,SO,.2NaCl into consideration. Further- more, they add that “the existence of sulphohalite appears at least doubtful,” a conclusion which hardly seems jastified.*— Sitzungsberichte d. K. Akad., Berlin, 1898. III. MisceLLANEous ScIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. National Academy of Sciences.—The following papers were entered for reading at the autumn meeting of the Academy, held at New Haven, Conn., Nov. 15, 16. W. K. Brooks and L. EK. Grirrin: Anatomy of Nautilus pompilius. C. BARUS: On solid solutions of colloidal glass. CHARLES S. Minot: Three phases of vertebrate development. Notes on mam- malian embryology. R. H. CHITTENDEN: The influence of alcohol and alcoholic fluids on digestion. LAFAYETTE B. MENDEL: On the conditions modifying the excretion of kynuremic acid. W.S. EICHELBERGER: Perturbations of Minerva, with a preliminary determina- tion of its orbit. O. C. MARSH: On a series of native skulls from New Guinea On the reputed prefrontal bones in recent mammals. On the brecciated fossil marble from Kishiu, Japan. On some rare antiquities from Mexico. F. A. Gooc and Louis CLEVELAND Jones: Sodium tungstate as a retainer for boric acid. F. A. GoocH and MartHa AustTIN: The ammonium-magnesium phosphate of analysis. 8. L. PENFIELD: The chemical composition of tourmaline. A. K. VERRILL: On the nature and origin of the marine fauva of Bermuda. On the ability possessed by certain animals to recover after complete freezing. IRA REMSEN: Further researches on the two isomeric chlorides of orthosulpho- benzoic acid: A study in tautomerism. H. A. ROWLAND: Report upon work in spectrum analysis carried on by help of the Bache Fund. A. A. MICHELSON: Observations on the Zeeman effect with the echelon-spec- troscope. Volume VIII of the Memoirs of the Academy has _ been recently issued ; it contains a paper on the Study of the Effect of the Venom of Crotalus Adamanteus upon the Blood of Man and Animals, by 8S. Weir Mitchell, M.D., and Alonzo H. Stewart, M.D. 2. Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory ; edited by Epwarp W. Scripture, Ph.D. Volume V, pp. 1-105, New Haven, Conn., 1898.—Another volume has been added to the series of confributions from the psychological laboratory under the charge of Dr. Scripture, thus testifying to the active spirit of *The editor is informed that Prof. Penfield will make a new analysis upon authentic material. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 513 research which he has developed. Among the papers here printed is to be noted particularly the research by M. Matsumoto on acoustic space. The work for this, begun at Tokyo, was chiefly carried forward in New Haven from 1896 to 1898. It is only possible to call attention to the extended series of experi- ments here detailed, and to quote the closing paragraph : “ Our final conclusion is thus that an acoustic sensation receives its spatial form primarily from the space idea which is given to us by the visual, tactual and motor sensations. Acoustic space presup-. poses the existence of the space form of other sensations. We have only to give an account of how the perception of the posi- tion of sounds arises on the basis of the already existing space which was given to us by other sensations. As to the further problem of the ultimate origin of the space form of perception, its solution must be sought in the visual and tactual perception.” 3. Report on the Survey of the Boundary-Line between Alle- ghany and Garrett Counties ; by L. A. Bauer, chief of party; pp. 2-48, with six plates. Maryland Geological Survey, Preliminary Publication. William Bullock Clark, State Geologist, Baltimore, 1898.—This report has been recently issued, and gives an account of the work of triangulation accomplished, with also a statement of the magnetic observations made in connection with it. 4. A Catalogue of Scientific and Technical Periodicals, 1665- 1895, together with chronological tables and a library check-list ; by Henry Carrineton Boiron. Second edition, pp. vil, 1247. ‘Washington, 1897 (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Publications, No. 1093).—This new edition of Professor Bolton’s Catalogue of Scientific Periodicals has been largely increased over the earlier issue published in 1885. Some eighty-six hundred titles are included, belonging not only to the natural and physical sciences proper but also to anatomy, physiology, and veterinary science; medicine, however, is excluded. Besides the titles given in alpha- betical order, with information as to volumes issued, indexes, etc., the work contains a chronological table from 1728 to 1895, show- ing the volumes of each jourual which belong to a particular year. The value of this table for those looking up references can hardly be overestimated. 5. Differential and Integral Calculus ; by P. A. Lampert, M.A., Lehigh University, pp. 245. New York and London, 1898. (The Macmillan Co. Price $1.50.)—The arrangement of topics is somewhat different from that usually follow ed. Differentiation and integration are treated simultaneously, which in the opinion of the author serves to economize the time and effort of the stu- dent. A certain looseness of statement is occasionally noticeable (e. g. in the definition of a limit}, which detracts from the merits of other features of the book. INDEX. TO (“SOLU ME Vas A Academy, National, meeting at New Haven, 512. Adams, J. S., Law of Mines and Min- ing in the U. S., 436. Agassiz, A., Tertiary limestone reefs of Fiji, 165. Aldous, J. C. P:, Physics, 100. Ames, J. S., Zeeman effect, 99; Free Expansion of Gases, 504. Antillean Valleys, submarine, Spen- cer, 272. Association, American, meeting at Boston, 199, 363. British, meeting at Bristol, 372. Austin, M., manganese as pyrophos- - phate, 233. B Barringer, D. M., Law of Mines and Mining in the U. S., 436. Barus, C. colloidal glass, 270; com- |. pressibility of colloids, 285. Bauer, Survey of Maryland, 513. Beecher, C. E., origin of spines, 1,125, 249, 329. Block Island, prehistoric fauna, Eaton, Boiton, H. C., Catalogue of Scientific Periodicals 1665-1895, 513. Botany— Flora of the United States and Canada, Britton and Brown, 277. Trees, winter conditions of reserve food substances, Wilcox, 69. Britton, N. L., Flora of the United States and Canada, 277. Brown, A., Flora of the United States and Canada, 277. ‘Browning, P. E., detection of sul- phides, ete., 317. Brush, C. F., a new gas, 431. Brush’s Mineralogy revised, Penfield, 436. C Calculus, Lambert, 513. / Canada, Geological Reports of 1897, 434, 510. minerals of, Hoffmann, 437. Cathode rays, change of energy = light rays, Wiedemann, 433. reflection, Starke, 433. Chemical analysis, Qualitative, H. L. Wells, 269; J. S. C. Wells, 269. CHEMISTRY— . Air, combustion in rarefied, Bene dicenti, 95. new constituents of, Ramsay and Travers, 192, 360; Brush, 431. Aluminum, separations by hydro- chloric acid, Havens, 45. nitride, Francke, 501. Ammonium peroxide, Melikoff and Pissarjewski, 195. Calcium, crystallized metallic, Moissan, 428. hydride, Moissan, 428. nitride, Moissan, 500. Carbon monoxide, direct elimina- tion, Engler and Grimm, 193. Enantiomorphism, Kipping and Pope, 502. - Helium, argon and krypton, posi- tion in scheme of elements, Crookes, 189. experiments with, Travers, 499. Hydrogen, boiling point, Dewar, 361; liquefaction, Dewar, 96. Hyponitrous acid, Kirschner, 499. Inorganic salts, molecular mass of, Werner, 195. Iodine, in ‘the analyses of alka etc., ’ Walker, 455. Krypton, Crookes, 189. Manganese as pyrophosphate, Gooch and Austin, 233. * This Index contains the general heads, BOTANY, CHEMISTRY (incl. chem. physics), GEOLOGY, MINERALS, OBITUARY, ROCKs, and under each the titles of Articles re ferring thereto are men- = INDEX. CHEMISTRY— Metargon, Dewar, 360, 361. Molecular mass of solid substances, Traube, 95. determined by the Molybdenum, iodometric determi- nation, Gooch, 168. Neon and Metargon, Ramsay and. Travers, 360. Nickel and cobalt, separation by hy- drochloric acid, Havens, 396. Ozone, boiling point, Troost, 362. - Salts, colored, Elster and Geitel, 95. Sodic sulphate, transition tempera- ture, Richards, 201. Sodium carbide, Matignon, 196. boiling | point, Walker and Lumsden, 429. | photoelectric properties of 5153, Stas theory of Hall effect in, EHlectrosynthesis, Mixter, 217. Energy, Doctrine of, 503. gor oak Text-book of, Packard, F | Field Columbian Museum, 104. Fiji, Tertiary limestone reefs of, Agassiz, 165. | Foote, W. M., native lead with roeb- lingite, Franklin Furnace, N. J.,187. | Fossils, vertebrate, for the National _ Museum, Marsh, 101. See GEOLOGY. sub-oxide aad peroxide, For- erand, 501. Sulphides, ete., detection Browning and Howe, 317. Vapor pressure of reciprocally sol- uble liquids, Ostwald, 93. Coherer, theory of, Van Gulik, 438 ; Aschkinass, 503. of, | Colloids, compressibility of, Barus, | 285. | Crookes, W., position of helium, ar- | gon and krypton, in scheme of ele-| ments, 189. D Dana, E. 8., Text-Book of Mineral-_ ogy, 275. Darton, N. H., dikes of felsophyre and basalt in Virginia, 305. E Eakle, A. S., erionite, 66; biotite- - tinguaite dike in Essex Co., Mass., 489. Earthquakes of the Pacific coast, Holden, 200. Eaton, G. F., prehistoric fauna of | Block Island, 137. Electric currents excited by Rontgen | rays, Winkelmann, 482. discharge, chemical effects silent, Berthelot, 430. 21. energy by atmospheric action, Warren, furnace, fusion, Oddo, 194. Electricity, Industrial, Graffigny- Elliot, 200. - and Magnetism, Nipher, 482. Electrochemistry, ionic reactions, Kiister, 93. in vacuum tubes, J. E. Moore, | of | | G Gas, a new, Brush, 481. | | Gases, Free Expansion of, 504. | GroLocicaL REPORTS AND SURVEYS— Canada, 1897, 434, 510. Nova Scotia, 510. United States, 18th annual report, Walcott, 433 ; Topographic Atlas, 102. Publications of, 508, 509. GEOLOGY— _ Brachiopod fauna of Rhode Island, / Walcott, 327. Calamaria of the Dresden Museum, Geinitz, 198. Cephalopoda, fossil, of the British Museum, Crick, 198. Ceratopsia, new species, Marsh, 92. Cretaceous foraminifera of New Jer- sey, Bagg, 509. Cycad horizons in the Rocky Moun- tain region, Marsh, 197, Devonian fauna of black shale of Kentucky, Girty, 384. Fauna, prehistoric, of Block Island, Eaton, 137. Fossil Medusz, Walcott, 509. two new, | Fossils from Canada, Whiteaves, 198. use of, in determining geolog- | ical age, Marsh, 483. Geological history of Panama and Costa Rica, Hill, 435, 505. Ichthyodectes, species of, Hay, 225 Judith Mountains, geology, Weed and Pirsson, 508. Jurassic formation on Atlantic coast, Marsh, 105. Loess, eolian origin of, Keyes, 299. Mammals, origin of, Marsh, 406. Metamorphism of rocks and rock flowage, Van Hise, 75. 516 GEOLOGY— Moraines of Minnesota, revision of, Todd, 469. Niagara Falls, episode in the his- tory of, Spencer, 439. North American geology, Wales, 510. Sauropodus 487. Spines, origin of, Beecher, 1, 125, 249, 329. Dinosauria, Marsh, Tertiary horizons, Ortmann, 478. limestone reefs of Fiji, Agassiz, 165. See also Rocks. Gillespie, D. H. M., iodine in the analysis of alkalies, etc., 455. Girty, G. H., fauna from Devonian black shale of Kentucky, 384. Glass, colloidal, Barus, 270. Gooch, F. A., iodometric determina- tion of molybdenum, 168; manga- nese as pyrophosphate, 233. Gravitation constant and mean density of the earth, 508. new marine, H Hall, James, obituary, 284, 437. Hall effect in an electrolyte, 504. Harper’s Scientific Memoirs, 199, 504. Havens, F. S., separation of alumi- num, by hydrochloric acid, 45; separation of nickel and cobalt by hydrochloric acid, 396. Hay, O. P., species of ichthyodectes, | 220. Hidden, W. E., sperrylite in North Carolina, 381 ; twinned crystals of zircon, 323; associated minerals of rhodolite, 463. Hill, R. T., geological history of Panama and Costa Rica, 485, 505. Hillebrand, W. F., vanadium and molybdenum in rocks, 209. Hintze, C., Mineralogy, 485. Hoffmann, G. C., Baddeckite, 274; Canadian minerals, 4387. Holden, E. S., Earthquakes of the Pacific Coast, 200. Howe, E., detection of sulphides, etc., d17. Hutchins, C. C., irregular reflection, O73. I Isham, G. S., registering solar radi- ometer, 160. INDEX. J Jamaica, late formations and changes of level, Spencer, 270. Judith Mts., Montana, geology of, Weed and Pirsson, 508, K Keith, A., dikes of felsophyre and basalt in Virginia, 305. ere C. R., eolian origin of loess, Kreider, D. A., structural and mag- neto-optic rotation, 416. L Labrador Peninsula, traverse of, Low, 510. Lacroix, A., granite of the Pyrenees, 511. Lambert, P. A., Differential and In- tegral Calculus, 513. Light, absorption in a magnetic field, Righi, 433. Low, A. P., traverse of Labrador Peninsula, 510. Lucas, F’. A.; contributions to paleon- tology, 399. M Marsh, O. C., Ceratopsia, 92; verte-— brate fossils for the National Muse- um, 101; Jurassic formation on the Atlantic coast, 105; cyead horizons in the Rocky Mountain region, 197 ; value of type specimens, 401 ; origin of mammals, 406; fossils in deter- mining Geological age, 483; fami- lies of Sauropodus Dinosauria, 487. Martin, G. C., dunite in Western Massachusetts, 244. Mineralogy, Hintze, 435. Text Book, Dana, 275. MINERALS— Autunite, 42. Baddeckite, 274. Copper, native, Franklin Furnace, N. J., 187. Corundum, origin of, in North Carolina, 49. ’ Diaphorite, Washington and Mexico, 316. * Krionite, 66. Kalgoorlite, West Australia, 199. Kentrolite, New Mexico, 116. Lead, native, Franklin Furnace, N. J., 187 INDEX. MINERALS— Melanotekite, New. Mexico, 116. Miersite, New South Wales, 199. Phenacite, pseudomorphs after, 119. Rhodolite, associated minerals of, 463. Roeblingite, Franklin Fur- nace, N. J., 187. Smithsonite, cobaltiferous, 123. Sperrylite, North. Carolina, 381. Sulphohalite, 511. Tantalite, crystallized, 123. Tapio- lite, crystallized, 121. Topaz, supposed pseudomorphs, 121. Torbernite, etching figures, 41. Zircon, twinned crystals, 323. Mines and Mining in the United States, Law of, Barringer and Adams, 436. Mixter, W. G., electrosynthesis, 217. Moore, J. E., electrical discharge and the kinetic theory of matter, 21. N Niagara Falls, geology of, Spencer, 439. ; Nipher, F. E., Electricity and Mag- netism, 432. North American geology, etc., Wales, 510. Norton, J. T., Jr., iodometric deter- mination of molybdenum, 168. Nova Scotia, geology of southwest, Bailey, 510. 0 OxsITUARY— Hall, James, 284, 437. Ortmann, A. E., new marine Ter- tiary horizons near Punta Arenas, | Chile, 478. Osmotic pressure, Traube, 194. Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exacten Wis-. senschaften, 200. | P Packard, A. S., Text-book of Ento- | mology, 103. | Paleontology, contributions to, Lucas, 399. | Palmer, A. deF., Jr., apparatus for measuring very high pressures, 451. | Panama and Costa Rica, geology of, | Hill, 4385, 505. | Penfield, S. L., Brush’s Mineralogy, revised, 436. Penniman, T. D., New method of measurement of self-inductance, 97. Perry, physical geography of Wor- cester, Mass., 435. 517 Petroleum in Burma, Noetling, 102. Physics, Elementary, Aldous, 100. Pirsson, L. V., geology of Judith Mts., Montana, 508. Pratt, J. H., origin of corundum in . North Carolina, 49; twinned crys- tals of zircon, 523 ; associated min- erals of rhodolite, 463. Pressures, apparatus for measuring very high, Palmer, 451. Pyrenees, granite of, Lacroix, 511. R Radiometer, registering solar, Isham, 160. Reflection, irregular, Hutchins, 373. Rhode Island, brachiopod fauna, Walcott, 327. Richards, T. W., transition tempera- ture of sodic sulphate, 201. Richter, E., Seestudien, 103. Rocks— Basalt in Virginia, Darton and Keith, 305. Biotite-tinguaite, Essex Co., Mass., Eakle, 489. Dunite, West Massachusetts, 244. Felsophyre in Virginia, Darton and Keith, 505. - Granite of the Pyrenees, Lacroix, 511 Igneous, composition of, Walker, 410. of Christiania, Brégger, 273. of Tasmania, Twelvetrees and Petterd, 511. Laurdalite, Brégger, 273. Lava flows of the Sierra Nevada, Ransome, 509. Metamorphism of, Van Hise, 75. Peridotite, occurrence of corundum with, Pratt, 49. Sélvsbergite, Essex Co., Washington, 176. Tinguaite, Essex Co., Mass., Wash- ington, 176; Eakle, 489. Vanadium and molybdenum rocks, Hillebrand, 209. Rotation, structural and magneto- optic, Wright and Kreider, 416. Rowland, H. A., methods for the measurement of self-inductance, etc., 97. Mass., in Ss Scientific Periodicals, Catalogue, 1665-— 1895, Bolton, 513. Scripture, E. W., Yale Psychological Laboratory Studies, 512. 518 Seestudien, Richter, 103. Self-inductance, new methods of mea- surement, Rowland and Penniman, 97. Sierra Nevada, lava flows of, Ransome, 509. Spencer, J. W., changes of level in Jamaica, 270; high plateaus and submarine Antillean Valleys, 272; episode in the history of Niagara Falls, 439. Spencer, L. J., diaphorite from Wash- ington and Mexico, 316. Spines, origin of, Beecher, 1, 125, 249, 329. Storage Battery, Treadwell, 101. T Tasmania, igneous rocks, Twelvetrees and Petterd, 511. Todd, J. E., revision of the moraines of Minnesota, 469. Treadwell, A., Storage battery, 101. Type specimens, value of, Marsh, 401. U United States Geological Survey, 102, 438, 508, 509. V Van Hise, C. R., metamorphism of rocks and rock flowage, 75. Verrill, A. E., new American Actin- ians, 493. INDEX. WwW Walcott, C. D., ‘Brachiopod fauna of Rhode Island, 327; fossil Meduse, Walker, C. F., iodine in the analysis of alkalies, etc. , 455. Walker, T. L. , crystalline symmetry of torbernite, 41; composition of igneous rocks, 410. Wee C. ec Mineralogical notes, Washington, H. S., sdlvsbergite and tinguaite, Essex Co., Mass., 176. Weed, W. H., geology. of Judith Mts, a Montana, 508. Wells, H. 5 Qualitative Chemical Analysis, 269, Wells, J. S. C., Inorganic Qualitative Analysis, 269. Wilcox, E. M., winter conditions of reserve food substances of certain deciduous trees, 69. Wright, A. W., structural and mag- neto-optic rotation, 416, Y Yale Psychological Laboratory, stud- ies from, Scripture, 512. Zz Zeeman effect, Ames, Earhart and Reese, 99. ZooLoGy— Actinians, new American, Verrill, - 493. Bibliotheca es II, Taschen- berg, 103. Plate |. VI, 1898. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. 12 1] 10 22 21 19 18 17 16 15 scot aa ooo oscoae aoe S229 909900550000 POS0S ooo Ose. 33 32 3] 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 39 38 37 36 35 34 46 45 44 43 41 40 fo | io) 51 50 49 48 47 SPINES OF RADIOLARIA. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. VI, 1898. Plate II. BLOCK ISLAND. Sandy Pt. 4% Fort Island Shell-heap. #\ North Light. 2% Mott Shell-heap. 3% Cemetery Shell-heap. ax Shell-heap near Cemetery. b* ” ” ” 4% Sand Dune Shell-heaps. Clay Head. * /Great Salt Pd. ; Crescent Beach. Graces Pt. Old Harbor Pt. Statute miles Plate III. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. VI, 1898. Boston o b oF f Ny od) Q A: Martha's Vineya rd. Block Island ' Statute mules. ) as SO Is SOUTHERN NEW ENGLAND COAST. During December, in anticipation of our removal in January to much larger quarters, we will make sweeping : reductions in prices on spot cash sales as follows: ; eee On minerals for blowpipe analysis, 334 per cent. ie On museum specimens, 334 per cent. a ts On all other specimens, 25 per cent. Re ic) On Sala 10 per cent. : Extra Discounts : On bills of $20.00 to $50. 00,5 percent additionalon net amount. ats * On bills of $50.00 to $200.00, 74 per cent. Teck, On bills of over Sieh 10 per cent. Ba suggestions : MUSEUM SPECIMENS. - plendia Sromps of Galena and Sphalerite, Joplin, $2.50 to $10.00; Golden : a, Icites, Joplin, 60c to $3.50. Superb groups of Sulphur, 35.00 ‘to $7.50 ; pee agnificent Group Quartz, Ark., $15.00; grand Groups Calcite, Stank Mine, wie, + $5.00; choice crystals of Celestite from Lake Erie, 50c. to $6 00; splendid ae groups of Stilbite from Iceland, $200 to $7.50; groups Yellow Wulfenite, es N. M., $3.50 to $6.00; Drusy Descloizite, Arizona, $2.50 to $10.00; Smioky*.... 3. san batts groups, Maine, $3.50 to $10.00; Crystallized Smithsonite, N. M., are, 0 to $42.50; elegant group Purple Fluorite, England, $10.00 ; mammoth ee tal Eetieutte, Utah, $15.00. . aa ros | CABINET SPECIMENS. | * Foe esiend. Stilbite and Heulandite, 25c. to $2.00; Dioptase, $15.00 to Ae va 00; Crystallized Hessite, $3.50 to $6.00; Broken Hill Cerussites, sina $1.00 to $3.50; English Calcites, Fluorites, Barites, iridescent Dolomite, Hema- tite and Quartz; Swiss Smoky Quartz, “Tron Rose, ” pink octahedral Fluorite, K 3innenthal minerals - Carpholite, Erythrite, Scheelite, Cassiterite, Lumachelle. : ee “Satin: Stone ”’ Aragonite, sparkling Sunstone, flashy Labradorite, chatoyant rs Crocidolite, gorgeous Agates, splendid Chalcosiderite, polished Variscite and aed Wardite, erystallized Orpiment, Ark. Quartz crystals and groups. Quartz crys- — ate tals with Chloritic phantoms. Look over our Bulletins and i gS he for yy. hrs many other desirable Minerals. | A LOOSE CRYSTALS. Se ey actagnetite 2 paracite Hauerite, Cee) Pyrite, Microlite; Wulfenite, Maanveee Bes ; Beryl, Caicite, Quartz twins, Dolomite (Teruel--— Re Sulphur, “‘Aragonite, Beryllonite, Andalusite (Chiastolite), Bar- Aisi iB Borax, "Scolecite, Selenite, Orthoelase, Tyrolese Epidote, Sphene, Azurite ; ae ag Axinite, Amazonstone. ATS a THIS IS A RARE OPPORTUNITY See wager . -sooure fine minerals at very low prices. :: ; . my, GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., ‘Mineralogists, Spee. Se naa 64 East 12th St., New York City: ee ee eo wor Bere Wes : > : _ . hss: nts bors ee et ith. Bodsig 7 ‘ bys Ba Na a) ee ake Arr, XLIV.—Another Episode in the History of Nia Falls; by J. WijSPENOER: .._ >. 200545 ae XLV. —Appar atus for Measuring very High Pressures ; I A. DEF, PatMee onic <0. ee “ So. XLVL—Application of Iodine in the Analysis of ee and Acids; by ©. F. Warxer and Davin H. M, G LESPIE: 200 it ..-- bake - ee XLVII.—Associated Minerals of Rhodolite; by Ww. . Hipprn and J. H.: Prat) .25 22s ee Ra > *e 46 XLVIII.—Revision of the Moraines of Minnesota; by J. £ a3 TOMD 22. YR ee a XLIX.—Preliminary Report on some new marine Tertiar horizons discovered by Mr. J. B. Hatcher near Punt : Arenas, Magellanes, Chile; by A. E. Orrmann ee LL. —Comparative Value of Different Kinds of Rose y "Essex set hie Mass.; "ey A.’ 5. Hakim eaoeee ; LIIT.—Descriptions of new American Actinians, with one val notes on other species, I.; by A. KE, VERRInL --....--- 4 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Hyponitrous acid and Hyponitrites, Kindo . periments with Helium, TRAVERS, 499 —Calcium nitride, Morssan, 500.— um sub-oxide and peroxide produced by combustion. FORCRAND: Alum nitride, Franck, 501.—Enantiomorphism. Kipprneé and Pore, 502.—Doctr Energy; a Theor y of Reality: Gravitation constant and mean density ot earth, F, Ricuarz and O. KRIGAR-MENZEL: Theory of the Coherer, E. 4 KINASS, 503.—Theory of the Hall effect in an Electrolyte: Free Expat Gases, 504. Geology and Mineralogy—Geological ‘History of the Isthmus of Panes ied tions of Costa Rica, R. T. Hitt, 505.—Geology.and Mineral Resources Judith Mountains of Montana, W. H. Werp and L. V. Pirsson, 508.— Medusee, C D. WatcortT: Cretaceous Foraminifera of New Jersey, BaGe, Jr: Lava-flows of the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, Cal. RANSOME 509.—Bibliograpby and Index of North American Geolo _P, tology, Petrology and Mineralogy for 1896, F. B. Werxs: Report on the ogy of Southwest Nova Scotia, L. W.. BAILEY: Report on a traverse northern part of the Labrador Peninsula from Richmond Gulf to Ungave. A. P. Low: Report on the Geology of the French River Sheet, R. BELL Granite des Pyrénées et ses phenoménes de contact, A. LACROIX: “Set Rocks of Tasmania, W. H. TWweLverReEs and W. F, Perrerp: Sulphe halite, J. H. van’? HOFF and A. P. SAUNDERS, 511. ey. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—National Academy of Sciences: Studies, t the Yaie Psychological Laboratory, E. W. Soriprore, 512.—Report on Survey of the Boundary Line between Alleghany and’ Garrett Counties, ¥ tire L. A. Bauer: Catalogue of Scientific and Technical Periodicals, 166 89) 5, H. C. Botton: Differential and Integral Calculus, P A. LAMBERT, 513: INDEX TO VOLUME VI, 514. _~ o i ‘ > bok 4. nee wy He, Aye ‘° Mi yasagigge reason! eonh ar the: TT Ueda | aad a Serene wi it thst : ? , Ls “ai Boho Benne gAiee salh NannOsng A N yh. Lif Th we J | : Vt { a weree : WMD TIWEEL A ke pai pap ner uNe® iaprnes aren TIT soudly dolby ; Mp op hhNe 4&%, -_ 2s ow fh we ‘ ! } ~ BR bole tt rN I yen wee fal a r! 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