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THE

AMERICAN JOURNAL

OF

SCIENCE AND ARTS.

CONDUCTED BY

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M.D. LL. D.

Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy, &c. in Yale College; Corresponding Member of
the Society of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, and Foreign Member of
the Geological Society, of London; Member of the Royal Mineralogical
Society ot Dresden; of the Imperial Agricultural Society of Mos-
cow; Honorary Member of the Linnzan Society of Paris;
of the Natural History Society of Belfast; and
Member of various Literary and Scien-
tific Societies in America.

VOL. XV1I.—HESY¥, 1829.

NEW HAVEN:

Published and Sold by HEZEKIAH HOWE and A. H. MALTBY.
Philadelphia, KE. LITTELL & BROTHER.—.New York, G. & C. & H.
CARVILL.—Boston, HILLIARD, GRAY, LITTLE & WILKINS.

PRINTED BY HEZEKIAH HOWE.

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PREFACE.

D4o—

Wuen this Journal was first projected, very few believed
that it would succeed.

Among others, Dr. Dorsey* wrote to the editor; I predict
a short life for you, although I wish, as the Spaniards say, that
you may live a thousand years. 'The work has not lived a thou-
sand years, but as it has survived more than the hundredth part
of that period, no reason is apparent why it may not continue to
exist. To the contributors, disinterested and arduous as have
been their exertions, the editor’s warmest thanks are due; and
they are equally rendered to numerous personal friends for their
unwavering support: nor ought those subscribers to be forgotten
who, occupied in the common pursuits of life, have aided, by
their money, in sustaining the hazardous Novelty of an Ameri-
can Journal of Science. A general approbation, sufficiently de-
cided to encourage effort, where there was no other reward,
has supported the editor; but he has not been inattentive to the
voice of criticism, whether it has reached him in the tones of
candor and kindness, or in those of severity. We must not —
look to our friends for the full picture of our faults. He is un-
wise who neglects the maxim—

fas est ab hoste doceri,

and we may be sure, that those are quite im earnest, whose
pleasure it is, to place faults in a strong light and bold relief;
and to throw excellencies into the shadow of total eclipse.

* The late lamented professor of Anatomy in the University of Pennsy}-
vania.

Li Oe

1V PREFACE.

Minds, at once elightened and amiable, viewing both in their
proper proportions, will however render the equitable verdict ;

Non ego paucis offendar maculis.—

[t is not pretended that this Journal has been faultless; there
may be communications in it which had been better omitted,
and itis not doubted that the power to command intellectual
effort, by suitable pecuniary reward, would add to its purity, as
a record of Science, and to its richness, as a repository of dis-
coveries in the Arts.

But the editor, even now, offers payment, at the rate adopted
by the literary Journals, for able original communications,* con-
taining especially important facts, vestigations and discoveries
in science, and practical inventions in the useful and ornamental
Arts.

As however his means are insufficient to pay for all the copy,
it is earnestly requested, that those gentlemen, who, from other
motives, are still willing to write for this Journal, should continue
to favor it with their communications. ‘That the period when sat-
isfactory compensation can be made to all writers whose pieces
are inserted, and to whom payment will be acceptable, is not dis-
tant, may perhaps be hoped, from the spontaneous expression of
the following opinion, by the distinguished editor of one of our
principal literary Journals, whose letter is now before me. “ The
character of the American Journal is strictly national, and it is
the only vehicle of communication in which an inquirer may be
sure to find what is most interesting in the wide range of topics,
which its design embraces. It has become in short, not more
identified with the science than the literature of the country.” It
is believed that a strict examination of its contents will prove that
its character has been decidedly scientific; and the opinion is

* Of course, with liberty reserved, to return those which are not adapted te
his views, or which are beyond his means.

PREFACE. v

often expressed to the editor, that in common with the Journals
of our Academies, it is a work of reference, indispensable to him
who would examine the progress of American science during the
period which it covers. That it might not be too repulsive to
the general reader, some. miscellaneous pieces have occasionally
occupied its pages; bu tin smaller proportion, than is com-
mon with several of the. most distinguished British. Journals
of Science. Still, the editor has been frequently solicited, both in
public and private,* to make it more miscellaneous, that it might
be more acceptable to the intelligent and well educated man,
who does not cultivate science ; but he has never lost sight of his
great object, which was to produce and concentrate original
American effort in science, and thus he has foregone pecuniary
returns, which by pursuing the other course, might have been
rendered important. Others would not have him admit any
thing that is not strictly and technically scientific; and would
make this a journal for mere professors and amateurs ; especial-
ly in regard to those numerous details in natural history, which,
although important to be registered, (and which, when presented,
have always been recorded in the American Journal,) can never
exclusively occupy the pages of any such work without repelling
the majority of readers.

If this is true even in Great Britain, it is still more so in this
country ; and our scavans, unless they would be, not only the
exclusive admirers, but the sole purchasers of their own works,
must permit a little of the graceful drapery of general literature
to flow around the cold statues of science. ‘The editor of this
Journal, strongly inclined, both from opinion and habit, to gratify

* A celebrated scholar, while himself an editor, advised me, in a letter, to
introduce into this Journal as much “ readable” matter as possible: and there
was, pretty early, an earnest but respectful recommendation in a Philadelphia
paper, that Literature, in imitation of the London Quarterly Journal of Sci-
ence, &c. should be in form, inscribed among the titles of this work.

t No scientific communication that has been thought worthy of admission
into this Journal, has ever been refused.

vi PREFACE.

the cultivators of science, will still do every thing in his power to
promote its high interests, and as he hopes in a better manner
than heretofore ; but these respectable gentlemen will have the
courtesy, to yield something to the reading literary, as well as
scientific public, and will not, we trust, be disgusted, if now and
then an Oasis relieves the eye, and a living stream refreshes the
traveller. Not being inclined to renew the abortive experiment, to
please every body, which has been so long renowned in fable ;
the editor will endeavor to pursue, the even tenor of his way ;
altogether inclined to be courteous and useful to his fellow trav-

ellers, and hoping for their kindness and services in return.
Vale College, July 1, 1829. ‘

The Chemical ‘Text Book for the students of Yale College,
and for other students of Chemistry, is now in the press, and
may be expected in the month of September.

Art. I

; Meteorological Observations ; by S. P. Hitprers,
in esial D Fa ilag

. Calendar of Vegetation; by A. W. Bowen,
. Strictures on the Hypothesis of Mr. Joseph Du

CONTENTS TO VOLUME XVI.
ge
NUMBER I.

Prof. E. Mitchell, on the Geology of the Gold Re-
gion of North Carolina, & a

. Examination of -a substance called SHdoting Star ;

by Counsellor Dr. Branpzs, of Salzuflen. a
lated from the German,) 2

. Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark ;

by Grorce W. Carpenter, of Philadelphia,

. Observations on a New preparation of Balsam Co-

paiva ; by ee W. in perapen of ea ae ae
phia,

. Notice of the appearance of Fish and Lazard: in ex-
traordinary circumstances; by Joszru E. Muss,
*

Commun, on Volcanos and Earthquakes ; by
Bensamin Bet, - = .

. A Discourse on the different views that have been

Page.

taken of the baaercein of lsat by Exizur .

Waricur, . if

. Variation of the Magnetic N vedle, - -
. Prof. Otmstep’s Meteorological pa for ea

1828, - - -

. On the variations of level in the great N orth nee a

ican Lakes; by Gen. H. A. S. ‘Dearzonrn,

. On the observations of Comets; by P. J. Ropricuez,
. On the Effect of the Physical Geography of the

World on the Boundaries of Empires ; i) Joun
Fivcu, F. B. S., M. S. D. &c. &e.

. On the Manufacture he Glass ; by ag N. Fes,

M. D. -

. Polar Explorations, -
. Motion, the Natural State af Matter, - -
. Facts relating to Ohio and Mexico, -

112
124
151
154

Vill CONTENTS.

INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES.

. The national historical pighares, By Col. Trumbull,

* New book of Travels, -

. The number five, the most Peoria mabe of nature ;

by A. E. - - - - -

4, Alcohol, or spirituous liquors, from succulent and

faxinabeous fruits, and herbage of plants ; by A. E.

5. A. A. Hayes, on the use of alumina with pigments

designed for the pallet, - 2

. A. A. Hayes, on a fine scarlet pigment for the pallet,

. Dr. B. L. Oliver’s use of iodine in gout and angina

pectoris, ‘bor - - = -

G. W. Carpenter’s notice of the manufacture of the

chloride of lime, and of some of its leading uses,
Jan. 1829, - - z ;
9. Specimens in Materia Medica, Pharmacy, and Chem-
igthys |, = S 4 “

10: Dr._5. Revere? as improvement in the construction of
ships and other vessels, as respects their metallic
fastenings, and sheathing, - -

11. Steam Pump, - - - - -

12. Dr. Church on the eficany of ammonia in counteract-
ing poison,

13. S. Allison, on the Were Weight of Mercury, -

14, 15. J. C. Keeney on the Novaculite in Georgia—Mr.
. Finch’s notice of the locality of the Bronzite, or
Diallage metalloide ; at Amity, Orange county,
N, aX. - - -

i6. Dr. L. C. Beck’s note on the presence " Iron in the
Salt Springs of Salina, N. Y. - -

17. Tin in Massachusetts; by Professor Hitchcock,
i8. Mr. C. U. Shepard’s mineralogical and chemical de-
scription of the Virginia Aerolite, -

19. C. U. Shepard on Native Soda Alum, in Milo, -
20. Proceedings of the Lyceum a Natural Higheny of

New York, -

21. Baron de Zach—Liberty of opiion and the press—
Education—General views of Europe, &c.

22, 23. Literary notice—Obituary, - -

24, Carbonic Acid of the Atmosphere, - 2

25, 26, 27. Autumnal coloration of Leaves—Singular
Galvanic trough—On a method of measuring some
varieties of Chemical action, by M. Babinet,

28, 29. Sulphur—Dr. Wollaston, . - -

09 to

eo ND

163
168

172
173

173
174

176

179
180
181

182
183

185

187
188

191
203

205

209

211
214

215
216

Arr. L.

CONTENTS.

NUMBER II.

Analysis of the Meteoric Iron of Louisiana, and
discovery of the Stanniferous Columbite in Mas-
sachusetts; by C. U. Suzparp, - -

. Prof. Bessel, on Mr. F. R. Hassler’s views as to an

accurate survey of the coast of the United States.
Communicated by Prof. James Ranks of Colum-
bia College, New York, -

. Prof. Mitchell, on the Effect of Genet of Matter

in Modifying the Force of Chemical Attraction,

- Iodine in the Mineral Waters of Saratoga. Com-

municated by Joun H. Sreex, M. D. =

. Observations on Hane Fatuus; by Rev. Jonn Mircn-

ELL,

. Resuscitation ie Oxygen Sry from apparent death

by drowning,

. Lieut. Wilkes’ account of Baslens Repeating "The-

odolite, - - - - -

. Prof. Vanuxem, on the characters ae classification

of certain American Rock Formations, -

. Translations and abstracts from the French; by

Prof. Griscom, -

. Action of Sulphuric Acid on ena and ie pro-

ducts which result from it. Alvanalatea and
abridged from the French, by Prof. Griscom,

: Algebraic Solution ; by Mr. C. WP ERER; of New

Orleans, - -

. Solution of a Problem in Fluxions ; by Prof Teee:

DORE STRONG, - -

. Meteorological Table, with Renee: be Gen.

Martin Fie.p, - - -

. Speculations with respect to the cause of the Pa!

rora Borealis or Northern Lights, -

. Chemical Instruments and Operations; by Prof.

Rosert Hare, M. D. -

. Argillite, embracing Anthracite Coal; by Prof.

Amos Eaton, -

. Telescopes—Life of Begeihaiee -
. Cooper’s Rotative Piston, - - -
. Sketches of Naval Life, &c. with remarks and ex-

tracts by the Editor, -

. Dr. Steel’s description of the High Res k Sonne at

Saratoga, with a drawing, “

. Real and supposed effects of igneous action,

B

Page.

217

CONTENTS.

INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES.

1. Report to the Lyceum of New York, on the splendid
work of Mr. Audubon upon the "Birds of North

America, -
2. Proceedings of the Lyceum ab. Natural History of —
New York, - - -
3. Memorial, - - -
4, Gold mines of N pails Caratitla) - -
5. Pettengill’s Stellarota, - - - -
b. Dr. Hare, on the precipitation of morphia from lau-

danum by ammonia; also a spontaneous deposition
of narcotin, - - - -

. An account of an extraordinary explosion, arising from
the reaction of nitric acid with phosphorus; by
the author of the preceding article, -

8. Collections in Natural History, -- - -
9, Carpenter’s Powders, for making Congress Spring or
Saratoga Waters, - - - -

10. Dr. Wollaston’s scale of chemical equivalents,

“I

11. Notice of a projected ke a in the method of

blasting rocks, &c. —-

12. Mode of decoying wild pigeons in New Eabland

14. Ohio oil stone—Report of the Chester county

cabinet, Pennsylvania, - - -

i: Chalcedony, - = - -

16,17. Uniform nomenclature in Botatiy--Veeetable
Chemistry, by C. Conwell, M. D. Philadelphia,

18, 19. Group of crystals of common salt—Fibrous gyp-
sum of Onondago County, New York, -

QO, 24, 722 Conchology of the United States—Natural
’ History in Canada—Swainson’s new zoological
illustrations, - - -

23, Cabinet of the late William Phillips - -

24, Canada, - - - -

25. Remains of the Mammoth, - -
26, 27. Two kinds of Sulphate of Manganese=“Piephral
tion of Hydriodic Acid, + - -

28, '29. Pluranium—Bichromate of Potash, -

30, 31, 32. Compound of Cyanogen and Sulphur—Ciitric
Acid from Gooseberries— Medical uses of Gold,

33. Congress of Savans at Berlin, - -

34, 35, 36. Detection of Potash by the Oxide of Nickel—
Apparatus for saturating any liquid with gas and
without loss of the fluid—Memoir on the Chloride
of Lime, - - - - -

ee
Sy)

Page.

353°

354
358
360
363

365
366

368

369
371
372
373

374
375

376
377
378
379
380
382

383
384

CONTENTS. Xi

Page.

37, 38. Alcohol—Rapidity of the Circulation of the Blood, 388
39, 40, 41. Remarkabie phenomenon in a medicinal com-
’ pound—Discovery of iodine in the ore of zinc—

Size of the grains of native platina, 389
42, 43, 44, 45. Observations on the evaporation of ice—
Swiftness of Sound—On the colored flame of Al-

cohol—Electricity of the Tourmaline - 390
46, 47. New method of preserving crystallized salts—

Conversion of potatoe flour into nutritious bread, 391

48. Means of detecting the purity of chromate of potash, 392

49. Decoloring action of Charcoal, 393

50, 51. Manufactory of diamonds—Leeches, - 394
52, 53 54, 55, 56. Chloride of lime in psora—Iron furna-
ces in England and Scotland—New process for ob-
taining gallic acid—Action of iodine on proto-
chloride of mercury—New method of preparing

the deutoxide of barium, - = sy GS

57. Precipitation of albumen by phosphoric aia 396
58, 59, 60,61. New fulminating powder—New compounds
of silica and potash—Marine salt—Delicate test of

oxygen in a gaseous mixture, .- - 397
62. We amusements, - - - = 398
63, 64. Corrosive sublimate—Gossamer spider, - 399

65. Obituary of Dr. John Gorham, - - 400

ERRATA FOR VOL. XVi.

Page 53, line 13 from top, for principal read principle.
sc 59, ‘* 10 from bottom, do. do.
s¢ 94, “ 19 from top, for ight read slight.
« 218, © 10 from top, for give read gave.

B ADDITION.

In Dr. Hare’s process for weighing gases, page 294, line 20, after gas, read.
If the gas be heavier than air, we must add the weight, necessary to restore
the equilibrium to 30.5 grains; and the sum will be the weight of one hun-
dred cubic inches of the gas.

The editor wishes it to be understood, that the genuineness of Mr. Carpen-
ter’s imitation of the Saratoga waters, rests exclusively upon his own authori-
ty, no examination of the powders having been made here.

THE
AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.

i: ee

Art. 1—On the Geology of the Gold Region of North
Carolina, in a letter to the Editor, dated Aug. 25, 1828;
by Exisua Mitcuett, Professor of Chemistry, Mineral-
ogy, and Geology, in the University of N. Carolina.

TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN,

Dear Sir—It is with some hesitation and reluctance, that
I crave a place in the Journal, for a paper upon a subject
that has already twice occupied the attention of your read-
ers—the gold mines of N. Carolina—of which there is an ac-
count from the pen of Professor Olmsted in the ninth, and
another by Mr. Charles E. Rothe in the thirteenth volume.
Both of these communications include some notices of the
geological composition and structure of the district in which
the precious metal occurs. The first appears to contain one
leading and important error, (such as it is difficult to avoid
during a first examination) which is beginning to be propa-
gated into other books ;* and if it contain but one, it will fol-
low that the other has but slender claims to accuracy, since
the two are so much at variance with each other, that it
must be quite impossible for a person who has never been
upon the spot, to arrive by a collation of the two accounts,
at any probable conclusions respecting the geological char-
acter of that part of North Carolina in which the gold is
found. This will be evident from a comparison of the fol-
lowing extracts.

Professor Olmsted remarks, that “ The prevailing rock in
the gold country is argillite. This belongs to an extensive

* See Comstock’s Mineralogy, page 176. Robinson’s Catalogue, page 211.

Vor. XVI.—No. 1. 1

2 Gold Region of North Carolina.

formation of the same which crosses the state in numerous
beds, forming a zone more than twenty miles in width, and
embracing among many less important varieties of slate, sev-
eral extensive beds of novaculite or whetstone slate, and also
beds of petro-siliceous porphyry and of greenstone. These
last lie over the argillite, either in detached blocks or in strata
that are inclined at a lower angle than that. This ample
field of slate I had supposed to be the peculiar repository of
the gold, but a personal examination discovered that the
precious metal, embosomed in the same peculiar stratum of
mud and gravel, extends beyond the slate on the west,
spreading in the vicinity of Concord, over a region of granite
and gneiss.”

Mr. Rothe says, on the other hand, that “ Granite is the
base of the formations of the gold region of North Caroli-
na.” By this it is not meant apparently that granite is the
rock upon which the others are incumbent ; and which is
therefore covered up by them, but that it is the predominant
rock—for a description immediately follows. ‘“ It is consti-
tuted of coarse crystals, and its surface is very irregular.
On its more elevated situations it has been much worn by
water in early times, and now lies exposed at places on the
surface of the earth, in large masses, some of them round,
as on the small mountain four miles south-east of Salisbury.
In the lower part of the country greenstone and greenstone
slate are commonly found in beds in the granite.”* “ These
remarks,” he says again, “ were necessary to a correct un-
derstanding of the veins in the greenstone formation, embra-
cing the gold region of North Carolina.”

With regard to the repository of the gold, Mr. Olmsted re-
marks, that, ‘‘ In almost any part of this region, gold may be
found in greater or less abundance at or near the surface of
the ground. Its true bed however is a thin stratum of grav-
el inclosed in a dense mud, usually of a pale blue, but some-
times of a yellow color. On ground that is elevated and ex-
posed to be washed by rains, this stratum frequently appears
at the surface, and in low grounds where the alluvial earth
has been accumulated by the same agent, it is found to the
depth of eight feet. Where no cause operates to alter its —

*This greenstone is secondary, as appears by note d. “I have follow-
ed this formation of secondary greenstone, passing into hornblende, in a north-
east direction from Salisbury as far as the Virginia line.” —Rothe’s Remarks.

Gold Region of North Carolina. 3

original depth, it lies about three feet below the surface.
Rocky River and its small tributaries, which cut through this
‘stratum, have hitherto proved the most fruitful localities of
the precious metal.”

“It will probably appear evident to geologists from the
foregoing statements, that the gold of IN. Carolina occurs in
a diluvial formation.”

Mr. Rothe says, “ We here find the gold in two different |
situations. 1. Asa part of the constituents of the veins. 2.
We not only find gold as a constituent of the veins, but also
in alluvial deposits in the ranges of the greenstone forma-
tion. On a former occasion, | expressed an opinion that
this country must, in ages past, have experienced an inunda-
tion. This overflowing was perhaps occasioned by an accu-
mulation of waters on the other side of the Blue Ridge,
which, breaking over the ridge at some of the points now
lowest, spread itself in rapid torrents over this region; and
at places breaking up the veins containing gold, scattering
them over the surface. An accumulation of water must, at
one time, have taken place above the range of little moun-
tains which are cut by the Yadkin river at the place called
the Narrows. For at the Narrows, are evident marks on the
rocks of the acclivous banks, shewing that the water was
once many feet above its present bed, and the highest hills,
as you go up the country, are covered with alluvial deposits.
The break may have taken place at the Narrows, that hap-
pening to be the softest place, and thus gradually letting the
waters off.”

‘ By this means, or perhaps others, the gold now found in
the alluvial deposits has been removed from the veins and
scattered as far as the waters had influence over it.”

Of the two accounts, that of Professor Olmsted certainly
appears to me the more correct, though not (as I have al-
ready mentioned) exempt from error. It has occurred to me
that if the gold mines of North Carolina were entitled to the
space they have already occupied on the pages of the Jour-
nal, a few additional observations, which can hardly increase
the obscurity and darkness that overhangs the subject, and
whose object it will be to remove it, at least in part, will be
neither inappropriate nor unacceptable, especially if accom-
panied by a map that shall render all that has hitherto been
written respecting them more intelligible.

4 Gold Region of North Carolina.

1. The discovery of gold in considerable quantity, in veins
of quartz, traversing the rock formations of the district, ina
number of different places remote from each other, renders.
less probable the opinion that it belongs, in any instance, to a.
proper diluvial formation. Our attention is drawn at once
to the rocks themselves, as the probable source from which
the whole of it is derived. .

2. It does not appear that any such formation or stratum
as the diluvial occurs in any of the central or western parts
of N. Carolina. |

As the opinion expressed in this proposition, together with
some others enunciated in a former communication to the
Journal, and to be treated of at some length in the following
pages, is at variance with what has been heretofore advanced
and believed in relation to the geology of this part of the
United States, it is perhaps proper that I should mention the
circumstances under which a full and undoubting confidence
in their correctness has been created.

a. Professor Andrews and myself commenced together an
examination of the geology of N. Carolina in.the latter part
of the year 1825, and were led almost immediately to the
adoption of some new views upon the subject ; especially we
were induced to suspect—1. That no stratum of any kind
whatever, except what has been derived from their own de-
composition, covers the rock formations of the upper coun-
try; and 2. That an extensive tract, extending into Virginia
on the one side, and into S. Carolina on the other, laid down
as primitive by Maclure, and denominated “ The Great Slate
Formation,” by Professor Olmsted, (see last Number of the
Journal, page 236) is in fact a transition formation—the for-
mer opinion originating, as believed, with Mr. Andrews, and
the latter with myself. During the three years (nearly) that
have intervened, all the counties of the upper country have
been visited, and many. of them traversed in a number of
different directions. ‘Throughout the whole examination,
one object—the ascertaining whether our views upon the
points above mentioned were correct or erroneous, has nev-
er been lost sight of; and though it is impossible to keep the
attention at all times so thoroughly awake, that we may be
sure nothing has escaped us—the limits of such a stratum, if
it exist, must be exceedingly circumscribed, since no where,
except in the immediate neighborhood of the rivers, has any
soil been observed, which did not appear to have resulted

Gold Region of North Carolina. 5

from the decomposition of rocks, which, if they did not oc-
cupy the identical spot, at least lay in the immediate neigh-
borhood. Circumstances which I have deeply regretted,
have prevented Mr. Andrews from extending his researches
to parts remote from the University ; for the truth and pro-
priety of the remarks upon which I am alone responsible, but
in the correctness of the proposition now before us, we both,
as I believe, repose equal and entire confidence.

b. Whilst coming to these conclusions with regard to the
upper country of N. Carolina, there has been no disposition:
to deny that something very different obtains in other parts
of the world. The immense collections of sand, loam and
gravel, that are piled up over the primitive rocks, in many
parts of the New England States, were distinctly recollect-
ed.* It was not therefore through ignorance of the appear-
ances created by a stratum of foreign matter, or through a
general scepticism upon the subject, blinding our eyes and
unfitting us for the task of observation, that we failed to find
any.

ap The tracing of the boundaries of the alluvial district af-
forded an opportunity of learning to detect, without difficulty,
the presence of foreign loam, sand and gravel in the natural
soil. I stated in a former communication the existence of
a zone of a peculiar character, stretching across the state,
and exhibiting these substances upon the high grounds,
whilst in the neighborhood of thestreams, the soil is evidently

* It has appeared to the writer of this article, that the individual who, with-
out paying any attention to the subjacent rocks, farther than might be neces-
sary to the prosecution of his main design, should make these collections,
whatever be the title (and I am doubtful whether it be Geest, Diluvion, Ante,
Ultimate or Post-Diluvion, or any other than that by which they are here call-
ed—collections ofsand, loam and gravel, having their origin perhapsin a cause
that has not operated elsewhere upon the surface of the globe) that is appropri-
ate to them, a particular object of investigation—ascertain their northern,
southern and western boundary—the route along which the accumulations are
most abundant, and the diversity of character presented at points remote from
each other—would render an essential service to the geology of these United
States—perhaps find a clue that would lead us back to their origin.

In this introduction of the terms recently proposed by Professor Eaton, I
trust I shall not be regardéd as wanting in respect to that gentlemen, of the
value of whose contributions to the science | am well aware, and by the peru-
sal of whose writings I am happy to have profited. I wish however that ante-
rior to the publication of the promised volume he could find leisure to visit the
southern States. Werner’s principal error lay in generalizing from too nar-
row an induction of particulars, and making the little mountains of Saxony a
type of the world.

6 Gold Region of North Carolina.

formed from rocks that have undergone decomposition in
their original beds. After crossing this zone in a nnmber of
different directions, and watching for the last sand-bank that
communicates a shading to the soil of the upper country,
there was the less danger of a mistake in regard to the pres-
ence or absence of analogous appearances in the counties
farther west, where they are believed to be altogether want-
ing.

The non-existence of a foreign stratum, whether diluvial
or alluvial, may be inferred from such circumstances as the
following.

a.) The absence of rounded pebbles and gravel through-
out the entire surface of the country.

b.) An intimate agreement and resemblance, every where
observed, between the underlying rock, the stones scattered
over the surface, and the gravel, down to its minutest parti-
cles, in regard to composition, structure and the whole range
of mineralogical characters.

c.) When the rocks do not form any gravel at all, but are
resolved at once by the decay of their exterior crusts into a
fine powder——a similar agreement between the mass of the
soil and those half-decomposed crusts, in respect to color and
other physical qualities.

d.) Veins, whether of quartz, or of a harder variety of the
same rock, remaining only partially decomposed, and envel-
oped in soil which has proceeded from the softer portions.
These appearances are particularly remarkable and striking
‘when a road passes through an ancient forest, or when a
gulley is worn in a declivity that has never been cultivated.
The veins are here seen ascending, if not to the very sur-
face, at least so near, as to render the existence of a diluvial
stratum a matter of no uncertainty.

e.) Without descending to these minutiz, if a person mod-
erately acquainted with geology, will ride across the coun-
try,and observe how suddenly and invariably, a change in the
subjacent rock is attended by a change in the character of
the soil, his doubts, if he had any, will be removed.

But as these marks and evidences of the absence of dilu-
vium occur in the gold region as well as in other parts of the
country, we infer, that it does not exist there, and of course
' that the gold of North Carolina does not occur in a diluvial
formation. I might urge further, if further argument shall
be deemed necessary, the improbability that whilst a thin

Gold Region of North Carolina. a

auriferous stratum, brought no one knows from whence, was
spread by the deluge over hill and valley, through an extent
of one thousand square miles, so that gold may be found in
greater or smaller quantity in any part of this area, the pre-
cious metal should be so accumulated on some points as to
form a mine—accumulated, for instance, for a quarter of a
mile along the bed of Meadow Creek in Cabarrus, in masses
weighing from twenty-seven pounds to the fraction of a
grain, in such quantity as to be worked to advantage, after
having been already explored for a term of twenty-eight
years. ‘There is no conceivable mode of diluvial action that
would produce this combination of appearances. A gradu-
al rise of the waters is inconsistent with the transportation of
such masses of gold—a rapid current with its general distri-
bution over the whole surface of the country.

Mr. Rothe refers the gold, in part, to veins of quartz travers-
ing ranges of secondary greenstone and greenstone slate, and
in part to an alluvial stratum created by a flood of waters
which broke over the Blue Ridge; spread itself over the dis-
trict lying below ; tearing up and dispersing over the face of
the country the veins of quartz containing the precious met-
al; and finally forced for itself a passage through the moun-
tains that form the Narrows, and so passed off to the sea.

With regard to the existence of this alluvial formation, and
the hypotheses proposed to account for it, the following re-
marks may be offered.

1. Of all the causes that have been called in to explain
the appearances presented by the surface of the globe,
there is perhaps none that has been more abused, than
this of currents and inundations. That these agents have
changed the surface of some countries, by covering them with
a stratum of foreign matter, there is sufficient evidence. But
before we assume the existence of a current, coming no one
knows whence, going no one knows whither, and urged on-
ward by a force as unaccountable as its origin and destina-
tion, we must be able to point out the traces of its ravages
along the whole line of its route. And what kind of appear-
ances may be expected where it is broad and deep, it is ea-
sy for any one to conceive who has read Mr. Dwight’s well
written description of the effects produced by the eruption of
two small lakes in Vermont. The crests of hills will be
found torn off and transported into the neighboring vallies—
rocks dislodged from their native beds and deposited over

8 r Gold Region of North Carolina.

strata to which they bear no resemblance, and in general
the utmost degree of confusion and disorder, and the ming-
ling of soil, sand and gravel, possessing the most heterogen-
eous characters. But though I have carefully examined the
country in the neighborhood of the mines, and at a distance
from them, along the roots and on the other side of the
mountain, it has never been my lot to meet with these traces
of the ravages of a current.*

2. If it be said that the researches of Mr. Rothe were
crowned with better success ; that he found marks of the ac-
tion of a current—a.) In the granite near Salisbury, which
has been much worn by the action of water in early times—
b.) In the acclivous banks of the Yadkin, at the Narrows,
shewing that the water was once many feet above its present
bed—c.) In the alluvial deposits with which the highest
hills near the river, as you go up the country, are covered—I
reply—a.) That as his water-worn granite has, by his own
account, a very irregular surface, it is from its rounded shape
only that he infers that it has been subjected to the action of
water. But every geologist knows that the decomposing
agency of the elements is constantly giving to the rocks a
spherical form in all parts of the world—b.) That after
passing through the gorge of the Narrows at least a dozen
times ; inspecting both banks, and extending my examina-
tion in three instances below the Great Falls, I have never
been able to discover the marks of which he. speaks—c.)
That I have traversed the mountains about the Narrows in
a number of different directions, and have never, except

* Neither the Blue Ridge, nor any other single range constitutes the barrier
to be passed, but a body of table land, elevated some hundreds of feet above
the general level of the western countries, having its upper surface studded
with mountains, and the climate, productions and modes of culture of coun-
tries five or six degrees farther north. Ashe county lies upon the head. wa-
ters of the Kenhawa and Watauga rivers. As an evidence of the wide differ-
ence between the temperature of this county and the county lying below the
ridge, I may mention that the blackberry (rubus villosus) began to ripen in
the midland counties this year by the 12th of June, and to decay and drop off
three weeks after, but was still green in Ashe at the latter date, and not tcore
advanced on the 16th or 18th of July than it had been in Guilford county four
or five weeks before. Strawberries were in perfection in an open pasture and
southern exposure, about the summit of the White-Top, a mountain just with-
in the limits of Virginia, on the 10th of July. The forests, throughout this re-
gion were whitened with the blossoms of the chesnut and linn (tilia) on the
15th. The blackberry (rubus villosus) was in flower, and forming its acini
near the summit of the Grandfather on the 14th.

Gold Region of North Carolina. 9

close upon the bank of the river, and seldom even there, met
with any soil that did not appear to have proceeded from a
rock that had undergone decomposition in its original bed.
I have been led to suspect that Mr. Rothe may have been
mistaken in regard to these alluvial deposits, as he evidently
was about the granite in the neighborhood of Salisbury.

3. The appearances about and above the Narrows of the
Yadkin, can have little bearing upon the question respecting
the existence of an alluvial stratum, in which the gold col-
lected by washing is supposed to be found, because with one,
or at most two excéptions, (the Beaver-dam and Cox’s,
which last is inconsiderable) the mines are below, or with-
out, this mountain barrier, or on ground too elevated to per-
mit of their being reached by the water in consequence of
any obstructions interposed at this place.

4, The evidence in favor of the correctness of Mr. Rothe’s
views, as exhibited in his paper in the Journal, was not so
strong as to prevent his entertaining and publishing a very
different opinion in regard to the manner in which the gold
has been distributed over the surface of the country; and
this after he had enjoyed those opportunities of investigating
the geology of the district, and examining the mines to which
he refers; as will appear from the following extract from a
communication of his inserted in the Western Carolinian,
and bearing date June 5, 1826.

“It has been incorrectly supposed by some that gold was
formed in the alluvial tracts, but this opinion must certainly
appear erroneous, when it is known that gold is not unfre-
quently found on the summits of elevated portions of coun-
try, as is the case in Randolph County. We can trace the
gold in the fissures of rocks, as well in the higher as in the
lesser elevated land. These veins have been burst asunder
by subterranean explosions, and the gold scattered over the
adjacent regions, and some of it carried down in the waiter
courses.”

But without calling in the agency of either an universal
deluge, an inundation bursting over the Allegbany Moun-
tains, or subterranean explosions, the circumstances under
which the gold of North Carolina presents itself, and is col-
lected, may, I apprehend, admit of a very simple and easy
explanation; and that which I would propose is the follow-
in

on XVI.—No. 1. a)

10 Gold Region of North Carolia.

It formerly existed in the rocks of the region in which it is
found—whether in veins of quartz exclusively, or also dis-
seminated through the rock, is in a degree uncertain ; but I
am inclined to think, disseminated also. As the rocks have
undergone decomposition, it has fallen out, and now lies
mingled in the soil, near the same spot, and bearing the same
proportion to the earthy matter, as when inclosed in its origi-
nal stony matrix. In a few cases only, where it happened
to occupy the side of a stecp declivity, it has been carried
down during the violent rains into the adjacent low grounds,
and the beds of the neighboring streams.

If these views are correct, the rock formations of this re-
gion will possess rather more interest, than when they were
regarded as a mere substratum, over which a layer of aurif-
erous earth had been brought and deposited, and a few re-
marks in relation to their geological character, and with ret-
erence to a determination of the question, whether they are
primitive, transition or secondary ; granite, argillite, seconda-
Ty greenstone, or greenstone slate, will not be inappropri-
ate.

The accompanying map is copied from Price & Stroth-
er’s large map of the State, and though not very accurate,
is sufficiently so for our purpose. I have thought an exhibi-
tion of a small extent of country, upon a large scale, admit-
ting of a distinct view of the different formations that trav-
erse the State, preferable to an extension of the map, so as
to comprehend the mines of Guilford and Rutherford: our
object being an illustration of the geology of the gold re-
gion, rather than an account of particular localities. These
formations, it will be seen, are four in number; one of them
admitting of a subdivision—1. Beginning with the upper-
most—the alluvial, colored yellow, and coming into contact
with all three of the others. 2. What it is agreed, in this
country, to call the old red sandstone, colored red. 3. The
transition or slate, colored green. 4. The primitive, colored
blue, with a red trace passing through it, and indicating the
line, along which it is separated into two distinct portions,
bearing little resemblance to each other. In noticing each
of these more particularly, it will be most convenient to
speak of them in the reverse order, commencing with that
which is lowest.

The Primitive.-—The existence of a body of primitive
rocks in the central and western parts of North Carolina, has

Gold Region of North Carolina. 11

long been known to geologists. The only remarks which it
will be necessary for me to make respecting them, relate to
their separation into two distinct formations—the more an-
cient lying farthest west, adjacent to the transition of Ten-
nessee, and occupying the greater part of the counties of
Ashe, Burke, Buncomb, Haywood, Lincoln and Stokes and
the whole of Surrey, Wilkes and Rutherford—the more re-
cent extending through the midland counties, Person, Cas-
well, Rockingham, Orange, Guilford, Davidson, Rowan, Ire-
dell, Cabarrus and Mecklenburg. A belief in the propriety
of this separation was induced in the first instance by an ob-
servation of the wide difference in the structure and general
appearance of the rocks of the two districts. Those of the
western division are highly crystalline in their structure, and
consist of gneiss; of which there are many varieties, (it is
often porphyritic ; that having hornblende instead of mica;
between the leaves—gneissoid hornblende rock of Eaton is
common,) mica slate, hornblende slate, and some granite.
I cannot get clear of the opinion that these are some of the
very oldest rocks upon the continent. { endeavored for a
long time to ascertain, if not the order of their superposition,
at least the mode of their distribution over the surface of the
country, and the boundaries by which the different species
and varieties are separated from each other, but at length
found them in a number of places alternating with each oth-
erin so many different ways, and in such quick succession,
that I was induced to give it up as a hopeless task. Those
of the western division, on the other hand, are almost exclu-
sively granite, (understanding this word in the extensive
sense in which it is used by Maculloch, as meaning a rock
having hornblende as well as mica for one of its ingredients,)
having very little tendency to stratification, and a dull, earthy
appearance, indicating a recent origin. It is difficult to
convey, by a description, an accurate idea of the difference
between them, but any person who has seen them placed
side by side, will acknowledge that they must have been
formed either at different ceras or under different circum-
stances. ‘To the original argument for separation founded
on the diversity of appearance and constitution in the rocks,
the following have since been added.
_ 1. The western division throughout the greater part of its
extent (except along the streams, where there are valuable
bodies of good land,) exhibits a soil of only moderate fertili-

12 Gold Region of North Carolina.

ty; the eastern comprises the most fertile, populous and flour-
ishing part of North Carolina.*

2. The former is generally broken, and in some parts rises
into lofty mountains ;} the latter presents nothing deserving
the name of mountain, This character, and the preceding
are of little value in themselves, but taken in connexion
with the others, appear worthy of notice.

3. The western division is as rich as other parts of our.
country, in mineral species, especially in imbedded _ crystal-
line forms, such as garnet, tourmaline, staurotide, oxide of

* A writer in the first number of the Southern Review, observes, that “it
has long been known that a belt of very fertile land comparatively narrow,
traverses the three southern states,” and from a remark in the work under re-
view, draws the conclusion that this belt is ‘‘ indicative of the slate formation.”
That there are tracts of good land within the limits of the state, is true, but in
general, the soil produced by its decomposition is poor, and the part bordering
on South Carolina especially, is infamous through all the adjacent country for
its sterility. So far as North Carolina is concerned, this fertile land is indica-
tive of the eastern division of the Primitive.

+ I suspect the highest peaks to belong to the transition rocks. The most
elevated land in this part of the United States, is unquestionably around the
base of the Grandfather, as is proved by the fact that here are the head springs
of four large rivers; the Yadkin, Catawba, Tennessee and Kenhawa, reach-
ing the sea by widely different routes, but whether the mountain itself is not
over-topped by the neighboring summits of the Roan and Black Mountains of
Tennessee and Buncomb, especially by the latter, isdoubtful. Maclure says,
(observations on the geology of the United States, page 43,) ‘ A similar (tran-
sition) formation, about fifteen miles long, and two or three miles wide, oceurs
on the north fork of Catawba river, running along Linneville and John’s moun-
tain, near to the Blue Ridge.”’ Instead of constituting a distinct formation, it will
probably be found that it lies in a salient angle of the western transition, which
here crosses the whole breadth of the Alleganies, including the Grandfather,
and perhaps the Black mountain.

In the accuracy of Maclure’s determinations, at the points which he had an
opportunity of visiting personally, geologists will repose a confidence as un-
doubting as it is well merited, and it were to be wished that for the direction
of succeeding observers, he had given some indications of his different routes.
But the circumstance that the long range of old red sandstone, extending
through North Carolina, does not appear upon his map, shews conclusively
that he did not traverse this state from east to west, and as this part of the Alle-
ganies is one of the most wild, uninhabited, and difficult passes in the whole
range, it may be conjectured that he did not traverse the mountains at this
place; that it has never been visited by any person devoted to natural science,
except the Michaux’s of whom, both father and son, it was a favorite field of
observation, but they do not appear to have paid much attention to any but the
vegetable kingdom. I had an opportunity of passing along only the north east-
ern edge of this body of supposed transition rocks, from a point near where the
Watanga enters Tennessee, across the head waters of the Linneville to the
summit of the Grandfather, and of course to the neighborhood of Maclure’s
transition formation. I found plenty of clay slate, especially around the sides
of the Grandfather, and such other rocks as along the borders of Tennessee
occupy the dividing line between the primitive and transition strata.

Gold Region of North Carolina. 13

titanium, beryl, zirconite, kyanite, &c. Graphiteis very ex-
tensively distributed. Within its boundaries also, are all the
iron mines that supply the forges and furnaces (thirty of the
former and three of the latter,) with the raw material. The
eastern division, on the other hand, is singularly barren of
mineral species, and especially of crystalline forms, Indeed,
if a line be drawn from the point where the Catawba enters
South Carolina, to the north east corner of Stokes county on
the Virginia line, with a bend to the westward to make it in-
clude the greater part of Iredell, the part of the state possess-
ing much interest for the mineralogist will lie on the western
side of this line. On the eastern side of it I am not aware
that.a single specimen of such common minerals as garnet
and schorl, to mention no others, has ever been found. They
may exist, especially beyond the formations next to be treat-
ed of, in the counties of Warren, Franklin and Wake, where
there are crystalline rocks bearing a resemblance to those
of the west, but too extensively covered by the sand to ad-
mit of our ascertaining their mimeral riches.

On the Pedee in Anson and Richmond, as will be seen by
the map, is another body of primitive rocks, having no ap-
parent connexion with any other. This is a beautiful granite,
crystalline in its structure, porphyritic, quarried for mill
stones, decomposing into a good soil, and not known to con-
tain any imbedded mineral species.

The transition or slate, is well described in Professor
Olmsted’s paper (as having “ argillite for its prevailing rock,
and embracing amongst other less important varieties of
slate, extensive beds of novaculite, petrosiliceous porphyry and
greenstone, these last covering the others,”’) except that one
important member of the series—important for determining
the age and geological relations of the whole formation is
omitted ; and that I believe conclusive evidence may be fur-
nished, that if evther rock overhes it is the argillite, but only
in the southern part ofthe formation. In general, they alter-
nate with each other in every conceivable order of succession.
The rock omitted is a conglomerate or breccia, sometimes
exhibiting a schistose structure, and sometimes destitute of
any tendency to such a structure. Jt appears to be the
secondary greenstone of Mr. Rothe. His greenstone slate
is the argillite of Mr. Olmsted, and argillite it is unquestion-
ably, as well characterised as is to be found within the lim-
its of the United States.

14 Gold Region of North Carolina.

As this formation stretches quite across the state, n a north
easterly and south westerly direction, and is from ten to forty
miles in breadth, it is not to be expected that its characters
will be uniform in all its parts. Those geologists who de-
light to accumulate in their cabinets every anomalous and
unheard of variety of rocks, might here add largely to their
mineral riches, especially a long series of substances varying
between compact feldspar and simple quartz or hornstone,
colored green by chlorite and epidote ; differing too widely
from each other to be easily and naturally comprehended
under one species, and presenting varieties enough to de-
mand a nomenclature for themselves. The name of green-
stone is more appropriate to them than any other, but they
are quite a different affair from the rock generally designated
by that title in the geological books. It is of fragments of
this rock, connected by finer particles of the same, that many
of the conglomerates mentioned above are composed, espe-
cially those at three of the principal gold mines, Chisholm’s,
Parker’s and Read’s. In Mecklenburg and Anson counties,
we have very little besides simple clay slate, but as we ad-
vance northward, these compounds become more abundant.

The claim of this formation to a place amongst the transi-
tion rocks, is founded on such characters as the following.

1. It is not known to include, as one of its component
members, any of those rocks which are universally acknowl-
edged to belong to the primitive class, such as mica slate,
gneiss, granite, &c.

2. Much of the clay slate included in it has a dull, earthy
appearance when broken, and differs widely therefore from
that shining argillite which is usually referred to the primitive
-yocks. It resembles very.much such of the clay slate of the
western country, (Tennessee,) as I have had an opportunity
of examining, and this last is universally allowed to be tran-
sition. Any one who will look at the map will see that it
must be to a prolongation of this formation, that Maclure has
given the name of “ transition clay slate,” at Camden, South
Carolina.

3. Starting from the University of North Carolina, and
iravelling a little south of west, I can point out conglome-
rate rocks—rocks that appear to have been formed of the
shattered fragments and ruins of older strata, at short inter-
vals, through a distance of eighty miles, to within three or
four miles of the western border of the formation ; and these

Gold Region of North Carolina. 15

not lying upon the surface, but regular members of the series
of strata, and inclined at the same angle with the others. It
will generally be necessary that they should have been
weathered to make the pebbles of which they are constituted,
appear distinctly, but the same is true, not only of the transi-
tion, but often also of the secondary rocks.* When they lie in
the bed of a rapid stream, the softer cement is worn away by
the attrition of the sand, and the pebbles still adhering by one
side, give to the rock a wonderfully rugged and fantastic ap-
pearance. “See,” said a planter who hke myself had come
to the Beaver-dam mines to witness the operations that were
carrying on, but knew nothing of me or my business there,
“ see,” said he, laying his hand upon a large rock which the
workmen had just turned over in the bed of the stream, “this
is pretty near equal to the millstone grit of Moore.” The
millstone grit of Moore belongs to the old red sandstone, and
is constituted of quartz pebbles, varying from the size of fil-
berts to that of hens’ eggs. Geologists are sometimes blind-
ed by prejudice and preconceived opinion, but it will not be
doubted that the rock which drew this remark from a man
who knew nothing of the science, was truly a conglomerate.
[t is a rock resembling most intimately that upon which he
laid his hand, that constitutes the sub-stratum at the Beaver-
dam, Parker’s and Read’s mines, extending at the former
some miles up the creek, but confined to narrower limits at
the other two. At Read’s it appears to be covered by argil-
lite, but it alternates with argillite, hornstone, siliceous slate,
compact feldspar and other rocks at the narrows, and in oth-
er places.

Some geologists have been in favor of discarding the tran-
sition class altogether, nor if it is to be retained, has the pru-
dence and safety of referring to it the strata under considera-
tion, been perfectly apparent.

But the tendency of modern observations appears to be to
shew the propriety of retaining the class, employing the
term as the name of an assemblage of rocks, not very well
defined perhaps, but of which we obtain a tolerably accurate

* See Maclure’s observations, page 18, and Buckland on the structure of the
Alps, in the Annals of Philosophy for June, 1821. Speaking of the oolitic or
Jura limestone, he says, “ it is full of organic remains resembling those of the
English coral rag; but from the compact nature of the matrix in which they
are imbedded, these are visible only on the surface of the weathered blocks.”

16 - Gold Region of North Carolina.

idea, when we find them designated by this title. Iam, for
my own part, becoming very sceptical on the subject of gen-
eral strata, and more and more inclined to believe that
causes similar perhaps, but not identical ; and limited in
their operations, have produced the rock formations of differ-
ent countries. If so, it will be vain to look for the different
members of an European series on this side of the Atlantic.
Every part of the crust of the globe will require a nomencla-
ture of its own, similar to that which Professor Eaton has
found it necessary to apply to the tract along the grand ca-
nal. But when entire kingdoms or continents, are brought
under review at once, we shall need a few great divisions,
answering somewhat the purpose of the classes and families
in botany and zoology, to designate the relations of extensive
series of strata to each other, and for answering this purpose
I do not see that any preferable to those that have been long
in use are likely to be immediately invented.

- If the class shall be retained, it does not appear that there
is any other to which these rocks can be so properly referred.
1. Because they lie adjacent to a formation itself apparently
one of the recent members of the primitive; than which
they are more recent. 2. Because of their mineralogical
characters already mentioned. Indeed it is such a forma-
tion as this that I would select in preference to any other, to
stand asa type of the class. The absence of crystalline
mixed rocks, granite, gneiss and mica slate, and the pres-
ence of an earthy looking clay slate and of conglomerate al-
ternating with it, separate the formation by a wide remove
from the primitive, as does the absence of organic remains
from the secondary. At the same time, I believe it to be
very ancient. If the name of slate shall be thought safer and
more appropriate, no considerable objection can be raised.
It will be understood hereafter, that it is a slate alternating
with conglomerate rocks, and that though the greater part of
the strata of which it is composed are slaty, this is by no
means true of them all.

Appearing as it does, on both sides of the old red sand-
stone, and with the same characters, at the Grassy Islands in
Richmond, and in the southern part of Montgomery, and on |
the South Carolina line, it will not be doubted that it under-
lies that formation, at least in this part of its course, or that
after plunging under the sand, it is still the same slate that
presents itself on both sides of the Pedee, and in its bed at

Gold Region of North Carolina. 17

Parkersford. A similar clay slate is the lowest rock as we
descend the Neuse River, and from some indications in the
intervening country, | have been induced to suspect that it
is upon this rock that the sand immediately reposes in this
part of the state.

Old red sandstone.—The only circumstance connected
with this formation to which I deem it important to call the
attention of geologists, is that after coming into contact with
the sand near Cape Fear river, it is gradually more and more
covered by it, tillit finally disappears altogether. It is dis-
closed in the bed of Drowning Creek, where the sand has
been removed by the action of the stream, and finally re-
appears in Richmond and Montgomery.. The part of this
formation exhibited upon the map, produces by its decompo-
sition, a better soil than that which is farther north. Through-
out the state it is remarkable for the extent of the low grounds
upon the banks of its streams. It no where attains an ele-
vation of more than five hundred or six hundred feet above
the level of the sea.

Alluvial.—T he peculiarities of ie formation, existing up-
on the high grounds and wanting along the beds of the
streams, are exhibited in the district embraced by the map,
though perhaps not so strongly marked as in some other pla-
ces. It is not supposed that minute accuracy has been at-
tained in the delineation of its boundaries, but a fair repre-
sentation of the mode of its distribution is given. In every
department of science, we arrive at truth by a series of ap-
proximations. It is a curious circumstance, that the quarry
from which a considerable extent of country is supplied with
millstones, (McDaniel’s) is on the bosom of the sand hills.
A fork of Hitchcock creek has uncovered a granite rock at
this place for a distance of from a quarter to half a mile in
its bed and along its bank, and from this they are taken.
Except directly down the creek, the sand is spread out for
miles in every direction.

Of these different formations, the old red sandstone has
furnished a few minute particles of gold, collected in the bed
of Little river, aud apparently brought down from the slate
above, and the western division of the primitive, a small
quantity in the north eastern part of Rutherford county,
where the fragments of crystallized and tabular quartz scat-
tered over the surface indicate the existence of an auriferous
vein, but all the valuable mines are in the eastern division of

Vou. XVIL—WNo. 1. 3

18 Gold Region of North Carolina.

the primitive, and in the transition, and I have been disposed
(though perhaps not on ground sufficiently strong,) to refer
them especially to the upper members of the former and low-
er members of the latter.

It has been already mentioned that the rocks of the prim-
itive district are mostly granite, including under that title un-
stratified hornblende rocks, as well as what bears the name |
of granite in the more ancient geological books. But no vein
of auriferous quartz has ever, within my knowledge, been
found in contact with well defined granitic rocks, whether
proper or syenitic. Small veins may traverse them, but no
large ones are embraced by them. A rock, of which it is
much easier to say whatit is not than what it is, covering it-
self by decomposition with a thick coating of soil of impalpa-
ble firmness, which prevents our getting at it to study it, fre-
quently schistone, yet, not well defined slate of any kind, is
richer in these auriferous veins than any other. At the Guil-
ford mines I have found chlorite slate tolerably well charac-
terized. Though intimately connected with the formation
in which it lies, it has been suspected that it is not without
- some relationship to the neighboring transition; that some of
the lower members of the transition strata, or rather of those
rocks by which the one formation passes into the other, here
cover the proper granite and furnish the gold. The explo-
ration of these mines (in Mecklenburg and Guilford.) is going
on with activity, and more of the precious metal will be
brought into the market during the present, than has been
in any former year.

Within the limits of the transition only one auriferous vein
(Baringer’s) has hitherto been worked, and that was hard by
its western border, and soon abandoned. And yet it was
within the limits of this formation that from 1800 to 1825,
all the gold of North Carolina was collected. The follow-
ing circumstances have induced a belief that this gold was
not derived from a vein, but lay disseminated through the
whole body of the rock from the earth produced, by the de-
composition of which it is obtained by washing.

1. It differs from the gold of Mecklenburg and Guilford, it
being found in grains and fragments of considerable size, ad-
mitting of its being detected amongst the sand and gravel,
and taken up with the fingers, whilst that is in minute parti-
cles, and frequently in the state of a fine brown powder in
which the eye can discern no trace of a metal, rendering the

Gold Region of North Carolina. ae

use of quicksilver also, lately necessary. This diversity of
character seems to point to a different origin. }

2. The conglomerate rock by which it is accompanied, is
nearly destitute of veins of any kind. The few which it has
are too thin and inconsiderable to furnish the large amount
of gold that has been collected, for instance at Read’s mine.
It is obvious that if there be a vein at this place, from which
all this metal is derived, there is no mine in the country, and
perhaps none in the world to compare with it for mineral
riches, since what has been liberated by the action of the el-
ements has rewarded the labor of so many years. But ex-
aminations made with a view of discovering a vein, have not
hitherto been rewarded with success.

3. Parker’s mine being in a high open field, and the rock
having been wholly decomposed to_an unknown depth, (at
the place from which the auriferous earth is taken ; it ap-
pears exchanged in the neighborhood,) we have an opportu-
nity of penetrating into it and observing the manner in which
the gold is distributed. It appears to occur in every part of
the soil, and at all depths that have been hitherto examined,
whilst the usual veins of quartz are altogether wanting.

From the foregoing statements it is inferred that the gold
of North Carolina is found,

1. In veins of quartz, traversing the ancient primitive rocks,
im very small quantity.

2. In veins of quartz, traversing more recent primitive
rocks, in considerable quantity.

3. In veins of quartz, traversing transition rocks, and also
disseminated, in considerable quantity.

4. In soil produced by the decomposition of these three
kinds of rock. |

5. In the sand of a stream running over old red sandstone,
in very minute quantity.

I am very respectfully yours,
E. Mrrcuett.

P. S. Dec. 15th. 1828.—1. Some of the mines exhibited
on the map are trifling and unimportant, and inserted mere-
ly to shew the limits of the gold region; such is Ingraham’s,
and perhaps Alexander’s. 2. The boundary of the state
should cross the South Carolina line a little south instead of
a little north of McAlpin’s creek. 3. The slate perhaps oc-
cupies the bed of Hitchcock creek, in Richmond, in some
part of its course.

20 Shootng Stars.

Art. I.—Examination of a substance called Shooting Star,
which was found in a wet meadow ; by Counsellor Dr.
Branpes, of Salzuflen.

(Translated from the German, for the American Journal of Science and Arts.)*

My friend the Counsellor, Dr. Buchner, some time since
took a part in the discussion, in Kastner’s Archives, upon
the substance called sternschruppen, (shooting star,) which
Counsellor Kastner has distinguished by the name of sterne-
gallerte, (star jelly.) A specimen of this substance, having
a gelatinous appearance, was found in a wet meadow, which
Counsellor Dr. Schultes considered as a tremella nostoc.
Buchner was of a different opinion, because he could dis-
cover in the substance no trace of organic texture, when he
came to examine it himself. As respects the question, wheth-
er it were of a celestial or of a terrestrial origin, he main-
tains, that this gelatinous mass could not be either a plant or
an animal, as a whole, but rather the product of a plant or
an animal, an excretion, like gum, mucus, &c.; and he de-
nies the possibility, that such a body could have fallen from
the atmosphere upon the earth, or that the idea is sustained
by the least probability. The comparison of this mucilagin-
ous mass, which has been made by some, to the manna of
the Israelites that fell from heaven, does not appear to him
as altogether exceptionable; at least, this mucilaginous mass,
like the oyster, may possess very nutritious properties. [
readily agree with my learned friend, that the former suppo-
sition is probable, viz. : that these masses are animal excre-
tions, or are from gelatinous meteors ; but the idea seems to
be improbable, that they are like the manna of the Israelites,
from their presenting such diversities, both in the nature of
their bodies, and in their localities. From the absence of or-
ganic structure, in the mass examined and described by
Buchner ;—further, from the account by R. Graves, of a fire-
ball, (fuer-meteor) which fell in Massachusetts in North
America, on a place where the next morning a gelatinous
substancet was found ;—from my own observations of the

* Extracted from the Jahrbuch der Chemie und Physik fir 1827. Heraus-
gegeben vom Dr. J. S. C. Schweigger, und Dr. Fr. W. Schweigger-Seidel.
Halle. Ausgegeben am 26. Juni, 1827.

t We were informed before we saw the present article, that a gelatinous fun-
gus was the next year observed near the place where the meteor mentioned
by Col. Graves was supposed to have fallen; we cannot say that the two facts
have any connexion, but it appears proper that the coincidence should be men-
tioned.— Ed,

Shooting Stars. 21

presence. of inanimate substances in the atmosphere, at least
in rain-water ;—and from the narrative, which was several
times communicated by a soldier, who had served some cam-
paigns in Spain, that in Spain, while standing as centinel
during cold nights, he had frequently observed shooting
stars, and in the morning, in wet places, in the spots where,
according to his opinion, the shooting stars had fallen, he
had found white gelatinous masses, which soon dissolved ;—
from all these circumstances, as I have stated in my disserta-
~ tion upon rain-water, [ was strongly inclined to refer the
mass, which was examined by Buchner, to an atmospheric ~
origin. ihe

Mr. Schwabe, an apothecary of Dessau, has lately pub-
lished, in Kastner’s Archives, a dissertation upon this sub-
ject, in which he states, that he has had an opportunity to
examine a mass, that had been found in a wet meadow,
which was gelatinous, and of a green color. Mr. Schwabe
decides this mass to be the real nostoc commune Vauch. (tre-
mella nostoc L.) because by his microscopic observations, he
found in it, distinctly to be traced, the structure of the singu-
lar nostoc. Not only the exterior form and the locality of
this mass agreed with Buchner’s, but the chemical examina-
tion also exhibited a great similarity between both substan-
ces. Schwabe consequently believes, that we must necessa-
rily consider the substance under discussion, as the real tre-
mella, and that the one examined by Buchner must actually
have possessed the same structure, notwithstanding Buch-
her, on account of the peculiar nature or condition of his
mass, has denied the possibility of discovering in it an organ- —
ic structure.

However, when we accurately compare the descriptions,
which each of these naturalists gives of his particular speci-
men, we find some diversities, besides the organic structure
of Schwabe’s specimen, and its absence in Buchner’s,
Schwabe’s mass was of a greenish color ; that examined by
Buchner was white, resembling the mucilage of gum traga-
canth. The substance of Schwabe emitted an odor while it
was burning, not of animal matter, but similar to that of
burning conferva, rivuluria and cataphora, and made a shi-
ning coal, which retained the external form of the mass ; and
being reduced to ashes, he found in them a portion of sili-
ceous earth, carbonate, muriate, and sulphate of potass, to-

22 Shooting Stars.

gether with a trace of sulphate of lime and oxyde of iron;
Buchner’s mass swelled very much upon being heated, evol-
ving a strong animal odor, giving off a smoke of an empy-
reumatic smell; at last it took fire, and at the end of the
combustion left behind an ashy coal, which contained car-
bonate of soda and phosphate of lime. Though Schwabe
considers the mass examined by him as similar to Buchner’s,
I yet believe, that the differences here specified, not merely
in the color, but also in the chemical results, present many
doubts as to the accuracy of his conclusion, and do not au-
thorize us to agree to the identity of both substances.

In confirmation of these views, I am able to exhibit an in-

vestigation of my own, which I had occasion to make dur-
ing the last autumn, that may perhaps shed some further
light upon the subject.
_ A friend and fellow citizen. possesses a low meadow in our
vicinity. Itis situated at the bottom of one of our salt dales,
and by much labor, the construction of drains, &c. though
it was formerly very boggy, it is now much drier; and by
good cultivation, manure, the rubbish of stone coal, &c. pro-
duces good grass. In a walk over this ground, my friend
found a gelatinous mass, and a laborer informed him that he
had frequently seen similar beautiful specimens; though
neither my friend, nor I, in my botanic excursions over this
meadow, with my assistants and pupils, had ever before dis-
covered them. My friend brought the substance to me, that
I might investigate the nature of the mass, the singular ap-
pearance of which had excited his curiosity.

As soon as I saw the substance, I was reminded of Buch-
ner’s treatise upon the article called shooting star (stern-
schnuppen ;) but by a closer inspection of its beautiful exte-
rior, [ discovered some diversities from Buchner’s descrip-
tion, which determined me to give it a further investigation.

The mass was of a very clear white color, and appeared
to be a very glutinous substance, which Buchner has very
aptly compared to mucilage of tragacanth ; it was of the
size of about two cubic inches and a half. Upon minute in-
spection, it was found in many places to be enclosed with a
very thin white pellicle or membrane, which in the middle
parts of it was burst or torn. In these places, the contents,
as if they were too large, projected through the covering.
The fissures of the enveloping pellicle were, without doubt,

Shooting Stars. 23

occasioned by the contents of the mass absorbing moisture.
from the wet ground of the meadow, and thus becoming so
much distended, that the tender membrane could not con-
tain the whole substance. Around these fissures, the pellicle
was so far crowded away or concealed by the gelatinous mass,
that no traces of it could be seen, and here no appearance
of organization could be distinguished. But, where the cov-
ering was entire, the mass, though soft and glutinous, exhib-
ited portions of a vermiform shape, of the size of a goose-
quill or larger, the longest of which were extended about
three-fourths of an inch. This vermiform conformation,
through a slender interlacing network, presented smaller sub-
divisions, and had throughout the appearance of a calf’s
lungs. Upon the backside of this vermiform structure, there
ran a blackish brown-colored vessel, which spread or divided
into a kind of venous system, reaching near to the fore side
of it, being lost in blackish points. The back part of the
mass was pervaded by the vessel, which passed through it
much in the same manner as do the vessels of the iungs.

A part of the mass being put into a dry place, it soon
shrivelled, changing its white color to a brownish yellow, and
was very viscous, so as to draw out in threads like glue; at
last, it dried into a substance like horn.

A portion of the original mass being put into a platina
crucible, and exposed to a heat sufficient to burn it, at first
swelled, then grew black, giving out an animal, empyreu-
matic odor ; it left behind greyish white ashes, of one and

_two-tenths* of the weight of the substance, upon which wa-
ter very slowly acted, though after some time it became
weakly alkaline. The ashes were completely soluble in ni-
tric acid, from which they were precipitated by ammonia.

Twenty grains of the substance were dried in a water-bath
heat. It was hard and brittle, and its weight was only four
grains. Moistened with water, after a short time, it again
resumed its former size and white color.

One hundred grains were boiled in three ounces of water.
It swelled into a tremulous jelly, which thickened nearly all
the water. The whole was then put upon a clean, loose,
linen strainer, and after standing on it a few hours, a little
quid dropped from it, which became turbid by the addition

*One tenth, and two tenths of one tenth are evidently meant.

24 Shooting Stars.

of oxyd of mercury, by nitric acid and acetate of lead ; but
not by oxalate of lead. un

Some of the substance was shaken with alcohol, with no
perceptible effect. Water being added, it combined with it,
notwithstanding the alkohol. As it shrunk or diminished in
size; its color changed.

Liquid ammonia, whether warm or cold, acted but slightly
upon it; on the other hand,

A solution of caustic of potass speedily took hold of it ;
when warm, it produced a perfect solution, from which it
might be precipitated by any neutral salt. |

Sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids, act on it cold; when
warm, they effect a complete solution. The solution in ni-
tric acid, is of rather a yellow color ; in sulphuric, it is brown ;
and in muriatic, it remains clear.

From these experiments it appears, that the substance can-
not be of a nature similar to albumen, but that in its essen-
tial properties it accords with gelatine, and resembles what
is called spring slime, (quellschleim.) This conclusion is jus-
tified by the following proportions of one hundred parts of
the mass.

‘ ‘Gelatmous substance, 0 ec ek wn 18,8
Animal substance, [?] a trace.
Phosphate of potass and muriate of soda, 1.2

3

with organic [7 ] acid,
NUE ET aides hooc ate sith adn biel tht ive sascha

100,0

To what kingdom does this substance belong? or from
what source is it derived? The existence of an organiza-
tion, which was clearly manifest, does not admit of the opin-
ion that it came from the atmospheric regions, but shows
that it is of a terrestrial nature, and must proceed from an
animal. Its striking resemblance to a calf’s mesentery at
first made me suspect, that it was [an excretion from] the
intestines of some bird ; but its contents, a clean jelly, the
thin pellicle or membrane that inclosed it, somewhat resem-
bling the peritoneum, the absence of all ordinary contents of
the intestines, &c. notwithstanding the similarity to some of
their excretions, were insufficient to justify such a view, after
a close examination. The resemblance of this substance,
as respects its chemical analysis, to the spawn of frogs, sug-

Shooting Stars. 25

gested to me the thought, whether this might not be the
spawn of some animal. It could not be the spawn of a frog,
but it might be the spawn of a snail which frequents such
meadows, such as the limax rufus, agrestis, stagnalis, &c.
I compared the descriptions which are given in Cuvier’s
Comparative Anatomy, translated by Mekel, in Oken’s Nat-
ural History, in the Natural History for Schools, in Gold-
fuss’s Manual of Zoology, &c. where I found some light up-
on the spawn of snails. Oken in his Natural History for
Schools remarks of the. limaz stagnalis, that “ its spawn is a
gelatinous cylinder, an inch long and a line thick, in whicha
dozen yellow, small eggs are enclosed ; that this cylinder
commonly adheres to aquatic plants ; and within a fortnight
or three weeks, the small snails are hatched.” He further
observes in his Introduction to Natural History, article l-
max, that the eggs are first lodged in a cyst or rather a sack,
and as it is found in all snails, it probably secretes the jelly
for the egg cylinder or ball. “Its contents are compact,
soft like cerate, and reddish brown, on which account they
have been considered as purple, which is not the case.”
Though the cylinders of the max are very small, we must
still believe, that our substance was derived from the limax
rufus, or from some other species, and that the great size of
the mass was derived wholly from water ; of which we are
persuaded, from the experiments which we made with boil-
ing water, showing that the contents of a very small body
may be distended to almost any volume by water alone.
This view of mine was further confirmed, after I had put a
portion of the substance into a saucer, and placed it before
one of the windows of my study ; when after some days, a
small naked snail, a fourth of an inch long, was found in it.
Hence I believe, Iam able to decide with convincing reasons
in favor of the opinion, that the white gelatinous masses
which are found in wet meadows, and which are generally
considered as the substance of shooting stars, are byno means
derived from the celestial regions ; but they are really the
spawn of a certain snail, which, though of an insignificant
bulk in its natural state, so as scarcely to attract notice, ac-
quires its extensive volume from the water of moist places,
and assumes a white, gelatinous appearance. Further, it is
the nature of this spawn, that it is found only in wet places.
Whether the real substance of the meteor called the shoot-
ing star ever may have been found, I very muchdoubt, He,
Vor. XVI.—No. 1. 4

26 Shooting’ Stars.

who has observed these luminous meteors, will scarcely be
of the opinion, that the point upon which they appear to
fall, in the darkness of the night could be easily found with
such certainty, that he could exactly discover the supposed
substance, and 1 might say, could be certain that he had in
his hand a shooting star, which had fallen from heaven. Be-
fore this unsettled point is ascertained, it is to be doubted,
whether we can pass any judgment upon the nature of the
shcoting star. Indeed, the observation of the before men-
tioned North American meteor, appears to be not without
some doubt, as to its accuracy ; and it might be still a sub-
ject of inquiry, whether the product of a fiery meteor could
be a gelatinous mass?

Our knowledge of shooting stars is very much extended by
the valuable fesCeTeHes of Professor Brandes of Breslau ;
but what concerns the nature of their substance, appears to
me to be, as yet, dark and undiscovered ; at least according
to my views, the gelatinous masses which are found in mead-
ows, should by no means be considered as the Spoenige of
shooting stars.

It now remains for me to consider the differences which
apparently exist between the results of the observations of
Messrs. Buchner and Schwabe, and my ownstatement. The
care with which they have drawn up both their descriptions,
allows us to compare them with sufficient exactness.

Both the substances examined by these gentlemen, as I
have already suggested, exhibit different properties, which
are sufficiently essential to make us look for a different ori-
gin for each, so that I cannot coincide with the views of
Schwabe, when he considers the mass examined by Buchner
as analogous to his own, and confidently comes to the de-
cision, that the substance examined by Buchner was a tre-
mella. As respects Buchner’s inass, it aecords exaetly with
the specimens which I examined. The chemical composi-
tion of both is precisely the same, and the only particular
difference, which appears to present itself, consists in this
circumstance, that the mass examined by Buchner apparent-
ly exhibited no organic structure, while that observed by me,
as I have before declared, presented all the signs of an ani-
mal product. But if we consider the appearance of the
snail spawn jelly, which I have already described, especially
in the places where the pellicle was broken, through which
the jelly protruded, and all appearance of organic structuré

Shooting Stars. Ve

was lost in consequence of the absence of the enclosing
membrane, and further, if the substance should be very much
distended with water, the grounds of Buchner’s conclusions
will be easily understood. I believe, Buchner had before
him a mass very greatly swelled, which had dislodged all
traces of a pellicle, and destroyed the fine vessels ; and that
as respects his specimen, the learned naturalist was perfect-
ly accurate, when he could discover no sign of organization
in such a distended mass. In his specimen, a hundred parts
yielded after drying only four and four tenths of solid matter;
whereas in mine, a hundred parts, after the water had been
evaporated, left behind twenty.

If there is no longer any doubt of the similarity of the two
substances, I believe, all which I have said upon snail jelly
must necessarily show, that the substance of which Buchner
has treated must have had the same origin. I believe also,
that the nature of what is called stern-schnupen (shooting
star) and sterngallerte (siar jelly) is cleared up. And it is
gratifying to me, to have examined and to have traced the
difference between Buchner’s and Schwabe’s observations,
and to have shown, that the dissertations of both these able
naturalists are equally accurate, each having had a perfect-
ly different substance under examination.*

* Note.—The idea, that the shooting star is a gelatinous body, is perhaps as
prevalent in America as in Germany, though the substance may not have been
so frequently supposed to be found, on this side of the Atlantic. There is, how-
ever, apparently some pretty strong testimony on the subject. A Mr. John
Treat, a respectable farmer, and a man of veracity, stated to us, that he was
with the army of Gen. Washington, in the campaign against Gen. Howe, af-
ter his landing at the Head of Elk. On the night previous to the battle of
Brandywine, as he was standing centinel, a shooting star fell within a few
yards of him. He instantly went to the spot, and found a gelatinous mass,
which, if we recollect right, was still sparkling, and he had kept his eye on it
from its fall. A very respectable lady mentioned, that as she was walking
in the evening with one or two others, a similar meteor fell near them, and
she pointed out the very place where it struck. The late Gen. Griswold in-
formed us, that a shooting star once fell near him, upon a piece of ice, as he
was walking with two other persons, in the street of East Hartford.

We recollect once having seen one of these meteors, called shooting stars,
actually several degrees below us. We were riding, late in the night, upon
the high bank of the Hudson between Newburg and New Windsor, when we
observed a shooting star, probably for more than five hundred yards in its track,
moving iu about a horizontal direction to the north, nearly over the middle of
the river. It was far below the horizon, and considerably below the opposite
bank. It did not, however, appear to fall into the water, but like asky rocket
it became extinct in the air.

Notwithstanding these statements, if the shooting star, while luminous, ever
strikes the earth, it must be a very rare occurrence, in this part of our coun-

28 Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark.

Art, Il].-—Observations and Experiments on Peruvian
Bark ; by Gzorcr W. Carpenter, of Philadelphia.

Tue cinchona, or as it is more generally denominated, Pe-
ruvian Bark, is the product of several species of the genus
Cinchona, which in botanical arrangement, belongs to the
class Pentandria, order Monogynia, and to the natural or-
der Contorta.

The descriptions of the species of this genus, from the
limited and imperfect nature of the information possessed,
have been generally so confused and indefinite, as to convey
little or no information.

Cinchona is found in various parts of South America, al-
ways inhabiting mountainous tracts, where it grows from a
few inches in diameter to the thickness of a man’s body.
The bark is collected in the diy season, say from September
till November, and after being well dried in the sun, is pack-
ed up in skins, forming what is called seroons, weighing
from fifty to one hundred and fifty pounds.

Several species are frequently mixed together in these se-
roons, which are afterwards separated, according to quality:
it is not, however, uncommon to find several species mixed
together on their arrival at our markets. The tree has never
yet been cultivated by the Spaniards, who procure it by strip-
ping the natural trees of their bark, which ultimately must
destroy the genus, as they always die after the operation.

Most of the varieties of cinchona being highly valuable, and
consequently very liable to be adulterated with various sub-
stances, it is therefore important to adhere to a critical ex-
amination of all its characters.

The accounts of the discovery of cinchona are very nu-
merous, and many from their singularity and improbability,

try. Our profession has frequently called us to ride, in every hour of the night,
in every season of the year, and inevery kifd of weather, and we have never
seen a phenomenon of the kind. Nor have we ever seen a shooting star ina
dark and cloudy night; consequently, these meteors must usually be in a more
elevated region of the atmosphere than the clouds; or they are decomposed
by the clouds; or they are not formed in cloudy weather. We will conclude
by stating, that in all our riding in the night, during a long course of years, we
have never witnessed any thing like an ignis fatuus ; nor have we ever ob-
served the phosphorescent appearance, which is said to be sometimes noticed
upon fences, the arms of soldiers, and other slender pointed bodies ; though the
latter seems to be a well attested fact—TZranslator.

Observations and Expermmenis on Peruvian Bark. 29

are no doubt founded in fiction. It has long been esteemed a
valuable medicine in Peru, where it is said the natives have
adopted its use, from observing that animals recurtoit. Be
the source of its first employment what it may, it was not used
by Europeans until the year 1640, when the countess Cin-
chon, wife of the Spanish viceroy, was cured of the ague
by means of it, and hence the derivation of its name, cin-
chona. ‘As frequently occurs on the introduction of any new
remedy, considerable noise was made, and opposition raised
against it by several eminent physicians; but when submit-
ted to proper experiments, its efficacy soon suppressed the
groundless clamor which had been too hastily excited.

The principle, says Dr. Paris, on which the tonic and
febrifuge properties of bark depend, has ever been a fruitful
source of controversy. Deschamps attributed it to cinchon-
ate of lime. Westering considered tannin as the active
principle ; while M. Seguin assigned all the virtues to the
principle which precipitates gallic acid. Fabroni concluded
from his experiments, that the febrifuge power of the bark
did not belong exclusively and essentially to the astringent,
bitter, or to any other individual principle; since the quantity
of these would necessarily be increased by long boiling;
whereas the virtues of the bark are notoriously diminished
by protracted ebullition.

Perhaps no vegetable substance, underwent so many anal-
yses, by the most distinguished chemists of Europe, as the
cinchona ; and yet so little positive knowledge was obtained
of its true constituents, and such was the very obscure con-
dition of our information of the active principle of cinchona,
when the scrutinizing, critical and successful researches of
Pelletier and Caventou, detected the existence of two salifi-
able bases, in peculiar states of combination, in the different
species of cinchona. The medical profession is therefore
indebted to these intelligent and enterprising chemists, for
one of the most valuable additions ever made to the materia
medica. .

Among all the late discoveries in vegetable chemistry,
there is none which claims so much attention from extensive
usefulness, as that of quinine. This principle contains all
the tonic and febrifuge properties of Peruvian bark, in their
most concentrated state. By the substitution of this prepa-
ration for the crude bark, the physician can conveniently ad-
minister it tothe most delicate constitution, in an eligible form,

30 Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark.

and by no means an unpleasant dose, what previously was
considered the most nauseous and disagreeable medicine,
and frequently, from its bulky nature, (when administered in
less than ordinary doses,) was rejected by the stomach.

In consequence of the prevailing endemics, ague and re-
mittent fevers, which of late years have visited almost every
section of our country, the article cinchona has increased
very much in practice and demand, and become one of the
most important articles of the materia medica.

The descriptions which have been given by most authors,
to distinguish the many species and varieties of this extensive
and important genus, are so imperfect and confused, that
they tend rather to involve research in more dense obscurity,
than to develop any information. It is admitted, there is no
method so well calculated to ascertain, with any degree of
certainty, the comparative activity of the different species of
Peruvian bark, as that of analysis; and from this cireum-
stance, I have made trial of some of the most important
species, which now occur in our commerce, for the purpose
of determining their qualities, which I have done by extract-
ing the alkaline principle, upon which their virtue as a medi-
cine entirely depends, and from the product of which, their
comparative strength may be accurately and readily ascer-
tained.

It is a source of regret, that many of our country physi-
cians so little appreciate the quality of cinchona, as to be
governed entirely by the price, which from the following
statement, will appear to be the most remote and inaccurate
grounds for calculation, as the cheapest or lowest priced bark
in the market, is far dearer to the practitioner, and particu-
larly to the patient, than that which commands the highest
price ; for it not only requires the patient to swallow twelve
times the quantity to produce the same effect, independent of
the loss of time, but also by charging the stomach, when in a
weak and debilitated state, with so large a portion of lig-
neous and insoluble matter, may give rise to diseases more
serious than those for which it was administered as a remedy.

The bark of commerce, in this country and in England, is
generally designated under the limited nomenclature of red,
pale and yellow. There are now no less than twenty five
distinct species of cinchona, independent of any additions we
may owe to the zeal of Humboldt and Bonpland, as well as
of Mr. A. T. Thompson, who states, that in a large collection

Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark. 31

of dried specimens of the genus cinchona in his possession,
collected in 1805, both near Loxa and Santa Fe, he finds
many specimens which are not mentioned in the works of
any Spanish. botanist.

Dr. Paris, in his valuable Pharmacologia, justly remarks,
that notwithstanding the labors of the Spanish botanists, the
history of this important genus is still involved in considera-
ble perplexity; and .owing to the mixture of the barks of
several species, and their importation into Europe under one
common name, it is extremely difficult to reconcile the con-
tradictory opinions which exist upon this subject. Under
the trivial name officinalis, Linnzus confounded no less
than four distinct species of cinchona; and under the same
denomination, the British Pharmacopeeias for a long period
placed as varieties, the three barks known in the shops: this
error indeed is still maintained in the Dublin Pharmacopeia,
but the London and Edinburgh colleges, have at length
adopted the arrangement of Mutis, a celebrated botanist
who has resided in South America, and held the official situ-
ation of director of the importation of bark for nearly forty

ears.

The apothecaries of this country and England, at the
present day, distinguish the denomination of their bark, by
terms expressive of the color; and it is a source of still great-
er surprise, to find the orders and prescriptions of some of
our most intelligent physicians, designating the species of
bark they wish to employ, by no other. than one of the terms
signifying red, pale or yellow: thus reducing the extensive
genus cinchona, of not less than twenty five species into
three varieties, and leaving it entirely to the discretion of the
apothecary, to give him any species, of a color correspondent
to that ordered. Independent of the great insufficiency of
these terms to distinguish the numerous species, the color of
the powder, is one of the most uncertain and inaccurate
methods which could be adopted, of classing or assorting
the cinchonas; as under the same denomination, the best
species of bark in commerce, (calisaya arrollenda,) would
be confounded with the most inferior, (carthagena,) as the
color of the powders of both is yellow; hence a physician
writing for yellow bark, leaves it to the choice of the apothe-
cary, to give him what species he may think proper, of a cor-
respondent color, but varying in quality from calisaya to
carthagena, or in medicinal activity as from 12 to 1.

32 Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark.

The importance therefore of adopting terms more definite
to distinguish the several speciés of Peruvian bark must be
obvious, and that the botanical nomenclature of these spe-
cies is imperfect and inadequate, is equally so. The qual-
tity of Peruvian bark appears to be modified and influenced
by locality, produced by difference in soil, altitude of situa-
tion, exposure, or some other circumstances peculiar to the
location, hence the different provinces of Peru afford bark
differing very materially in their physical characters and par-
ticularly in the activity of their medical qualities, from which
circumstances it would appear that a nomenclature derived
from the names of the provinces in which the different spe-
cies grow, would be a systematic arrangement.

The following are some of the most important species
which now occur in commerce which I have submitted to
experiments, and have given to each: the comparative pro-
portion of quinine and cinchonine which they respectively
contain. The names which are given to distinguish these
several species, are derived from the provinces in which
they grow, which at present, (in consequence of the confu-
sion in the botanical history and arrangement of cinchona,)
is the most direct and certain mode of distinguishing those
species of bark which now are found in our shops.

Calisaya Bark—Two Varieties.

Of this very important species there are two varieties in
commerce.

1st. Calisaya arrollenda, (Quill Calisaya.) This variety is
in quills from three quarters of an inch to an inch and a half
in diameter, and from eight inches to a foot and a half in
length. The epidermis is thick and may be readily remov-
ed from the bark ; and hence you find in the seroons or cases
a great proportion deprived of this inert part. It is generally
imported in seroons weighing about one hundred and fifty
pounds, and very seldom comes in cases ; it has many deep
transversal fissures running parallel, the fracture is woody
and shining, the interior layer is fibrous and of a yellow col-
or, and the taste is slightly astringent and very bitter.

This species of bark will yield a much larger proportion
of the active principle, (quinine,) than any other bark in com-
merce, and consequently may be justly esteemed the best.

Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark. 33

2nd. Calisaya Plancha, (Flat Calisaya.) This variety con-
sists of flat, thick, woody pieces, of a reddish brown colour,
deprived of its epidermis, and the interior layer more fibrous
than that in the quill. This variety yields from twenty to
twenty-five per cent less quinine than the arrollenda, and is
consequently a less desirable article.

Superior Loxa or Crown Bark.

Loxa is the name of the province and port, where this
bark is obtained and from which it is exported. In_ this
province cinchona was originally discovered. This bark
has been highly esteemed by the royal family, and is that
which has been selected for their use; hence, the name of
Crown Bark. The following are the characters which dis-
tinguish this bark.

The Loxa bark occurs in small quills, the longitudinal
edges folding in upon themselves forming a tube about the
circumference of a goose quill, and from half a foot to a foot
and a half in length. It is of a greyish colour on the ex-
terior, and covered with small transverse fissures or cracks,
the interior surface is smooth and in fresh or good bark of a
bright orange red, it is of a compact texture and breaks with
a short clear fracture, it is the bark of the cinchona conda-
minia and is known at Loxa by the name of cascarilla fina.
Yet, notwithstanding this bark appears to have held the de-
cided preference to all other species, analysis fully indicates
that it is not equal in medicinal strength by at least twenty-
five per cent, to that denominated Calisaya; this bark is more
astringent and less bitter than the calisaya.
~ This species yields from twenty-five to thirty per cent, less
cinchonine and quinine, than the caylisaya arrollenda does
quinine, and the proportion of cinchonine is much greater
than that of the quinine.

Cinchona Oblongifolia or Red Bark.

The above term appears to be more applicable to the spe-
cies In question, than any other which can be selected, as
under that denomination the best red bark has always been
well known, and as there is but one other species affording
a red powder, it is not likely to be confounded. The infe-
rior red bark of which there is a considerable quantity in our

Vor. XVI.—No. 1. 5

34 Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark.

market, is no doubt more frequently obtained by colouring
low priced yellow bark, than from the product of a distinct
species.

There is but one species of bark in addition to the Ob-
longifolia as before stated, producing a red powder which is
called Rosea, and as that species is seldom or never known in»
our commerce there can be little or no powder produced by
it, hence, all the inferior kinds of red bark of which there is no
small quantity to the discredit of those who sell it, evidently
must be either such of the Oblongifolia as has been ren-
dered almost inactive, by age, weather, or some other expo-
sure, or as before surmised, is inferior yellow bark, colour-
ed, and as the product of the former must be small, it in all
probability proceeds from the latter source ; hence the price
of red bark is as various, (and the qualities corresponding
with the prices,) as the yellow bark, although the number of
species of which we are acquainted is not one eighth the
number of the latter.

The cinchona oblongifolia is the magnifolia of the flora
Peruviana, and is known in Spain by the name of Colorada,
and is what constitutes the red bark of commerce ; it occurs
generally in large thick pieces, being the product of the
largest tree of the genus cznchona oblongifolia. ‘There are
two varieties.

Ist. Colorada Canan, or Quill Red Bark which occurs in
quills of various diameters, from one fourth of an inch to
two inches in thickness. The epidermis is white or grey,
with transversal fissures or warty concretions of a reddish
color, the interior is of a brick red color, the cross fracture
short and fibrous, the longitudinal fracture compact and shin-
ing, the taste not so bitter as that of the calisaya. .

2nd. Colorada Plancha, or Flat Red Bark. This bark is
in very large thick pieces, from half an inch to two inches in
thickness, and from one to two feet in length, the epidermis
brown, thick and rugged with cracks running in various di-
rections. The fracture very fibrous inside, is of a deep brick
color, the taste is less bitter than that of the quill, and of
course much less so than that of the calisaya.

These two varieties frequently come in the same seroon,
and from their appearance are no doubt the product of the
same species, or perhaps the same tree; the quill being pro-
duced by the branches and the flat thick pieces from the
trunk, or the former from young and the latter from older trees,

Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark. 35
This bark is generally more scarce in our market than the
yellow or pale, and commands a higher price : within a short
period however, about fifty seroons of this bark have been im-
poried from Guayaquil by Mr. John R. Neff, which has in a
smail degree influenced the price of the article. I am inform-
ed by a respectable druggist of this city, who has been a long
time established in business, that this is the only arrival in
quantity, of red bark, direct from South America within his
recollection, tne supplies heretofore having been received
from Europe. These seroons averaged about one hundred
poundseach. The bark was very fresh and of a very supe-
rior quality. The large flat pieces and quilis were indiscrim-
inately mixed and in some seroons in very nearly equal pro-
portions. This bark when first received, was of a very deep
and bright color, and particularly the powder produced by
the flat pieces ; after being exposed however, ina dry place
for about six months, it faded considerably, insomuch that any
one not in possession of the proof of the. fact, would have
doubted, whether the powder had been produced from the
same bark.

From experiments on the above bark, I procured twenty
per cent less cinchonine and quinine, taken together, than the
amount of quinine produced by the same quantity of calisaya
arrollenda bark ; and the proportion of cinchonine, was rath-
er more than half of the product of quinine.

It will appear therefore, from what has been said, that
notwithstanding the great prejudices, both of eminent au-
thors and skilful practitioners, which have so long existed
in favor of the superiority of the oblongifolia, (ved bark,)
over other species ; that it is decidedly inferior to the calis-
aya, (yellow bark,) as the whole product, as before stated,
of its active principles, does not equal that of the calisaya
and cinchonine, constituting rather more than half the pro-
duct, which, according to an eminent author, is five times
less active than the quinine; this point however, I think is
very far from being settled. An interesting paper was read
before the Academy of Medicine, at Paris, which is published
in the Bulletin des Sciences Medicales, for November, 1825,
in which M. Bally states that he has experimented upon
the sulphate of cinchonine, with a view to determine its feb-
rifuge qualities. He administered this sulphate in twenty
seven Cases of intermittent fevers, of different types, in doses
of two grain pills, giving three or four in the interval of par-

36 Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark.

oxysms ; by which treatment he cured the disease as effectu-
ally and as speedily as with the quinine: of which twenty
seven cases, there were sixteen tertian, nine quotidian and
two quartan. He remarked further, that the cinchonine has
properties less irritating than those of quinine, and that con-
sequently its employment should be more general, and pre-
ferred in all simple cases. I believe few or no experiments
have been made by the physicians of this country, upon the ~
medical properties of the cinchonine ; it consequently must
be very little known by them from their own experience, but
it certainly is a medicine which deserves at least a trial.

From the preceding description, the several species of
Peruvian bark most commonly met with at the present day,
may be readily recognised, as the physical characters are
prominent and distinctive in each variety ; after however se-
lecting the best species of Peruvian bark, by the several dis-
tinguishing and specific characters, one very important ad-
ventitious condition yet remains to be investigated. It isa
fact established beyond controversy, that age is a very pow-
erful agent in deteriorating the active properties of bark, in-
somuch that the best species of Peruvian bark when old, is
little superior and sometimes even inferior to the carthagena
bark when fresh; hence it is, that large parcels of a superior
species of Peruvian bark, which would have commanded
‘two dollars per pound at Cadiz, when fresh, has been offered
publicly in this city for one-eighth the sum, twenty five cents,
and that without a purchaser; and which it appears has
been operated upon by no other unfavorable circumstance
but age. In what manner or by what process age, or rather
the circumstances connected with it, act upon bark other
than by a combination with oxygen or a volatilization of its
active principle, I know not. Fabroni states with truth,
that cinchona loses its solubility, and consequently its activ-
ity, by long exposure to the air, but does not give his opinion
as to the manney in which it is thus affected. I cannot, how-
ever, conceive under existing circumstances, how the solubil-
ity of Peruvian bark can be diminished, except through the
agency of oxygen, and it is by this means the extract of bark,
prepared according to the common formulas of our dispensa-
tories, is rendered devoid of utility ; for owing to the oxigen-
izement of the extractive matter, the solubility of the extract
is so diminished during its formation, that scarcely one half
is soluble in water.

Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark. 37

-From a number of experiments which I have made upon
Peruvian bark in different states, I have observed as an une-
quivocal result, that the same species of bark which when
fresh is very productive of quinine, when old will produce
little or none of this active principle, upon which its virtue
as a medicine entirely depends.

It will appear therefore an important duty, critically to ex-
amine the state of bark as to age, and it may perhaps be
useful in this place, to describe the physical characters of
bark in this state, and by which it may be readily known.
The prominent features which characterize old bark, and
distinguish it from recent, are the following. Old bark has
lost nearly all that bitter and astringent taste and peculiar
aromatic odor, which are such prominent characteristics of
recent bark of good quality. The specific gravity is also
sensibly diminished, and the fracture instead of being shin-
ing and compact is dull, fibrous and of a loose texture, and
the color very frequently passes from a bright orange toa
dull brown, as the bark advances in age, particularly if much
exposed. By attention to these few conspicuous characters,
taste, smell, specific gravity, fracture and color, no mistake
can arise in the selection of good bark, unless there is a
gross deficiency of judgment. Yet notwithstanding the dis-
tinguishing characters of Peruvian bark in these two states
are so prominent and striking, we regret to say, that gross
mistakes have been made public in this particular, by men
whom we might suppose most capable of appreciating the
quality, under the influence of every incidental circumstance.

Dr. Paris in the sixth edition of his Pharmacologia, makes
the following remarks under the article cinchona. The
frauds committed under this head are most extensive; it is
not only mixed with inferior bark, but frequently with genu-
ine bark, the active constituents of which have been extract-
ed by decoction with water. In selecting cinchona bark,
the following precautions may be useful ; it should be dense,
heavy and dry, not musty, nor spoiled by moisture ;. a decoc-
tion made of it should have a reddish color when warm, but
when cold it should become paler, and deposit a brownish
red sediment. When the bark ‘is of a dark color, between
red and yellow, it is either of a bad species or it has not been
well preserved. Its taste should be bitter, with a slight acid-
ity, but not nauseous nor very astringent; when chewed, it
should not appear in threads nor of much length, the odour

38 Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark.

is not very strong, but when bark is well cured it is always
perceptible, and the stronger it is, provided it be pleasant,
the better may the bark be considered. In order to give
bark the form of quill, the bark gatherers not unfrequently
call in the aid of artificial heat, by which its virtues are de-
teriorated, the fraud is detected by the colour being much
darker, and upon splitting the bark, by the inside exhibiting
stripes of a whitish sickly hue. In the form of powder, cin-
chona is always-found more or less adulterated. This must
be recollected as applying to the English market. During a
late official inspection of the shops of apothecaries and drug-
gists, the censors repeatedly met with powdered cinchona
having a hard metallic taste, quite foreign to that which
characterizes good bark.* The best test of the goodness of
bark, is afforded by the quantity of cinchona or quina that
may be extracted from it; and the manufacturer should al-
ways institute such a trial before he purchases any quantity,
taking a certain number of pieces indiscriminately from the
bulk.

Before concluding, it may not be out of seasen to remark,
that the sulphate of quinine, as it is generally termed, is not a
perfectly neutral salt, but in the state of a sub-sulphate, and is
only partly soluble in water. Its exhibition in water is render-
ed much more eligible by the addition of a drop of sulphuric |
acid to each grain of the salt, which makes a perfectly trans-
parent solution, and which, I think, from its obvious advan-
tages, should entirely supercede the common formula: with
sugar and gum arabic, a few grains of citric or tartaric acid
will have the same effect in dissolving the quinine as the sul-
phuric acid, and has been preferred by some.

Dr. Paris,t on the exhibition of quinine, states that he
lately saw a prescription in which the salt is directed to be
rubbed with a few grains of cream of tartar, and then to be
dissolved in mint water. This, he continues, is obviously in-
judicious, since tartaric acid decomposes the sulphate, and
occasions an insoluble tartrate which is precipitated.

* Mr. Thompson has suggested the probability of this circumstance having
arisen from the admixture of a species of bark, lately introduced into Europe
from Martinique, resembling the cinchona floribunda, and which by an anal-
ysis of M. Cadet was found to contain iron.—London Disp. Edit. 3, p. 247.

+ Pharmacologia, Edit. 6, vol. ii, p. 163.

Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark. 39

With due deference to the exalted judgment of Dr. Paris,
I must however, on the following grounds, dissent from his
opinions. The cream of tartar is objectional, merely from
the circumstance that the active part of the compound
may be obtained ina more direct and speedy process by
the tartaric acid. The combination of cream of tartar and
sulphate of quinine in the above prescription, does produce
decomposition as Dr. Paris has observed, but the virtue of
the medicine is not in the least affected by it, and the pre-
cipitate, instead of being an insoluble tartrate of quinine
as he observes, is sulphate of potass ; tartrate of quinine is
a very soluble salt, and is held in solution while the water
becomes slightly turbid by the precipitation of sulphate of
potass, which, however from its extremely minute division
is speedily taken up by the water, when you have a trans-
parent solution of tartrate of quinine and sulphate of potass,
and as the latter answers neither a good nor a bad purpose,
it of course can very conveniently be dispensed with, and
therefore, as before stated, the tartaric acid should be pre-
ferred as having a more speedy and direct action.

Piperine has proved a valuable adjunct to quinine ; equal
proportions of each will act with much more energy than
the whole quantity of quinine or piperine alone. Dr. Chap-
man informs us, he has met with much success in the treat-
ment of intermittent fevers by employing the following pre-
scription.

R Quinine grs x
Piperine grs X
M. ft. Pill Nox

One to be taken every hour in the absence of fever.

Oil of black pepper is much more active than piperine,
one drop being fully equal to three grains of piperine, three
drops of oil of black pepper added to ten grains of quinine,
will greatly increase the powers of this remedy, oil of black
pepper alone is a valuable stimulant in typhus fever, and is a
valuable adjunct to many medicines.

All the preceding varieties of bark, sulphate of quinine,
cinchonine, and all the preparations of bark and quinine,
may be procured at Geo. W. Carpenter’s Chemical Ware-
house, 301 Market street, Philadelphia.

Note.—An alkaline substance somewhat analagous to qui-
nine, has recently been discovered in the cornus florida,

40 New preparation of Balsam Copawwa,

which has deen denominated cornine, and which has been
very carefully and accurately described by Dr. Samuel G.
Morton in the Philadelphia Journal of Medical and Physical
Sciences. From the most respectable sources in the med-
ical profession, from various parts of the United States where
the article has been sent, the most favourable accounts have
been received of the unequivocal success of the cornine in
the treatment of intermittent fevers in the same doses as the
quinine, and the only circumstance which precludes its com-
petition with that substance, is the extremely minute compar-
ative proportion of cornine yielded by the cornus florida.

ART. IV.Observations on a new preparation of Balsam
Copaiva; by Grorce W. Carpenter, of Philadelphia,

' Baztsam Copaiva being a medicine used in the practice of al-
most every physician, its characters, effects and uses are con-
sequently familiar to them. It is admitted by all, to be one
of the most nauseous and disagreeable articles of the ma-
teria medica. Disguised or mixed as it may be, its unpleas-
ant nature is still manifest, and little if at all diminished,
communicating its nauseous taste and imparting to the breath
its disagreeable odour which is experienced for several hours
after each dose, and freqnently acting as an emetic, or ca-
thartic.* From these circumstances, its use is frequently
abandoned in cases where it otherwise would be of the
highest utility, and even where it is almost indispensible, and
other remedies much less efficient are substituted, thus pro-
tracting the cure which could have been speedily effected
by the copaiva.

Since the introduction of this remedy down to the pres-
ent period, it has ever been a desideratum to obviate these
inconveniences, and it is a circumstance not less unfortunate

nae nen ener EEE

* Our distinguished Professor of Practice, in the 1st volume of his Therapeu-
tics, page 417, observes, that two circumstances frequently interfere with the
exhibition of copaiva, and detract from its utility. It sometimes purges, and
when it does, its efficacy is lost or greatly diminished. If laudanum does not
check this injurious tendency, it must be discontinued till the bowels recover
their tone. To the stomachs of some persons the copaiva is so exceedingly of-
fensive, that it cannot be retained. As it is hardly possible to disguise the
taste of the article, itis sometimes very difficult to overcome this prejudice.—
See Chapman’s Therapeutics.

Notice of the appearance of Fish and Lizards. 41

and much to be regretted, than it is singular in its character,
that amidst the rapid march of improvement and discoveries,
(which forms a peculiar character in modern chemistry and
pharmaceutical knowledge,) an improvement in the exhibt-
tion of copaiva, should so long have evaded the vigilant re-
searches of the critical and scrutinizing chemist, and phar-
maceutist. With these premises, I feel happy to inform the
medical faculty that I havesucceeded in consolidating copaiva
to a proper consistence, for being formed into pills. The con-
solidated copaiva is the oi and resin united, and consequent-
ly possesses all the properties of the balsam. It may be made
into four grain pills, and one or two pills taken three times a
day ; two pills are equal to thirty drops of the balsam. These
pills may be taken without the least inconvenience, neither
communicating taste, nor imparting odour to the breath, it is
also retained without the least disquietude or uneasiness to
the stomach, and I am informed by Dr. Rousseau, that in
large doses, it does not purge.

This article differs, very essentially, from what is termed
extract, or resin copaiva, being not in the least deteriorated
in the preparation, nor at all weakened by admixture of any
foreign substance for the purpose of giving consistence. It
is particularly recommended to the faculty for its numerous
advantages over the balsam, and all its preparations. As the
oil of copaiva is an active preparation, it is the best mode
of using this article, for being united with the resin it may
be made into pills which can be taken without producing
the nauseating taste of the oil, while the oi] alone cannot
be taken otherwise than in draught, which will subject it to
the same inconveniences with the fluid balsam, having its
disagreeable taste with its unpleasant effects.

The consolidated copaiva is manufactured and sold at
Geo. W. Carpenter’s Chemical Warehouse, No. 301, Market
street, Philadelphia.

Art. V.—Notice of the appearance of Fish and Lizards
mn extraordinary circumstances; by JoserH E. Muse.
Cambridge, E. S., Maryland, Jan. 5, 1829.
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.
Tue late notice in an English paper, of a shower of her-

rings witnessed by a Major McKenzie, as he traversed a field
Vou. XVI.—No. 1.

42 Notice of the appearance of Fish and Lizards.

on his farm, leads me to communicate to you a most singu-
lar instance of the apparently playful aberrations of nature
from those laws, which she had prescribed for herself, and
under whose influence, she most usually, and most wisely
operates. al

In the course of the last summer I ordered a ditch to be
cut of large dimensions, on a line of my farm near Cam-
bridge : the line was a plane, ten feet above the level of the
neighboring river, and at least one mile from it, at the near-
est point of the line; a portion of the ditch being done, the
work was interrupted by rain for ten or twelve days; when
the work was resumed, on examining the performance, I dis-
covered that the rain water which had filled the ditch, thus
recently cut, contained hundreds of fish, consisting of two
kinds of perch which are common in our. waters the “sun
perch,” and the “jack perch ;” the usual size of the former
is from six to twelve inches, the latter varies from ten to fif-
teen inches long; those in the ditch were from four to seven
inches: by what possible means could these fish have been
transported so far from their native waters? There is no wa-
ter communication on the surface, to conduct them there ;
the elevation and extent of the plane, in regard to the rivers,
utterly prohibit the idea; the eggs, if placed there by a wa-
ter-spout, could not have suffered so rapid a transmigration ;
no such phenomena had been observed, and the adjacency
of the line to the dwelling, would have rendered the occur-
rence, impossible, without notice.

Already has the theory of Descartes, and the philosophi-
cal generation of Trembley and Spalanzani encroached upon
the animal dignity, in propagating it by cuttings from the
parent stock; yet, that animal life should spring from a for-
tuitous concourse of lifeless atoms, assisted by the concur-
rent agency of putrefaction, a suitable element, a suitable
temperature, or other such circumstances, apparently adap-
ted to its nascent.existence, is a heterodox opinion which |
should be averse to entertain.

A similar occurrence a few years ago, 1 witnessed on the
same farm; in a very large ditch, cut on lower lands, on a
line equally unconnected with any river, pond, or other sur-
face-water, there were, under very similar circumstances, nu-
merous perch, which afforded fine angling to my children.
On a diary which I keep, I have entered, that several of
them measured as much as twelve inches in length, and that

Notice of the appearance of Fish and Lizards. 43

the time since their arrival there, could not possibly have ex-
ceeded a fortnight. The fall of meteorolites from the heav-
ens has been recorded by the historian, from the earliest ages,
and as often discredited, from philosophic vanity. The fre-
quent recurrence of this seeming physical paradox, having
been finally established on the fullest evidence, should guard
the philosopher against vain presumption, and fortify him in
other cases, in the hope of successful research.

While on the subject of mysterious nature, I will intro-
duce, as concisely as possible, a case, where she reconciled
animals of the coldest and most meagre habits to the enjoy-
ment of the warmth and luxuries of the human stomach ;

for these facts, though not personally conversant with them,
I have the authority of a medical gentleman of unquestion-
able veracity, to vouch for their rigid truth; in reply to my
request to be informed of the habits, food, drink, employment,
&c. of the patient, I received the following account. “On
my arrival, I found that she, (the patient,) had puked up two
ground puppies and was labouring under a violent sick stom-
ach, with pain, and syncope: the first was dead when ejec-
ted, the second was alive when IJ arrived, and ran about the
room ; they were about three inches long ; she informed me,
that on the road that morning she had thrown up two others;
the case occurred in the summer, and had made gradual pro-
gress, from the first of April, and as she described it, with a
peculiar sickness, and frequent sensation of something mov-
ing in her stomach; with slight pain and loss of appetite,
which increased till her illness. She was about twenty years
of age, and had enjoyed good health; her employment had
confined her in the swamp, during the winter and spring, and
she had from necessity, constantly drunk swamp water.”
The physician administered an emetic in quest of more pup-
pies, but being disappointed, he gave an opiate; she was
relieved, finally, and has been, since, in health.

These animals have, since, been shown to me: they are
not the ground puppy, (gecko,) as they are vulgarly called ;
they resemble it very much, but are easily distinguished from
it; they belong to the same genus, (lacerta, or lizard,) but are
of the species “ salamander ;” their habitudes too, are essen-
tially different; the gecko is found in houses and warm places;
the salamander in cold damp places, and shaded swamps,
and by the streams of meadows ; these animals though ovip-
arous, hatch their eggs in the belly, like the viper and pro-

44 Meteorological Observations.

duce about fifty young at a birth. The inference is irresisti-

ble, that the patient had, in her frequent draughts of swamp
water, swallowed, perhaps thousands of these animals in
their nascent, or most diminutive state of existence, and a

few only survived the shock; but it is matter of astonish-
ment, that from the icy element in which they had com-
menced their being, and for which, they were constituted

by nature, they should bear this sudden transportation to a

situation so opposite in its character, and grow into vigorous
maturity, unannoyed by the active chemical and mechan-
ical powers to whose operation they were subjected.

Art. VI.—Meteorological Observations.

1. Abstract of Meteorological Observations, made at Marietta, Ohio, in|
JV. lat. 39° 25', W. long. 81° 30/, in the year 1828, by S. P. HinpREru. |

Thermometer | | Depth of
rain.
© > . 2
elias a ‘ Ke D
Months. |S =|8/¢ te & oi =z =| Prevailing winds.
2 ee aw sy deep et 5 ®
Sees Si te Dies | See ol ng
Bele he a o/ 2| 3S] S|
Sis lsl]s} | SEY Ei
_ |_*/RIAis} 2) oo} me) Oo] 4) & fia,
January, |41.70/63/10/53) 2 10} 14; 17). 4] 04\s.w. & w.
February, |44.20/70)17/53} 2 13) 15; 14, 6) 75s. w. & w w.
March, 48.30|83|17/66| 29}. 1) 23) 8 2) 13\s.w. nw. & nN. w
April, 50.00)82|26/56) 23 9) 17) 13) +6) 50/s.w. 2. & ss: &.
May, 62.75|92135|57/4& 5 8| 19) 12) 6) 58!s.w. nw. w. & BE.
June, 72.57|94/54/40| 26 9} 25) 5 4) 92!s. s. w:
July, 70.90/90)54136| 24 2} 23) 8 5| O8is.w. & n. w
August, |'72.72)94/53/41) 31 19) 26) 5) 3) 00\s.w. & Nn.
September,|62.52/86)42/44| 1 11] 16) 14, +3) 42\s.& nw. wn. w.
October, |52.10/80)24/56) 24]16 &17) 25} 6 2) 50\s.s.w. & w.
November,|45.70/70)/24/46 3/25 &26) 17) 13) 38) 42in.& w.w.w.&s.w.
December, |39.17/70|14|56! 3] 26) 22) 9| J) 16w.s.w. & n. w
243/124 49/50

Mean temperature for the year, 35.22.

Rain, 49 inches and ;3,°,; being 8 inches and ;2, more
than fell in the year 1827.

Prevaling winds, S. and S.W. :

Hottest month, August—coldest month, December.

N.B. The thermometer has a northern exposure, in the

shade. Observations taken at 7 A.M. in winter, at 6 A.M.

m summer, and at 2 and 9 P.M.

<5

Meteorological Observations. 45

Observations on the flowering of plants, ripening of fruits,
&c. in the past year.

January.—5th. Day so warm that snakes are seen by sev-
eral different persons. 6th. Grass as fresh asin May, anda
multiflora rose, trained on the north side cf my house, put-
ting forth leaves. 7th. Wild geese seen to-day, a circum-
stance very uncommon at this season of the year. 9th. Fre-
quent and heavy rains caused the Ohio river to rise on the
6th, and by the 9th the water was eight feet deep over the
low bottom lands; began to fall on the 10th, doing much
damage to the fences, stacks of hay, corn, &c. 12th. Vegeta-
tion rapid, peas planted in November two or three inches
high—the larva of insects seen in motion in pools of stag-
nant water. 25th. Small sheets of floating ice in the Ohio
for three days, but none in the Muskingum all winter—steam
boat navigation good through the season. 27th. Heavy
gale of wind, commencing at 4 P. M. preceded by a rainy
night ; continued for ten hours, with violent gusts from the
west ; clouds, light, white, fleecy cumuli; full moon at 9.
The same gale did great damage on Lake Erie, to shipping,
property, &c. with the loss of several lives.

February—\st. Honey bee at work, and returns with its
thighs loaded with farina. 4th. Buds of the peach tree
nearly swelled. 6th. Peach trees in bloom at Burlington,
Lawrence cvunty, being the most southerly bend of the Ohio
river bordering this state. 8th. White maple in bloom. 16th.
Elm in bloom, on the banks of the Ohio; crocus and snow
drop in bloom in the garden.

March.—6th. Common robin heard to-day. 8th. Black-
bird seen. 9th. Peewe first heard. 10th. Smart shock of
an earthquake felt at half past 10 last night. 11th. Some
peach trees inbloom. 12th. Blue damisoninbloom. 13th.
Peas planted the 23d of last month, in open ground, now up.
17th. cerastium vulg. in full bloom. 18th. Sugar maple
putting forth leaves, quite green; peach trees in ful! bloom.
20th. Sambucus opening its leaves, quite green. 21st. Crown
imperial in bloom, in my garden. 23d. Spice-bush, sassafras
and June berry in bloom, inthe woods. 27th. Golden beuré
and brown beuré, pear in bloom; Erythr. Amer. or dog’s
tooth violet in bloom; dodecatheon, ready to blow. 28th.
Cornus florida and red bud, or Judas tree, opening their
blossoms.

/

A6 Meteorological Observations.

‘ \

April.—2d. Ox-heart cherry in bloom, on the north side of
the house, out of the sun’s rays. 3d. Anona glabra and pa-
paw in bloom ; apple trees in full bloom for some days. 4th,
5th and 6th. Smart showers of snow—ice half an inch in
thickness ; thermometer at 22° on the morning of the 5th,
and 28° on the morning of the 6th. Peach blossoms all -
killed ; apples and cherries much injured; snow four inches
deep. ‘The same destructive frost felt in Georgia and Ala-
bama, destroying wheat, corn, fruits, &c. with ice an inch
in thickness. 9th. Birth-wort in bloom. 11th. Mayduke
cherry in bloom, 17th. Coral honeysuckle in bloom. 25th.
Horse chestnut in bloom. 29th. Peasin bloom. 30th, Cur-
culio or May beetle flying in the evening.

May.—\st. Tulips beginning to bloom. 3d. White Nar-
cissus and tulips in full bloom; crab apple in bloom. 6th.
Bees sending out young swarms. 8th. Yellow and Bur-
gundy roses in blow. 9th. Purple mulberry in bloom. 12th.
Butternut and black walnut in bloom. 15th. Yellow locust
or pseudo acacia in bloom. 17th. Liriodendron, yellow
poplar, in bloom. 18th. High blackberry do. 20th. Hick-
ory treedo. 22d. Prunus Virginiana in bloom. 24th. Peas
fit for the table. 27th. Rye in head. |

June.—ist. Wild comfrey in bloom. 7th. Purple rasp-
berry ripe. 8th. Sambucusin bloom. 9th. Spiria trifoliata
in bloom. 10th. Purple mulberry ripe. 12th. Early York
cabbage and early quaker bean fit fer table, raised in open
ground. 13th. Catalpa beginning to bloom. 14th. Rose-
bay in bloom, in the woods. 16th. Lamacle in bloom. 17th.
Cucumbers fit for table, raised in open ground. 27th. Early
Chandler apple fit for eating.

N.B. The crops of grain were very luxuriant, but the
wheat was greatly damaged by blight and rust, owing to the
very wet and warm season. Hay was very fine. Indian
corn suffered from the wet; many ears decaying or rotting
within the husks, upon the stalks. Potatoes very good. Ap-
ples in abundance, but no peaches; cherries and currants
scarce. Grapes, of the tender kinds, affected with rust or
blight on the leaves, and the fruit turning black and drop-
ping off near the time of ripenmg: the purple and more
hardy kinds fared better. English gooseberries suffered in
the same way. Pears and quinces were all killed by the
frost of the 5th of May.

Marietta, Ohio, Jan. 3, 1829.

47

Meteorological Observations.

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48

Calendar of Vegetation.

Arr. VII.—Calendar of Vegetation.

Germanflatts, Herkimer county, N. Y. July 7, 1828.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Sir—The enclosed, very imperfect, calendar of the pro-
gress of vegetation, in the vicinity of Newport, Herkimer
county, N. Y. was taken during my practice in that place as

physician.

As to the times of flowering, I would observe,

that they are all set down upon the first appearance of any
to my own observation, and I believe, may be considered as
Respectfully yours,

correct.

1826.

May 3

June

Common name.

Red Plum,

7. Soft Maple,

Moose-wood,

Red berried Elder,
Garden Pina,
Violet,

Mountain Ash,
Lilack,

. Currant,
. False wake Robin,

Swallows,
Striped Maple,
Whip-poor-will,

. Dandelion,

Night Hawks,

. Garden Columbine,
. Swamp Oak,

Apple-tree,
Woodbine,
Red Plum,

. Lilack,

. Strawberry, (wild,)
. Flower De Luce,

. Snow-ball,

. Mountain Ash,

Locust,

. Pina in gardens,
. Spider-wort,

Canada Thistle,

. Horse Radish,

Wild Strawberry,

. Butter Cup,
. Red berried Elder,

Milk-weed,

20. Water Lilies,

A. W. Bowen.

Systematic name.

Prunus chicasa,

Acer rubrum,

Dirca palustra,
Sambucus pubescens,

Viola trifolia, j
Sorbus americana,
Syringa vulgaris,
Ribes rubrum,
Trilium erectum,

Acer striatum,

Leontedon taraxacum,
Aquilegia vulgaris,
Quercus prinus,
Pyrus malus,
Lonicera hirsuta,
Prunus chicasa,
Syringa vulgaris,
Fragaria virginiana,
Iris virginica,
Viburnum opulus,
Sorbus americana,

Robinia pseudo-acacia| —

Tradescantia virginica
Cnicus arvensis,
Cochlearia amoracia,
Fragaria virginiana,
Ranunculus acris,
Sambucus pubescens,
Asclepias,

Biypanhen lutea,

*

State of progression.

leaves 1-2 inch long.

infl’r., leavesopening.
do. do.3-4inch long.

leaves expanded.

6 inches high.

in flower.

leaves expanded. —

grown 4 inches.

in flower. “

do.

first observed.

in flower.

first heard.

in flower.

appear.

in flower.

leaves expanding.

in flower. | [houses.

leaves expanded on the

flowers dropped.

in flower.

6 inches high.
in flower.
ripe.
in flower.
ripe.
in flower.

do.

1826.

June 26.

“

3.

ce

ce

1827.
Feb.

27.

6c

28.
30.
April ~ 4.
. Martins,

Thorn Apple,
27.

28.

July 2.

15.
March 20.

Calendar of Vegetation.

Common name.

Poison Hemlock,
Red Raspberry,
Black do.
Wild Cherry,
Flax,

Garden Cherry,
Currant,

Sweet Elder,
Willow-herb,

. Bass-wood,

Senna,

Striped Squirrel,
Robin,

Swamp willow,
Butterfly,
Woodpecker, (red)
Hemlock,
Blue-bird,

Frogs,

Violets,.

. Elm,
. Soft Maple,

Black berried Elder,
Moose-wood,

Blood Root,

Viola, (wild)
Garden Violets,

. Bath Root,

Adder-tongue,
Daffodil,

. Swallows,
May 3.
. Pie-plant,
. Dandelion,
. Cowslip,

Red Plum,

Wild Blue Lily,

. Apple-tree,

Bell-wort,

. Celandine,

Gooseberry,
Strawberry,
Wild-bird Cherry,

. Tulip,

Striped Maple,
Garden. Columbine,

. Lilack.
. Mountain Ash,

Lily of the Valley,

. Red Plum,

Daffodil,

. Night Hawks,
. Flower De Luce,
. Currants,

Vor. XVI.—No. 1.

49

Systematic name. |State of progression.

Datura stramonium,
Conium maculatum,
Rubus occidentalis,
Rubus strigosus,
Prunus avium,

in flower.
do.

ripe.
do.
do.

Linum usitatissimum,|in flower.

Prunus cerasus,
Ribes rubrum,

ripe.
do.

Sambucus canadensis,|in flower.

Epilobium spicatum,
Tillaea glabra,
Cassia senna,

Salix capria,

do.
do.
do.

first appear.

do. do.
opening its buds.
seen.

: - do.
Conium maculatum, |8 inches high.

7

- - - appear.

> = - heard to croak.

- - - appear.

- - - in flower.
Ulmus nemoralis, do.
Acer rubrum, do.
Sambucus pubescens, | do.
Direa palustris, [sis,} do.
Sanguinaria canaden-} do.
Viola striata, do.
Viola odorata, do.

- - [nis,] do.
Erythronium dens-ca-| do.

- -—e - do.

- - - first observed.
Prunus chicasa, in flower.

- - - do.
Leontodon taraxacum| do.

- - - do.

- - - do.
Pyrus malus, do.
Streptopus roseus, do.
Chelidonium majus, | do.—frost.

: Mn - - do.

Fragaria virginiana, | do.
Prunus avium, do.

- - - do.
Acer striatum, do.
Aquilegia vulgaris, do.
Syringa vulgaris, do.
Sorbus americana, do.
Convallaria majalis, | do.
Prunus chicasa, |flowers dropped.
Narcissus, lin flower.

- - - \first observed.
Iris virginica, ‘in flower.
Ribes rubrum, 'fit to cook,

50 Calendar of Vegetation.

1827. Common name. Systematic name. \State of progression.
May 31. Hawthorn, Crataegus flava, in flower-severe frost.
June 1. Snow-ball, Viburnum opulus, do.

«* Butter Cup, Ranunculus acris, do.
«Garden Pina, - - - do.
«* Horse Radish, - - - do.
5. White Clover, - - - do.

‘© Strawberry,
«« Spider-wort,

Fragaria virginiana, |ripe.
Tradescantia virginicajin flower.

«© Locust, Robinia pseudo-acacia| do.
7. Sugar Maple, Acer saccharrinum, | do.
«< Rye, - - - do.
«¢ Black Raspberry, Rubus strigosus, do.
«© Red do. do. occidentalis, | do.
<¢ Blackberry, - - - — 1 do.
**< Dog-wood, Cornus canadensis, do.
« Sage, Salvia officinalis, do.
. 14. Asparagus, Asparagus officinalis, | do.
17. Rase, - - - do.
20. Sweet Briar, Marrubium vulgare, | do.
«< Hoarhound, - - - do.
“© Fox Glove, Digitalis, (white) do.
24. Peas, - - - do.—frost.
26. Mullin, - - - do.

“© Red berried Elder,
“Sweet do.

Sambucus pubescens, |ripe.
do. canadensis, |in flower.

27. Milk-weed, Asclepias, [tum,| do.
30. John’s-wort, Hypericum perfora-| do.

July 1. Indian Corn, Zea mays, tassel in sight.
«© Green Peas, - - - fit to cook.
‘¢ Currant, Ribes rubrum, . |ripe.

3. Poppy, Papaver somniferum, |in flower.
4, Raspberry, Rubus occidentalis, — ripe.

5. Water Lily, Nymphea lutea, in flower.
“© Raspberry, Rubus strigosus, ripe.

6.. Garden Cherry, Prunus cerasus, do.

7. Indian Corn, Zea mays, silks developed.
«© Cucumber, - - - in flower.
8. Common Thistle, - - - do.

«« Flax, Linum usutatissimum,| do.

10. Wheat, - - - do.

14. Indian Corn, Zea mays, do.

16. Rye, F - - ripe.

17. Peas, - - - do.
20. Senna, (American) - - - in flower.
25. Indian Corn, Zea mays, fit to boil.
29. Cucumbers, - - ripe.

August 23 and 24, frost; 29th, was seen the lusus (nature?) in the heavens,
which at this place extended from east to west, touching both horizons, in the
form of a brilliant arch of fog; its particles evidently moved from east to west
as fast as clouds do im a storm.

April 24, 1828. Moose-wood, Blood Root, Soft Maple and Wild Violets, in

flower.

Strictures on Volcanos and Earthquakes. 51

Arr. VIII.—Strictures on the Hypothesis of Mr. Joseph Du
Commun, on Volcanos and Earthquakes ;* by Brnsamin
Bett, of Charlestown, Mass.

TO MR. JOSEPH DU COMMUN.

Sir—In accordance with your opinion, as well as with
that of Dr. Franklin, Mr. Perkins and others—I will allow
that atmospheric air can be compressed to such a degree as
to be heavier than water ; and that if forced down by means
of a bell lower than twenty five thousand six hundred feet
below the surface of the sea, it may stay there, for the present,
or may fall to the bottom. We will suppose the lowest
depth of the sea-water to be found at the precise point of
twenty five thousand six hundred feet from the surface,
which, for brevity, I shall call the separating point; and that
a stratum of condensed air occupies the space between that
point and the liquid oxygen below, a gallon of which stratum
being heavier than a gallon of sea-water. At this point of
contact (separating point) the air (see page 16, line 30) must
be, as you say, “exactly of the same density with the water.”

But what would be the density of a bubble of air, if con-
veyed by the bell and left one foot above the separating point?
As this bubble would have a density less than the air at the
separating point, it must rise to the surface ; it cannot fall,
or, as you say, “shower through the water.”

If then a bubble of air rises, when formed or left one foot
above the separating point, it may be fairly asserted that it
would rise if formed one inch, or even ;1, of an inch above
it. To maintain this gaseous stratum then, it is necessary
to suppose, that the evolution of gas from the water is made
precisely at the separating point, and that air bubbles (i. e.
air surrounded by a liquid) are not formed.

But what should cause a separation at all? The air held
in solution near the separating point ought to be combined
with some degree of force, else it would be likely to separ-
ate before it was carried there. Supposing however, that
it arrives down to the point, there is a great objection to its
separating at that precise point, in preference to a quarter
of an inch above; for no chemical attraction between the

* See Vol. XV. No. 1. Art. iii. of this Journal.

52 Strictures on Volcanos and Earthquakes.

condensed air below, and the air held in solution can be sup-
posed ; it being known that the particles of gas, constantly
repel each other.

The answer given by you to number six and seven, objec-
tions of the Editor, does not give me satisfaction: “ That
the air should separate from water, saturated and compres-
sed” is not as we think supported by analogy, but is contra-
ry thereto, as allsoda-water preparers may witness. Indeed,
Sir, in support of this part of your hypothesis, a few facts or
examples are required.

Allowing however, as fact, that air is conveyed, by natural
means below the separating point; and that three fluids
are formed, resting upon the terraneous bottom, what now
would be the effect of subterraneous heat upen the superin-
cumbent mass of fluid? Would not a circulation ensue, ef-
fecting an exchange between the lower and upper portions,
altogether producimg such an operation as is known to occur
frequently in our atmosphere? A small movement being
once commenced, would not stop till the marine basin were
emptied of all its substratified air: moreover, if a whirl be
formed under water, as whirlwinds are above it, the rush of
the expanding air upward must be tremendous, for the force
of which I refer to your observations near the bottom of
page 16. Now although violent and deep currents have
been detected in the ocean, which are undoubtedly more ir-
regular at the bottom, yet no escape of respirable air at the
surface of the sea to the extent here indicated has to my
knowledge been noticed by any writer.

On the other hand, if it be allowed that oxygen gas is sus-
ceptible of being thus crowded under the ocean, and there
kept, what law has interfered to prevent the whole of the
oxygen which surrounds our globe from being thus disposed
of, leaving none for the use of its supermarine inhabitants ?
if it be allowed that nitrogen gas can thus be condensed and
located, may we not fear that our atmosphere will in course
of time disappear, having retired for the increase of the
tides, or to prepare for the deluge of the earth?

It seems necessary that some other hypothesis be invented
to account for the phenomena of volcanos. Possibly may
oxygen be conveyed from the ocean to the interior of the
earth by the agency of electricity, forming there a liquid
depot, in reserve for the combustion of such metals as may
have been'deoxidized by a similar agency. But as you have

A Discourse on the Theory of Fluaions. 53

promised to present your readers with some new considera-
tions of your principle, be pleased to pardon this diyression.
Bens. Bet.

Art. IX.—A Discourse on the different views that have been
taken of the Theory of Fluxions; by Exizur Wrieut.

Wuoever has made the smallest progress in the science
of fluxions, must perceive, that there are difficulties attend-
ing the explanation of its first principles, which have never
yet been fully removed. The learner in the outset has to
encounter apparent errors, or to consider them lost in the
incomprehensibility of infinity, or if with Sir Isaac Newton
he chooses to view fluxions as illustrated by the philosophi-
cal principal of motion, he is still surrounded with mystery.
Many of the less aspiring are undoubtedly deterred, on this
account, from making any considerable proficiency in this
important branch. Although this science may assume a
more elevated rank by means of that sublimity, which arises
from obscurity, and the ordinary mathematician may look
up to the adept in this department with a kind of enthusias-
tic veneration, as having gained an enviable pre-eminence
by mastering abstruse elements; yet to the proficient him-
self it is in a high degree satisfactory to Jay the foundation
of science in clear, self-evident principles, and to proceed on
in the march of discovery in a path that inspires confidence.
The elements of a science should be rendered as plain as
possible. An examination of the different views that have
been taken of the theory of fluxions, and a discrimination of
the parts designed to be elucidated, will contribute in no
small degree towards attaining this object. Sir Isaac New-
ton considered the doctrine of fluxions under the idea of
quantities, that arise into existence by one uninterrupted in-
crement according to the laws of continuity. Quantities,
according to this method, are augmented in a manner, that
does not admit of distinct separable parts. Although New-
ton applied the calculus to quantities both geometrical and
numerical, yet he chose to illustrate the theory by geometri-
cal ones; which by introducing the properties of motion, af-
ford a very clear explanation. For according to the illustra-
tion of Vince, in his first section, §7. page 3.“ Let the line
FK be described with an uniform velocity, and AZ with an

54 A Discourse on the Theory of Fluxions.

accelerated velocity, and let the increments Gs Pm be gen-
erated in the same time; let also Pv be the increment that
would have

F Gis

a OT TN it RI As NERD IEE Me

A Pom Z
OMG LN TSC) SOE Se RO MVS ito

v

been generated in the same time, if the velocity at P had
been continued uniform; then by Prop. I. the fluxions of
FK, AZ, at the points G and P, will be represented by Gs
and Pv. Let V be the velocity at P, or the velocity with
which Po is described, and let r be the increase of velocity
from P to m; then the velocity at m will be V-+-r, and vm is
the increment which is described in consequence of the in-
crease r of velocity since the describing point left P. Now
let V-+-w be the uniform velocity with which Pm would be
described in the same time that Pv and Pm are described, as
before mentioned; then it is manifest, that this uniform ve-
locity must be between the velocities at P and m, that is, V
+w is greater than V and less than V-+r, or w is greater
than o and less than r. Also, since the spaces described in
the same time are as the velocities, V: V+tw::Pu: Pm.
Now in every state of these increments,V ; V-+-w::Pu : Pm;
and by contiually diminishing the time, and consequently
the increments, we diminish 7 and w, but V remains con-
stant; it is manifest therefore that the ratio of V: V+w,
and consequently that of Pu ; Pm, continually approaches
towards a ratio of equality, and when the time, and con-
sequently the increments, become actually =O, then r=O;
consequently w=O,; therefore the limit of the ratio of P
» $ Pm becomes that of V: V, a ratio of equality. Hence
the limit of the ratio of Gs: Pmis the sameas the limit
of the ratio of Gs: Pv, or it is Gs } Pv, that ratio bemg
constant.” .

From the foregoing reasoning it is manifest, that the limi-
ting ratio of the increments expresses accurately the rate of
increase in the fluent at any assigned point in its generation.
An example in geometrical quantities of two dimensions may
be derived from the square, in which the two generating lines
constitute the limit. The ultimate ratio, then, expressed by
its usual representatives will be 22:1, or, combming the

A Discourse on the Theory of Fluxions. 55

fluxional base with the limit 2vz: ; 2°. An example in quan-
tities of three dimensions is afforded by the cube, in which
the three generating squares form the limit; hence the ulti-
mate ratio is 37%: 1, or 3222": x. This is also called the
fluxional ratio. Its legitimate use is to illustrate the manner
in which fluents are generated, and to shew their rate of in-
crease at any point in their production.

Leibnitz, in his illustration of this science, contemplated
numerical, otherwise termed discrete quantities. Here the
increase is made by the continued addition of a distinct sep-
arable part, called the measuring unit. But to accommodate
the genesis to the nature of variable quantities, he was un-
der the necessity of considering this elementary part as infi-
nitely smail, or as some call it an infinitessimal. According
to this method the integral is supposed to be produced by
the regular aggregation of insensible parts, by which it suc-
cessively passes through every assignable magnitude, from o
to the given one. Here it may seem difficult to conceive,
how a quantity can arise into existence by the addition of
parts that are infinitely small, and consequently such as we
cannot arrive at. But the difficulty will be removed by re-
curring to the clearer method of Sir Isaac Newton, in which
the principle is exemplified by a body in motion. Should
the subtle metaphysician ask how a fluent can be generated
by the addition of infinitely small elements, we have only to
place before his eyes a body, moving either with an accelera-
ted, or a retarded motion, and the proposition is illustrated
by a familiar fact. Ina mathematical view, the co-efficient
of the fluxion is the limit, towards which the increment ap-
proaches, when it is made to vanish, and is in effect equal
to the evanescent quantity, which is supposed to exist at the
moment when the fluent is completed; and the fluent is the
limit of the aggregate of all the nascent quantities, which
are supposed to arise successively during the time of its gen-
eration. The differential calculus illustrates the genesis of
variable quantities by the aggregation of infinitely small ele-
ments, which we must conceive to be a process analogous
to motion, and by contemplating quantities having dimen-
sions beyond those of length, breadth, and thickness, the
theory becomes more extensive. For, instead of being con-
fined to the second and third powers, we may introduce the
general expression z”, extending to any higher power. Then
supposing z to represent the increment of x, the ratio of the

56 A Discourse on the Theory of Fluxions.

imcrement of 2” to the increment of x will be nz’-'z-b-n,
n—1 n—itn—2
dere fer ea : 2H
age eg +n. per @ PET ATER $ Dividing by z
n—-1 _ n—1n—2Q _
BY neg Trae 322@e.: 1.

it becomes nz” 3-En.

If z be diminished by an indefinite subdivision, the increment
will approach continually towards nz”? as its limit. Sup-
pose z to be less.than any assignable quantity, it will then
become equal to o, and all the terms, in which it is found,
will vanish. Hence the ultimate ratio of the increments is
2G; Aitel,JOVnz) 1 Git Maid 4, then, c'==74,. the nate
of the increments is 473+6272z+az2-+-z* 3 1, and the ulti-
mate ratio is 472 3 1, or 4v°z" $2. Fluxions illustrate the
theory by extension and motion, properties which are singu-
larly adapted to explain the nature of those quantities, to
which fluxions are applied, and which, when divested of the
consideration of matter, are with propriety introduced into_
pure mathematics. Thus the two illustrious inventors of
this science have each taken tenable ground in their mode
of explaining it, and have placed this branch of the mathe-
matics on a foundation which cannot be shaken, and which
time will never demolish. Each method has its peculiar ex-
cellencies; and if either were wanting, the theory would in
some respects, be deficient.

But an illustration of the manner in which fluents are gen-
erated, and an explanation of the nature of that relation,
which fluxions bear to their fluents, are two distinct things,
which ought not to be blended together. Whuilst the former
is accomplished in a satisfactory manner, the latter remains,
in my opinion, unexplained. But some mathematicians have
thought differently, and have supposed that the properties of
the ratio nz” 12°: 2° are sufficient to develop the nature
of this relation. That this is their view, is manifest from their
supposing, that the foundation of fluxions is laid in the tacit
acknowledgment, that a circle is a polygon of an infinite
number of sides, (Brewster’s Encyclopeedia, Art. Fluxions.)
It was upon this supposition, that Carnot admitted that an
error actually arises from the rejection of the quantity, which
is the difference between the increment and the fluxion; but
that this error in the course of the operation, is compensated
by an error of a contrary nature, (Tilloch’s Phil. Mag. Vol.
8 and 9.) By thus applying principles, which are insufficient

A Discourse on the Theory of Fluxions. 57

to explain this part of the theory, they have involved it in a
greater obscurity and mystery, than the nature of the sub-
ject renders necessary. That the principle of cause and ef-
fect in the fluxional calculus, which considers the fluxion as
the cause, and the fluent as the effect, does not explain the
relation, is manifest from the fact, that the fluxion is not the
precise cause. ‘To explain it in a satisfactory manner, it is
necessary that we assume neither more, nor less than the en-
ture cause for the reasoning proceeds upon the principle, that
every effect is proportional to its cause. But the fluxion,
which operates at the moment the fluent is completed, is in
a great measure different from that, which operated, when
the fluent began to be produced. In the constantly varying
motion by which the fluent is generated, either some part of
the generating cause has gone out of existence, or a conge-
ries of new causes has arisen, which did not operate at the
commencement. From this consideration it is manifest, that
the theory requires some additional principle to be mtrodu-
ced. That it is not embraced in the supposition, that a flux-
ion is an elementary part of its fluent, is evident, first, from
the consideration that the derivation of the fluent from the
fluxion does not depend upon any rules for the summation of
a series of elements, as the proposition implies ; secondly,
the very supposition of the relation of a part to the whole,
makes it necessary that the element should be assigned, and
if assigned, a small part, being the difference between the
increment and the corresponding fluxion, is lost. If any
dissatisfaction should arise on this account, a new assign-
ment may be made still nearer to the truth: but yet this is
found to make no difference in the final result. This con-
sideration is a sufficient evidence, that no use is made of
this elementary part, but the relation of fluxion and fluent
depends upon other principles.

In a paper communicated to the Connecticut Academy of
Arts and Sciences, and published in Vol. XIV. of the Jour-
nal of Science, [ attempted to supply a few links in the chain
of illustration which I judged to be wanting. It may, per-
haps, be thought a fruitless undertaking, to presume to add
any thing to the elaborate researches of Newton, Leibnitz,
Euler, La Grange, La Place, &c. but when it is considered,
that they were urged on by the attractions of a most sublime
and beautiful discovery, to make still new advances in the
practical part, it need not be thought strange, if they have

Vor. XVI.—No. 1, g

58 A Discourse on the Theory of Fluxions.

left the theory in some parts incomplete. The humbler at«
tempt is all that I aspire at, of clearing away the rubbish,
and rendering easy and pleasant to the learner, the entrance
to this science, by exhibiting a view of its first principles.
That this may be fully accomplished, I shall repeat a part of
what was laid down in the before mentioned communication,
but somewhat varied in the mode of illustration, and con-
taining a more full statement of this part of the theory.
By a series of fluxions, or fluents, is to be understood that in
which each term is a multiple, composed of an invariable
factor, and one that is variable consisting of one or more
terms, with, or without invariable coefficients. Here the in-
variable factors may be of any assignable magnitudes, pro-
vided they differ from each other; but the variable factors
must be the same, or of equal value. When the invariable
factor is not expressed, it is considered as being unity. It
will be found on examination, that a fluxion is equal to a mul-
tiple, composed of its corresponding fluent, and the quantity

nx pe ; :
pT From the use which is made of the factor x: in this

quantity, it is obvious, that it may be of any finite magni-
tude, great or small, that can be assigned. To make use of
this equation in explaining the relation under consideration,
let Bx” and ax” be two functions of the variable quantity x.
Their corresponding fluxions nBx”” 1x: and nax"” 12° may
be considered as two terms, selected from a series of fluxions,
constructed in conformity with the foregoing definition ;
which selection may always be so made, that one of the
terms shall be the fluxional expression, that occurs in the
process. The factors B, and a represent the invariable part.
The magnitude of the variable part is determined by the
limits assigned to the fluents at the time of their production.

Theorem. I. Any two terms, in a series of fluxions, will
have their corresponding fluents in the same ratio with them-
selves.

Theorem. II. Any two terms, in a series of fluents, will
have their corresponding fluxions in the same ratio with
those fluents.

Hence, nBz™ 12° 3 Ba"! inax” 2° 3 ax”.

Let the antecedent be represented by A, the consequent

by C, and the ratio by r. Then by the definition of a ratio

Gar. Any two of these being given the other may be ob-

A Discourse on the Theory of Fluzions. 59

tained, for A=Cr, and c=4 These equations being ap-

nx
> and

J

' ‘ A
plied to the foregoing proportion, we have a=
nx" el
A=Cr=as" X——=nax" 1, from whence are derived the
rules contained in the direct method of fluxions. Again by

nx"
multiplying the fluxion by the reciprocal of — we have

—A_nge'¢ x © .=ax". From this equation the rules

r nx

belonging to the inverse method are derived. According to
the present view of the theory, a fluxion is an artificial pro-
portional quantity of a finite magnitude, and may therefore
be subjected to examination ; and is so constituted, that, in
all its various combinations, it invariably maintains the same
relation to its corresponding fluent. Although the fluxional
expression, that occurs in a mathematical: process, like the
straggling boulder in mineralogy, stands alone, and the pro-
portion lies concealed ; yet this circumstance does not make
it the less real. For the remaining terms, to which the flux-
ion stands related, can at any time be brought forth, and their
places assigned. But, in practice, this is not necessary.
The ratio is contained in the fluxional expression, which is
supposed to constitute the third term, and can be detached
from it; which is done by the rules in the inverse method of
fluxions. For they are, in reality, nothing more than dividing
the third term of four proportionals, or the fluxion, by the

general formula of the ratio; by which the fourth term,

or the fluent, is obtained. A theory of fluxions is here pre-
sented to the public, in which the fundamental principles de-
pend on finite elements. The relation of quantities, resul-
ting from the principal of proportion, is already known to
be of very extensive application. If the reasoning, on which
the present theory rests, shall be judged to be valid, it will
bring into view a chain, by which unknown quantities are
connected with those which are known to an almost unlim-
ited extent. I have endeavored to give it all the variety of
illustration, of which I was capable. A desire of contribu-
ting something towards the entertainment of those, who take
a deep interest in mathematical researches, has been my mo-
tive in entering upon these investigations. And especially, I

60 Variation of the Magnetic Needle.

have had in view the benefit of those, who have but just en-
tered the threshold of this important and extensive science,
Whether I have succeeded in the attempt, is submitted to
the decision of those, who are skilled in mathematical pursuits.

Art. X.—Variation of the Magnetic Needle.

We are happy to be able to Jay before our readers the
following important papers, relating to the variation of the
needle. The first is from the “ Transactions of the Albany
Institute,” published in June, 1828, It contains a very in-
teresting document, exhibiting a series of observations on
the variation of the needle, made simultaneously at Boston,
Falmouth, and Penobscot, during a period of one hundred
and twenty eight years, namely, from 1672 to 1800. It is
also accompanied by some important remarks, by the Hon,
Simeon De Witt; from which it appears that at Albany, and
at several other places in the state of New York, the needle.
has, within a few years, ceased its declination towards the
north pole, and has begun to retrograde.

The second paper, by Dr. Bowditch, we borrow from the
“ Memoirs of the American Academy,” for the year 1815.
It exhibits a series of observations made at Salem, Mass.
during the years 1805, 1808, 1810, and 1811, and contains,
interspersed, many valuable remarks, some of which relate
to the supposed change of declination in the needle from
east to west, as observed in the state of New York.

In the third paper, we insert a few results obtained by our
lamented friend, Professor Fisher, from a series of observa-
tions instituted during the years 1819 and 1820. These, ta-
ken in connexion with those of Dr. Bowditch, indicate that
the retrograde movement of the needle, is not general, but
that, in this part. of the country at least, the needle is still
approaching the pole of the earth..

I. Table of Variations of the Magnetic Needle, copied from
one furnished by the late Gen. Scnuyier to S. De Wirt,
Surveyor General.—Presented 27th April, 1825.

I now present to the Institute, for the purpose of having
it preserved, what I consider an interesting document. It is

Variation of the Magnetic Needle. 61

a Table shewing the changes in the variation, of the magnet-
ic needle at Boston, Falmouth and Penobscot, from 1672 to
1800, embracing a period of one hundred and twenty eight
years, copied from a paper furnished me by the late General
Schuyler. The difference of variation between the. two
epochs appear to be 5° 53’, giving a little more than two and
three quarters of a mimute for the mean annual variation,
or the rate at which the north point of the needle approach-
ed the pole from the west, during that period.

As long as I can remember, the surveyors in our country,
in retracing old lines, have allowed at the rate of three min-
utes per year, and acquiesced in the correctness of that rule
till the year 1805.

Some time after I settled in Albany, which was in 1785, I
established a true meridian, on which I occasionally set a
compass for the purpose of observing the variation of the
needle ; and from these observations [ found no reason for
departing from the old rule until-1807 ; when to my surprise
I found that a sudden change had taken place in the direc-
tion of the needle. And, in order to ascertain its extent, I
examined a number of lines, which had been run before.
Among others, the courses of the Great Western and Sche-
nectady Turnpike Roads, which in 1805 had been surveyed
by Mr. John Randel, junr. then attached to my office. The
result was as follows :—

1805, July 30. Great Western Turnpike road, N. 61° 45’ W.

1807, Sept 4. do. N. 61° — W.
1805, July 30. Schenectady Turnpike Road. N. 35° 20’ W.
1807, Sept. 4. do. N. 34° 35’ W.
Making a difference on each of 00° 45!

Shewing that in about two years and a month, the needle
had changed, contrary to its former direction of annual va-
riation, about forty-five minutes of a degree. An examina-
tion of several other lines confirmed this result.

A view along the meridian, which I had formerly establish-
ed, having for seveal years been obstructed by buildings, I
made observations, assisted by Mr. Randel, on the Ist, 2d,
3d, and 4th October, 1817, with a good transit instrument,
for the purpose of drawing a meridian line across the pub-
lic square in this city ; the particulars of which are contain-
ed in the 2d part of the 4th volume of the Transactions of
the Society for the Promotion of useful Arts—The needle
was then found to point 5° 44’ to the west of north. An ob-

62 Variation of the Magnetic Needle.

servation made .on the Ist August, 1818, shewed it to be 5°
45’, and on the 24th of the present month of April, (1825) be-
tween 9 and 10, A. M. it was exactly 6° 00’; all which shews
that there has been since 1817 a retrograde motion of the nee-
dle of about two minutes per year—whether this is general
or local, I have not had the means of ascertaining. Mr.
Joseph Henry, a member of the Institute, surveyed a farm
in the town of Coeymans, not many days ago, which had
been run by the late John E. Van Alen, one of the best sur-
veyors of our country, in 1798, and the variation was found
to be one degree, as nearly as could be ascertained, in the
same way; that is, from the north to the west.

It will be recollected that in 1806, a total eclipse of the
sun of uncommon duration, took its range over our country.
May I be- permitted to escape the charge of advancing in
absurdity, in suggesting the possibility that the lunar effluvia
conveyed to the earth by the rays of the sun, on that occa-
sion, might have had an agency in producing the phenom-
enon I have described.* Be that as it may, there appears
to be something remarkable in the coincidence of these oc-
currences.

* In a Memoir which I had the honor of reading before the Institute some
time since, on “the Functions of the Moon,” which will probably appear in
some future publication of our Transactions, I have extended my remarks in
relation to the probability, that the eclipse of 1806, had an effect on the polar-
ity of the magnetic needle.

63

Table of Variations of the Magnetic Needle.

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64 Variation of the Magnetic Needle.

Il. On the Variation of the Magnetical Needle; by Na-
thaniel Bowditch, L.L. D.

The variation or declination of the magnetical needle, in
the vicinity of Boston, has decreased since the first observa-
tions made in this country, at the rate of a degree in thirty
or forty years. For, by the papers published in the first vol-
ume of the Memoirs of the American Academy, it was 9° 00’
W inthe year 1708; 8° 00’ W in the year 1742; and about
7° W in the year 1782. Within three or four years, it has
been mentioned in several periodical publications that the
variation had ceased to decrease, and was then rapidly in-
creasing. This was stated to be the case, particularly in
New York, by persons, who, from their official situations as
public surveyors, were supposed to be most competent to
judge of the subject; and observations were adduced to
prove that this change had taken place between the years
1804 and 1807. Thus one of the boundary lines of Rens-
selaer parish in Albany, was found in the year 1800 to bear
N. 46° 48’ W by compass; and in the year 1806, N 46° 12’
W ; the true bearing being N 51° 46’ W. Whence it was
inferred that the variation had increased 36’ during that pe-
riod. In Herkimer in New York the variation was observ-
ed in the years 1800, 1804, and 1807: in the first interval
of four years it had decreased 4’, and in the last interval of
three years had increased 15’. A turnpike road, which was
laid out by compass in 1805, had varied in its bearing in
1807, 45’, indicating that the variation had increased by
that quantity. These are the chief observations, that I have
known to be produced, to prove that a change had taken
placein New York; but they by no means warrant the con-
clusion that has been drawn from them, since no notice what-
ever is taken of the diurnal variation of the needle, which
sometimes exceeds any of the changes that have been ob-
served. For if we examine Professor Sewall’s observations
in the first volume of the Memoirs of the American Acad-
emy, we shall find that in an interval of two or three months,
in the year 1782, the declination changed at Cambridge
from 6° 21’ W, to 7° 0@’W. varying 47’; and I have obser-
ved at Salem, in the year 1810, that the declination varied
48’ ina short period of time. Either of these diurnal chang-
es exceeds the alteration observed at New York; and as
there can be no doubt that the diurnal variation is nearly as

Variation of the Magnetic Needle. 65

great there as at Cambridge or Salem, it follows that the dif-
ferences observed in New York are not too great to be ac-
counted for by the diurnal motion alone, without resorting
to the hypothesis of an irregular increase in the mean quan-
lity of the variation. It may also be observed that the
variation found at the same time and place with different in-
struments will frequently vary half a degree or a degree;
and, by changing the place of the instrument a few feet,
the same effect will sometimes be produced. This is more
particularly the case in compact places, when the observa-
tions are made from the windows or on the top of a building;
the nails and other iron used in constructing it, having fre-
quently a great effect on the position of the needle. Not-
withstanding the difficulty of obtaining the correct values of
the variation, itis of importance to ascertain at regular inter-
vals, as correctly as possible, particularly in this country,
where most of the boundary lines of lands are determined
by the compass. To assist in this object, I shall here give
an abstract of my observations made at Salem in the years
1805, 1808, and 1811.

The observations in the year 1805 were made at a house
in Summer Street, Salem, with a theodolite, furnished with
a quadrant of altitude, telescope, &c. graduated to minutes.
After making the usual adjustments, and fixing as nearly as
possible the quadrant of altitude, and the north point of the
needle at the commencement of the graduation of their re-
spective circles, | estimated the errors of these last adjust-
ments, and applied them respectively to the observed alti-
tudes and azimuths of the sun, ina similar way to the meth-
od of correcting for the index error of an observation made
with a quadrant of reflection. ‘To ascertain these index er-
rors to a greater degree of accuracy, I generally took the
mean of ten observations of the needle, and three observa-
tions of the quadrant, before and after each set of observa-
tions. The instrument was placed within the house, at an
eastern window in the morning, and at a western in the
evening, at the distance of two or three feet from the wall,
(or farther when it could be done) in order to avoid as much
as possible the effect of the iron in the walls of the building.
Having obtained in this way the sun’s true altitude and mag-
netic azimuth, the true azimuth was calculated and the va-

Vou. XVI.—WNo. 1. 9

66 Variation of the Magnetic Needle.

riation deduced by the usual rules of spherical trigonometry,
The observations were as follows.

1805, Nov. 18d. 9A. 15' A. M. 4 obs.
4 P. M. 5
19°.9 A. M. 6
) P. M. 6
ped ic bees P. M. 10
23-9 A. M. 9
2: 30 Pe M: 6
26 te? P. M. 10
Be A. M. 12
2 P. M. 10
28 9 A. M. 10
3 P. M. 12
295" 9 A. M. 3
30 9 A. M. 12

ed

Mean of 115 obs.

5°. 560 is

6

Denar aaraa»ndan

5

17
02
56
15
56
45
51
42
Ol
43
06
50
01°

57 W.

_ Inthe year 1808 at a house in Summer Street about an
eighth of a mile south of the place where the above obser-
vations were made, I observed the variation with another,
more highly finished theodolite furnished with a needle of
four inches in length, suspended on an agate.
where the instrument was fixed, and method of observing,
were exactly similar to those before mentioned.

1808, June 27d. 7h.

28
29

July 1

ADDAN

1’ A. M. 12 obs.

45 P.M. 20
26 A. M. 20
44 A.M. 20
O25 PN. 20
34 A.M. 20

ee

Mean of 112 obs.

5°

Gx Gr Ot Ot &

5

The places

20 W.

In the year 1810, at a house in the northern part of Mar-
ket Street, Salem, about a quarter of a mile east of the
place of observation in 1805, the variation was observed as
above by both theodolites, the results are—

Variation of the Magnetic Needle. 67

Thedolite used in 1808.

1810,h.d.! or
April 1 452 p.m. 20o0bs. 5 43 32w. Theodolite
2439 p.m. 20 5 45 29 used in
3.7 a4AvaAcow. 20 Soli 2 1805.
432 p.m. 20 5 40 31 BST ALG
A757 a.m. 20 5 48 03 /20 obs 5 2413w
419 p.m. 20 5 36 34 20 4 57 56
8815 p.m. 20 6 08 50 20 5 18 06

ee

Mean of 140 obs. 5 47 44 |60 obs. mean5 13 25w

The difficulty of ascertaining the precise value of the va-
riation appears evidently from these observations. For at
the same moment on the eight of April 1810, with two ex-
cellent theodolites in the same place, the variation differed
about 50 minutes, which is greater than any of the chang-
es observed in New York. I am induced to believe that
these differences arose in a great degree from the shortness of
the needles; and, perhaps in part from the imperfection of the
brass of which the instruments were made. To obviate
these difficulties I procured a needle twenty four inches in
length, suspended on an agate, and had it neatly fixed ina
mahogany box, moveable at one end on a pivot by which
_ the box was attached to a board, marked with a graduated
arch of a circle, subdivided in such manner that minutes of
a degree could easily be read by means of a nonius. The
box was made wholly of wood and ivory, and when fixed in
its place there was no iron near it. A table about three feet
in height was fixed in the middle of a room of the building
in the north part of Market-Street, and by means of the the-
odolite and the sun’s azimuth, I marked on the table, with
great care, a true meridian line and then placed the box on
it, and observed the differences between the true and mag-
netic meridian for every hour, when convenient, from 6 A.M.
to 10 P. M. from April 1810, to May 1811. The greatest
variation observed during this time was 6° 44’ W. The least
5° 56’ W. ‘To ascertain whether the building affected the
needle, I fixed a true meridian line on a table in the garden
adjoining the house, at thirty feet distance from any building,
and nearly five feet from the ground, and by the mean of .
forty eight observations, I found that the variation in the
garden by this instrument was less by 3’ 25” than in the house

68 Variation of the Magnetic Needle.

so that it was necessary to subtract this quantity from all the
observations to obtain the true variation. 'The mean varia-
tion for each hour of the day, and for each month of the
year, as deduced from these observations, and corrected for
the error 3’ 25”, are given in the following tables.

Mean Varia- Mean Variation

Time. tion for the Hour. from April, 1810,

month. _ __ | to May, 1811.

: 6h.A.M.| 6° 19’ O1'
1810, April, 6°. 2a 7 6219 H
May, 6! 26736 8 619 08
June, Gi Bora 2 9 6. 20.028
July, G25 85ST 10 622s
August, 6 29° 44 11 6 22 46
September, (6 25 21 12 6 24 “07
October, Of Qin Ag LPs we on ean
November, (6 19 11 2 Coa ay dnt y Oe
December, [6 12 35 a 6 27 00
1811, January, 6 Q0T 5a 4 6 25" rom
February, Sits OA bl 5 Gi Ao
March, p20 29 6 64,23 (no
April, 6 93739 i 6 21 55
May, 6 21 38 8 6 21 11
9 6) =20)" 54
10 6. 20_ ou

The whole number of observations was 5125, and the
mean of all made the variation 6° 22’ 35” W, which may be
assumed as the mean variation atSalem inthe year 1810.

These observations. were made about two miles south of
the place where the late President Willard observed the va-
riation in August 1781 to be 7° 2’ W, as may be seen by ex-
amining his paper on the subject, in the first volume of the
Memoirs of the Academy. ‘The difference of the variation at
the two places, at the same time, was probably not more than
2’; so that from 1781 to 1810, a- period of twenty nine
years, it had decreased about 38 minutes, or 1’ 19” in a
year, which is at nearly the usual rate. From which I am in-
clined to believe, that the variation has not experienced any
change in its direction, in this part of the country, and that
_ the needle continues to approach the true meridian with
nearly the same velocity as atthe time of the earliest obser-
vations on record,

Variation of the Magneirc Needle. 68

~The variation observed by Doctor Williams at Rutland,
in Vermont, leads to the same result. His observations at
that place were —

1789 April 17 7°. 3 W
1810 May 19 6 4
1811 Sept. 9 6 1

Whence he concludes, that the magnetic variation at Rut-
land, for twenty two years past, has been decreasing at the
annual rate of 2’ 49/*5.

III. In May, 1819, the late Professor Fisher of Yale Col-
lege, commenced a series of observations on the declination
of the needle, which were continued, from time to time, un-
til April, 1820. The instrument employed was a variation
compass, which had been recently constructed by a skillful
artist, and had all the appendages necessary for the nicest az-
imuth and altitude observations. From Mr. Fisher’s notes,
we collect the following results, being the means of a great
number of trials at different hours of the day.

Declination of the needle West.

1819, May, - - - 4.° 26!
June, - - - - ete)
July, - - - 4, 25
August, - - - - AI
September, - - - 4, 30
December, - - =) RUA QG6R 5
1820, January, - - - 4.2555
February, - - - 4, 25.4
March, - - . AS 2158
April, - - - : Anaad
Mean, - - - - 4.° 25.' 42

_Remark.—It appears from the foregoing observations, that
the declination of the needle at New Haven, in the years
1819 and 1820, was less than had been observed at either
of the places mentioned in the first of the above articles.
The least declination given by the Hon. Mr. De Witt, was
in August 1818, and amounted to 5°. 45’, which is about
1°. 20’ greater than the mean of the observations of Profes-
sor Fisher.

70 Meteorological Report for the year 1828.

Arr. XI.—Meteorological Report for the year 1828; by
Denison OumsTED, Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Philosophy in Yale College.

From the papers of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.

At the close of the year 1827, I laid before the Academy
an abstract of our Meteorological Register, for that year,* in-
timating at the same time a hope and expectation that similar
reports would be made from year to year, until we should
obtain a series of observations sufficiently extensive, to ena-
ble us to ascertain the true character of our climate. In
accordance with such a plan, I beg leave now to present to
the Academy, the meteorological results obtained during
the year 1828, comparing them occasionally with the cor-
responding observations of the preceding year.

Tasxe I.—Shewing the mean Maximum and Minimum of the Thermome-
ter for every month in the year, with the corresponding states of the Ba-
rometer.

THERMOMETER. BAROMETER.

MONTHs. 1827. 1828. UTR RT TE Taser
Min. | Max. Min. Max. | Morn.| Eve. | Morn.| Eve.

January, 17.00 | 28.93 | 28.88 | 38.31 | 30.04 | 29.98 | 30.14 | 30.12
February, 25.90 | 35.30 } 33.36 | 46.50 | 30.03 | 29.98 | 29.84 | 29.81
March, 32.00 | 43.30 | 32.64 | 47.00 | 30 07 | 30.00 | 29.94 | 29.93
April, 42.50 | 57.00 | 36.37 | 53.70 | 29.96 | 29.93 | 29.81 | 29.80
May, 46.40 | 64.45 | 50.37 | 67.46 | 29.82 | 29.83 } 29.80 | 29.80
June, 56.23 | 73.80 | 62.20 | 80.07 | 30.09 | 30.08 } 29.80 | 29.76
July, 62.84 | 77.06 } 64.51 | '79.90 | 30.10 | 30.11 | 29.63 | 29.62
August, 61.10 | '75.72 } 63.11 | 82.42 | 30.11 | 30.11 | 29.80 | 29.79
September, 57.23 | 70.46 | 56.00 | '72.00 | 30.11 | 30.11 } 29.80 | 29.79
October, 51.64 | 60.93 | 42.50 | 57.60 | 30.03 | 30.00 | 29.81 |} 29.79

November, | 32.25 | 40.66 } 39.31 | 49.26 | 29.95 | 29.92 | 29.68 | 29.68
December, | 31.30 | 39.00 | 31.66 | 45.20 | 30.18 | 30.16 | 29.81 | 29.74

Mean, 48.03 | 55.55 | 45.06 | 59.95 |! 30.04 | 30.01 | 29.82 | 29.80

Norr.—For the year 1827, the observations taken at sun rise and at 2 P. M.
are assumed as the minima and maxima; for 1828, a more correct maximum
has been obtained by varying the hour of observation in the afternoon from 2
to 3 o’clock, at different seasons of the year.

Remarks.—l. Tue THerMomMeTeER.

1. Mean temperature of the year, as dedu- 1827. 1828.

ced from the foregoing table, - - 49.29 82.50
Mean minimum for the year, - - 43.03 45.06
Mean maximum, “ Chet genic eee - §5.55; 59.95

* See Vol. XIV, p. 176 of this Journal.

Meteorological Report for the year 1828. 71

2. For the several seasons.
Mean temperature of Dec. Jan.and Feb. 28.66 37.32

Ditto of March, April and May, 46.70 48.92
Ditto of June, July and Aug. 62.65 72.03
Ditto of Sept. Oct. and Nov. 51.53 52.78

It appears, therefore, that the year 1828 has been through-
out warmer than the year 1827, in the ratio of 52.50 to 49.29,
and that the winter months of 1828 give a mean about 9°
and the summer months about 10° higher than the correspond-
ing seasons of 1827, while the vernal and autumnal months
have been more nearly equal. Probably so high an annual
mean temperature as 521° has rarely occurred at this place.
_ The highest temperature of the year 1828 is 90°, which
degree has been marked at four different times, namely, once
in July, twice in August, and on the first day of September.

The lowest degree of cold observed this year, is 6 degrees
above zero; and this has occurred but twice, namely, on the
12th and the 24th of January; while the minimum for Feb-
ruary was 14°, for March 13°, and for December (the last day
of the year) 10°. Hence, the annual range has been only
84°, whereas in 1827 it was 100° extending from —7 to 93.

July and August were the hottest months, and were nearly
equal in temperature, each having a mean of about 72°.
The hottest month of 1827 was July, its mean being 69°.

The coldest month was, as usual, January, but its average
temperature was 331°, being 111° higher than January, 1827.

The greatest monthly range, occurred this year, as it did
last, in March, and amounted to 56°; the mercury having,
on the 28th of the month, reached the unusual height of 69°,
while on the 1st, the minimum was only 13°. In 1827, the
greatest monthly range was 49°.

I]. Tur Barometer.
1827. 1828.
Mean height for the year, : - 30.03 29.81
The observations of morning and evening afford, as they
did last year, almost the same result, that of the morning,

being, - - - - - - - - 29.82
and that ofthe evening, — - eo ee - . 29.80
For the winter months, - - - - - 29.91
For the spring do. - - - - - 29.85
For the summer do. - : - - - 2x is

For the autumnal do. ~ - = E - 29,75

72 Meteorological Report for the year 1828.

Several important inferences are to be drawn from the
foregoing facts. First, that the barometer has, during the
past year, been remarkably low, the annual mean being to
that of 1827, only as 29.81 to 30.03 ; secondly, that the differ-
ent seasons of the year have varied much from each other,
the difference between the winter and the summer months
being .18, while in 1827 it was only .03; and, thirdly, that.
the mean for the summer is the lowest, being only 29.73,
while in 1827, it was the highest, being 30.09, that is, higher
by .36 of an inch.

The greatest height of the barometer occurred in January,
and was 30.62. During the month of July, the maximum
was only 29.86, and the mean only 29.62; and during the
succeeding months, quite to the end of the year, the mercury
but a few times reached the height of 30 inches.

The minimum for the year, is 28.96. It occurred on the
night of the 22d of November, and was accompanied by
high wind and violent rain. In our climate, the barometer
seldom falls below 29 inches. The minimum of 1827 was
29.02. The range of the barometer for the two years is
nearly the same, and is in both very limited, being only a
little more than 13 inches.

Ii]. Wiwps.

Comprehending all the winds except those which blow ei-
ther directly from the east or the west under the heads of
northerly and southerly, we arrive at the following result.

Taste II.
Months. Northerly.) Southerly.
January, - - - OF, 12
_ February, - = - 17 16
March, - - - - 26 10
April, - = = > 24 10
May, + - - - > 15 16
June, - - blah Mog 10 19
Blyth oo. ME! Heber eae 14 14
August, - - - = = 14 18
September, - - c 24 14
October, - - = 25 9
November, - - 3 > 19 8
December, = > 7 20 16

Ratio, i Teh IOS 40.7

Meteorological Report for the year 1828. 73

REMARKS.

1. Northerly winds have been more prevalent than south-
erly, in the ratio of about 60 to 40. In 1827, the ratio was
nearly that of 70 to 30, shewing an increase of southerly
winds during the past year of 10 per cent. From May to
August, inclusive, southerly winds predominated.

2. In certain parts of the year, the winds have been unu-
sually variable. During the month of July, the wind re-
mained stationary scarcely half a day at a time.

~ 3. Whenever the wind has proceeded directly from the
east for a few hours together, it has been accompanied, or
immediately followed, by fogs, clouds and rain. Northwest
winds, have, as usual, generally brought us fair weather; and
when snow storms have occurred, as several have done, with
the wind at northwest, they have, invariably, been of short
continuance.

IV. Weatuer.

Taxexe III.—Shewing the ratios of the different kinds of weather, which pre-
vailed at the time of taking the daily observations.

Pane. | MONTHS.’ . , Clear. | Broken. | Cloudy. | Stormy.
January; |) - - - 3 13 9 12
February, = . 12 10 7 9
March, - - - - 13 10 10 5
April, - - - - 16 6 7 5
May, - - - 15 5 10 9
June, - - - - 13 i 4 8
July, - - - 16 6 5 11
August, - - - 23 4 1 1
September, - - 16 2 7 10
October, - = on 3 4 5
November, - - - 8 6 11 12
December, - - 24 4 2 3

IS7ui Wok. Lie i SO.
Norr.—By broken, is to be understood partly clear and partly cloudy ; and

under the head of stormy, are included all those days on which there fell rain,
hail, or snow.

REMARKS.
Clear days in 1828, 55 per cent. In 1827, 48 per cent,
Cloudy in part, 22 30
Cloudy entire, 23 22
Falling weather, 27 28

Vor. XVI.—No. 1. 10

14 Meteorological Report for the year 1828.

Hence it appears, that the year 1828 has been distinguish-
ed for a large proportion of serene weather, the fair days, in-
cluding all in which the clear sky was seen, having amount-
ed to about three fourths of the whole.

V. Rainy, &c.

January and February,2.74 inches. Winter months, 3.94
March, 3.10

April, 2.30¢> do. Spring do. 11.41
May, 6.01

June, 3.70 ;

July, usiok do. Summerdo. 15.30
August, 0.50

September, 8.90

October, 1.40> do. — Fall do. 17.20
November, 6.90 ,
December, 1.20

Amount, 47.85

The average fall of rain at this place for a great number of
years, has been 44 inches. During the year 1827 the a-
mount was, however, 51.38 inches, and for the present year
it appears that the amount is greater than the mean by
nearly 4inches. By inspecting the foregoing table, it also
appears that the greater part of this, namely 323 inches
fell during the summer and fall months, while the winter
months were comparatively dry.

VI. REvIEW OF THE INDIVIDUAL MONTHS.

The first part of the year 1828 was distinguished through-
out most parts of our country, for uncommon mildness. Ac-
cording to the Philadelphia National Gazette, the first week
in January, passed in that city without frost ; and accounts
from the States farther south represented the months of
December, and January, as having been very remarkable
for warm weather. Green peas were gathered in January,
as far north as Newburn in North-Carolina; and at Charles-
ton, in South-Carolina, watermelons and strawberries ri-
pened in January, and the fruit trees were in full bloom.
A writer from St. Francisville Lou. on the 8th of Janua-
ry represented himself as suffering much inconvenience from

Meteorological Report for the year 1828. 75

the heat,—that the perspiration was starting from every

ore, and that a pestilential disease was beginning to spread
its ravages through the country. Great apprehensions were
entertained throughout the southern country, that so warm
a winter, would be followed by a sickly summer, and au-
tumn. Such, however, as far as we have learned, was not
the fact.

At this place, small quantities of snow fell at several times
during the month of January, but not enough for sleighing
—indeed sleighs were hardly seen abroad during the winter.

The average minimum temperature of this month was

no lower than about 29 degrees, or 3 degrees below the
the freezing point; and its average maximum was as high as
nearly 381 degrees, the mean being 331 degrees, that is, [2
degrees above the freezing point of water. So high a mean
for January has rarely if ever occurred here. ‘The mean
for January 1827, was only 22 degrees. The highest tem-
perature recorded during the month was 53 degrees, ap-
proaching a summer heat.
_ February also enjoyed the mild temperature of May, re-
sembling the pleasantest winter months of the Carolinas.
Its average temperature was about 40, which was 10 degrees
above that of February 1827. In one instance, on the 10th,
the thermometer rose to 60; and owing to the influence of
southerly winds, rendering the atmosphere humid, the sea-
son appeared even warmer to the senses than was indicated
by the state of the mercury. The vegetable kingdom began
to give tokens of anticipating its vernal functions. On the
first of the month, the lilacs were budding out; on the twen-
tieth, the gooseberry was putting forth leaves; and at the
same time, the operations of gardening were commenced.
Among the anomalies of the season may be mentioned the
fact, that violent thunder storms occurred in various places.
On the 2nd. of February, a louse was struck with lightning
in Ontario County, in the State of New York, and much
damaged. The blue bird, one of our early harbingers of
spring, was first observed on the 17th.

March had nearly the same average temperature as Feb-
ruary, although in one instance, (the 28th) the thermometer
rose to 69 degrees. Snow occurred in two or three instan-
ces, but it remained only a short time; and although the
ground had remained during the greater part of winter, des-
titute of this warm covering, yet on account of the extra-—

76 Meteorological Report for the year 1828.

ordinary mildness of the air, it had been generally free fron:
frost, the grass had remained almost uniformly green, nor
had grain and other green vegetables sustained the injuries
which usually result from open winters. The 28th of March
(the time already mentioned when the thermometer was at
69) was welcomed by the frogs, by a concert unusually merry
for the season.

Notwithstanding the uncommon warmth of the winter in
this state, and in the states south of us, yet according to
the public papers, the same period was distinguished at cer-
tain places north of us, for unusually cold weather. The >
winter was reported to have been very severe in Nova Sco-
tia and at Detroit; and, at Green Bay on the 4th of March,
the mercury was 10*degrees below zero. In April, though
the weather was mild, yet the progress of vegetation was re-
tarded by cool nights. Peach trees began to blossom on
the 20th, which was no earlier than the same fact was ob-
served in 1827. On the 7th and 8th of this month, the frost
returned with some severity throughout the southern states.
At Georgetown in South Carolina, the ice was an inch thick
although on account of the unusual mildness of the prece-
_ding months, summer fruits were in great forwardness, and
blackberries were fully ripe.

Early in May our fruit trees were in blossom and gave in-
dications of unusual abundance,—a promise which was not
very well fulfilled. ‘The spots on the sun, which have ap-
peared in extraordinary numbers, the greater part of the year,
were particularly remarkable during this month. On the
22nd, the telescope with a power of 40, revealed eleven spots
on the solar disk, consisting chiefly of clusters. One of the
spots was very large and was surrounded by an extensive
penumbra. About six inches of rain fell this month; and
descending chiefly in showers, it contributed to bring vege-
tation to a state of great perfection, and our city* was per-
haps never more verdant than in this and the following
month. About the 20th of June; commenced a period of
uncommonly wet and sultry weather, which lasted until Au-
gust. A little previous to this time, the hopes of the hus-
bandman were highly elated by the prospect of most abun-
dant crops of grass and grain; but the continual rains which
succeeded, prevented his securing either, without great dam-

* Having large public squares, and numerous forest and fruit trees and
gardens.— Ed.

Meteorological Report for the year 1828. 7%

age. ‘The amount of rain that fell in July was the unex-
ampled quantity of 11,!; inches. This was accompanied
by many violent thunder-storms; and the injury done by
lightning in different parts of United States, was much
greater than ordinary. In the course of this month, two
dwelling houses were struck by lightning, in the city, both
of which were furnished with lightning rods. Indeed,
one of them, (the Tontine Coffee house,) was supplied with
no less than four conductors. Still there was nothing in
either of these cases, to shake our confidence in the effica-
cy of lightning rods, when constructed and attached to
buildings, according to established rules.. The case of the
Tontine, demonstrated the necessity of affording special pro-
tection to the kitchen chimney, since this is the only chim-
ney in which a fire is usually kept during summer ; and it is
well known that watery vapour, soot, and the various mixed
products of combustion are, to a certain extent, conduc-
tors of electricity, and expose the chimney from which they
are ascending to peculiar danger. In the present case, the
chimney to which the nearest conductor was attached, was
distant 34 feet, and therefore too remote to enable the rod
to protect the chimney at which the lightning descended, at-
tracted as it was by the cloud of smoke that was rising from
a large fire in the kitchen. With regard also to the other
house that was struck by lightning, although the electricity
first lighted upon the conductor, which seemed therefore
rather to have invited the destructive element to enter the
building, than to have acted the guardian, yet on examining
the rod, it was found to have been very badly constructed—
its different parts were loosely linked together, the whole.
surface was much corroded, it was so nearly broken in one
place, as merely to hang by a thread, and it descended into
the ground, only about 18 inches. Accordingly, as soon
- as the conductor had received the feeble charge of which
it was susceptible, the residue of the fluid ran off by way of
the large timbers, and through the cellar wall of the house,
and left traces of its violence, in the different apartments.
One of the most singular occurrences was, that a lady sit-
ting in a chamber, on the side of the house, opposite to
that where the lightning entered, had her shoe rent on her
foot, without sustaining the least injury to her person. The
month of August, was very hot, the thermometer having
twice reached 90 degrees, and the average maximum, be-
ing about 82 degrees.

78 On the supposed Tides in the

September was ushered in by a most violent storm of
rain. The rapid descent of the barometer, on the first day
of the month, indicated an approaching storm, and during
the following night it began to rain, and by the morning
of the 5th when it ceased, nearly eight inches had fallen, the
greater part of which fell during the preceding night, and
produced a sudden and destructive inundation.

October was’ distinguished for fine weather, and the at-
mosphere being washed by copious showers, exhibited at
times, something of the transparency, and deep azure hue,
that are so celebrated in the climate of Italy. For several
days in the earlier parts of the month, the planet Venus
was visible at mid-day. On one occasion being nearly in
conjunction with the new moon, the appearance which these
planets exhibited through the day, was particularly striking.

The months of November and December, have been also,
for the most part, uncommonly warm and pleasant. The
barometer has been unusually low, the mean for November,
being only 29.68 inches, and for December, only 29.77 inch-
es. In one instance namely, on the night of the 23d of
November, it reached the minimum for the year, as has
been already noticed.

Arr. XII.—On the variations of level in the great North
American Lakes, with documents ; communicated for this

Journal, by Gen. H. A. 8S. Dearsorn.
Brinley Place, Roxbury, Jan. 9, 1829.

TO THE EDITOR,

Dear Sir—At an interview with Maj. Samuel A. Storrow,
late a judge advocate in the army, in the year 1817, he in-
formed me, that he had observed fluctuations in the waters
of Lakes Ontario and Michigan, resembling tides ; and that
he had alluded to them, in the report of a tour which he had
performed, in the north western regions, under the direction
of Gen. Brown.

This phenomenon appears to have attracted the attention
of Fra. Marguette in 1673, of Baron Hontan in 1689, of
Charlevoix in 1721, of Capt. Whiting in 1819, and of Henry
R. Schoolcraft, Esq. who accompanied Gov. Cass, in his ex-
pedition through the lakes to the Mississippi, during the year

Great North American Lakes. 79

1820. But none of the last named travellers, appear to
have noticed a similar flux and reflux of the water, in any of
the lakes, except that of Michigan; and have generally ex-
pressed opinions, from the limited data which they had ob-
tained, that the effect was produced chiefly, if not entirely, by
the winds, rather than by the influences of the moon and sun.

In the autumn of 1826, Capt. Greenleaf Dearborn of the
army, informed me, that he had observed a like, but more
marked ebb and flow of the waters, in Lake Superior. He
had been stationed, for two years, at the Sault de St. Marie,
and gave such indisputable evidence, of the existence of a
great and regular tide in that immense lake, that I became
deeply interested in the subject, and determined to institute
an inquiry, which, I was in hopes, would have resulted in the
acquisition of more particular and extensive information;
and as [ had often heard it remarked, that there was a rise
and fall of the water, of two or three feet, in some of the
ereat lakes, during periods of from three to seven years, I en-
deavored, at the same time, to obtain positive data as to this
current report. At the close of the year 1826, and early in
1827, letters were written to several gentlemen, who I pre-
sumed might furnish the results of their own observations,
or of others who had resided on the borders of the lakes, and
with whom they had been in habits of intimacy. Very inter-
esting answers were kindly returned to the queries submitted,
by Maj. Storrow, Doct. Lovell, surgeon general of the army,
and Captains Whiting and Dearborn, but so few and limited
have been the attempts, to ascertain the character, extent
and periods of the fluctuations of the level of the water, in
any of the lakes, that theoretical speculations, as to the cause,
would be premature; and I have concluded, that I could not
better subserve the interests of science, than by transmitting
to you, for publication in the American Journal, such infor-
mation as I had procured, as it may tend to excite investiga-
tion, and superinduce more numerous, accurate and contin-
ued observations, than have hitherto been made, for the solu-
tion of this problem.

It is not sufficiently certain, that tides may not be produced
in the great chain of lakes, in the same manner they are in
the ocean. The following theory of the distinguished Doct.
Young, which has been sanctioned by the scientific, for more
than twenty years, not only presumes the possible existence
of such tides, but furnishes the means of demonstrating that
such is the fact, in deep and broad lakes.

30 On the supposed Tides in the

“If the earth were wholly fluid, and the same’ part of its :
surface were always turned towards the moon, the pole of
the spheroid being immediately under the moon, the lunar

‘tide would remain stationary, the greatest elevation being at
the points nearest to the moon and furthest from her, and
the greatest depression in the circle equally distant from
these points; the elevation being, however, on account of
the smaller surface to which it is confined, twice as great as
the depression. ‘The actual height of this elevation, would
probably be about forty inches, and the depression twenty,
making together a tide of five feet. If also the waters were
capable of assuming, instantly, such a form as the equilibri-
um would require, the summit of a spheroid equally elevated
would still be directed towards the moon, notwithstanding
the earth’s rotation. This may be called the primitive tide
of the ocean: but on account of the perpetual change of ©
place, which is required for the accommodation of the sur-
face, to a similar position. with respect to the moon, as the
earth revolves, the form must be materially different, from
that of such a spheroid of equilibrium. The force employed,
in producing this accommodation, may be estimated, by con-
sidermg the actual surface of the sea, as that of a wave,
moving on the spheroid of equilibrium, and producing in the
water, a sufficient velocity, to preserve the actual form. We
may deduce, from this mode of considering the subject, @
theory of the tides, which appears to be more simple and
satisfactory, than any which has yet been published: and by
comparing the tides of narrow seas and lakes, with the mo-
tions of pendulums, suspended on vibrating centres, we may
extend the. theory to all possible cases.”’

“Tf the centre of a pendulum be made to vibrate, the vi-
brations of the pendulum itself, when they have arrived at a
state of permanence, will be performed in the same time
with those of the centre; but the motion of the pendulum
will be either in the same direction with that of the centre,
or in acontrary direction, accordingly as the time of this for-
ced vibration is longer or shorter, than that of the natural
vibration of the pendulum ; and in the same manner it may
be shown that the tides either of an open ocean, or of a con-
fined lake, may be either direct or inverted, with respect to
the primitive tide, which would be produced, if the waters
always assumed the form of the spheroid of equilibrium, ac- *
cording to the depth of the ocean, and to the breadth as well

Great North American Lakes. - 81

as depth of the lake. In the case of a direct tide, the time
of the passage of the luminary over the meridian must coin-
cide with that of Aigh water, and in the case of an inverted
tide, with that of low water.

“Tn order that the height of the inverted or remote lunar
tides may be five feet, or equal to that of the primitive tides,
the depth of the open sea must be six and a half miles; and
and if the height is only two feet, which is perhaps not far
from the truth, the depth must be three and five-seventh
miles.

“The tides of a lake, or narrow sea, differ, materially,
from those of the open ocean, since the height of the water
scarcely undergoes any variation, in the middle of the lake ;
it must always be high water at the eastern extremity, when
it is low water at the western: and this must happen at the
time, when the places of high and low water, with respect
to the primitive tides, are equally distant from the middle of
the lake. [Figs. 1. 2. and 3. from Plate 38. ]

“ The tides may be direct, in a lake, one hundred fathoms
deep, and less than 8° wide ; but if it be much wider, they
must be inverted.

“Hitherto we have considered the motion of the water as_
free from all resistance ; but where the tides are direct, they
must be retarded by the effect of a resistance of any kind ;
and where they are inverted, they must be accelerated; a
small resistance producing, in both cases, a considerable dif-
ference in the time of high water.”— Young's Natural Phi-
losophy, Vol. I. p. 578.

Fig. 1. “The dotted ellip-
sis shows the section of a
spheroid, which would be
the form of the earth and
sea, if it were always ina
state of equilibrium, with the
attraction of a distant body ;
and the dark ellipsis, the ac-
tual form assumed, in conse-
quence of its rotation round
its centre, the depth of the
a sea being less than thirteen

my ce miles.”

‘
'
'
1
'
'
‘
‘
‘
‘

ee

Vou KVWINe ct 11

82 On the supposed Tides in the

Fig. 2. “The surface of the sphere being supposed to be
flattened, and the tides spread on it, they would assume the
form of the waves here shown. The dotted straight line
shows the mean height, which is a little above the surface in
the principal sections of the spheroid, although not uni-
versally.””

Fig. 3. “The nature of the tides of lakes, the surface be-
ing regulated by that of the dotted line in Fig. 2. nearly
agreeing with it in direction, as at D, when the lake is nar-
row and deep ; but differing from it, as at E, when shallow.”
—Young’s Natural Philosophy, Vol. I. p. 793.

The area and depth of a lake being known, Doct. Young
has given a theorem, in the second volume, of his Lectures,
page 343, by which the maximum rise and fall of the water,
and the time of each oscillation, or in which a tide-wave
might pass over it, can be ascertained...

The same causes may operate to élevate the tide in nar-
row parts of lakes, above the level of that, theoretically de-
duced for, or actually indicated in, their most expanded por-
tions, as in the gulfs, bays, straits and mouths of rivers con-
nected with the ocean; and it may also be increased, or di-
minished, by the effect of the winds. Thus a very small
tide, of only a few inches, on the margins of the lake, at the
points of its greatest breadth and profundity, may be swell-
ed into one of some feet, in the narrow channels of estuaries,
and the prolonged indentations of the coast; for although
“‘the primitive tide”’ is only five feet, and upon the shores of
the broad and deep ocean rarely exceeding, from extraneous
causes, ten; still, when it is impeded in its course, or enters
gulfs, which plunge far into the land, with diminishing ex-
tremities, it rises to the height of forty, fifty and even an hun-

Great North American Lakes. 83

dred feet—as at Chepstow on the Severn, at St. Malo on the
coast of France, and at Annapolis in the Bay of Fundy.

To obtain full and exact data as to the rise and fall of
the water in Lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, Michigan, and Su-
perior, it is requisite that nilometers should be placed at a
number of points, on the shores of each, both in their nar-
rowest and broadest dimensions, and the changes carefully
observed, during a whole year, or at least, for several months;
and accurate tables kept, of the times and extent of each
flux and reflux, in which, the position, as respects the merid-
ian, and the phases of the moon, and also the course of the
winds should be noted. This could be most conveniently
done by the gentlemen of the army, who are stationed at
the various military posts, situated on the lakes. To them
we are indebted for nearly all the information, we possess on
this interesting subject ; and it is desirable, that they should
merit, still higher distinction, and gratitude, by furnishing an
ample supply of facts, on all the objects connected with, and
calculated to illustrate a phenomenon, so little known, and
so imperfectly explained.

As to the periodical increase and diminution of the whole
volume of water in the lakes, I am not in possession of any
definite facts, save those contained in Capt. Dearborn’s let-
ter, and in the following extract from the New York Mer-
cantile Advertiser.

“A gentleman, just returned from a tour to the west, in-
formed the editor, that the waters of Lakes Ontario, and
Erie, are, at present, nearly two feet higher, whilst those of
Lake Superior, are considerably lower, than ever before
known.”

Extract from a printed report, made to Maj. Gen. Brown,
commander in chief of the army, of a tour, from Detroit,
through Lakes Huron and Michigan, a portion of the
North West and Michigan Territories, during the year
1817, by Maj. Samuel A. Storrow, late judge advocate.

‘While at Green Bay I made observations on the ebb
and flow of a lake tide. The existence of this phenomenon
has been known for nearly a century and a half,* and yet
has occasioned no thought nor investigation. Even Volney
has allowed it to pass without a theory! At eleven o’clock,

*Fra, Marguette mentions this tide in 1673.

84 On the supposed Tides in the

A.M. I placed a stick perpendicularly in the water; at half
past nine P. M. the water had risen five inches ; at eight the
next morning it had fallen seven inches; at eight of the
same evening it had risen eight inches. During this period
the wind was in the same direction, blowing gently against
the flow of the tide.”—page 18.

Extract from Schoolcraft’s narrative of the expedition un-
der Gov. Cass in 1820.

* The junction of this river [Fox,] with Green Bay, affords
one of the most favorable positions for witnessing a phenom-
enon, which has attracted the attention of travellers from
the earliest times, without, however, having, as yet, elicited
any very satisfactory explication of an apparently reversed
order of nature. I allude to the appearances of a regular
tide at this place, but in so doing it is more with the view
of presenting an outline of those facts, which have been
observed by others, than of entering into any disquisition on
the subject myself.

“In the year 1689, the Baron La Hontan, on reaching
Green Bay, remarks, that where the Fox river is discharged
into the Bay, he observed the water of the lake swell three
feet high, in the space of twenty-four hours, and decrease as
much in the same length of time. He also noticed a con-
trariety, and conflict of currents in the narrow strait which
connects Lakes Huron and Michigan which’’ he says, “ are
so strong, that they sometimes suck in the fishing nets, al-
though they are two or three leagues off. In some seasons,
it so falls out, that the currents run three days eastward—two
days to the. west—one to the south—and four to the noth-
ward ; sometimes more and sometimes less. The cause of
this diversity of currents could never be fathomed, for in a
calm, they will run in the space of one day, to all points of
the compass, without any limitation of time, so that the de-
cision of this matter must be left to the disciples of Coper-
nicus.””*

“In 1721, Charlevoix remarks similar appearances, but
treats the subject with unusual brevity, evidently, from the
difficulties which occurred to him, in giving any satisfactory
explanation. He supposes Lakes Huron and Michigan to
be alternately discharged into each other through the strait

* La Hontan’s voyages to Canada.

Great North American Lakes. 85

of Michilimackinac, and mentions the fact, that in passing
that strait, his canoe was carried with the current agaist a
head wind.” In another place, in speaking of an apparent
flux and reflux of the lakes, he supposes that it was “ owing
to the springs at the bottom of the lakes, and to the shock
of their currents, with those of the rivers, which fall into
them from all sides, and thus produce, those intermitting
motions.’’”*

“Tn 1819, Capt. Henry Whiting, of the United States army,
made a series of observation during seven or eight days,
upon these oceanic appearances, which serve to shew, that
the water at Green Bay, has a rise and fall daily, but that
it is irregular as to the precise period of flux and reflux, and
also as to the height it attains.

‘*On reaching Green Bay, during the present expedition,
Gov. Cass, directed one of the men, to drive a stake at the
waters edge, upon the bank of Fox river, at the spot of our
encampment, which was a mile above its discharge into the
bay, and to mark the height of the water. It appeared from
frequently inspecting this gauge, during the period of our
stay, which was, however, but two days, that there was a
considerable rise and fall of the water—that there was a
difference as to the time consumed in passing from its mini-
mum to its maximum height, and that although it arose
against a strong wind blowing out of the river, the rise, un-
der these circumstances was less, than in ordinary cases.

“From all these circumstances there is reason to conclude,
that a well conducted series of experiments, will prove, that
there are no regular tides in the lakes, at least, that they do
not ebb and flow twice in twenty-four hours, like those of
the ocean—the oscillating motion of the waters is not attrib-
utable to planetary attraction—that it is very variable as to
the periods of its flux and reflux, depending upon the levels
of the several lakes, their length, depth, direction, and con-
formation—upon the prevalent winds and temperatures, and
upon other extraneous causes, which are in some measure
variable in their nature, and unsteady in their operation.

_ “Lake Michigan, from its great depth of water—its bleak

and ungarded shores—and its singular length and direction,

which is about four hundred miles from north to south, ap-

pears, to be peculiarly exposed to the influence of the cur-

i. NN SIR RE PR NEARS SAARI STAIN VTA |
* Charlevoix’s Journal, Vol. I. p. 314.

86. On the supposed Tides in the

rents of the atmosphere, to whose agency we may attribute,
at least in part, the appearances of a tide, which are more
striking upon the shores of this, than of any of the other
great lakes. The meteorological observations which have
been made in the Trans Alleghanian States, indicate the
winds to prevail, either north or south, through the valley of
the Mississippi; but seldom across it, so that the surface of
this lake, would be constantly exposed to agitation from the
atmosphere. ‘These winds would almost incessantly operate,
- to drive the waters through the narrow strait of Michilimack-
_inac, either into Lake Huron or Lake Michigan, until, by
their natural tendency to an equilibrium, the waters thus pent,
would re-act, often attaining a certain height, against, the
current of the most powerful winds, and thus keep up an
alternate flux and reflux, which would always appear more
sensibly in the extremities and bays of the two lakes; and
with something like regularity, as to the periods of oscilla-
tion; the velocity of the water, however, being governed by
the varying degrees of the force of the winds.”—pp. 373
—376.

Letter from Maj. 8S. A. Storrow.
Farley, Virginia, Feb. 10, 1827.

My dear Sir—An absence of more than three weeks pre-
vented the previous receipt and acknowledgment of your fa-
vor, which reached my residence at an early part of the last
month.

Respecting the subject of your letter—the ebb and flow
of a tide in the great lakes, I regret that accident has pre-
vented me from giving any information, beyond a vague and
uncertain remembrance. I made a series of experiments,
embracing the following points; the mouth of the Black
river near the outlet of Lake Ontario, Fort Gratiot at the
outlet of Lake Huron, the island of Michilimackinac, Fort
Howard on Green Bay, and Fort Dearborn on the Chicago.
The notes and memoranda of these experiments, I was so
unfortunate as to lose. On returning from the region of the.
upper lakes, I was separated from my baggage, of which the
notes formed a part. Shortly after they were restored to me,
and before I had time to transcribe them, the port-folio that
contained them was destroyed by fire. I thus lost them for-
ever. J can therefore give you nothing sufficiently definite

Great North American Lakes. 87

for a place among your data. The slight information con-
veyed in the conversation to which you refer, and in the nar-
rative in your possession, was furnished by memory. At the
present moment, as far as that extends to observations made
at so distant a period, it tells me, that each time and place
of making the experiment, illustrated the fact in its general
outline, without giving it the distinctness and uniformity I
sought; and without separating it from certain proximate
agents, whereby the same result might have been produced
by more obvious and sensible causes.

At two of these places, the Black River and Fort Howard,
large rivers disembogue themselves, and at another, Fort
Gratiot, alake. They seem to present the fairest points for
experiment. If in such places there appear occasional ele-
vations and depressions of the water, or alternate accelera-
tions and retardations of the stream, the pressure from above
would seem to be resisted by a new agent, and an inward
current imperviable at once. I know nothing of a variation
of the force of the stream, on its outward passage; but a
periodical difference in the altitude of the water was, at the
time and places of my experiments indisputable. I placed
and removed the graduated rod with my own hand; and at
stated periods noticed the rise and fall, of. which a clear and
determinate impress is left upon my memory.

But at the ¥ine of making these experiments, two subor-
dinate cicumsiances presented themselves ; the one of them,
the wind, the action of which might have forced in or out
of the mouths of the rivers a greater or less quantity of
water, and that accounted for the difference in its elevation.
The other, the force of the current, or the bulk of the water,
which might have been increased, or diminished by the dif-
ference, between the daily and nightly discharges of the
fountains, which afford a supply from above. If the quantity
poured forth at one period was greater than at another, the
-volume itself accounted for the occasional elevation. If the
actual increase of the element was not proportioned to the
apparent increase of its bulk, still the impulse given to the
current, in the centre, by the increase of force from above,
might create an increase of counter-current at the margin,
and force the water higher up. These are the possible causes
to which I have just referred. If any weight be attached
to them, and I know not that they are worthy of any, the
rise and fall of the water may be accounted for, without the

88 On the supposed Tides in the

inference of an inward current. I glanced at them, at the
time, merely from a desire to explore all causes that might
be at hand. The first suggested itself from finding, as I
slowly coasted the southern shore of Green Bay, a breeze to
arise, with great regularity, at a certain hour of the morning,
and blow gently from the land. My notes contained exact
mention of hours, at which the elevation or depression was
manifest, and the state and variation of the wind. I have
never ceased to regret that it was not in my power to exam-
ine and collate them.

The positions of Michilimackinac and Fort: Dearborn,
render them less subject to the circumstances just mentioned.
A small and sluggish stream empties itself at the latter, but
I made the experiment at a distance from the mouth of it,
upon the margin of the broad fake. Ido not precisely re-
member the result of the trial made at either place. They
corroborated those made elsewhere, but, if my recollection
serves me, the fact was less distinctly marked.

You refer to Charlevoix and La Hontan. I think the ex-
istence of such a tide is referred to by Fra. Marguette in 1673.

It has suggested itself to me while writing, that some of
the medical officers, stationed upon the north western fron-
tier, may have made observations upon this phenomenon,
and communicated them, with other scientific matter to the
head of their Department, our medical friend Lovell. I will
make the inquiry of him, and beg that he communicate
with you.

Letter from Doct. Joseph Lovell, Surgeon General in the
Army of the United States.

Washington, April 2d, 1827.

My dear Sir—At the request of Mr. Storrow, I enclose
you the only document I can find relative to the supposed
tides in the upper lakes. It is an extract from a journal
of Capt. Whiting of the army. Several others have noticed
the same thing at Fort Howard, though they have differed,
both as to the height of the rise, and its frequency. Capt.
Smith informs me that while he was there the variation never
exceeded six inches. I cannot learn that it has been ob-
served at any other place. The general belief of those with
whom I have conversed is, that the change is produced by
the winds acting on the waters of Lakes Michigan and Hu-

Great North American Lakes. 89

ron, in consequence of the situation of Green Bay, in rela-
tion to the former lake. And this appears probable from
several circumstances. For ina very short time a considera-
ble rise is produced from this cause, even in the smaller
lakes, Thus the day that the second expedition under Maj.
Long, arrived at the southern extremity of Lake Winnepeck,
the water rose in a few hours to the height of nearly three feet
in the Bay, on which the fort is situated.—Vol. II. p. $35—86.

It is also stated that since the erection of the pier at Erie,
Penn. by which the entrance of the harbour is rendered nar-
row and deep, a wind from the opposite shore causes a strong
current through this entrance and a proportional rise within
the harbour. In the same manner, in consequence of the
west and south west wind, which, agreeably to the journal
of Capt. Whiting, prevailed on the 4th of June, the water
was driven out of the Bay, and continued low at Fort How-
ard until near 7. P.M. By this time, a very considera-
ble rise had taken place at the western extremity of Lake
Michigan, and the water was of course forced rapidly through
the entrance of the Bay, at its north western part, the effect
of which would be more sensible at the narrow poin\, at its
head, where the fort is situated. In the same manner a long
continued east wind would drive the waters of the Huron
through the straits of Michilimackinac, towards the entrance
of the Bay, and cause a sensible rise at Fort Howard.

As the winds are very variable on these lakes both in di-
rection and duration, the irregularity of the rise, both as to
its height and period, is satisfactorily accounted for; and
hence, on the 5th of June, the rise and fall was frequent, in
consequence of the undulations, produced by the wind, on
the 4th.

This, I believe is the manner, in which the supposed tides
have generally been accounted for, by those who have often
been on these lakes.

Notes on the tide at the head of Green Bay, made by Capt.
Henry Whiting of the United States Army, in 1819.

Immediately after our arrival at Fort Howard, the phe-
nomenon of a visible tide at that place attracted my atten-
tion. It was at once perceivable, that there was a daily
change in the level of the river, and I determined to make

such observations, as the time and place would admit, in or-
Vou. XVI.—No. 1. 12

90 On the supposed Tides in the

der to ascertain its regularity and succession. ‘The result of
these observations, which were necessarily brief, and defec-
tive, is annexed; very little satisfactory inference can be
drawn ‘from them, as no correspondent observations were
made upon the courses of the moon, without which no cer-
tain deductions can be made, as to the agency of that plan-
et in producing this change. It will be observed, however,
that during three of the six days, in which the observations
were made, there was a flux and reflux, twice, notwithstan-
ding the wind prevailed, in the same course, during the day,
which affords something like a proof, that it is not the wind,
alone, which produces them. The height of the rise and
fall, was from twelve to eighteen inches. Both the ebb and
flow were very sudden, and in that respect deviate from the
general character of tides. It was seldom more than an
hour, in attaining its height, and was generally as rapid in
making the descent, though several hours would often inter-
vene between the changes. Ah

Supposing the winter to be the most favorable time for
making certain observations, when the superincumbent ice
would nearly destroy the influence of the winds, and shew
the unassisted operations of the tide; I made inquiries, as to
the appearance of it, during that season. One gentleman
informed me that no tide was then discernible. Another,
equally intelligent, told me that it was very apparent, and
that there was a regular elevation and depression of the
ice. This difference of accounts, may, perhaps, be recon-
ciled, by the probable difference in the closeness of the ob-
servation. :

Tide at Green Bay.

1819. June 1. 4 o’clock P.M. High tide.
SE AMEE SEE TS MOOR EME Pow tide:
‘ cpa: OWA ME. Sigh ttides
ue Reel, meet: avis Eek aide.
ie « 3. No visible change in the height of the wa-
ter; winds variable, and often high.

11 o’clock A.M. Low tide; wind west.
61, “ P.M. Continues low; wind

strong, south west.

, “.. P.M.) High tide;.calm..__;

« A.M. High tide,?_.

atid SRN Tow tice eee

, wind west.

©

o

c

«

>
.

ox
~~.
O33

Great North American Lakes. §1

i819. June 5. 2 o'clock P. M. High tide; wind strong,
south west.
56 Soe Gs, ci8 el ee Ms widow. tide:
66 ieee LOsn cys PM. Migh tide'srealm,
is « 6, 9, “ A.M. High tide; wind north.
ss fit bens be M4 Tow. tide.
« « « 7, “ P.M. High tide.

The course of Green Bay is about S. S. W.

The above observations were made by means of a stick,
graduated with inches, placed, perpendicularly below low wa-
ter mark.

Letter from Capt. Henry Whiting of the U. S. Army.
Detroit, Sept. 11th, 1827.

Dear Sir—I returned a short time since from Green Bay,
but my stay there was too brief for any observations upon
the waters, even if I had leisure to have made them.

Gov. Cass, as you have probably seen by the newspapers,
was too busily engaged while in that country, for other than
Indian affairs. Iregret you cannot have the benefit of his
remarks.*

I got back the papers, to which I have before alluded, and
as I promised, I send you the observations I made in 1819.
I did not recollect, that they were so meagre, and unsatisfac-
tory. Iwas much engaged in military duty at that time,
and had only snatches of leisure. They amount almost to
nothing ; and yet I believe they are the only regular attempt
that has been made to solve this interesting problem. While
on the spot at this time, I asked many questions of the resi-
dents, but could not ascertain that any of them had accom-
panied their observations by any scale, or made any record.
Their recollections were of course very loose, and amount
to no more than an accordance with the popular belief. One
or two mentioned the fact, that a mill, which is placed about
ten miles up Devil river, a tributary of the Fox river, near
its mouth, is daily stopped by refluent water. Another gen-
tleman remarked, that he had frequently noticed in the win-
ter, when crossing the river, that the ice was often lifted
slightly, in the centre, while the two sides were partially cov-

! ;

* See note, at the close of the letter,
+ The same as those appended to Doct. Lovell’s letter.

92 On the supposed Tides in the

ered with water ;—again it would be level, and no water
apparent. eee:

By a reference to some of my notes, it will be seen that
the waters often swelled against the wind. This fact would
seem to militate against any theory, assigning the rising to
the winds, if it were not known that the outlet of Fox river
is very serpentine, forming two or three deep curves in the
course of a less:number of miles. Hence the wave, heaped
up by winds prevailing up the Bay, would be likely still to
continue to roll into the river, sometime after the impulse
had ceased, and even after the wind had changed.

. Existing facts do not establish either the negative or affirm-
ative; though I think it pretty clear, that the Green Bay
tides, or whatever they may be called, are independent of
all celestial influence ; for no one pretends that they ever
appeared to acknowledge any fealty to the planets.

It is rather the settled opinion here, among those, who
have reflected much on the subject, that whatever changes
in the level of the water take place, must be referred to the
winds. That there has been a doubt in the case of Green
Bay, is probably owing to the singular configuration of that
deep inlet, and the sinuous outlet of the Fox river, when the
effect is often so tardy, in following the cause, and sometimes,
even running counter to it, as to sever all apparent connex-
ion between them.

Note.—Capt. Whiting having informed me in a letter of
the 16th of April, 1827, that Gov. Cass would hold a treaty,
at Green Bay, during the summer, I had requested him, to
desire the Governor, to make experiments, and to be so kind,
as to communicate to me, the results, which, with his usual
liberality, he was so generous as to say he would do; but un-
fortunately, his higher official duties prevented. H. A. S. D.

Letter from Capt. Greenleaf Dearborn, of the U. S. Army.
Monmouth, Maine, March 5, 1827.

My dear Sir—By the last mail, I received your favor of
the 26th ult. and hasten to answer it, as far as my knowl-
edge extends.

“About the 15th of May, 1825, while stationed at the
Sault de St. Marie, at the outlet of Lake Superior, I obser-
ved, for three successive days, a regular ebb and flow of the

Great North American Lakes. 93

water of the lake. I was led to the observation at that
time, by having charge of a fatigue party, which was em-
ployed in removing the earth, which was deposited in the
bottom of the canal, that conducts the water from the head
of the rapid to the saw-mill, situated about three quarters of
a mile below. In removing this earth, it became neces-
sary to throw up a temporary dam of stones and sods, at
the upper end of the canal, to prevent the water from flow-
ing in. Just as this was completed, the water which had ris-
en considerably while we had been at work, was about break-
ing over. I informed the men, it would be necessary to raise
it higher. Although the wind was but light down the lake,
and had not increased while we had been at work, still I
attributed the rise of water to its influence. But one of the
men, who had been employed the two preceding summers,
in floating mill-logs, out of a small stream which empties in-
to Lake Superior, about nine miles above, observed, that it
would be unnecessary to raise the dam, for the water was at
its height. I was incredulous as to his statement, and asked
how he knew the water would not continue to rise. He re-
plied, that there were regular tides in Lake Superior ; he
had observed them, the two previous summers, both in the
stream where he rafted logs, and on the shores of the lake,
and that the tide was about two hours and a half in rising,
and the same time in falling. In consequence of this infor-
mation, I directed the men, to suspend their work on the
dam, for a few moments, to ascertain whether it would be
verified. We very soon found the water was on the reflux,
although the wind continued the same. We marked the
shore, as the water receded; and as the bed of the lake, for
several rods from the margin, made but a small angle with
the horizon, the fall of the water, was perceptible, every
moment; it was from two hours and twenty, to two hours
and thirty minutes, in its ebb, and the same time in flood.
The rise and fall was about eighteen inches, perpendicular.
We observed two ebbs, and two flood tides, during that and
the two following days, which were in the same regular man-
ner. I mentioned these facts to the commanding officer
of the post, and to several other officers;—they all attributed
the phenomenon, to the wind above; but having made per-
sonal observations, they concluded it could not be caused
by the wind, for it was neither violent, or variable, during
the time. After this, I had less opportunity to notice so crit-

94 On the observations of Comets.

ically, the flux, and reflux of the water; but I was frequent- |
ly at the lower end of Lake Superior, and found the water ei-
ther ebbing or flowing, except in violent gales, when it could
not be so well observed. .

Although Ihave stated only what came under my own
observation, still I feel great delicacy, in making the commu-
nication, for none of the inhabitants, had made similar ob-
servations. They had noticed a rise and fall in the water,
but only such as they attributed to the winds. It would seem
hardly possible that the lake should-ebb and flow regularly,
_and continually, and not have attracted the attention of some
of them, a few of whom have been there for many years.

The periodical rise of the lower lakes, which takes place
in from three to seven years, may possibly, be the effect of
the height of water, in Lake Superior, and this caused by
an unusual depth of snow on its borders, and tributary
streams, or an uncommon rainy season.

I never could observe, at the foot of the rapids of St. Marie,
any thing more than a light and sudden rise of water. The .
rise of the water above never caused a corresponding rise
below. .

I know but little relative to the tides in Lakes Erie, Michi-
gan, Huron and Ontario, save vague rumor. In 1814, Lake
Ontario, was about two feet higher, than in 1813. My situa-
tion on that lake, during those years, enabled me to remark
this difference.

Art. XIII.—On the observations of Comets; by P. J. Ro-

DRIGUEZ.

Comets are the only bodies of the solar system, whose
elements are not known with that degree of exactness, which
the other parts of Astronomy have attained. This uncer-
tainty, owing principally to the want of correct observations,
will gradually diminish, as a greater number of observers
shall furnish proper data, to ascertain the orbits of those
bodies. It is true that the many able astronomers employed
in making celestial observations, leave no doubt of obtain-
ing those data if observations could be always made; but
it sometimes happens that on account of the position of a
comet, or of the state of the atmosphere, no observations can
be made from the fixed astronomical observatories. Thus,

On the observations of Comets. 95

the comet of 1695, is known only by observations made at
sea by a French missionary: several others also are known
only by few and imperfect observations; and it is not im-
probable, that in the antarctic expeditions now preparing,
there may be discovered a comet, altogether invisible from
any observatory. It is therefore, highly desirable for the ad-
vancement of astronomy, that all lovers of science should
make all possible observations whenever a comet appears.
The want of proper instruments, is indeed a great im-
pediment; but even without a telescope, the positions of
a comet might be ascertained with sufficient accuracy by
measuring with a circle of reflection, or a sextant, its
distances from two other heavenly bodies whose positions
are exactly known. This method of which Hevelius and
Halley made use in the formation of their catalogues of
stars, might for its simplicity, be used at sea, where as-
tronomical instruments could be used only with difficulty.
These considerations have induced me to present to the pub-
lic, the following essay, on the manner of ascertaining the
positions of comets from the distances observed.
Fig. 1.

F P Let p (fig. 1,) be the pole of the earth, c
the place of a comet, and a and 6 two fix-
ed stars. Pc will be the comet’s polar dis-

iance, and the angle cpa the difference be-

tween its right ascension and the right as-

cension of the stara. Measure the distan-

¢ @ cesca and cb from the comet to each star,

and mark tue time. The distances may be taken simultane-

ously when there are two observers ; but when there is only

one, the distances from one star must be reduced to the time

at which the distances from the other star were taken. A

circle of reflection would be the best instrument for these

observations ; but even with a sextant, the distances may be

had with great accuracy, by taking the mean between several.

Fig. 2. The distances will be affected by the

Z refraction. They may be reduced to true

distances by any of the known methods,

or by the following, which is sufficiently
simple and correct.

Let z be the zenith, c and a the true pla-
ces of the comet and star, c’ and a’ their
apparent places. Making c’z=N, a’z=
£ N’, and c’a’‘=D we have

e
a
m4

S

96 On the observations of Comets.

d D=d N' cos za'c'+d N cos zc'a’

pcos N—cos Deos N’ cos N’—eosDcos N
=4N (~~ an ae aN ( iT tbe New
‘ cos N ;
=dN (aay —cot D cot N )

cosN’

+dN (aan Dard —cot D cot N)
dN'cosNeosceN’+dNeosN’cosecN dN'cotN'+dNcotN
a sin D ONS ay ‘
and calling a the altitude of the comet, r its refraction, A the
altitade of the star, and R its refraction, the preceding for-

mula becomes
ae sinasecA+rsinAseca RtanA-+rtana

sin D

tan D

Having corrected the distances, find in the triangle pab
(fig. 1,) the angle pab and the side ab, Then, knowing the
three sides of the triangle cab, find the angle cab, from which
subtracting pab, the angle pac will remain; lastly, in the
triangle cap, having the sides pa and ca, and the angle pac,
the side cp and the angle cpa will be ascertained, and there-
fore the declination, and the right ascension of the comet.

In order to determine the effect produced in the positions
of the comet by an error in the distances, let ch=a, ca=b,
ab=c, and cab=x. Then we have

cos a—cosb cos c

cos x= — ——_—_: —_ —
sin 6 sinc
cos a! —cos 6’ cos c
cos 2 = ——_
sin 6’ sin c

and on account of the little difference between sin 6 and sin b’,
we may suppose
cos a—cos a'+(cos b’—cos b) cos c
sin O Sie | yee
—2sin1(¢+2’) sind (x—2’)=
—2sini (a+a’) sini (a—a’) —2 sin} (6'+-6) sini (b’—b)cosc -
sin bsinc
making «—a’=dx, a—a'=da, and b'—b=db; and sup-
posing these are eau pe rail me pen :
et ts 1dasini (a+a’)+ 1dbsint COS C
1dx sinl(7+2') ee . fan —)
dasin a+dbsin b cos c

sin bsin csin x

cos x—cos 2’ = 4

On the observations of Comeis. 9%,

and supposing da and db of the same sign, this equation
becomes
dasina — dbsinbcosc

My a5 TEMA gas TT st
sin bsin csin x
da sin a db cot c (1)
~ sinbsinesinx sinz ~*

which shews that the distances producing the least errors are
when cab is a right angle. '
In the triangle cap, let cp=v, cap=z, ca=b, pa=n. Then
cos v=cos z sinbsinn-+cos b cos n
cos v'=cos 2’ sin b’ sinn-+-cos b’ cosn —
cosv —cosv’ =(cosz sinb — cosz’sinb’) sinn + (cosb — cosb’) cosn
=(cosz — cos 2’) sin b sinn+(cos b — cos b’) cos n,
nearly ;— 2 sin} (v+v) sind (v’—v')=
= —2 sin} (z+2’) sin (e¢—z’) smb sinn—2 sini
(6+-6’) sini (b—b’) cosn.
dv sink (v-+v’)=dz sin} (z-+z’)sinb smn-+db sin} (b-+b') cosx
dv=dz sinz sin b sin n+db sin b cosn

sin v
=dzsinz sinbsinn+db sinbcosn
sinv
; sin bsinz ¥
Let cpa=w, and we have sin w= Pon and taking the
differentials,
(db cosbsinz+dzcoszsinb) sinv— dv cos vsin bsin z
dw cosw= [in aa ace ss
sin v2
d dacosbsinz+-dxcoszsinb§ dvsinbsinz ‘
ne sin v Cos w ~ sinvtanvcosw (3)

As an example, I shall apply the above to the comet of
1819, of which I made the following observations with a
sextant.

Observ. distance | Observ. distance

1819. Cure Fels to Arcturus. to ® Lyra.
July 10, = = 9h 39’ 48”| 82° 6’ 30” 902327300
1 = ae oy 81 26 26 90 6 34
Lo - = 9 29 41 80 46 25 89 37 58
13, - = 19), 9, 33 80 17 00 89 18 00
14, - - Sot be 29 79 45 30 88 57 30
16, - - - |9 33 25 | -78 49 30 88 25 45°
24, - - 9°35 34 76 2 00 87 28 30
Vor. XVI.—No. 1. 13

98" On the observations of Comets.

For the first observation we have
True R.A. adh SS True Declin. Wh

Arcturus, QU? 61e ogee 2097 Gate
a Lyra, 277 42) BO 38 Sil ae

To correct the distances, it is necessary to know the alti-
tude of the comet. This may be found, first by the globe,
and afterwards when the Right Ascension and Declination
are ascertained, the altitude may be calculated correctly,
which, if very different from the assumed, the distances
should be corrected again with it. We will suppose, then,
the apparent altitude of the comet 5° 19’.

The latitude of the place of observation was 39° 52’ 30”
N. With this, the altitudes of the stars corresponding to
the time, will be found by calculation.

Apparent altitude of Arcturus, 48° 57
Apparent altitude of o Lyra, 71 45

With these data we find for the first distance dD=6’ 58”
and for the second dD=9’ 8”. ‘Therefore the true distances
will be

‘True distance to Arcturus, 82° 13’ 99”
True distance to @ Lyra, 90 41 38

Let c (fig. 1.) be the comet, @ Arcturus, and b the other
star. In the triangle pab, the side ab will be found equal to
59° 0’ 44”, and the angle pab=56° 15’ 46”. In the triangle
cab, the three sides being given, the angle cab will be found
=95° 31! 27” from which subtracting the angle pab, it will
remain cap=39° 15' 41". Now, in the triangle pea, know-
ing the sides pa and ca, and the angle cap, the side cp will
be found=39° 55’ 41”, and the angle cpa=102° 19’ 16”.
Subtracting cp from 90°, and cpa from the Right Ascension
of Arcturus, we shall have ;

- R.A.of the comet. Declin. of the comet. °

July 10th, at 9% 39’ 48" = 109° 32'/20'") | 50° 2a

' Supposing 1/ of error in each of the distances observed, ©

formula 1 gives dr=34" 8, which being substituted in formu-
las 2 and 3, these give dv=50" 6 and dw= — 45" 2.

s

On the Natural Boundaries of Empires. 99

Art. XIV.—On the Effect of the Physical Geography of
the World on the Boundaries of Empires; by Joun Fincn,
F.B.S., M.S. D. &c. &c.

Essay, Part I11.—Continued from Vol. XIV, p. 18.

To acquire a true knowledge of the history of nations,
we must first study the physical structure of the soil.

This is the leading feature, on which the historical details
are nearly always dependant.

Mountains, seas, lakes, and deserts, form natural divisions
on the surface of the earth, which serve as boundaries to the
several nations, and beyond which they can seldom pass with
impunity. It is not in the contest between nations as on the
chequered table of the chess board, where there are no nat-
ural defences, and a plain field of battle lies open to the
combatants; on the surface of the world, the natural bar-
riers between nations, restrain them when prosperous, and in-
clined to invade their neighbours, and serve as a protec-
ting shield in adverse fortune.

These natural barriers separate nations, not only by the
amount of physical force which it requires to pass them,
but also because the nations, which they surround, have
each their peculiar habits, customs, and feelings, which ren-
ders it difficult for them to coalesce with the surrounding
states. ‘To form a permanent empire, there must be some
_ common feeling to unite the people under its sway; as all
governments are founded, more or less remotely, on the
opinions of the people, where they are established.

In order to impress these facts on the mind, read an ac-
count of the boundaries of any nation of ancient times, let
us take Ceesar’s description of the limits of the Heilvetii.
“ Undique loci natura Helvetii continentur; und ex parte,
flumine Rheno latissimo atque altissimo, qui agrum Helve-
tium 4 Germanis dividit: altera ex parte, monte Jurd altissi-
mo, qui est inter Sequanos et Helvetios; tertid, lacu Lema-
no, et flumine Rhodano, qui provinciam nostram ab Hel-
vetiis dividit.”—Jul. Ces. Comm.

Or examine a map of the kingdoms of the world as they
were arranged a thousand years ago, and one of the present
time ; you will find the great political divisions nearly alike.

In an historial chart, although the divisions do not corres-
pond to the relative size of nations, they afford some guide

100 On the Natural Boundaries of Empires.

as to their increase or decrease of dominion, and we may
there perceive how durable is the force of these barriers.

When we compare also the duration of conquests with
the existence of nations, we then perceive the decisive and
prevailing effect of natural divisions.

When extensive conquests are made, these boundaries
may appear to be extinct, but they still remain; although sur-
mounted by force, they are never destroyed; and at the
proper period their natural effect will be again produced.

And it is fortunate for humanity that they exist otherwise
the world would exhibit one general scene of despotism.
Never did one of the race of conquerors, belong to that
class who, like the liberals of France, are friends not only
to their own country, but to the best interests of man.

The splendor of victories generally blinds us as to their
permanent results.

The conquests of Sesostris were scarcely recognized be-
yond the march of his army.

Twenty times, according to observations of Malte Brun,
have the tribes of the elevated regions of Asia, sallied down
on the inhabitants of the plains, and subverted the thrones
over the whole continent, but the political divisions of Asia,
are very similar, at the present day, to what they were at
its first colonization.

' Nor does it signify by what title nations become possessed
of their foreign dominions; by conquest or alliance; by peace
oar war: Nature compels the disunion.

Normandy was conferred on the brave Duke Rollo, by
the French King Charles ; when England was conquered, the
union of the two heterogeneous countries continned but a
short time. All the wars between England and France have
terminated in the exchange of a few foreign possessions.

When we read an account of the conquests of Alexander
the Great, we are apt to imagine that such mighty achieve-
ments, such splendid conquests, must have continued for ev-
er; on turning over the following-page of history, we ascer-
tain, that his successor reigned only two years. ‘Then came
the struggle of the nations to form separate states, which,
after a combat of thirty years in duration, was happily ef-
fected.

-Conquerors, after traversing the Earth, and subduing na-
tions have often recognized the force of these natural boun-
daries, and have divided their empires among their sons, ac-

On the Natural Boundaries of Empires. 101

cording to true natural lines of demarcation. Thus Char-
lemagne, after uniting France, Italy, and Germany, under
his temporary sway, established that division of his States,
which has remained unaltered to the present time.

Even Napoleon, the ambitious Napoleon, perceived the
force of thislaw; when victory had placed at his disposal ma-
ny of the finest regions of Europe, he did not attempt, except
in a few instances, to unite them to France; he placed his
relations and friends on the vacant thrones, trusting to their
personal friendship, and to political reasons, for their assis-
tance in war. )

At other periods; “ how often has the funeral cry which
arose at the tomb of the warrior king been the signal for
the dismemberment of his empire.”

When victorious troops are poured into a country, they
gradually coalesce with the original inhabitants. The scenes
of nature impress them with irresistible force, and they soon
begin to understand, that the independence of nations should
be the first law of the world.

Some may suppose, that the boundaries of nations depend
on the nature of their governments, but this does not appear
to be the fact. In the wars that frequently arise between mon-
archies and republics, the latter generally have the advan-
tage, for kings are sometimes indolent, but republics never.
But a conquest over kings, introduces kings into a republic,
not merely those who are captured on their thrones, or ta-
ken prisoners in battle, but the pride of success, and the
wealth that is accumulated, introduce that state of feeling

‘which cannot be gratified without monarchical government.
Thus the same laws apply to the boundaries of nations, under
whatever form of government they are placed.

RIVERS.

There is probably no opinion more general, and more er-
roneous, than that of large rivers forming a boundary to
nations. V8

It is wrong to vex a peaceful river with armed garrisons on
its banks, ih

It is no less wrong in a political point of view.

Numerous forces will be stationed on the shores, by either
party, and collisions must necessarily ensue. They also af-
ford so easy a communication that numerous custom house
officers must be engaged in active service. The river, instead

102 On the Natural Boundaries of Empires.

of favouring commerce, becomes an annoyance to both par-
ties. Itis a bad military line in time of war. A state is
powerful, in proportion as she possesses the whole extent of
the basin, from which the water flows, to supply her rivers.

Thus the State of New York, has great national strength,
because she possesses the sovereignty of the river Hudson,
and nearly the whole country on both shores, without any
interference.

The State of Connecticut in a similar way possesses the
course of her principal river, for a considerable distance.

The Delaware is not of so much importance, to New Jer-
sey or Pennsylvania, as it would be if the undisputed proper-
ty of either. In support of this position and of the gener-
al fact assumed, I may adduce the opinion of Professor
Renwick of Columbia College, New York.

“The Hudson divides New Jersey from the State of New
York on one side, and the Delaware separates it from Penn-
sylvania on the other.

“‘ However definite these may be as territorial limits, they
operate, by their facilities of navigation, rather as bonds
of union, than as divisions of the inhabitants in their vicinity,
from those of the two adjoining states.

‘“‘ Hence the citizens of East and West Jersey, have differ-
ent feelings and views upon almost every question of public
interest, nor does it appear possible to unite them in exertion.”

The Rhine was a military boundary against the ancient
Germans, but could not have been against a civilized power.

The Tay was not so good a barrier against the ancient
Scots, as the Roman wall.

The Nile never formed a boundary, even in the intestine
wars which sometimes destroyed Egypt. Hostilearmies some-
times encamped on the opposite shores, but the contest was
always continued, until one was defeated. When two pow-
ers, of nearly equal strength, have been in Egypt at the
same time, the line of demarcation has generally been ac-
cross the Nile, one possessing upper, the other lower Egypt.

The late contest between Brazil, and the inhabitants of
Buenos Ayres, arose from an erroneous ‘Opinion on the part
of the former, that the river La Plata was the true boun-
dary.

| SEAS AND OCEANS.

Some nations appear to dread the water, and to them, the
ocean is a boundary which they never attempt to pass.

On the Natural Boundaries of Empires. 108

To others, instead of forming a boundary, it presents a temp-
tation to conquest.

The facility with which naval empires are founded is a
most striking phenomenon, and is equalled only by the rapid-
ity with which they are overturned. The example of the
Portuguese may be noticed. They first visited India as:
merchants, then invaded it as conquerors, and the terror of |
their arms were spread from Mozambique to the Ganges.
Nothing appeared to stop their career.

Their armies were so brave, their cities so strong, and
their allies appeared so faithful, that the Portuguese states-
men considered their Indian empire,-as placed on the firm-
est foundation.

The appearance of the fleets of the Hollanders in the In-
dian ocean, soon changed the face of affairs, they were
joined by the natives, who were glad to escape from tyranny,
and the Portuguese empire crumbled in the dust.

England owes her immense power to the facility of trans-
porting her force on the ocean; with a moveable army of
ten thousand soldiers, she has acquired dominion over eighty
millions of people, and it requires only thirty thousand dis-
ciplined troops to keep them in subjection.

MOUNTAINS

Are on several accounts, good boundaries between nations.

Numerous bodies of troops, can not without a great ex-
pense, be supported upon their summits; so that nations,
to whom they serve as barriers, are content with placing a
few centinels on the frontiers.

If mountains were always boundaries, wars would be less
frequent ; the difficulty of marching to combat would often
cause even ambitious men to pause.

Thus the armies of France have not so often crossed the
Pyrenees and Alps in search of conquests, as they have in-
vaded the valley of the Rhine and Netherlands.

The Andes form a natural barrier to the States on the
western coast of South America, and one of the most dis-
astrous military expeditions, perhaps ever recorded, was
that under Gonzalo Pizarro, in which this circumstance was
disregarded.

104 On the Natural Boundaries of Empires,

Of all those who live within sight of the Blue Mountain,
probably not one in a thousand have ever visited its summit,
These few were the ambitious inhabitants of the plains, but
even they could not establish a permanent residence. .

The range of mountains between the New England states
and Canada, are a better boundaty than the St. Lawrence.

The inhabitants on the opposite sides of a mountain, sel-
dom think alike on any subject.

This may be accounted for in the following manner,

The sun never shines equally, on the two sides of a moun-
tain at the same time. An inhabitant of the north, looks
upon the mountain, and beholds it enveloped in shade. An
inhabitant of the south beholds it resplendent in hght and all
the landscape. enlivened by the rays of the sun. How can
two individuals who see the same object in such different
points of view, ever be brought to think alike on any sub-
ect.
, Again, the temperature of the air is always different, A
native of the South visiting the country to the north, shivers
with cold, while all around him are gay, lively, and happy.
How can people who feel 'so differently in the same climate,
ever be friendly subjects of one government. -

There is a shield placed on the summit of every moun-
tain, one half is painted white, the other is painted black,
the inhabitants on the opposite sides, look upon the same
shield, but cannot agree as to its color.

The effect of this has been perceived in the councils of
more than one of the United States.

In Pennsylvania, I have been informed by a member of the
Legislature, that, on many questions, the opinion of the mem-
bers is known from their residence on the east or west of
the mountains.

The same fact is confirmed as it respects Virginia by the
author of “ Letters from the south’’ he says the mountain
called the Blue Ridge not only-forms the natural, but the
political division of Virginia. That on the Fast, is called
Old Virginia, and that on the West, New Virginia,‘ the
inhabitants of these several territories, occasionally exhibit
a considerable degree of hostile feeling towards each other.

- & All the considerable states to the south of New York in-
clusive, have two distinct and separate local interests, or rath-
er, states of local feeling. The eastern and western sections

On the Natural Boundaries of Empires. 105

of these states are continually at variance, and as the west is
generally the most extensive, as well as fruitful, it is grad-
ually moving the seat of power further into the interior.”
There is a small territory in New-Jersey which exemplifies
the difference between rivers and mountains as boundaries
of nations. It consists of a tract of land about thirty miles
long, and two or three miles wide. It forms the “ultima
Thulé” of the state towards the north, and is situated between
the Blue Mountain and the river Delaware. The inhabi-
tants of this section belong to New Jersey by political ar-
rangement, but are completely excluded from it by the Blue
Mountain, which is near a thousand feet high. The other
part of the state would have been almost ignorant of their
existence, but that they have recently petitioned the legisla-
ture to open a road near the foot of the mountain that they
may have a communication with their fellow citizens to:the
south. All the trade of the district, is carried on across the
river with Pennsylvania.

MOUNTAINS IN GROUPS.

Where mountains are placed together in groups, with
intervening vallies which are susceptible of cultivation, a
different rule obtains as to their boundary. It will then be
found, not at the summit of the first chain, nor at its base,
but extends into the surrounding country in every direction.
The inhabitants of these districts resemble the garrison of a
fortress, who not only command the fortifications, and the
interior town, but also the resources of the country to a dis-
tance of several miles.

Thus the mountaineers of Switzerland are not content
with the rugged summits, and the picturesque vallies of the
Alps, but have conquered and retain Neufchatel, La Pays de
Valais, and the city and territory of Geneva.

The mountaineers of Caucasus compel the payment of
tribute from their neighbors.

No individual could formerly live within twenty miles of
the mountains of Scotland, unless he would submit to con-
tribution. The demands of the king at Holyrood might be
evaded, but those of the kings of the Highlands it was im-
possible to escape.

Vor. XVI.—No. 1. 14

106 On the Natural Boundaries of Empires.

DESERTS
Form a permanent barrier to nations.

The ancient Egyptians, surrounded nearly on every side
by deserts, attempted in vain to pass the boundary which
nature had interposed between them and the adjacent na-
tions. They attempted the conquest of Palestine ; more
than once, when they saw the Jewish chieftains led into cap-
tivity, they supposed their triumphs complete, but were still
unable to unite the two countries.

Two foreign kings, who obtained possession of Egypt, at-
tempted to establish their dominion over the deserts of Af-
rica by force. The result of the two expeditions was simi-
lar, though the immediate fate of those engaged was differ-
ent. Cambyses the Persian took with him a numerous and
flourishing army; he left them buried in the sands of the
desert, and returned back nearly alone.

Hussein, the son of Mohammed Ali Pacha, undertook a
similar expedition, but his army returned, leaving their com-
mander in possession of as much dominion as his remains
would cover.

The empire under the rule of the heirs of Constantine the
Great, and those of the monarch of Persepolis, were separa-
ted by immense deserts, which served as a barrier between
the hostile nations. The Romans of the eastern empire,
under a warlike emperor, were accustomed to make inroads
on Persia, crossed the Tigris, captured the principal fortres-
ses, and imagined the country subdued. A single year gen-
erally witnessed their retreat. The Persians, when their lead-
ers were ambitious, invaded Asia Minor, gained victories
and-captured cities, but the result was uniformly the same.

Lewis the fourteenth, laid waste Lorraine and Franche
Compté; however detestable this was in a moral point of
view, it was correct policy, to prevent the invasion of France.

The desert of Atacama forms a natural barrier between the
dominions of Chili and Peru. A desert, twelve hundred
miles long, forms a boundary to the United States of Amer-
ica on the west.

The political fate of the nations, residing, in future time,
beyond this boundary, is fixed by their situation.

It is not possible that the inhabitants of the coast of the
Pacific, if true sons of America, will ever send their rep-
resentatives to a distance of three thousand miles, over

On the Natural Boundaries of Empires. 107

mountains ten thousand feet high, and a desert five hun-
dred miles wide, to ascertain the mode in which they are to
be governed, or to enquire with what foreign nations they
shall cultivate the arts of peace, or partake the luxury of war.

1. The surface of the earth is thus separated into certain
natural divisions, which may be called natural kingdoms.

2. Small natural kingdoms, in the vicinity of those which
are larger, often lose their independence.

France has united to herself the smaller divisions of Na-
varre, Franche Compte, and Lorrain.

Denmark Proper has usurped the islands of Funen, Zea-
land, Sylt, Nordstrand, and Falstar. .

Central England has united to her dominion Cornwall,
Wales, Scotland, and the islands of Man, Ireland, and Staffa.

Florida is another example. The language of the Amer-
ican negociator sounded harshly to the monarch of Spain,
when he asserted, that a small territorial division, like Flor-
ida, could not remain either as a colony, or independent in
the immediate vicinity of the United States; but the senti-
ment was perfectly accordant to facts, which have occurred
in the history of all times, and of all nations.

The powerful State of New York comprises within her
dominion, Staten Island and Nassau. ‘The first would more
properly come within the geographical limits of New Jersey;
the latter should form an independent state, in which the
inhabitants, devoted to agriculture, to hunting, and fishing,
and excluding all commerce from their shores, might shew
an example of the happy primeval age of mankind.

3. Oppression suffered by Dependencies.

Man, in a small natural kingdom, has seldom his full po-
litical rights ; it is scarcely possible that he should rise to an
equality of privilege, with those who reside in the central or
larger division of territory, under the same sovereign. Thus
the native of Castile considers himself more noble than the
inhabitant of any other province in Spain. A native of the
centre of France is esteemed superior to those on the bor-
ders, and, in former times, paid a smaller amount of taxes.

The form of government in the central nation makes lit-
tle difference in the sufferings of the dependencies. Thus
the natives of the Pays de Vaud suffered as much under the
Swiss Cantons, as the Greeks beneath the government of
the Turks. The oppression under which Ireland groans, is
more owing to her geographical position, than to any innate
love in the government of Great Britain to misrule.

108 On the Natural Boundaries of Empires.

There are however, some advantages to an inhabitant of
these smaller divisions; for his interest is identified in some
degree with that of the larger empire. They deprive him of
some political rights, but they fight his battles on a magnifi-
cent scale. Sometimes, the natives of the central districts
will pay a larger proportion of taxes merely for the pleasure
of keeping so many dependencies in subjection.

4. Choice of residence.

Unfortunate is the man who resides near the boundary
line of a large kingdom, for it is always a dangerous position;
or in a small natural kingdom, unless he is endowed with
such a firm disposition of mind, that he would sooner die in
battle than submit to oppression. His example, though fatal
to himself, would secure better terms to his countrymen.

Therefore, an individual, who has “ the world before him
where to choose his place of rest” would perhaps do well
to avoid a residence on the borders of France, or an island
that could be visited by the fleets of the English. A thou-
sand years hence, the defiles of the Rocky Mountains, and
the country between Mexico and the United States, will cer-
tainly be a dangerous home.

Thus, in former times, no individual, who valued his life
or property, would have chosen a residence in the debate-
able land between England and Scotland, or in the Marches
of Wales, where battles and skirmishes were the order of the
day for near five hundred years.

5. On the effect of Geographical shape, arising from the
physical structure of the Earth, on the boundaries of Em-

ares.

z The Emperor observed the difficulty which arose in uni-
ting Italy in one kingdom. He said, that if the southern
extremity had been placed by nature between Genoa, Sar-
dinia and Rome, Italy would then have made a strong king-
dom ; which, in its present shape, even his energy was una-
ble to accomplish. The native of Otranto can have no
common interest with the inhabitant of Turin or Venice.

The northern coast of Africa, extending from the Atlantic
ocean to the confines of Egypt; bounded on the north by
the Mediterranean, on the south by the chain of Mount
Atlas ; is another instance of a country whose destiny is fixed
by its shape. It could not be united under one government
except by a superior naval power, situated in those seas.
This was first accomplished by the Carthaginians, second by

On the Natural Boundaries of Empires. 109

the Romans, last by the Saracens; in the intervening peri-
ods it has always presented small independent sovereignties.

The western coast of South America is a narrow district
of country, extending between the Andes and the Pacific
ocean. It resembles the northern coast of Africa, and like
that cannot well be formed into one dominion. The genius
of Bolivar will not be able to unite permanently the desti-
nies of Colombia and Peru.

The central valley of Europe, bordering on the Danube,
presents a district of country of great length in proportion
to its width, and never has any conqueror, in ancient or
modern times, been able to combine it in one empire. It is
now divided between Bavaria, Austria and Turkey.

The central valley of Africa, bordering on the Niger,
bounded by the mountains of Kong and the desert of Za-
hara, resembles in its shape the central valley of Europe.
Tt is impossible to unite it under one government. The dif-
ficulty of discoveries in Africa has arisen from this cause ;
the traveller incurs the risk of losing his life and property
from twenty various robbers; each invested with sovereign
power and separate dominion.

6. Where the natural boundaries are not very definite, the
oscillation of dominion may be considerable.

Thus in the smaller states of Germany, there appears to
be no definite rule by which their territory can be determin-
ed; in general they possess both sides of the rivers where
they are placed.

7. Influence of internal communications on the boundaries
of nations.

It has generally been supposed that roads and canals,
forming extensive lines of communication, are favorable to
the extension of territorial power. When these are situated
within a natural kingdom or state, they of course tend to
unite the people of a country, but it is perhaps questionable
whether they can ever be sufficiently numerous, as to join in
one sentiment people of distinct national habits.

The five roads across the Pyrenean mountains are not suf-
ficient to unite France and Spain.

The road of the Simplon, however magnificent, did not
preserve to the viceroy of I'rance the submission of his Ital-
ian subjects.

Roads, however numerous, will not change the seasons ;
will not alter the geographical situation of a country.

110 On the Natural Boundaries of Empires.

The ocean affords an easy channel of communication be-
tween England and France, but it does not combine in one
sentiment the people of the two countries.

On this part of the subject I cannot do better than give the
written opinion of an individual, who, after occupying the
Presidential chair of the United States, carries with him into
retirement, all the kind and amiable feelings of human life,
united to the deep political discernment of a statesman;
and who exercises the rites of hospitality in the most cour-
teous manner. ;

Montpelier, May 13, 1828.

Dear Sir—I have received your letter of the 1st inst. and

with it a copy of your Essay. ‘g a i a
* * * * * * +

On turning from the past to the future, speculation may
be invited to the influence on those boundaries, that may
result from new modifications of governments, and the oper-
ations of art on the geographical features of nature. The
improvements in political science, more particularly the
combination of the federal and representative principles,
seem to favor a greater expansion of government in a free
form, than has been maintainable under the most despotic :
whilst so many of the physical obstacles, hitherto determin-
ing the boundaries of states, are yielding to the means which
now render mountains, rivers, lakes and seas, artificially
passable, with a facility and celerity which bring distant re-
gions within the compass required for the useful intercom-
munications. Nor should the telegraph, with its probable
improvements, be overlooked, as an auxiliary to the conven-
ient exercise of power over an extended space. ka

* * # * * x *
With friendly respects,

Mr. Finch. (Signed) James Maptson.

8. Difference im the boundaries of savage or civilized ra-
ces of men.

A river is a boundary to a savage; a lake still more so;
the ocean is impassable. His bark canoe is not fitted for
engagements on the water.

He reveres the mountains, and seldom attempts to pass
them.

His empire is always small, and bounded by the more
minute physical obstacles on the surface of the earth. —

On the Natural Boundaries of Empires. 111

The effect of very small territorial division is unfavorable
to the tribes of savages. They fight continually. Civilized
nations have some intervals of peace between their combats.

Another point of view, in which the structure of the earth
has an effect on the boundaries of nations, is the nature of
the soil, whether fertile or otherwise, &c.; but the limits of
the present essay do not admit of noticing this branch of
the subject.

In the history of nations, we peruse an account of three
states, whose political relations have been governed by the
maxims of sound philosophy. China, which refuses to make
conquests beyond its natural limits. St. Marino, which,
when invited by the chief consul of France, to round the
territories of her small republic, refused so tempting an offer.
Massachusetts, which surrendered the right of sovereignty to
an extensive dominion, when she could no longer exercise
power without committing injustice.

I am not of opinion with that French moralist, who said,
“Tl ne faut jamais songer a la guerre que pour defendre la
liberté ;” for all those wars may be considered as necessary,
and tending to promote human happiness, which are made
for the consolidation of natural empires. Thus those are
to be approved which took place for the union of the British
isles ; for the consolidation of France; for the establishment
of the kingdom of Spain.

' Also, all those which are undertaken to reduce large em-
pires to a natural size, which may however be considered as
wars for liberty.

All others are adverse to the real prosperity of states.

To some nations, the pomp and magnificence of prepara-
tion, and the hope of seizing with violence on the possessions
of others, may lead to combat. But far happier are those,
who, content with the dominion which Providence has as-
signed them, use every effort, consistent with true national
honor, to avoid the extremity of war.

They are saved from the dishonor of conquests over na-
tions inferior in strength—from the crime of exercising do-
minion over people who wish to be free—from the intoxica-
tion and false glitter of victory—from. the mortification and
the terror of defeat.

112 On the Manufacture of Glass.

Art XV.—On the Manufacture of Glass; by Horatio
N. Fenn,* M. D.

CRUCIBLES.

Ir is usual in all Glass Houses, for the manufacturers to
make their own crucibles. The difficulty and importance of
this branch cannot be duly estimated, by those who have never
been practically acquainted with the manufacture of glass. If
the pottery is bad every thing isin confusion: not only the first
cost of the materials, but the labor of their preparation, and
the expense of the workmanship is entirely lost. If on the con-
trary, the crucibles are well made, the manufacturer knows
beforehand the products of his fabrication, and directs it to
the greatest advantage. He can regulate the action of the
heat, vary at pleasure the vitrifiable materials, and in fact
manage and control the entire operation at will. It is all
important therefore, that the pottery should receive the strict-
est attention that it may be as perfect as possible.

In the first place it is essential that the materials for the
pots, should be of the very best quality. There are still im-
ported into this country, for the consumption of our glass
houses, three kinds of clay; the white and blue German,
and the English blue clay. They are all of the class called
porcelain clays. ‘The blue clays derive their color from car-
bonaceous matter, as they all become white in the furnace.
Our own country furnishes numerous localities of clay, which
are often substituted for those imported. The only kind
which I have seen used, is the Philadelphia or New Castle
clay, which I am informed is obtained on the Delaware River,
near New Castle, below high water mark.

This clay is brought to us in masses as large as one’s head ;
it is white, with rose colored spots of various sizes, scattered
through the body of it. These .spots are evidently caused
by oxide of manganese—as on exposure to the heat of the
furnace, they become black. It is very infusible, and when
mixed in certain proportions with the other clays, it forms a
preferable compound for pots to either of them alone.

* Dr. Fenn having been practically concerned in the manufacture of glass,
has communicated the following observations for this Journal, at the request of
the Editor.

On the Manufacture of Glass. 11s

For making pots we use equal parts of raw clay, burnt
clay, and pot shells. This last is obtained by breaking the
old pots, (that have been thrown out of the furnace,) into
pieces and then picking off the adhering glass and glazing.
These materials are each separately ground, and _ silted
through a fine seive—they are then put together into a trough,
and intimately blended while in a dry state; water is now
poured in, until the whole mass acquires the consistence of
mortar. In this state it is suffered to remain ten days or a
fortnight, covered with a wet cloth. It is found at the end
of this time, of the consistence of dough and nearly as te-
nacious. A workman is now employed to turn it, and work
it with his feet. He commences by cutting it into slips of
an inch thick, and three or four inches wide; these he lays
on the bottom, at the farther end of the trough, when he has
covered the bottom in this manner, he gets upon it, and con-
solidates it with his feet; he thus continues until the whole
mass is thoroughly trodden. This operation is performed
daily until the clay becomes solid, or in other words until all
the air has been pressed out of it, so that upon cutting it
open it presents an even uniform surface. Should it now be
of a proper consistence, pots may be made of it. But it is
thought to improve if it is suffered to remain in this state six
or twelve months before it is formed into pots—and as far as
my own experience extends this is the fact.

For making the pots we use cylindrical moulds, formed of
plank, bound with iron hoops opening on each side. Upon
these the workman places pieces of cloth, moistened so as
to adhere to the side of the mould, until the whole inside
is covered. This is to facilitate the separation of the pots
from the mould. The mould being thus prepared, he cuts
off a piece of clay, as much as he judges sufficient to form
the bottom of the pot, together with four or five inches of
the side—this he places upon a board of a size to cover the
bottom of the mould, the mould is now placed over this, and
the workman getting upon the clay, treads it down around
the bottom. The centre of the clay is then beat down to
the proper thickness of the bottom of the pot, by a block of
wood made for the purpose, and the remainder of the clay
beat up around the sides of the mould by the hands to the
desired thickness—the sides of the pot are then extended by
beating small rolls of clay, upon the inside of this with the
hands, until they are brought to the top. The inner surface of

Vor. XVI.—No. 1. 15

114 On the Manufacture of Glass.

the pot is now smoothed by an iron instrument, and the top of
it trimmed and finished. After which the whole is set aside
to dry—when it is thought to be sufficiently firm to sustain
itself, which is usually the fact in forty-eight hours, the mould
is removed, and the whole outside of the pot is carefully
dressed over. This process of smoothing and solidifying is
continued daily, until the pot becomes so dry and hard that
no impression can be made upon it. The pot is now finish-
ed, but it should remain six or twelve months, before being
used, experience proving conclusively that a pot twelve
months old, when put into the furnace, is much less liable to
break, than one that has been but recently made. The frost
should be carefully excluded from the room where the pots
are stored, as should the water in them, (of which they al-
ways contain some,) congeal, it would ruin them.

We usually make our pots two feet in height, twenty inch-
es in diameter at the top, and sixteen inches at the bottom.
The bottom is two and a half inches thick,—the sides one
inch and a half at the top, and two inches at the, bottom.
A pot of this size when tempered, will contain 250 Ibs. of
glass. We ordinarily have from eighty to one hundred pots
in the pot room, so that there may be no necessity for using
new pots. When perfectly made, and of good materials, a
pot will last in the furnace from three to six weeks. When
imperfectly made or of poor clay, they are very liable to
burst on the side, next the centre of the furnace, and at the
time when the melting is nearly perfected. When this acci-
dent occurs, the entire contents of the pot are lost, as they
at once, flow into the tone of the furnace, and mix with the
ashes and coals, with which that part is filled. |

When anew pot is to be set, it is taken to the tempering
oven, and placed carefully within it. The fire under this
oven is then gradually raised to a bright red heat, and re-
tained at that point five or six hours. When the workmen
have finished blowing, the furnace is allowed to cool down
to the temperature of the oven. ‘The pot is then carried
into it, through the stoak hole or door at its end, and placed
by means of a large iron bar and hooks, upon the bench di-
rectly under one of the rings.

The loss arising from the failure of the pots, (which can-
not always be prevented,) notwithstanding that all the care
and skill of the most experienced and intelligent workmen
has been bestowed upon their manufacture, adds greatly

On the Manufacture of Glass. 115
to the original cost of window glass. Could we substitute
or discover, some substance, that, together with the other
essential properties of clay, was not liable to fracture, it
would supply what is now a great desideratum.

The various works of masonry necessary for the manufac-
ture of window glass, are the following.

1. Calciming ovens for preparing the materials.

2. A reverberatory furnace, for fusing them.

3. A flattening oven, for flattening and annealing the glass.

4. Drying ovens or wood kilns, for drying the wood.

5. A tempering oven, for burning pots and clay stone
generally.

In the description which follows, of the various steps
which the materials are made to pass through, in converting
them into window glass, these several structures will be
briefly described.

The vitrifiable materials and the proportions in which
they are used, are the following.

Veronasand,100. Sand, 100. Sand, 100.
Potash, 34. Kelp, 65. Sul. Potash, 465.
Salt, 1s seks umes 8. Lime, 8.
Lime, 5. Chip glass, 30. House ashes, 15.
House ashes, 15. House ashes, 25. Saw dust, 2.

Chip glass, 30. Chip glass, 30.

Sand, 100. Sand, 100. This mixing is the
Sul. Soda,* 60. Potash, 20. one which we have
Lime, 5.” Kelp, 28. commonly employ-
Ashes, 20. Lime, 5. ed, and on several
Saw dust, 2. House ashes, 15. accounts it is per-

Chip glass, —.20.

Chip glass, 25.

haps preferable.

The sand is thrown into the calcining oven and ignited

five or six hours.
same treatment.

The house ashes are subjected to the
The object is the same in both—to burn

away the vegetable matter, drive off the water, and expel
the carbonic acid, which the materials may contain. When
this is accomplished, the materials are taken from the oven,
allowed to cool, and sifted through a mesh 3, of an inch in
diameter.

* If this salt is used containing the water of crystallization, 140 parts should
be taken.

116 On the Manufacture of Glass.

The lime is changed to an hydrate and likewise sifted.
The potash is broken into pieces not larger than a walnut.
The salt needs no preparation.

Kelp.—This term is applied to a salt made from the
ashes, collected from under the kettles of the salt works at
Salina. It is manufactured in the same manner as potash,
by lixiviation and evaporation. It is used in our manufac-
tory as a substitute for salt and potash. I should think it a
compound salt, composed of muriate of potash and carbon-
ate or sub-carbonate of soda, in nearly equal proportions. It
would be preferable to potash in the formation of glass,
could we always rely upon its composition ; but this at times
varying, causes occasionally serious loss.

The sulphates of potash and soda, when employed, should
be finely pulverised. The saw dust is used as being more
convenient than charcoal. The effect of either is to decom-
pose the sulphates, by seizing the oxygen of the sulphuric
acid, forming carbonic acid, and escaping through the mate-
rials, while the sulphur of the sulphuric acid, being left free
is driven off by the heat employed, ‘and the alkali remains
in its purest form, to unite with the silex.

The materials being prepared as above stated, are put to-
gether, and so intimately blended, that the different articles
shall be uniformly distributed through the whole mass. If
circumstances will permit, it should remain three months in
this condition.

There is. but a slight difference in the quality of the glass
which these different mixtures produce, and the time requir-
ed for their fusion is nearly the same. As to the relative cost
of either, it must depend upon the comparative price of the
several articles in market, which of course varies from time
to time. |

‘Sometimes, in consequence of the materials not being
sufficiently free from vegetable impurities, the glass will as-
sume a yellowish tinge. To obviate this, or to correct it .
when it occurs, the white oxid of arsenic, the black oxid of
manganese, the nitrate of potash and the oxides of lead are
all occasionally used. They all appear to act, by furnishing
oxygen, which combining with the carbon, carries it off in
the form of carbonic acid gas.

To get these materials to the bottom of the pots, that they
may unite with the glass, and produce the intended effect, is
best accomplished by wrapping them in a wet paper, and

On the Manufacture of Glass. 117

thrusting this down by means of an iron rod. - In this way,
with the black oxid of manganese, I have usually succeeded,
perfectly. The effect of the lime, (which enters into all the
mixtures,) is thought to be, to aid in the fusion of the mate-
rial; and it certainly produces one other effect, that is, it
renders the glass a better conductor of caloric, so that in
tempering, and in the other operations which it undergoes,
there is less liability of loss by breaking, particularly, when
under the action of the diamond.

The wood used in the furnace for melting and blowing, is
from three to three and a half feet in length, split so fine that
no stick will measure more than two inches in diameter, and
all of it requires to be kiln dried. Six ovens built in the center
of the manufactory, each containing a half a cord of wood,
are used for this purpose. The furnace when in operation
consumes six cords of this wood in twenty four hours.

The Furnace itself is constructed either of artificial stone,
made of the same clay as the pots, or of some natural
sandstone, that is nearly or completely infusible, when ex-
posed to the elevated temperature requisite in the fusion
of glass.

The kind generally preferred is that obtained from Hav-
erstraw on the North River.

The pots of which there are ten, are placed five on each
side of the furnace, upon benches extending the length of
it, raised about twenty inches from the bottom of the tone,
which term is applied to the space in the middle of the fur-
nace between the pots—opposite each pot, is a ring stone,
through which a space is left denominated the ring, of about
seven and ahalf inches in diameter. ‘Through this the ma-
terials are put into the pots, and the glass taken from them
for blowing. They also constitute the only draught to the
furnace, which is regulated by small clay stones called cook-
ves. At each end of the furnace, is a fire place of sufficient
size to admit the passage of the pots into the tone, with
which it directly communicates. The fire places after the
pots have been put into the furnace are closed, by means of
a claystone door, eight inches thick, through which is an
opening near its center four inches in diameter, to admit
the wood—a space is also left at the bottom of the door for
the admission of air, and the lock stone which forms the
bottom of the fire place is also perforated for the same pur-
pose.

118 On the Manufacture of Glass.

The furnace is supported at the four corners, by pillars of
masonry and upon each of these it is usual to build a cal-
cining oven, with a flue communicating with the furnace.
This arrangement saves the expense of the fuel which would
be otherwise consumed in preparing the materials. .

When a furnace is built it requires from three weeks to a
month, to raise the temperature, to the desired degree, after
which the heat is sustained steadily and uniformly in the fol-
lowing manner. The stoaker, as the fireman is called, com-
mences his tour of duty by taking two sticks of dry wood,
he puts one of them into the hole in the clay door near him,
then walks deliberately around the furnace, to the further
door where he deposits the other in the same manner ; con-
tinuing his travels, he encircles the furnace, and again sup-
plies himself with wood. Thus moving at the rate of about
three miles an hour, he continues his route supplying regular-
ly the furnace with fuel, until he is relieved at the end of six
hours, by another stoaker, who is likewise relieved by the first.
We usually employ, and always prefer for this business su-
perannuated blowers, as they are familiar with the manner
in which the fire should be regulated, so as to produce the
quickest melt, with the least quantity of fuel. Although
it appears a very simple operation, yet two hours of time
will be gained in every melt, by employing an experienced
stoaker.

Melting.—When the farnace has arrived at what is cal-
led a white heat, the vitrifiable materials, (or mixing,) are
thrown into the pots through the rmgs, by means of an iron
shovel made for the purpose. After the pots are filled, the
cookies are replaced, and the fire increased to its max-
imum, and regularly continued, until the materials are per-
fectly fused, during which operation, the superintendant of
the furnace or master stoaker as he is termed, occasionally
examines the glass with an iron rod, to ascertain the state
of the melt, and that it is going on prosperously. The fu-
sion of the first laying in being accomplished, the pots are
again filled with mixing—and this process is repeated, until
the melted metal, is within three inches of the top of the
pot. To insure an intimate mixture of the different layers
of glass, and form a perfectly homogeneous mass ; it is now
stirred.

This is done either by means of a billet of wood or wha
is better a potatoe put on the end of an ironrod. This is

On the Manufacture of Glass. 119

thrust down to the bottom of the pot, through the melted
glass, when the sudden conversion of the contained water
into vapour, creates a motion throughout the whole mass,
resembling ebullition, raising the glass to the tops of the
pots. This soon subsiding, they are next filled with frag-
ments of glass, and the cookies again placed in the rings.

As the fire is continued, large quantities of air in the form
of bubbles rise and burst on the surface, until eventually the
fluid mass becomes perfectly clear.

When this fact has been ascertained, the furnace is suffer-
ed to cool down, for one hour or until the glass stiffens on
the tops of the pots. During this time the doors of the fur-:
nace are opened, to clear out of the tone the slag ashes and
coal which may have accumulated during the melt. The
fire is now gradually increased, until the metal becomes of
a proper consistence for blowing. The blowers are then
called, and the master stoaker delivers the care of the fur-
nace to the master blower, whose duty is to superintend. the
fire during the blowing. On an average, it takes twenty four
hours in melting when the furnace is new, and thirty hours
when it has run six months. It is usual to keep one furnace
in operation nine months, from September to June, and then
to employ the three summer months, in repairing the works,
A furnace of ten pots, of the ordinary capacity, will make
from seven hundred to one thousand boxes of glass per
month, according to the good or bad success attending its
operations.

Blowing.—There is one blower and a boy er apprentice,
allotted to each pot. The blower commences by first put-
ting the end of his pipe into the ring, leaving it until it is near-
ly red, then putting it into the water, when the oxide flies off,
and leaves a metallic surface—it is then dipped into the metal,
and by turning it around a quantity adheres to it—this is ta-
ken out, and if necessary, fashioned by an iron, termed a
strike iron, it is again taken to the pot, and by repeated dip-
pings a sufficient quantity is accumulated to form a cylinder
—this usually requires three gatherings as it is technically
termed. The workman now puts the ball of glass a short
distance within the ring, where he holds it a few moments,
(constantly turning it,) that it may acquire the precise tem-
perature necessary. Itis then withdrawn, and by means of
the strzke iron the semi fluid mass is crowded near the end of
the pipe, when it is conveyed toa concavity, formed in a

120 On the Manufacture of Glass.

block of wood, which contains a small quantity of water,
where the blower causes it to rotate for a moment to give form
to the mass. Then applying the mouth piece of the pipe
to his lips, and blowing, he gradually inflates the ball, still
continuing the rotation until it becomes of the required size.
This process forms a hollow globe on the upper side of the
ball. The workman now puts it again to the ring of the
furnace that it may regain the heat which it has lost in the
preceding process—it is then taken from the fire, and the pipe
again applied to the mouth, and standing on a bench, the blow-
er at one and the same time swings it from side to side, gives it
a rotatory motion, and inflates it. In this operation the centri-
fugal force, aided and corrected by gravitation, (while at the
same time it is inflated) causes the globe to assume the form
of a cylinder, attached to the pipe at one end, and closed by a
hollow hemisphere at the other. The cylinder is now held near
the ring, so as to soften the extreme ends, a hole is blown
through its centre, and then as it is rapidly whirled, the centri-
fugal force acting upon the softened hemisphere, converts it
in the first place into a plane, extending across the cylinder
at right angles with its sides, and then as the motion is con-
tinued, the central perforation increases in size until it sud-
denly expands to the diameter of the other parts of the cyl-
inder. It is then held perpendicularly a few moments until
- the glass cools, when it is given to the boy, who, taking it to
a wooden support, cracks it from the pipe, by touching the
neck with a moistened iron. One other operation is required
to complete the cylinder which is called cappling. This is
done by taking from the pot a small quantity of the fluid
glass on an iron rod, and with the assistance of a pair of
pincers, it is applied around that end of the cold cylinder that
was attached to the pipe. This ignited thread, coming in
contact with the unannealed cool glass cracks the cap off,
leaving a perfect cylinder. To fit the cylinders for flattening,
an ignited iron is drawn repeatedly from end to end, when
withdrawing it, and applying the finger moistened, to the
part, it cracks through its whole length, in nearly a strait
line; they are then securely stowed away for flattening.
Flattening.—There are two objects to be accomplished
by this process; first, to convert the cylinders into planes,
and afterward, to anneal, or temper the glass. The struc-
ture intended for this purpose, is divided into three distinct
parts. A, the rear or entrance into the flattening oven. B, the

On the Manufacture of Glass. 121

flattening oven, and C, the cooling, or tempering oven.
These ovens are prepared for the process, by raising the
temperature of the cooling oven, to about 500° Fah. by
means of the flue a, which communicates with a fire place,
and grate below. The oven Bis raised to the temperature of
ignition, through the flue 6, while the rear, communicating
with this oven, receives heat from it, but in consequence of
the arch covering it being much lower than that thrown over
the oven, the heat as you proceed from the oven gradually
diminishes so that at its entrance, the temperature is less
than that of boiling water. The cylinders of glass being
unannealed, it is absolutely necessary to prevent their break-
ing, that the heat should be cautiously applied. This is ef-
fectually accomplished, by constructing the rear as above
described. Within the rear on its bottom are placed two
bars of iron extending its whole length, which is usually
about ten feet. When the ovens have been brought to the
desired temperature, an iron plate is put over the flue at a,
closing it entirely ; some splinters of wood, are then thrown
into the oven, to sustain its heat and give light to the work-
men. A boy is now employed, to bring the cylinders and
put them in upon the iron bars, in the rear, propelling them
successively forward by means of a rod, until the rear is full.
A man standing at the opening D, by means of an iron rod,
now brings the cylinder which was first put in, upon the
stone E; here the temperature is such, that the glass being
flexible, is spread out upon the stone. A block of wood at-
tached to another iron rod, is then passed over it, pressing
the glass into close contact with the stone. The workman
now, with an iron, called the cropper, shoves it under the
partition, upon another stone, F. It is allowed to remain
upon this stone, until it is sufficiently cool to retain its form.
A man at G, then removes it to the back part of the oven,
where he places it upon its edge in nearly a vertical position
—thus each successive cylinder is made to pass through these
several steps of the process, and they are eventually packed
“away together in the annealing oven. When the ovenhasbeen
filled, the fires are put out and every passage into the ovens
is closed with mortar. It is allowed to remain in this situa-
tion, a week in winter, and ten days in summer; at this time
the oven is opened, and the glass being sufficiently cool to be

handled without inconvenience, is taken out and carried to the
Vor. XVI.—No. 1. 16

122 On the Manufacture of Glass.

cutting room, where it gradually cools to the temperature of
the atmosphere. i!

Perhaps there is nothing connected with this manufacture,
that causes so much pleasure and surprise to the spectator,
as the facility with which an experienced glass cutter per-
forms his work ; but in reality, no mere manual art requires
more time and patience to acquire the requisite skill than this.
There have been several opinions as to the manner in which
the diamond operates, in dividing plates of glass) When a
diamond is drawn across a sheet of glass, so as to produce a
good cut, the line which it makes is scarcely perceptible, yet
the fracture extends through the plate. The cutter judges
of the perfection of the cut, rather by the ear than the eye.
A peculiar creaking sound is produced when it is perfectly
done. If a rough white line is made, accompanied with a
tearing sound, you may be sure that the glass is not cut. In
this case It would seem, that the fracture, instead of descend-
ing vertically from the point of the diamond, extends later-
ally from it and returns again to the surface, separating mi-
nute fragments of the glass which are conchoidal. In selecting
diamonds, I prefer those that are perfect, with triangular rhom-
boidal faces, the edges not strait but slightly convex, either
octahedrons or dodecahedrons. ‘The peculiar delicacy re-
quired in the cutting edge of the diamond, is such, that by
constant use, (although so very hard.) it is soon destroyed,
and this difference is so slight, that to the eye it appears
perfect. :

_ Cylinder glass as usually met with, is far inferior to crown
glass. Some of its imperfections are necessarily connected
with the manner in which it is made, and cannot be entire-
ly obviated. Others there are remediable, with due care
and skill. geek

The inferior lustre or polish, the irregular reflection of light
from its surface, and the slight abrasions and scratches,
which are perceptible, more or less, upon all specimens of
this kind of glass, belong to the class of inevitable evils;
most of these however, can be greatly mitigated, by peculiar
management and care.

The inferior lustre, is occasioned, by the necessity of heat-
ing the glass again, in the process of flattening. Should the
temperature be raised no higher than is absolutely necessary
to render the glass flexible, the diminution of the lustre
would be so slight, as to be scarcely perceptible : but in con-

On the Manufacture of Glass. 123

sequence of an increased heat accelerating the operation,
the workmen are tempted to employ it. It 1s probable this
increased heat volatilizes the alkali from the immediate sur-
face of the glass, and thus the silex deprived of its solvent,
causes the dimness. The same effect is produced, as it is
well known, by a long exposure of window glass to the
weather, and is exhibited in a remarkable degree, upon frag-
ments of glass which are left for months in the flattening
ovens, which become perfectly opake, resembling pieces of
porcelain.

The imperfect reflection is caused by the impossibility of
bringing the sheet of glass, into perfect contact with the
stone, in consequence of air and dust getting between them.
As the ovens are now constructed, the utmost care will not
wholly prevent it. The slight scratches are produced by
shoving the sheet from one stone to the other. These may
be prevented in the following manner. A sheet of glass is
made very thick, from one fourth to one third of an inch.
This is placed upon the flattening stone, and the cylinder is
brought upon it and flattened. Bothsheets are then shoved
down upon the other stone, the upper sheet is removed, and
the thick one which is called a Jegger, returned to the flat-
tening stone to receive another. All the glass which is cal-
led imitation crown, is flattened in this manner ; and where
all the above precautions are taken, it is nearly equal in quali-
ty to crown glass, while it possesses the superior advantage of
being thicker.

Imperfect as we commonly find cylinder glass, still its low
price, (being but about one half that of crown,) insures for it
an immense market, particularly in those parts of our country,
where the inhabitants, having cleared their farms, are chang-
ing their residence from the rude log cabin, to a more comfort-
able frame dwelling. In the state of New York there are at
this time, no less than eight cylinder glass houses, which to-
gether throw into the market from sixty to seventy thousand
boxes annually. Indeed at the present moment the domestic
competition is so great, that it has reduced the price in twelve
years, two thirds. It now bears but about the same value as
the amount of the duty imposed upon its importation by
government ; of course it has entirely excluded the foreign
cylinder glass from our market. I believe there is at pres-
ent but one establishment in our country, for manufacturing

erown glass, and that is at or near Boston. This I under-

124 Polar Explorations.

stand has been hitherto conducted profitably, although their
fuel costs four times as much as it would in many other parts
of the country. Why, considering our national spirit of en-
terprise, the many inducements arising out of our peculiar
situation, together with the remarkable, local advantages,
which we undoubtedly possess for carrying on this manufac-
ture, should not have produced corresponding investments
of capital, is mysterious and unaccountable. It would cer-
tainly be very desirable if we could be wholly independent
of other countries for this necessary and beautiful article.

Art. XVI.—Polar Explorations.
(Communicated for this Journal.)

Tue attempt to obtain a North West passage to the In-
dies, has been prosecuted with a zeal far surpassing that
which turned the commerce of Europe round the Cape of
Good Hope from the wearisome overland journeys through
the deserts of Syria and Persia, or from the shifting and dan-
gerous navigation of the Levant and Red Sea, by the way
of Egypt.

The adventurous spirit awakened by the improvements in
nautical science, suggested as early as 1527, the idea of a pas-
sage to the Hast Indies through the Polar sea. The attempt
to discover it was first conceived by Robert Thorne,* a
merchant of Bristol, who submitted proposals to that effect
to Henry 8th and to the Emperor Charles 5th, and it is sup-
posed probable that Sir Martin Frobisher’s attempt to find
a North West passage, was in consequence of those repre-
sentations, although no aid was extended to him by either of
those sovereigns. He did not penetrate above 62° N. lat.
where he discovered the strait which bears his name.

Mr. Thorne’s opinion of the probable success of such an
enterprise, was founded upon the great advantage of con-
stant daylight for a length of time sufficient to accomplish
the voyage, and from a belief that a perpetual sun would
warm those regions, so as to give an open sea from the arctic
circle to the pole.

a nn

* Hackluyt.

Polar Explorations. 125

By subsequent voyagers it was imagined, that by crossing
the pole, either in a North West or a North East direction,
the distance to the Indies would be curtailed, thus giving
them the precious commodities of those golden regions, with-
out the long, and then difficult voyage around the Cape of
Good Hope.

A North East passage was attempted in 1553 by Sir Hugh
Willoughby, who commanded “a fleet of three ships, with
pinnaces and boats,” equipped and furnished by the “‘ Compa-
ny of Merchants Adventurers of London.” At North Cape
one of the ships left the fleet and returned home. Being
separated from the other he proceeded north, until forced by
the severity of the weather into a river of Lapland, the ship
was frozen up, and he with his ship’s company all perished.
The notes of his voyage, and his last will, were found lying
before him, by which it appears that they lived until January ;
and itis affecting to observe, that three different companies
were despatched in various directions, but after four days
journey they returned to the ship, “ without finding any peo-
ple, or any similitude of a habitation.’’*

His consort, the Edward Bonaventure, commanded by Sir
Richard Chancelor, pursued a North East course until they
found themselves “in a sea where there was no night;” and
at length followed some natives in a fishing boat, into a deep
bay, to “St. Michaels, the arcnaneeL.” On learning that
this port belonged to Russia, Sir Richard left the ship and
proceeded on sledges to Moscow, where he obtained letters
from Czar John Bazilowitz to Edward VI, and procured
some important commercial privileges for the English merch-
ants.

In 1585, Davies discovered Cape Desolation, on the west
coast of Greenland, and the strait called by his name.

In 1607, Sir Henry Hudson was sent by some London
merchants to “‘ attempt a passage by the North Pole to Japan
and China.” In this voyage he discovered Spitzbergen, and
reached the 80° North lat.; but being stopped by the tice
from the north,-he concludes that “a passage to China 1s unat-
tainable in these parts.” In the following year he was fur-
ther employed in a voyage of North East discovery.

In 1609, the Muscovy Company despatched Jonas Poole
to make discoveries; who after examining the south and west

* Voyage of Sir Hugh Willoughby, Pinkerton’s Coll. p. 15.

126 Polar Explorations.

coasts of Spitzbergen, was unable to proceed beyond 79°
50’. He was further employed in 1611, but ‘after surmoun-
ting numberless difficulties, lost his ship at Spitzbergen. In
1514, 15, Baffin and Fotherby were equally unsuccessful.

The Russians and Dutch had not slumbered upon a sub-
ject so interesting to commerce, and among many unavailing
attempts during a century, the celebrated Dutch navigator
Wm. Barentz succeeded so far as to winter in 1596, in Nova
Zembla N. 70° 20’, which had already been visited by Bur-
rough, master of a pinnace belonging to Sir Hugh Willough-
by’s fleet.* )

Several fruitless attempts were made by successive adven-
turers, who never could succeed in doubling a cape which
sets far into the frozen ocean beyond the most eastern branch
of the Lena. Of the parties embarked in these expeditions
some were shipwrecked-—and others killed by savages—
while a few escaping settled in Kamschatka.,

After the Dukes of Russia had acquired the throne and ti-
tle of the Tartar Czars, many enterprising individuals pushed
their discoveries to the north and east.{ They soon found
the metallic treasures of the Uralian and other mountains,
but those who survived the rigor of the climate of the arctic
circle, reported the existence of enormous rivers under mass-
es of ice, pursuing their dreary way to the frozen ocean, and
of fossil islands formed near their mouths by the accumula-
tion of animal remains,—but no new facilities for passing
through those seas to the Pacific Ocean. |

Thus far, private effort had achieved all that had been
done. M. Cuvier asserts that “‘ Peter the Great was the first
monarch who conceived those scientific expeditions, which
England and France have since carried to their greatest per-
fection.” In 1715 the Cossack Markoff, accompanied by
nine persons, was sent by the Russian government, “ to ex-
plore the North Sea.” Finding the ocean impracticable, he
resorted to sledges drawn by dogs, and left the shores of Si-
beria under the 71st degree of N. lat. They proceeded
north for seven days, when the ice mountains became im-
passable. He ascended the highest, but could perceive noth-
ing except interminable ice, and having consumed his pro-
visions was compelled to return, which he effected with diffi-
culty, some of his dogs having perished. .

*Hackluyt, Vol. 1. p, 274. + Ed. New Phil. Mag.

Polar Explorations. 127

In 1744, the British parliament passed an act to encourage
the discovery of a North West passage, and Capt. Cook
proceeded to the North West coast of America, and ascer-
tained its proximity to Asia, but adopted the opinions of pre-
ceding navigators, that no passage could be effected in that
hemisphere between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

_We pass over many private adventures of intense interest,
and many records of suffering, in vain endeavors to extend
that part of geographical science connected with the pole,
and come to the date of George the 3d, who upon ascending
the throne, was eager to promote those discoveries, which
might tend to the advancement of knowledge and com-
merce. Among other plans for this purpose he lent a ready
ear to the proposition from the Royal Society, through Lord
Sandwich, for navigating the polar seas, and in 1773, direct-
ed a voyage to be undertaken under the command of Capt.
Phipps, afterwards Lord Mulgrave. This intrepid navigator
forced his way to 80° 37’ north, but could proceed no further,
being opposed by “ one unbroken plain of ice bounded only
by the horizon.”

In 1789, Sir Alexander McKenzie discovered the river
which bears his name, and followed its course to the frozen
ocean, where it discharges its waters in 69° 30’ N. 135° W.

Many bold navigators have expressed the opinion that a
North West passage is impracticable ; yet the English coun-
cils seem to have been actuated by the spirit of Lord Bacon,
who says, “ regarding impossibility, I take it those things are
to be held possible, which may be done by some persons
though not by every one; and which may be done by public
designation, thongh not by private endeavor; and which
may be done in succession of ages, though not within the
hour glass of one man’s life.” Not discouraged by former
failures they have fitted out expedition after expedition—
science has tasked its power, and art has exercised its most
ingenious devices to aid the endeavour—the most daring spi-
rits—the most determined courage—the most patient indus-
try, fortified by a religious confidence in divine superinten-
dence and protection, have been enlisted in this magnificent
enterprise. Parties by land, and ships by sea, furnished with
every thing that could favour their success, have been em-
ployed to push those discoveries which are wanting to com-
plete the survey of the arctic circle.

For this purpose, in 1818 the Isabella and Alexander at-
tempted to penetrate to the west coast of Baffin’s Bay.

128 Polar Explorations.

In 1819, two expeditions were ordered, one by land under
the direction of Capt. Franklin of the royal navy, and the
other by sea under the command of Capt. Parry. Capt.
Franklin was instructed to proceed to the mouth of the Cop-
permine River (discovered in 1771 by Mr. Hearne) which falls
Into the arctic sea in 69° N. 110° W. and thence to navigate
the coast of that sea east, if possible, until it washes the
north eastern shores of America.

Capt. Parry was placed in command of two ships, the
Hecla and Griper, which were strengthened in every possi-
ble way to adapt them to sucha perilous service. The
number of men amounted to ninety four, including Capt.
Sabine, astronomer to the expedition, and the officers of
both ships. They were munificently provided with every
thing to defend them from the rigors of the climate, with
provisions and stores for two years, and a large supply of
preserved fresh meats in tin cases, lemon juice, sour krout,
and other approved anti-scorbutics. ‘They were furnished
with philosophical instruments, and numerous presents to
conciliate any savages with whom they might fall in, or to
procure further supplies. Nothing was omitted that might
contribute to the success of the enterprise, or to the health
and comfort of those engaged in it.

In May the ships left England, and arrived on the 18th of
June at the margin of the icy barrier which is perpetual in
the centre of Baffin’s Bay. ‘This immense body of ice con-
sisting of detached masses of all dimensions, closely packed
together, is from eighty to one hundred and fifty miles in
breadth. The swelling of the sea, the shifting of the wind,
and perhaps the force of unknown currents, are continually
changing the position of the pieces, occasionally opening
lanes of water, and as quickly closing them, sometimes per-
mitting the ships an unobstructed passage of a hundred
yards, and then requiring as many hours to make half the dis-
tance. By availing themselves of these openings, and by
sawing passages through immovable floes, also by pushing
the ships through the ice whenever it was much broken,
these daring navigators crossed this extraordinary barrier in
forty one days. This was not effected without the most im-
minent perils. They were repeatedly beset, and the roll of
the sea often forced the heavy ice against the rudder with
such violence, as to threaten the ships, strengthened as they
were, with instant destruction.

Polar Explorations. 129

On the 29th of July they found themselves in a clear sea, in
73° 51! N. lat. 67° 47’ W. long. and no bottom with three hun-
dred and ten fathoms of line. As the wind freshened the ice
disappeared, and they seemed to have arrived at the head
quarters of the whales, eighty two having been seen in one
day. They made good progress due west in lat. 74° meet-
ing with no obstruction from the ice, and were sanguine in the
belief that they had found the passage to the polar sea; but
on the 6th of August, land was discovered ahead, which
proved to be the first of a group of islands, commencing in
lat. 74° 39’ N. on the north west side of Baffin’s Bay. They
were named the North Georgian Islands, by Capt. Parry.
Their geognostical character, and their animal and vegeta-
ble productions were minutely examined, and their precise
latitude and longitude were ascertained, with a due atten-
tion to every object interesting to science.

On the 4th of September the expedition reached the
110th degree of west longitude, and thus became entitled to
the reward of five thousand pounds, ordered by his majesty
for such of his subjects as should penetrate thus far within
the arctic circle. The hope of pressing forward through
this opening into the polar ocean direct to Bhering’s strait,
exhilarated every individual with the most animating antici-
pations: and in imagination they had already obtained the
great object which had interested the world for nearly three
centuries, and in which more than forty expeditions had fail-
ed. But the ice soon arrested their progress, and the rapid
advance of winter compelled them to seek a harbor for their
ships. At Melville Island, the most western of the North
Georgian cluster, they established their winter quarters, by
sawing a channel for the ships through the ice, in many parts
eight feet thick, two miles and a half round, into a sheltered
anchorage, which Capt. Parry named Winter Harbor ;
where they were to remain during the long darkness of the
polar night. This wasin 74° N. lat.and 112 W.long. After
their recent escapes and dangers, they rejoiced in their pres-
ent security and in an intermission from anxiety and fatigue.

The officers were now diligently engaged in arranging
every thing which could conduce to their own and the peo-
ple’s comfort. An observatory was erecied on the ice, for
astronomical purposes, and a snow house for magnetic ob-
servations. Divine service was performed upon the sabbath,
evening schools were established to instruct the men in read-

Vou. XVI.—No. 1. 17

130 Polar Explorations.

ing, writing and arithmetic, and theatrical amusements to
cheer their spirits.

The methods adopted for warming and ventilating the
ships, the regulations relative to food, fuel, clothing and ex-
ercise, the religious order and the exact discipline which
prevailed, are subjects of interest and admiration; and the
details are of the highest value to succeeding adventurers,

On the 16th of October the sun was seen for the last time
during four months, the rein deer took their departure over
the ice for the continent of America, the birds had long since
flown to other climates, the Esquimaux had retreated south,
and the only living things left to dispute the dominion of
these frigid regions, were a few white wolves and arctic foxes.
When the sky was clear, the glowing twilight in the edge of
the southern horizon at noon, with the moon light and the
dazzling whiteness of the snow, prevented that deep darkness,
during a considerable part of the winter, which would be
naturally anticipated. But in walking when the weather
would allow, the “ permitted two miles, to the summit of the
hills,’ the scene was calculated to inspire involuntary sad-
ness. Not an object was to be seen, not a rock or a shrub,
not even a wolf or a fox; nothing but the smoke from the
ships interrupted the view of an endless waste of snow. The
cold was severe, and in storms it was impossible to pass
even from one ship to the other. The whole was a scene of
indescribable sublimity and grandeur. The darkness and
silence, and cold brooding over creation were apt sumili-
tudes of that primeval state, when the Almighty said “ Let
there be light.”

Capt. Parry and his associates were in a situation to con-
template it with awe and admiration. But to Capt, Franklin
the season was arrayed in tenfold terrors. No sublime emo-
tions consoled him and his officers. Their people lying
dead of famine around them ; themselves reduced by fatigue,
and cold, and want, to skeletons; dizzy and weak ; sleeping
on the ground without shelter; without food or fire, and the
snow drifting over them: to them the darkness and desola-
tion of the scene were replete with revolting horrors.

Capt. Franklin left England accompanied by three officers,
with instructions from the government to the Hudson’s Bay
and North West companies, to furnish him with guides,
boatmen, canoes, provisions, stores, and every facility for
which he should make a requisition. The party traversed —

3)

Polar Explorations. 131

the country between York Factory on the west coast of
Hudson’s Bay to Fort Chippewyau, one of the company’s
stations in N. lat. 59, W. long. 110, where they were obliged
to stop for the winter, in 1819; and before they could start
for the sea, were again compelled to take up winter quar-
ters at Fort Enterprise, in 1820. From this place they
commenced their northern journey, in 1821, with seventeen
Canadian voyageurs, two interpreters, and two English at-
tendants, twenty eight in all, including officers. Their sup-
plies were slender, for provisions were scarce; but had they
been plentiful, the expedition had no means of transporting
them, as the only practicable mode of travelling was in bark
canoes or on foot, over a difficult country. The rivers
abounded in dangerous rapids, which rendered the labor of
carrying their canoes and baggage over the portages, intol-
erably fatiguing, and they were therefore compelled to rely
upon Indian hunters for meat.

The party arrived at the mouth of the Coppermme river,
a distance of three hundred and thirty-four miles from Fort
Enterprise, on the 18th of July, after suffering much from
hardships, accidents and want of provisions. The Indian
hunters now left them, and Capt. Franklin proceeded to nav-
igate the sea east of the Coppermine, with his Canadian
voyageurs, to whom the scene was fearfully new, they hav-
ing been only fresh water navigators. After pursuing an
easterly course for six and a half degrees, Capt. Franklin re-
gretted extremely that the scarcity of provisions, and the ad-
vanced season of the year, would not permit his pushing on
towards Hudson’s Bay, where, he fully believed, from the
trending of the coast, there was a communication with the
Polar Sea; but circumstanced as he was, he was obliged to
obtain winter quarters if possible among the Esquimaux
near the coast, or hasten his return to Fort Enterprise. As
they could find no sign of any Esquimaux, they had no al-
ternative but to return, as the country: was a barren desert,
destitute of fuel, and nearly so of animals, for the men could
not by their utmost exertions, procure half a supply of meat
or fish. Their return to Fort Enterprise, was marked by
a series of unparalleled distresses. Several of the people
died of want, having often been without food for many days
in succession. A little moss scraped from under the snow
was their only dependence, and large tracts occurred, where
even that was not to be found. The shocking details of

132 Polar Explorations.

their sufferings need not be here repeated. Those wlio sur-

vived were reduced to the extreme of debility and wretched-

ness. On reaching the fort they found it in ruins, but were
assisted by some Indians to a station of one of the trading

companies, from whence they terminated a journey of five

thousand five hundred miles, at York Factory, in Hudson’s

Bay, in July, 1821.

After being ten months locked up by the ice in Winter
harbor, Capt. Parry, in July, succeeded in extricating his ships
and spent the remaining time until September, in fruitless
efforts to obtain a passage through the shoreless ice on the
western margin of Baffin. Finding their exertions ineffect-
ual, and another winter at hand, they returned to England
in 1820.

In 1821, the Hecla and Fury, of the R. N. were put in
commission, and Capt. Parry commanded, to renew the
search for a North West passage through Hudson’s Bay.
The ships were fitted and equipped as before, with every ad-
dition suggested by experience. The principal improve-
ment was that of having the ships of equal size, an advant-
age repeatedly noticed by Capt. Parry, as being of the first
importance.

The expedition arrived in Repulse Bay in August, hoping
to find a passage through that inlet, but after a minute ex-
amination the land was found continuous around it, thus set-
tling the question which had excited particular interest res-
pecting that quarter. Agreeably to their official instruc-
tions, the expedition proceeded north, exploring every bend
and inlet on the western coast of Hudson’s Bay, by boats
and walking parties, and found a continuous coast as far as
66° N. lat. The ice and cold increasing, presented insur-
mountable obstacles to further progress, and by the first of
October they were compelled to go into winter quarters.
Their occupations and regulations were similar to those that
existed during the winter at Melville Island. The cold was
equally intense, being at 55° below zero on the 15th of Feb-
ruary. The spring did not commence any earlier, and in the
following July they were necessitated to saw a passage to re-
lease the ships. ‘The Esquimaux were more numerous than
at. Melville Island, as were the wolves, foxes and bears.

After leaving winter quarters, the most daring attempts
were made on the line of coast north, to achieve the object
of their voyage. The ships were often in the greatest dan-

Polar Explorations. 133

ver of being crushed, being beset by immense fields of ice,
and once the Fury was near shipwreck. The expedition
persisted in ineffectual efforts, until again compelled to re-
tire to winter quarters in September, “ satisfied that no navi-
gable passage existed for ships in that quarter.”

The whole progress made during the summer of 1822 was
only 3° north, and that had been accomplished principally by
mere drifting, while the ships were beset by the ice. An arti-
ficial harbor was made near the land by sawing the ice, and
the ships once more frozen up for the winter. At this date,
Capt. Parry remarks that, “flattering as were our prospects
at the commencement of the past summer, little satisfaction
remained at the close of the season, but the consciousness of
having left no means untried that could promote our object.”

The ships remained bound in fast ice until August, the
latter part of which month concludes the Polar summer.
They were so immovably fixed, that, had it not been for the
skill and industry exerted in sawing the ships out, their fate
must have been like that of Eric and his colony in lost Green-
land, and no one would have escaped to relate their story.*

Although they had hitherto enjoyed almost uninterrupt-
ed health, scorbutic indications now began to appear, ow-
ing to the nature of the service, which exposed them to a
great deal of wading in water, at or near the freezing point,
and to sudden changes of temperature in passing to and
from the warmth of the interior of the ships, to the ex-
cessive cold without ; among the causes of disease, should
be mentioned also, the want of fresh vegetables, the gloom
and monotony of their daily prospect, and the absence
of those exciting causes, which exhilarate and cheer the
spirits. A little sorrel, and an occasional blade of meagre’
cochlearia or scurvy grass, were almost the only vegeta-
bles yielded by the sterile soil. Of these, the little ob-
tained were of essential service to the indisposed. There
remained no further service to be performed in this season,
as it was now time to provide for the coming winter, and
upon weighing these considerations it was determined to re-
turn to England. Before coming to this conclusion, Capt.
Parry observes, that, “as the sun went down, we obtained
from the mast head a distinct view in that quarter, and it is
impossible to conceive a more hopeless prospect. One vast

* Crantz, Greenland.

134 Polar Explorations.

expanse of level solid ice occupied the whole extent of sea
to the westward, and the eye wearied itself in vain to dis-
cover a single break upon its surface.”

‘In 1824 the Hecla and Fury, were again ordered to sea,
under the command of Capt. Parry, to make further exam-
inations respecting the northern boundary of the Ameri-
can continent, and a passage to the Pacific Ocean. They
left England in May, but were eight weeks in crossing the
icy barrier in the center of Baflin’s Bay, by which delay the
most valuable part of the summer was lost, to the main pur-
pose of the expedition. It was not until the 8th of Oct. that
they cleared the ice, in 72° W. lon. and 74° N. lat. This
extraordinary barrier was fifty leagues broader than when
they passed it in 1819, owing probably to the severe winter,
and the tardy summer of 1823 and 1824, They had to dread
even the possibility of being frozen up for the winter, in the
middle of Baffin’s Bay. It startles one’s imagination, to con-
template two ships in the midst of three hundred leagues of
ice, surrounded by mountains towering high above the masts;
huge floes of several miles in diameter, with smaller pieces of
all dimensions, driving into packs by currents, and dashing and
shoving by the roll of the sea. In this condition the skill of
the officers seemed unavailing, and the physical strength of
the men impotent, but by the aid of divine protection, they
were in this, as in many other instances, in this precarious and
perilous navigation, rendered effectual to their preservation.

They had only reached the site proper for the commence-
ment of their operations when it was again time to secure
quarters for the winter. This was deferred to the last possi-.
ble moment; and every measure was adopted to effect their
purpose, such as “sallying,”’* sawing, and rushing through
broken ice under a press of sail. After great fatigue and.
difficulty they reached Port Bowen in Prince Regent’s inlet,
on the western side of Baffin’s Bay, on the 26th of Septem-
ber. The labor of sawing out a basin for the accommodation
of the ships, in ice of great depth, was again to be encounter-
ed, and on the 1st of October, they were happy to warp their
ships into their winter stations. Their arrangements were
even more complete than in preceding years; especially in an
improved method of warming and drying the ships. The

* « Sallying” is the running of the men suddenly from one side of the ship
to the other to break the new ice by the rocking of the vessel.

Polar Explorations. 135

temperature for one hundred and thirty one successive days,
was below zero.

The latitude of the observatory at Port Bowen is 73° 13’.
This winter passed like those which preceded it ; the officers
were equally attentive to the regulations established on board
the ships, and equally diligent in scientific collections and
observations. ‘Their amusements and occupations had not
now the merit of novelty, but were in some degree analo-
gous to the season.

Less of animal life was seen at this station, than at any one
visited by the expedition. Capt. Parry observes that “ the
presence of man seemed an intrusion on that dreary solitude
which even its native animals had forsaken.” No Esqui-
maux appeared, for days together; except a single seal, or
sea horse, no animal was visible on this coast.

After sawing a channel for the release of the ships, they
found themselves on the 19th of July, once more at liberty.
The remainder of the season was devoted to the same untiring
efforts to push their way, as on former summers, but the re-
lentless opposition of the ice, rendered their exertions of little
value. In the latter part of August the fury was shipwrecked,
and after transferring the men, and as many stores as could
be received on board the Hecla, Capt. Parry found it neces-
sary to return to England.

Upon the subject of that catastrophe, this undaunted com-
mander remarks, that it was not an event to excite surprise
in the minds of those acquainted with the true nature of
this kind of navigation. To any thus qualified to judge, it
is plain that an occurrence of this kind, was rather to be
expected than otherwise. Our previous exemption from se-
rious damage had induced the erroneous notion, that our
ships were proof against any pressure from the ice. I con-
fess, that though a moment’s reflection would contradict
such a notion, I often felta degree of confidence in their
strength, too nearly approaching to presumption. While we
trust that it will appear that our own endeavours have nev-
er been wanting to preserve the ships committed to our
charge, we also feel and acknowledge that it has not been
‘our own arm” nor “ our own strength” to “ which we have
so long owed their preservation.”

Capt. Parry does not despair of the North West passage,
but believes “ it will be ultimately accomplished,” and adds,
“‘T shall be happy if my labours as pioneer shall contribute

136 ~ Polar Explorations.

to the success of some more fortunate individual, but most
happy should I be, to be selected as that individual.” The
uniformly obliging and friendly manners of his associates,
and the courage and willing obedience of the men, are
themes to which he frequently recurs with pleasure; and
when it isremembered that this series of service was render-
ed in eight successive years, amidst severe trials, dangers,
and disappointments, the eulogium forms no common praise.

Undismayed by former dangers and sufferings, Capt. Frank-
lin in 1825, accepted from the government a second appoint-
ment, to explore his way to the Polar Sea.

This party consisted of Capt. Franklin, and three other
officers, twenty four Englishmen, two Canadians, and two
Esquimaux.

The officers went by way of New York to Lake Superior,
and about four or five days march from Mathye portage, over-
took their boats and crews, which had left England eight
months before them.

They proceeded directly to the junction of the Bear Lake
river with the McKenzie in 65° N. lat. and 123° W. long.
After leaving a sufficient number of men at this place to pre-
pare a house (called Fort Franklin,) and other accommoda-
tions for the winter, Capt. Franklin with the remainder of the
party, in four small boats, proceeded to the sea coast, going
down the McKenzie to its mouth, where its numerous branch-
es form a large delta of alluvion, enclosing several islands in
its various reaches.

They discovered an island thirty miles north of the Whale
Island of McKenzie, which Capt. Franklin named Garry, in N.
lat. 69° and 135° W. long. On this island were layers of wood
coal, beside a bituminous liquid tricking down the cliffs. It
was covered with shrubby plants and thin grasses and mosses,
and on the beach were pebbles of granite, quartz, and Lydi-
an stone. The fibrous structure and the twisted state of the
woody layers were easily traced in the coal, and several im-

ressions of seed and ferns were observed.

They hastened to rejoin their companions at winter quar-
ters, and arrived at Fort Franklin on the 5th of September.
This winter although they were straitened for provisions, was
still comparatively comfortable. Divine service was regularly
attended on Sundays, and the same attention paid to the
comfort and improvement of the men, as was practised on

board the ships, commanded by Capt. Parry. Capt, Frank-

Polar Explorations. 137

lin frequently remarks that “the conduct of the men was a
striking exemplification of the character of British seamen,
for courage, resolution, patience, obedience, and ambition
to achieve their purpose.”’*

The greatest degree of cold was on the ist of Jan. 49°
below zero. In May the spring began to dawn, swans and
geese arrived; on the 16th mosses began to sprout, on the
ist of June the dwarf birch and willow, were in leaf, and
anemonies and Lapland roses were in flower.

On the 15th the equipments were ready, and the expedi-
tion proceeded in four row boats to the mouth of the Mc-
Kenzie. Capt. Franklin detached Dr. Richardson, surgeon
to the expedition, and Mr. Kendal, with a party in two boats,
to survey the coast eastward, towards the Coppermine river,
while he himself and the remainder of the expedition, direc-
ted their course westward towards Icy-Cape. Capt. Frank-
lin discovered two large rivers issuing from between different
ranges of the Rocky Mountains, bringing down large quanti-
ties of drift wood, which are carried by currents and eddies
to remote parts of the coast, and to distant islands.

On the 10th of August, they had attained nearly 150° W.
long. and were nearer to Icy-Cape than to the McKenzie.
Their progress, from the nature of the coast, which was mud-
dy and shallow, with naked, sandy, and gravelly reefs, pro-
jecting among the ice had been hazardous, and extremely la-
borious. It cost them nearly a month to push through oc-
casional openings, and it was not until August, that they
obtained a clear passage. On one of those naked reefs,
they were detained for eight days. They suffered much for
want of fresh water, and in one instance were without any
for forty eight hours. It is not intended in this paper to eu-
logise the travellers in the various expeditions under notice ;
but to show very briefly some of the results of their labors;
in this instance however we can scarcely forbear the expres-
sion of astonishment and admiration, at the zeal and _perse-
verance of these adventurers.

Vast floes of ice now came down upon them from the
North, with evidences of the rapid approach of winter; and
it was with great reluctance that Capt. Franklin relinquished

* That no part of the experience of the several expeditions by sea, may be
lost in any future attempts of the same kind in either hemisphere, Capt. Parry
is preparing a book of minute directions, for the entire equipment of ships em-
ployed in similar service.

Vou. XVIL—No. 1, ; 18

138 Polar Explorations.

his favorite object, that of welcoming Capt. Beechy to the
Polar Sea. That officer in command of the Blossom, had
been ordered to wait for him at Kotzebue’s Inlet, after pas-
sing through Bhering’s Strait from the Pacific.

But the brief summer permitted no further progress, and
Capt. Franklin turned his course towards Fort Franklin, after
tracing “ three hundred and seventy four miles of coast from
the mouth of the McKenzie, without discovering one inlet or
harbor, where a ship could find shelter; the most miserable,
dreary and uninteresting coast in any part of the world.”

They experienced violent storms, and met with hostile
Esquimaux several times on their return, but reached Fort
Franklin in safety, where the detachment under Dr. Richard-
son had previously arrived after a successful voyage of five
hundred miles east, to the mouth of the Coppermine river.

Although geographical discovery was the primary object of
the enterprise, the officers omitted no opportunity to collect
materials, and make observations connected with science.
An example of extraordinary scientific devotion occurred in
Mr. Drummond, assistant botanist. This indefatigable en-
thusiast, voluntarily spent a winter alone in the recesses of
the Rocky Mountains, sheltered from the inclemency of the
weather only by a hut made of the branches of trees. In this
situation he depended for subsistence from day to day on an
Indian hunter, and being without books he had no means of
abating the dreariness of his solitude, except an occasional
lonely walk, on wooden shoes, over the untracked deserts of

‘snow, in pursuit of the objects connected with his favorite
science.

The greatest degree of cold, experienced this winter, was
on the 7th of February, when it was 58° below zero, the
lowest temperature which has been at any time observed in
the Hyperborean regions.

The painful and dangerous journeys conducted by Capt.
Franklin have yielded valuable contributions to science, and
enlarged the boundaries of geographical knowledge. The
survey of thirteen hundred miles, being within eleven degrees
of Icy-Cape on the west, and about four hundred and seven-
ty from Melville peninsula on the east, with the trending of
the coasts towards those points, lead to the belief of a continu-
ous Jand shore on the American continent, stretching from
Bhering’s strait to Baflin’s Bay, where there is a probable
communication under the ice of those frozen seas between
the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

Polar Explorations. 139

The remarkable enterprise of attempting to travel over
the ice to the north pole, was undertaken by Capt. Parry,
under the auspices of the Lords of the Admiralty in 1827.

He embarked in the Hecla, already famous in the annals
of arctic discovery, with a crew and officers accustomed to
braving the storms and ice of the north, and proceeded to
Spitzbergen, where after encountering many obstructions,
and delays from the ice, the Hecla was placed in a secure
harbor of that island.

On the 21st of June, Capt. Parry left the ship accompa-
nied by four officers, in two boats with suflicient crews, and
crossed a strip of open sea north east of Spitzbergen, a dis-
tance of forty miles, where they commenced their journey
over the ice. The boats were fitted with runners to be
drawn by the men as sledges, or should they meet with open
passages of water to be crossed with paddles and oars.
They took provisions for seventy-one days, of the most port-
able and nutritious kinds, which with the boats, clothing,
utensils, and other necessaries made up a weight equal to
200 Ibs. for each man. The ice proved very “ hummocky”
and broken, and wasso covered with sludge, and deep snow,
as to make the travelling excessively fatiguing and uncom-
fortable : added to these impediments, lanes of water were
of frequent occurrence, occasioning the necessity of launch-
~ ing the boats, and again hauling them up six or eight times,
and in one instance seventeen times in one day. The sur-
face was so rough and deep, that the united strength of offi-
cers and men could not in every instance transport the boats
and baggage, but after conveying a part, they were obliged
to return for the remainder until the whole was removed.
Capt. Parry and Lieut. Ross preceded the rest to select the
best routes. The sledges having been conveyed as far as
they had explored, they all returned for the residue of bag-
gage, generally traversing, for the first fortnight, the same
road four and five times over, before they could effect the
entire transportation of their boats and stores. The whole
journey was performed and completed in boots and stock-
ings, thoroughly wet to the knees with snow water. At night,
if such it could be called where the sun did not set, the larg-
est surface of ice was selected—the boats hauled up and
placed alongside, and an awning made of the sails supported
by three paddles, and the bamboo masts. Under this shel-
ter they exchanged their wet clothes for their fur sleeping

140 Polar Explorations.

dresses, dry stockings and fur boots—ate their slender sup-
per—prepared for the next day’s journey—the men smoked
their pipes and told stories, and the labors of the day were
forgotten. A regular watch was set to look out for any mov-
ing or breaking up of the ice, and to attend to drying, as far
as possible, the wet clothes. They travelled ten hours, al-
lowing one hour for dinner, and employed the night, gener-
ally, for walking, and the day for sleep, for although the sun
was all the time apparent, its effects were very different
when it was highest in the heavens. The light was then
more dazzling—the sludge and water were deeper on the
surface of the ice, while by night the snow was somewhat
harder for travelling, although there was not a great varia-
tion in the temperature during the twenty-four hours. The
day was concluded with prayers, and sleep was obtained with
a degree of comfort that could scarcely be believed possible.
After sleeping seven hours, the man appointed to prepare the
breakfast, “roused them by the sound of the bugle.” The>
allowance for each man per day was 11 oz. biscuit—9 oz.
pemmican*—sweetened cocoa powder sufficient for one pint
-—rum, one gill—and 3 oz. tobacco for one week. Two
pints of spirits of wine was the daily allowance of fuel, which
placed in a shallow lamp with seven wicks, served to boil the
cocoa, and warmand dry in a slight degree, the interior,
covered by the awnings. They were drenched with rain a
considerable part of the time “not having had so much, all
taken together, in the whole seven preceding summers.”

The ice became more and more broken as the season ad-
vanced, and they proceeded north. From the “highest hum-
mocks” they sought for some object to rest their eyes upon
beside the sea and sky, but the forlorn waste mocked their
expectation—not even a bear, or a sea-bird—not even the
dangerous dashing of the waves met their view. The only
change from this dazzling desolation, was the fogs, and rains,
which obscured the extent of their solitude.

Their way lay often among loose pieces of ice, from five
to twenty yards asunder giving all the “trouble of launching
and hauling up the boats, without making any progress by
water.” In narrow openings where it could be effected, a
bridge was made of the boats from mass to mass, over which
the men and baggage passed. The snow was three feet deep

CT USE SAMEERA EO

* Meat dried and powdered fine, and packed very closely,

Polar Explorations. 141

near the “hummocks,” and it was difficult to get a footing
sufficient, to enable one leg to extricate the other; but the
average depth of snow was five inches over four or five of
water, besides many pools too deep to wade through. In
one instance, they were two hours in proceeding one hundred
yards, and to accomplish two miles north, they were under
the necessity of walking three or four. “If any thing could
compensate for this delay” says Capt. Parry, “it would have
been the beautiful blue color of these superglacial lakes,
which is one of the most pleasing tints in nature.”

In defiance of every difficulty, they continued to push for-
ward towards the north, but the quantity of rain which fell,
became more and more excessive, and finally, to their utter
confusion, they discovered the set of the arctic waters south,
drifting them faster from, than their exertions brought them
nearer to the pole. On the 15th July, “the rain fell in tor-
rents,” and the temperature was warmer than had been
known in the arctic regions. The 26th of July, made thirty-
five days since they began the journey ; a north wind accel-
erated the drift to the south, and Capt. Parry determined to
abandon the undertaking. ‘They had reached the 82° 45’
N. latitude, and found they had made only one hundred and
seventy-two miles, distant from the Hecla, in a north, 8° east
direction. To accomplish this distance, they had travelled
six hundred sixty-eight statute miles—nearly sufficient in a
direct line to have reached the pole.

The party had enjoyed good health up to this period, but
it was visible to the officers that the strength of the men had
begun to decline, their allowance of food being insufficient
to support men, living constantly in the open air, exposed to
wet and cold, and “seldom enjoying the luxury of a warm °
meal.”

Their return to the ship was more arduous than their out-
ward journey, but on the 11th of August, they began to hear
“the swell of the sea under the hollow margin of the ice,”
and soon launched their boats in the open ocean, having
been upon the ice forty-eight days. They first landed upon
a rocky islet the most northern land known upon the globe,
where they left some provisions on their outward journey.
Leaving this, they were defeated by a storm in an attempt
to land on Walden island,* where they also left provisions,

* Discovered by Com. Phipps, August 5th, 1773, N. lat. 80° 37.

142 Polar Explorations.

and came near perishing, having been fifty-six hours without
rest, and forty-eight at work in the boats. ‘ We noticed, says _
Capt. Parry, that the men had that wildness in their looks,
which usually accompanies cold and excessive fatigue, and
though as willing as ever to obey orders, seemed destitute of
the power to comprehend them.”

Upon the subject of reaching the pole, Capt. Parry is of
opinion, that it will be found of more difficult attainment
than has been anticipated. He can suggest no improve-
ment in the mode of travelling which he adopted, and is of
opinion, that dogs and rein deer would have been an incum-
brance in many of the passages, when the ingenuity of
man, and the powerful exercise of human reason, were more
essential than physical strength.

The confidence of reaching the Pole in this manner is not
diminished in the mind of Mr. Scoresby, the original pro-
jector of the plan, who thinks the failure of Capt. Parry and
his party was owing to the advanced state of the season, and
the meridian upon which they travelled; that upon a more
western meridian they would have come upon fast ice, and
thus have avoided the drift south, which carried them back
at nearly the same rate, as that by which they travelled for-
ward; that by leaving Spitzbergen in April, they would find
the snow hard; the exhalations would not bewilder them in
fogs, nor drench them in raius; and that by taking a suita-
ble traineaux of dogs or rein-deer, and providing for the
greater degree of cold, which would then prevail, he has no
doubt of the success of the enterprise.

Some who have been conversant with those icy tracts ima-
gine them solid and immovable from 84° to the Pole;* and that
in the ardor for research, manifested by these bold and per-
severing explorers, there remains a pledge, that its secrets
will yet be revealed. But in considering the laws which reg-
ulate the change of seasons, so far as has been observed
by man, it appears probable, that in every summer the ice
becomes broken, and every where agitated upon the surface
of the deep, from 68° to the extreme north, except where it
is wedged in straits, or piled up, and screened from the sun’s
rays by sheltering coasts, and defended by eddies or capes
from the washing and drifting of currents, and the motion of
tides. The observations of the late expeditions under Capt.
gL TE Ls

* New Edin. Phil. Jour. Dec. 1826. p. 88.

Polar Explorations. 143

Franklin and Capt. Parry, represent the degree of cold
greater at 68° on Bear Lake than at Melville Island, or any
of the higher latitudes, and it is reasonable to suppose that
it may be within a few degrees of the maximum existing in
any part of the frigid zone. The sudden waste of ice oc-
curring immediately upon the return of the sun, after four
month’s darkness, seems to be a provision of nature to pre-
serve the arctic circle from total congelation, and to main-
tain the balance of the waters in their circuit round the
earth. If these views are correct, the travelling in summer
must always be more or less impeded by fogs and rains, and
by sludge and moving ice; and it is a question which can be
solved only by experiment, whether a degree of cold sufh-
cient to prevent these impediments, would not be greater
than men could sustain, when travelling in the open air.
Capt. Parry observed that when the cold was most intense,
if there was any wind, it was nearly impossible to walk even
a few yards, without freezing instantly ; and that being the
fact, although no breeze should ruffle the keen air, there
would be danger of defeat to the enterprise from the cur-
rents, which their progress through it would occasion.

The north coast of Greenland, and one cape on the Asiatic
continent, have not been surveyed. If they are united by
an isthmus across the pole, a journey on its eastérn shores
might be undertaken with some prospect of success, pro-
vided the cold essential to the continuity of ice, and a hard
surface, should not be more severe than could be supported
by the travellers.

During the absence of the party on the ice, the officers
left in charge of the Hecla were engaged in scientific enqui-
ries, and particularly in investigating the natural history of
Spitzbergen.

This island has occupied a place in the minds of men as
being all which is imagined of the Pole. It presents lit-
tle to the traveller but mountains of ice, and vallies cov-
ered with eternal snow. No tree or bush clings to the
glaciers; the icebergs stand in solitary grandeur ; no sound
breaks the awful stillness, which is a striking character-
istic of the arctic regions. It is as though the elements
of nature were dead ; one vast, trackless, noiseless desert,
forsaken by wild beasts, and shunned by men. In the
summer, a few bears prowl among the snows, and the rein
deer visit it for the mosses, and scanty vegetables which

144 Polar Explorations.

grow in favored spots, on the margin of the sea. On the
eastern side of the island, immense icebergs stand in the
ravines like castellated towers, and being of a beautiful green
color, diversified by the strata of the cliffs, offer a highly pie-
turesque appearance. While the Hecla waited for the party
on the ice, the temperature was milder than it had been
found in the islands of Baflin’s, or the frozen coasts of Hud-
son’s Bay. On the western coast there is a remarkable
tract of open sea, where the whalers resort long after the
waters in the lower latitudes are frozen. This is attributable
to the remnants of the gulph stream, as it sweeps around
North Cape, before it is lost in the frozen ocean.

In many particulars, Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, the North
Georgian Islands, and all the coasts and lands discovered
beyond the latitude of 68° and 70° north, bear a strong-
er resemblance to each other than more southern parallels,
where genial seasons, and the assiduities of man, modify
their aspects.

The upper surfaces are seldom thawed more than four or
five inches, where in favorable spots ranunculi, poppies, mos-
ses, sorrel, and afew grasses make haste to vegetate, and with-
er almost as soon. The subsoil is almost impenetrably frozen
to a great depth, insome instances to fourteen and eighteen
feet. The absence of the sun for four months, during which
‘¢the bear dozes in his icy cave” or with all other living beings
retreats to southern latitudes; the cold, and above all the aw-
ful stillness which cannot be realized, without being wit-
nessed, are circumstances common to them all, as are the
fogs, and rains, and dazzling sunshine of summer, The win-
ter lasts ten months, leaving but two that can be relied upon
for navigating the seas or exploring the coasts.

Spitzbergen, according to Com. Phipps, is in 79° 56! N. lat.
The south end of the island is formed of high, barren, black
rocks, without the least mark of vegetation, the whole island
bristled into high peaks, which are in most parts covered
with snow “rising above the clouds.” In this as in Melville
island, when the summer commences, the changes are ve-
ry rapid. Ina week from the time when not a drop of water
could be obtained for drinking, without melting snow by the
fire, torrents were rushing through the ravines, and the sur-
face full of pools, and streams of water. .

Melville island, whose north coast isin lat. 75° 14’ N. long.
113° W. was traversed in various directions by parties from the

Polar Explorations. 145

expedition which wintered there in 1819. It differs from
Spitzbergen in its extensive snow clad plains, with a few hills
of moderate altitude; and although the west and south
coasts are bold and precipitous, there is not a mountain on
the island. Its north coast is entirely barren, and for many
leagues no living animal was seen. On the south shores, a
few Musk oxen, and Rein deer were seen and the sunny sides
of the ravines, and sheltered vallies were covered with sorrel
and mosses, and other arctic productions.

They found no Esquimaux, but some ruinous traces of huts
were passed, which seemed to have been long forsaken.

It is extremely interesting to observe the gradation of char-
acter in the savages, as they recede from the borders of the
Arctic Ocean.

The Esquimaux who inhabit the north coast of America,
Greenland and the islands between Bhering’s strait and the
Atlantic—the Lappes—the Samoieds, and the aboriginal
Kamschatdales on the European and Asiatic coasts, abating
some slight variations, might almost be taken for members
of a family, so striking is their resemblance. Their moral
elevation is but little above that of the wolves and foxes
with whom they divide the scanty spoils of those frozen soli-
tudes. Like them they are engaged in taking their prey, or
dozing in their dens.

They are stupid, and gluttonous, and commonly inoffen-
sive. Their harmlessness arises partly from apathy, and part-
ly from a narrow intellect, whose circuit of exercise is limited
to the few modes which they have for procuring subsistence,
and defending themselves from the cold. The only touch of
humane feeling which they appear to possess, is a strong at-
tachment to their children, and the only social virtue, hospi-
tality. Capt. Parry observes that they never appeared so much
gratified as when they were permitted to entertain himself, or
any of his people at their huts; but they were insensible to
gratitude, however great the favor conferred. A little in-
tercourse, with the ship’s company, elicited traits of cunning,
which showed itself in petty thefts, and a whining, dolorous
kind of complaint, designed to excite compassion, and thus to
extract further gifts from their benefactors. A considerable
number winter in Hudson’s Bay, living in snow huts, and feed-
ing upon seals and walruses taken through the ice. The few
who pass the summer at Melvilleisland, forsake it with the deer
and other animals in October. They remain in one place until

Vor. XVI.—No. 1. 19

146 Polar Explorations.

they have consumed or driven away the seals and walruses,
when they remove to some other part of the ice, in sledges”
drawn by wolf dogs, where they stay until compelled by the —
same cause to seek another station. In summer they obtain
fish, rein deer, and a few birds. They sometimes eat their food
without cooking, but when not rendered voracious by abstin-
ence, they boil it in a pot made by hollowing outastone. This
is suspended by thangs cut from seal or deer skin attached to
a cross bar made of the ribs of animals, over a lamp, which
is also scooped out of a stone—filled with seal oil, and light-
ed by a wick cf dry moss rubbed soft between their hands.
They procure fire by striking pieces of iron pyrites against
each other, over a plat of rubbed moss. Their dress made of
the skin of the rein deer with the fur inside, effectually se-
cures them from the rigors of the climate. When they go
out, another entire suit with the fur outside is put over all,
and a pair of water tight seal skin moccasins, with similar
mittens for their hands. A large deep hood serves the dou-
ble purpose of covering the head, and carrying the children.

The Esquimaux seen by Capt. Franklin, on the McKenzie,
were hostile and quarrelsome; traits acquired from the neigh-
boring Indians, who are always at war with them for the
means of subsistence. Those near Hudson’s strait are more
depraved than any seen on this continent, their capacity for
mischief and crime, having been rapidly developed by their
intercourse with traders and others.

The Greenland Esquimaux treat their women with more se-
verity—the Samoieds are more dull, and the Kamschatdales,
if possible, more brutish than any other tribes of the aretic
savages, but the similarity which otherwise prevails among
them, appears to spring from the sameness of their avoca-
tions—the dreariness of their country, and the hardships
which benumb their faculties.

The huts of the Esquimaux are superior in ingenuity and
neatness to those of the Kamschatdales. The “ balaghans”
in which the latter slumber away their existence, are dens,
or burrows under ground dark with smoke, and exhibiting the
consummation of poverty and wretchedness. ‘The snow hut
of the former is constructed with a degree of mechanical
skill. The sides are built of blocks of hard snow cut in paral-
lelograms, and so adjusted as to form a rotunda with an arch-
ed roof. A circular hole in the side filled with a transparent
piece of ice, serves for a window, and throws a mild light over
the interior, like that seen through ground glass. Upon

Polar Explorations. 147

squared blocks of snow in different corners stand their stone
lamps, and over them the cooking vessels. When supplied
with a store for the present day, from the last day’s sealing,
the hut of the Esquimaux exhibits the summit of their enjoy-
ment. ‘The men sitting around mending their fishing tackle,
the women singing their wild songs, and busily engaged in
making clothing—sewing moccasins—playing with the chil-
dren—and rejoicing in their smoking kettles of food. At
_ other times their gluttonous practices render them equally
stupid and disgusting.

They appear to have no idea of a Supreme Being, but
their superstitions refer to preternatural spirits, who, as they
imagine influence their affairs. Some of the “ cunning men”
pretend to converse with them, and thus gain an ascendency
over their tribes. Their great care to prevent the earth or
any heavy substance from pressing upon the dead, suggests
a suspicion that they have some notion of a future state ;
whether they have or not is problematical. Their arithmetic
extends only to counting six or seven, and at the utmost, ten.

From an attentive comparison of the inhabitants of the
aretic regions with the lowest Indian tribes who come next
south of the Esquimaux, the gloomy Mongols who roam
over the vast tracts of Northern Asia, adjoining the south of
the Samoieds and Kamschatdales; the Russian Boors and
the Finns, who border on the wandering Lappes; it is obvi-
ous that they all rise in the intellectual scale, as they ad-
vance towards more temperate climates. ‘Their powers of
observation are arrested by the greater variety of surround-
ing objects, and their ingenuity quickened in providing them-
selves with conveniences and comforts. Their physical ca-
pacities, free from the paralyzing effects of perpetual frost,
_ second their activity; their minds expand with various emo-
tions; imagination finds a corner to reside in; and in pro-
portion as their scope is enlarged, they also indulge in those
wild and cruel passions which darken and deform savage life.
_ The scientific officers and gentlemen attached to the ex-

peditions were unremitting in making observations upon the
tides and currents, meteorological and astronomical phe-
nomena, the magnetic force, and the variation of the nee-
dle. “ Professor Barlow remarks, that the magnetic experi-
ments cannot fail to be highly interesting to those who are
curious in this important branch of natural philosophy. The
needles were carefully watched, and the results registered
every hour; and when it is considered that they were made

148 Polar Explorations. —

where nature has placed the great depot of magnetic pow-
ers, and where every phenomenon of this kind is exhibited
on the grandest scale, we shall be able to appreciate the
value of these important results.”

Observations made by Capt. Parry, Lieut. Foster and athe
ers, during one hundred and seventy two consecutive caves?
induce them to suggest the following hypothesis :

That there is a diurnal variation twice in every twenty:
four hours past a certain point, which they denominate a ze-
ro, or magnetic meridian; the westerly variation occurring
in the forenoon, and the easterly after twelve o’clock. “ The
diurnal* change of direction appears to have been seldom
less than 1°, and sometimes to have amounted to 5° and 6°,
and even 7°;” and it is their opinion that the changes in
amount are due to the influence of the sun, and probably of
the moon, on the terrestrial magnetic sphere. The particu-
lar law of this influence remains unascertained. It is a ques-
tion whether the diminishing intensity of a magnetized nee-
dle in constant use, may not have caused some disturbance ;
but if that were the case, the variations should have dimin-
ished in a constant and regular ratio. They therefore im-
agine a small revolution of the polar point around its own
center, produced by the action of the sun. This theory ap-
pears to accord with observations in peculiar and various
situations in remote parts of the globe. In no instance was
the magnetic influence affected by the Aurora Borealis dur-
ing the three winters of Capt. Parry’s residence within the
polar circle. ‘The observations upon the needle were made
in a snow house, at a distance from the ships, in order to
avoid the effect of their attraction. 5

Capt. Franklin remarks that when the Aurora was stream-
ing with prismatic colors, it had an obvious effect upon the
magnetic needle, but that when it was of a steady dense
light without motion, the needle remained unmoved. He
infers that the feebleness of the electric fluid in the higher
latitudes, where it was seen by Capt. Parry, is the cause of
this discrepancy ; that the prismatic colors and the activity
of the phenomenon at 68°, the site of his observations, being
far greater than in the ineivde of 73° at Port Bowen, are suf-
ficient to account for the different effects witnessed by him-
self and Capt. Parry. If the cause of the variation of the
needle can be ascertained, and the laws which regulate it

* Edin. New Phil. Jour. March, 1827.

Polar Explorations. 149

settled, it will be a large compensation for the hazards and
hardships encountered by the patriotic adventurers, who
have confronted the elements and the savagesin making the
acquisition. Professor Barlow is of opinion that the hypoth-
esis suggested above, viz. “that of the magnetic pole having
a daily motion about its mean orbit, of about 24’ or 3! in ra-
dius, serves to explain all the general phenomena of the ob-
served daily changes in direction and intensity of the mag-
netic needle in different parts of the globe.” The position
of the magnetic pole is in 69° 16’ N. lat. and 98° 8’ W. long.
as computed by Professor Barlow, from the observations of
Capt. Franklin, Capt. Parry, and others.

The Aurora Borealis was less brilliant in the high lati-
tudes, than in the Shetlands, Orkneys, and Bear Lake, but
was noticed with particular accuracy, though without arriv-
ing at any satisfactory conclusion respecting the cause of its
appearance. Whenever it appeared, it was.in the southern
part of the hemisphere, and peculiarly near and low, even be-
low the clouds. Capt. Parry, accompanied by several offi-
cers, observed in one instance a column streaming down-
wards between the ship and the shore, a distance of only
three thousand yards. No crackling or noise was at any
time heard, and the prismatic colors were of very rare oc-
currence. The corruscations were generally of an uniform
yellow color, ina low arch of steady light, though some-
times in a small degree undulating and streaming, as in
lower latitudes.*

* In a late No. of the Lond. Mechanic’s Magazine, it is stated that Professor
Hansteen, accompanied by a naval Lieutenant, were to set out in May, 1828,
upon a scientific expedition through Siberia. At St. Petersburgh, they were
to be joined by Dr. Erman of Berlin, who goes with them as astronomer and
naturalist. They were to proceed by the way of Moscow, Kasan, Tobolsk, and
north along the Obis to Bereson, in order to examine the northernmost branch
of the Ural chain, and to observe the temperature of that tract. They hoped
to arrive in season, to pass the winter at Irkoutsk. They intend to go thence
north east to Jakoutsk, and onward one thousand and fourteen wersts, (six hun-
dred and seventy six miles,) to Ochotsk, over a country entirely uninhabited,
carrying provisions for the whole journey. The tour it is calculated will oc-
cupy two years.

The grand object of this important expedition, is to observe the phenomena
of magnetism and to ascertain if possible, the situation of the magnetic poles.

The British brig Chanticleer, commanded by Capt. Forster, left England
about the same time, on a voyage to the Pacific Ocean, for scientific objects.
The officers who accompany Capt. Forster, have all been selected on account
of their scientific acquirements. They are limited to three years absence, and

are instructed to proceed as far towards the South Pole as they can without
risking the ship.

150 Polar Explorations.

Geological researches, were also pursued with an avidity
not to be checked by the frost, which bound up the solid stra-
ta in ten fold chains, nor by the perpetual covering of snow
and ice upon the surface. In all these newly discovered
lands, primitive and transition rocks prevail, with but few al-
luvial deposits, and few if any volcanic remains. No new
metalliferous compounds occurred but many useful ores, and
some of the more interesting minerals of various kinds, such
as garnets, rock crystals and beryl. The fossil remains, and
the boulders found in tracts remote from their original locali-
ties; the arrangement of strata, and the general geognostical
character of the arctic regions, indicate that they are similar
to other extensive tracts, which have been examined by nat-
uralists. These facts strengthen the opinion that the grand
features of nature are every where the same; that they have
been subjected to the same changes, and that the same agen-
cies prevailed in forming the solid mass of the earth.

“When these phenomena,” says Prof. Jameson, “are ex-
amined in all their relations, and this beautiful and interesting
department of natural science, is raised to its true rank, pro-
ving that its relations connect it with the extensive arrange-
ments of the planetary system—it is then that the patient ob-
server is rewarded for his toils, and the mind obtains endurmg
and sublime views of the deity, in contemplating the frame
work of the universe.”

But little now remains to complete the survey of the shores
of the frozen ocean, and from the examples of intrepidity,
skill and perseverance, exhibited by those who have for the
last ten years been engaged in exploring those inhospitable
regions, and from the valuable additions thus acquired for
science, it may be hoped that the zeal for discovery will not
slacken; and that those who have proved themselves quali-
fied to contend with the elements—who have so often defied
the dominion of cold, and pursued the baffling navigation of
icy seas with so much success, wil] yet ascertain the northern
boundary of Greenland, and double the Cape of Ceverovos-
tochni, on the continent of -Asia.

These enterprises have added a page to the record of Eng-
land’s glory, more splendid than conquest, and we hope soon
to see the annals of our own country dignified by similar
achievements. The government of the United States, have
ordered the Peacock sloop of war, with two smaller vessels,
commanded by Capt Jones, on a voyage of discovery to the
Antarctic circle. From the character of those officers and gen-

Motion, the Natural State of Matter. 151

tlemen selected for the expedition, we may anticipate impor-
tant results, both to commerce and learning. <A vast ex-
pause of waters, invites the attention of nations, to investigate
the islands or continents—the fisheries or other treasures,
which may be contained within its unknown boundaries; and
we hope the liberality of government will make a provision
so ample as to ensure, as far as possible, success to the enter-
prise; which interests the hopes, and awakens the pride and
ambition of the American Empire.

Art. XVII.— Motion, the Natural State of Matter.
(Communicated.)

Tue experiments of Mr. Brown, have shown an inherent
locomotive power, in the molecules of matter. It is some-
what remarkable that we do not hear of their being repeated
in this country. They certainly deserve the attention of our
experimental philosophers, and might subserve more useful
ends, than exciting the apprehensions of those timid minds,
who are pleased to see in propositions of this class, a danger-
ous moral tendency. Some get a fit of the horrors, at the
idea of our being alive as many myriads of times, as we have
molecules in our corporeal frames.

What is it that constitutes life, motion, matter ?

We must not look for the secret of the great first cause ;
our province is to reason about the states of matter—a high
exercise of our intellectual powers; a source of the purest
enjoyment to philosophical minds. This paper does not pre-
tend to create a theory: it purports only to impart reflections
suggested by the various phenomena connected with motion.

It will be conceded to Mr. Brown for the present, that his
experiments are not illusions; that molecules have inherent
locomotive power. Let us see if the phenomena he has de-
tected, are consonant with the known phenomena of motion.

The states of matter are twofold: Matter in motion, and
matter at rest. .

The first comprehends molecules with inherent motive
power; planetary masses, brought into their orbits by a re-
sultant of two forces; animal bodies having voluntary mo-
tion; and fixed animal and vegetable bodies having motion
of parts.

The second comprehends all bodies at rest.

There are certain true existences, inscrutable to human in-
tellect, The semper existence of the first cause, and the re-

152 Motion, the Natural State of Matter.

al nature of the parts of our own bodies, and of the parts of
all things objective to us, to which the name of matter is giv-
en, are amongst these. ch

We come to the knowledge of matter by resistance.

When a body is brought to a certain state of velocity, from
a state of rest, it does not attain that velocity co-instanter
with the impact of the impelling power. It passes through
all the intermediate velocities. The incipience of its motion,
describes some part of space; immeasurable to us, because
infinitely small, but it is a part of space. So when matter
was created, did it not pass through all the stages of creation?
If at its incipience, or at that vanishing point between noth-
ing and something which constituted existence, it was sub-
jected to motion, then all magnitudes and phenomena objec-
tive to us, may be the effect of motion. For a point infinite-
ly small, having infinite velocity, and moving in a circle,
would appear to be in all parts of the circle at the same time.
And if other points with differing velocities were contained
within the circle, and the whole area were filled with these
orbits, the appearance of a solid would be presented.

If any other point with an equal velocity, or with a lesser
one, were directed against it, the points of resistance within
the disk, being as it were in all the parts of it at the same
time, the disk could never be penetrated. It would have the
properties of a solid as far as contact is concerned ; and
would appear to be so to the eye as far as vision is concern-
ed: thus satisfying the two senses by which we judge of eve-
ry thing. The wheels formed by fireworks, the points of con-
centrated fire having intense velocity, and which pass with
such rapidity through the air in long and zigzag lines, as to
appear to be in many places at the same apparent time, and
which we call lightning, are familiar illustrations of this ef-
fect of motion. 2

Motion then appears a sufficient means to raise those in-
finitely small states of matter to the magnitude and phenom-
ena of which we form a part. The same motive law that
governs the parts, may govern the masses of the universe,
and the planetary bodies be an aggregate of the movements
of the infinitely small points, and constituting one grand sim-
ple movement from the infinitely small to the infinitely great.
The mind rebounds at the simple grandeur of such a scheme
of creation, when it pauses to consider the instantaneous
disparition of all phenomena, which would result from the sus-
pension of that original motion which omnipotence produced.

Motion, the Natural State of Matter. 153

It has been said that we come to the knowledge of mat-
ter by resistance.

The mind can conceive of one infinitely small point hav-
ing infinite velocity, being not only apparently in all the
parts of the circumference, but in all the interior parts of a
disk at the same time; but as such a velocity is necessarily
always the same, so it is evident that phenomena like those
objective to us, could not be thus constituted, for there could
be no resistance. One point projected with infinite volocity,
and having an exclusive existence, could not resist itself.
Its velocity could not overtake itself because all the parts
of the line of motion are of the same degree of velocity.

To produce resistance there must be more than one body,
one moving with one degree of velocity, another moving
with a different degree of velocity would constitute a resis-
tance when meeting. The greater velocity would repel the
lesser.

Motion appears to be a necessary condition of both light
and heat. Lightis projected from the sun. Heat is projec-
ted from calorific bodies. ‘They are both reflected from sur-
faces. The rays of light coming witha velocity of one hun-
dred and seventy thousand miles ina second, pass through
glass into opaque bodies. Yet being greatly diverged, they
do not disintegrate bodies by their velocity. They fall with
a mild influence upon surfaces, and must be concentrated be-
fore they are destructive. Why is the sensation of heat
more intense than the sensation produced by light? Is it
because the rays projected from a fire, do not diverge, are
concentrated, and act ina mass? In proportion as we recede
from the source of the heat, is the force of the sensation.

If light and heat were attenuated states of the same pow-
er why do we not see a hot iron in a dark room? Is it be-
cause the heat or light in the body, in its way to the surface
is obstructed, and not coming out in parallel lines cannot be
visible? When the calorific quantity is increased, the at-
mosphere in contact with the surface being charged, the
rays come in parallel lines and are visible.

If all the rays which fall upon bodies, were reflected back,
would they not be so brilliant that it would be painful to look
upon them? Supposing bodies to absorb the greater portion
of the light which falls on them, we have thus a source for
the maintenance of animal heat, and for the heat which
is found latent in all bodies. What becomes of the vast

Vor. XVI.—No. 1. 20

154 Miscellaneous Notices, §c.

quantities absorbed by the earth? Do they keep travelling
on to the center, and thus become the source of volcanic pow-
er, and of the disturbing forces which have effected the ge-
ological relations of this planet.

When the sun goes down, animals feel an inclination to
sleep, when light returns they awake, and have an inclina-
tionto move. Is it light which operates thus upon animals,
by giving them’ an additional impulse? Is the inclination
1o sleep caused by abstraction of the cause of motion? An-
imal masses are distinguished from all others, by possessing
a principle with the faculty of voluntary motion. When it
determines to move, motion commences; when it determines
to stop, motion ceases.

Do we gain any thing by asserting that planetary bodies
are projected in right lines? Would it not be as reasonable
to assert that they have an inherent motive power, directing
them in right lines ?

Is it unreasonable to suppose motion to be the natural
state of matter; and rest to be its opposite state, or the
equilibrium of motion produced by gravity? Framanp. -

Art. XVIIL—Facts relating to Ohio and Mexico.

I. Miscellaneous Notices of Rocks and Minerals in the State
of Ohio; by Dr. S. P. Hinpreta—in a letter to the Editor,
dated May 13th, 1828.

1. Bowlder stones of primitive rocks.

Bowlder stones of primitive rocks scattered over the sur-
face, and buried in the upper soil of secondary countries are
always interesting. Those of the western states and espe-
cially of Ohio have been often mentioned in this Journal.*”
Among the specimens transmitted by Dr. Hildreth, are some
portions of the bowlder stones of Ohio. They as well as the
other specimens are numbered.—Among them are,

Gneiss, perfectly well characterised.

Granite—one specimen having white felspar and gray
quartz, but without mica, others fresh and handsome with
reddish felspar, and gray quartz, and black hornblende in-
stead of the mica—Trap in the form of fine grained green-
stone—Hornblende slate and crystalized hornblende rock.

* See Vol. III, p. 49—Vol. XIII, p. 39—Vol. XIV, p. 291.

Miscellaneous Notices, &c. 155

The fragments of such rocks are found in the vicinity of
Newark, Ohio, and from thence onward to Lake Erie, scat-
tered through the diluvial and alluvial earth, from the sur-
face to the depth of thirty-six or forty feet—The fragments
are of all sizes from an ounce to several tons.

No. 9 isa granite with red felspar, the rock is partly de-
composed: it is from the hills in Knox county, near owl
creek, a large branch of the Muskingum Rrver.

No. 10 is a fine leaved mica slate, from the bed of Licking
creek in Newark. Whet stones, whose appearance is like
this specimen, are sold for sythes in this town, and brought
from the waters of the Monongahela, within the primitive
range of the Alleghany mountains ; it is called the “crumb
creek stone.”

No. 14. A piece of water lime, found near Newark—it is
also found in great abundance, and of an excellent quality, in
the neighborhood of Coshoctou, near the line of the canal.

No. 15. A piece of water lime, from Louisville, Ky.

No. 17. Sandstone from the narrows of Licking creek, be-
low Newark.

No. 18. Sandstone.—Feebly agglutinated puddingstone,
from the same locality.

No. 19. White, silico-micaceous sandstone, of a rich and
beautiful appearance, found in place or beds, on the highest
hills in Licking county, about one thousand and fifty feet
above tide water, and four hundred and sixty six feet above
the waters in Lake Erie; Newark being two hundred and
sixty six feet above Lake Erie, leaving two hundred feet for
the height of the hills.

No. 20. Calcareous iron ore, Licking county. This ore
with a certain proportion of the argillaceous, is used in the
furnaces in the Licking valley.

No. 21. Arenaceous sandstone, composed chiefly of quartz
and felspar, from Cedar Narrows, Duck Creek, Washing-
ton county. This stone has been quite extensively used in
the manufacture of mill stones, and stands well, in the grind-
mg of corn. A bed of Turkey hone or stone for joiners’ tools,
used with oil, is found near it. The “millstone” quarry, is
covered with a bed of sandstone. A considerable distance
lower in the bed of the creek, stone coal and limestone are
found.

22. Fine sandstone, of the quality used for hearths or beds,
at the iron furnaces on Bush creek, Scioto county, near the
Ohio river ; it stands the fire remarkably well.

156 Miscellaneous Notices, ¢-c.

No. 23. White sandstone, composed chiefly of arenaceous
quartz; it is used in the composition of glass, at the manu-
factory in Zanesville, and found in an extensive bed, three
miles above that town, on the Muskingum bank.

No. 24. Three specimens of common sandstone, from the
falls in the Muskingum river, at Zanesville—taken twenty
feet below the surface of the rock—impressed with the scales
of a fossil fish, and containing charcoal. The figure of the
fish, was very finely engraved on the face of the rock, between
the fissures made in quarrying, but was broken up into small
pieces by the workmen; the whole cast was five feet long.
The canal round the falls is cut in this rock ; from this canal
numerous slips or cuts, are made laterally into the Musking-
um, affording sites for mills. In making a cut of this kind
last summer, several fossil fish were found, and a considera-
ble bed of charcoal.

No. 25. A primitive rock partly decomposed or disinte-
grated, and containing much sahlite ; found near Newark, in
diluvial soil; but found also on the tops of the highest hills in
Athens county, and in the waters of Federal creek.

Nos. 26 and 27. Argillaceous iron, in concentric layers,
from the hills, two miles south east from Newark.

No. 28. Globular, pyritous iron, found in the sandrock at
Zanesville. Large quantities of globular, argillaceous iron
ore, are found in the alluvial soil of Licking creek, at Newark,
from the size ofa four pound to that of a forty eight pound shot;
some are very round, others are shaped hke an urn. They
are sometimes found in digging for iron ore, but mostly in
searching for limestone, which is obtained in large and small
detached masses, from six to ten feet deep, covered with grav-
el and earth. The globular iron ore is covered with a coat
of rust, one half or three fourths of an inch thick, which easi-
ly comes off in scales. I have (says Dr. H.) two of these
globes; one eight inches, the other six in diameter.

No. 29. Compact, argillaceous iron ore, very rich; found
in scattered nodules, through the hills in Washington county,
from one to fifty pounds weight; sometimes in extensive beds,

No. 30. Red iron stone, the ore being apparently in the
chemical condition m which it is in the hematite ; it occurs
im beds.

No. 31. Carbonate of iron, or friable argillaceous ore;
Marietta—found in large beds, decomposing on exposure to
rain and air, and having the appearance of the rust of iron
of the shops.

Miscellaneous Notices, ¢-c. 157

No, 32. Pyrites, imbedded in clay, from Pappaw creek,
Washington county ; the bed of the creek for a mile in length,
is full of pyrites. Numerous furnaces have been erected in
the side of the hill near the creek, in which ore of some kind
has been melted; the beds of the furnaces are full of cinders.
Charcoal and stonecoal, have been used in the smelting. Sev-
eral wagon loads of scoriz are found in one furnace. Large
trees are growing over the beds of the furnaces, so that sev-
eral ages must have passed away since they were built. The
bottoms of the furnaces were lined with white clay, and the
sides built up with rough stone like a lime kiln. Several
mounds, one of stone, are found on the hills near. The
country is very hilly and broken on this stream. These fur-
naces have excited much speculation amongst the ignorant
and the curious; they were doubtless made by the Indians.
T have partially examined the pyrites, but can obtain nothing
but iron.*

No. 33. Pyrite, in rock, from Union township, March run ;
bed from four to five feet in thickness.

No. 34. Fibrous or radiated pyrites. It is found in an
extensive bed on the Ohio river, some distance below; it is
different from any other that I have seen.

No. 35. Pyrites, found near coal beds in Marietta.

No. 36. Slaty clay, saponaceous, ferruginous and glazed;
Marietta.

No. 37. Limestone, compact and gray, common to this
vicinity—free from shells.

No. 38. Micaceous sandstone; Zanesville.

No. 39. Jaspery iron ore, common on the beach of the
oa. in bent and contorted pieces, as if moulded when
soit. 2

No. 40. Bluish chalcedony, surmounted by crystalized
quartz; also, mamillary gray and blue chalcedony on horn-
stone; also, smoky quartz, from Flint ridge, fourteen miles
west of Zanesville.

No. 41. A piece of the cellular hornstone, or buhr-stone.
So far as I can learn this ridge can be traced from fifty to
eighty miles, in a N. E. and S. W. direction from Coshoctou
county, through Perry, Hockhocking, and Jackson counties,
except where it is interrupted by water courses, probably to
the Ohioriver. I have taken measures to learn more particu-
larly its extent and direction. The rock is evidently seconda-
yal PMR ee wine alt ae Goal! Leal ith way als

* It contains nothing but iron and sulphur.—£d.

158 Miscellaneous Notices, &c.

ry, containing bivalve shells, several of which are in my pos-
session, and the “‘cells,” appear to be made by some aquatic
insect. The ridge abounds in different kinds of flint, horn-
stone, jasper, &e.

No. 42. Three varieties of sandstone, used in buildings, &c.
Marietta.

No. 43. A beautiful deep red ochre, here called Terra de
Sienna, a name frequently given to ochres, as an indication
of excellence ; this is said by painters to be good; from the
Yellow springs, Green county.

No. 44. Yellow ochre, Fearing township, Duck creek, a
large bed. |

No. 45. Tufa and earth, deposited in vast beds, at the
yellow springs, Green county Ohio.

No. 46. Red ochre, from Little Muskingum creek, Law-
rence township.

No. 47. Alum earth, from Wolf creek, township of Wa-
terford; extensive bed.

No. 48. White clay, used for pots in the glass manufacto-
ry at Louisville, from Perry county, a few miles 8. W. from
Zanesville, and near the “ Flint Ridge.”

No. 49. Pyritous sand, Marietta.

No. 50. Pyrites, found in digging a well on Wolf creek.

No. 51. Clay, from the “ deep cut,” Ohio canal, thirty feet
below the surface.

No. 52. Sulphate of lime, found in digging a well; depos-
ited in the crevices of compact brown clay ; commencing
six feet below the surface, and extending fifteen feet ; earth
quite full of it; twenty one feet below the surface a bed of
pyrites four feet thick; then a bed of stone coal three feet
thick, and then water; well dug on the hills, or broken up-
lands, eight miles East of Marietta.

The rock formation in that part of the country, where I
reside, being altogether of secondary character, is not ve- |
ry rich in minerals; iron ore, and the different sulphurets,
being the principal productions that have yet come to light—
I have in my possession a very fine piece of copper that
was obtained from pyrites, a few miles from Marietta, on
Duck Creek—the bed is said to be extensive; the pyrites
were first roasted, then pulverized, and melted out in a large
crucible by a blacksmith’s fire; I should judge they afforded
from thirty to fifty per cent of the pure copper; from one
crucible, were obtained three or four ounces—should any

Miscellaneous Notices, &c. 159

person of capital, and the requisite stock of information,
enter into the business of working the bed, I have no doubt
it would be profitable.

Enclosed, is a small paper of a powder, found in Law-
rence County, about eighty miles west of Marietta, in a
bank of clay, and when first found, is in a liquid state, of
the consistence of cream, and nearly of that color; on dry-
ing it becomes blue. It is in separate parcels, confined to
small cells in the clay, in the manner that native quick-sil-
ver is sometimes found. It is said to be found in considera-
ble quantities. I should be glad of your opinion as to its
quality and use.

The powder mentioned by Dr. Hildreth, is of a delicate
azure, much resembling powder blue, and was not unnatu-
rally, thought to be oxid of cobalt; as however it loses its
color by the blow pipe, becomes magnetic, by being heated
on charcoal and very decidedly so, if grease be added be-
fore the heat is applied, itis probable that is similar to the
blue iron earth of mineralogists found in the diluvial coun-
try of New Jersey, and elsewhere.— Editor.

August 8, 1828.

Mexico.

Il. Extract of a letter to the Editor, from an American
resident in Mexico, dated Halcotal, near Temascaltepec,
July 13, 1828.

1. Geological character of the country.

With respect to caverns in this country, I do not expect
to see many, if even any: I have yet met with very little
limestone. Lava, volcanic tufa, trachyte, clay slate and a
little granite, with porphyry, are the predominant rocks of
all the parts I have yet seen of Mexico. Volcanic tufa, tra-
chyte and lava, form about ninety nine parts in a hundred,
of the country yet visited. This country offers probably as
extensive a field for volcanic rocks and their debris, as any
that I have seen described ; none of which appear to be
recent: nor is there any volcano at present in activity; a
fact which much surprised me, feeling almost certain, when

I came to the country, that I should see volcanos in ac-
tivity.

160 Miscellaneous Notices, &c.

2. Amalgamation.

The separation of the mercury from the silver, is here a.
clumsy, and comparatively, an expensive process. Instead
of using an iron retort, with two parts like an alembic, placed
upon the common open French furnace; the antique per
decensum method is the one resorted to. The amalgam is
placed under a large bell of copper which is encased for each
operation with unburnt bricks but so as to leave a space sufhi-
ciently great for the quantity of charcoal requisite to produce
the heat required. The heat being a lateral one, the mer-
cury rises towards the top, collects in globules and falls
through a funnel and tube placed at the bottom of the bell
into a vessel of water beneath the whole; or the whole bell
is filled with the vapor of mercury, which is condensed at the
lower part. Should you wish a drawing of the furnace, it
will give me pleasure to send you one. The furnace has a
fanciful appearance, like the tombs of the middle ages: the
bell being on the top and center of a quadrangle of mason-
ry; atthe corners of which are four pillars of the same, sup-
porting a pyramid, which serves as the dome of the furnace.

3. Climate of Mexico.

This country holds out great advantages to those persons
who suffer from those pulmonic affections, which arise from
too great action of the lungs on the arterial system, which I
think of consequence. Almost every degree of rarity of the
air can be obtained in this country, and certain degrees of it
can be obtained likewise, which are almost uniform for tem-
perature, from one season to another. In the city of Mex-
ico, breathing is attended with unpleasant sensations to ev-
ery stranger in ascending an elevation, be it great, or even
small. The action of the lungs is a labored one, and the
want of strength attendant upon their imperfect function or
performance, is very evident. [. found there, for the first
time in my life, a difficulty of breathing at night, frequently
waking with a sense of want of sufficient breath. At this
place nothing of the latter kind occurs, the elevation not be-
ing greater than about three thousand five hundred feet, but
still I cannot climb the hills and mountains here, as I was
wont to do in other countries, from deficiency of pulmonic ac-
tion. Since’I have been here, a period of five months, the
greatest degree of heat in my room has been seventy-two

Miscellaneous Notices, &-c. 161

and a half degrees of Fahrenheit, and the lowest sixty-six
degrees. I arrived in the extreme part of the dry season,
the hot one, and this is now the rainy one, and the coldest ;
the sun nearing us every day. With this small variation of
temperature, in addition to the effects arising from the rarity
of the air, as mentioned, what can be more favorable than
certain parts of Mexico for consumptive patients, whose dis-
ease arises from overaction of the lungs, caused or increased
by the dense air of our country? Besides these two advanta-
ges, there are others, and those of importance; they are fruits,
and other esculents, of all climates, and all seasons, which the
extreme variableness of level above the ocean, enables this
country to produce, and which are produced in sufficient
abundance.

4. Obsidian.

From the fragments of obsidian which J every where find in
this neighborhood, on land susceptible of cultivation, it is evi-
dent that it was pretty extensively used by the aborigines of
Mexico: it was, so far as I have observed, fashioned in two
ways only. The most common of the instruments made of it,
presents a parallelogram of about two inches long and an half
inch in width, and in thickness two lines, more or less, at the
center, from whence it tapers to the longest sides, so as to

| | ’ form two cutting edges.

They were used for cutting, as is evident from the number I
find of them with their edges hacked or notched. The form of
the other kind is that of the common arrow or spear head
of our country. Many are found here, very small, much
more so than any I have seen belonging to the former in-
habitants of the United States. The most «glassy kind of
obsidian was used for the former or cutting instrument: the
opaque, or lapideous, being the toughest, for the arrow
heads. None are now in use, and I should suppose, from a
conversation F had with a Mezican, that their use was now
forgotten. They are here called chinapis, (pronounced che-
napes.) It is however but a local name.

5. Geological Classification.

In your letter you mention a collection of rocks and mine-
rals recently arrived in New York from Europe.* If well cho-

* The very interesting collection of G. W. Featherstonhaugh, Esq.

Vou. XVI.—No. 1. 21

162 Miscellaneous Notices, &c.

sen they will on account of their number be highly useful. I
do not perceive that American geologists are turning their at-
tention to the masses or formations which compose the primi-
tive class, and our country is the best for that purpose that has
been hitherto explored. From the result of observations made
in the United States, from the upper part of New York to
Georgia, I have assigned no more than four masses or forma-
tions belonging to that class. They are the granite, gneiss, si-
enite, (including protogine or talcous gneiss) and clay slate.
All the other rocks were subordinate to one or more of these
four masses. These masses are arranged in parallel lines,
the first being nearest the ocean, the last farthest removed
from it; the geographic arrangement, as enumerated, ac-
cording with their supposed geological one. The granite
commences in Virginia, and runs through all the States
south of it. It contains within its range the shining clay slate
or schiste luisante of Brongniart, and the compact mass of
the same rock, which furnishes the gold of North Carolina.
"'The limestone of New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore, I
found was not a continuous mass; though its direction Is
uniform. I have walked round it in many places in North
Carolina, and in South Carolina. Itis generally encased in
talcous slate, or mica slate, and both are encompassed or en-
cased by the gneiss, being themselves also subordinates of
this great mass. Sienite with quartz, forms the rock of the
third range. This rock I have traced from the highlands
of New York, (North river,) to Pennsylvania; there it begins
to be mixed with talc, which increases in going south, and
finally in Virginia and North Carolina, near the Georgia and
Tennessee boundaries, it is a well characterized protogine
gneiss, resembling Jurine granite of that name; but with the
structure of gneiss. To this rock, alternating at the point of
contact, is referred the primitive clay slate, which alternates al-
so with thetransition slate, which in the southern states, is per-
fectly analogous with the rocks containing the anthracite of
Rhode Island. I long ago intended to communicate to the
American Journal a paper upon the classification of the prim-
itive rocks, as well as the succeeding ones; but | found
some facts which tended to a more simple classification than
the one mentioned, and whilst seeking for others to direct
me to the point where to stop, I found myself preparing
to sail for Mexico. I have about one hundred observations
of the dip of the gneiss of the southern states, all which
are iowards the east; consequently this rock underlies the

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 163

granite of that direction, or if the two masses, are sequent as
regards order of deposition, it follows that a change of the po-
sition of the one took place, before the deposition of the other,
a supposition no more to be admitted than the former one.
In vain I sought for a point of sub-position of the two masses,
to solve the ‘difficulty, and it was equally impossible to ob-
tain one, for the clay slate in the range of the granite: this
latter rock, appearing occasionally in the range of the slate,
(forming also its boundaries east and west, as before indi-
cated) like the same rock, with its killas or slate, as repre-
sented in the great sections of Cornwall. The difficulty just
mentioned, and some facts drawn from mica and other com-
mon minerals of the primitive class, drew my mind insensi-
bly to the consideration of one map for the class, varying in
parts not only from difference of mineral composition, but
from the presence and absence of those causes which pro-
mote or embarrass that property of matter, to which there is
nothing analagous but life, and which, though the cause of
many important geological phenomena, has been too much
overlooked. It is hardly necessary to say that I mean crys-
talization. One effect also, and not the least, of this com-
mon property of matter, has been the uplifting of strata, of
which none ought to doubt, who favor the igneous origin of
the rocks of the primitive class.

INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES.

Domestic AND ForEIGN.

1. The national historical pictures, by Col. Trumbull.—
The four great pictures, painted by order of the General
Government, are at length placed securely in their destined
situations. This fact and the means used for their preserva-
tion, as well as the building and the particular part of it in
which they are placed, are worthy of commemoration. We
therefore subjoin an extract of a letter to the editor from Col.
Trumbull—also his report to the government, and a memo-
randum of the size and cost of the Capitol, in which the pic-
tures are deposited.

1. Extract of a letter from Col. Trumbull.

The work which I was ordered to do in the Capitol is com-
pleted, I believe, to the satisfaction of the House: the paint-

164 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

ings which I found in a state of rapid decay, I trust I have
left in security; and the great room, which was a perfect .
nuisance from dampness and cold, is now warm as a green-
house, the thermometer being easily kept at or near 60°.

I enclose to you a copy of the report which I made to the
House, which I will thank you to insert in your Journal of
Science, if you think it deserves a place there. It may be
important to future artists, to know what has been done, in
order that, if time should prove my means effectual, they
may be, in future, adopted in similar cases; or be avoided, if
they should be proved by that only sure test, to be unsuc-
cessful.

It is a serious misfortune for their successors, that so few
of the ancient artists have left written explanations of the
mechanical part of their systems. The Venetian coloring
for instance, is proved by the test of three hundred years, to
be superior to all other works of equal age, in freshness, bril-
liancy and solidity ; but no one now knows what the vehicle
was with which they prepared their colors, yet a short me-
moir would have explained the system.

u. Letter from John Trumbull to the Speaker of the House
of Representatives, on the subject of the National Paintings
in the Rotundo of the Capitol_—December 9, 1828— Read,
and laid upon the table.

To the Hon. the Speaker of the House of Representatives, U.S.

Sir: On the 30th of May last, I received from the Com-
missioner of the Public Buildings a copy of the resolution of
the honorable the House of Representatives, dated the 26th
of May, authorizing him to take, under my direction, the prop-
er measures for securing the paintings in the Rotundo from
the effect of dampness.

I had always regarded the perpetual admission of damp
air into the Rotundo from the crypt below, as the great cause
of the evil required to be remedied ; and, of course, consid-
ered the effectual closing of the aperture which had been
left in the centre_of the floor as an indispensable part of
the remedy. [had communicated my opinions on this subject
to the Chairman of the Committee on the Public Buildings,
and had been informed that this had been ordered to be done.

So soon, therefore, as I received information from the Com-
missioner that this work was completed, (as well as an al-
teration in the skylight, which I had suggested,) and that
the workmen and incumbrances were removed out of the

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 165

room, I came on, and proceeded to take the several meas-
ures for the preservation of the paintings, as stated in de-
tail in the following report, which I beg leave to submit to
the House.

ist. All the paintings were taken down, removed from
their frames, taken off from the pannels over which they are
strained, removed to a dry warm room, and their separate-
ly and carefully examined. The material which forms the
basis of these paintings is a linen cloth, whose strength and
texture is very similar to that used in the top-gallant-sails of
a ship of war. The substances employed in forming a prop-
er surface for the artist, together with the colors, oils, &c.
employed by him in his work, form a sufficient protection
for the threads of the canvass on this face, but the back re-
mains bare, and of course, exposed to the deleterious in-
fluence of damp air. The effect of this is first seen in the
form of mildew; it was this which I dreaded; and the ex-
amination showed that mildew was already commenced, and
to an extent which rendered it manifest that the continuance
of the same exposure, which they had hitherto undergone,
for a very few years longer, would have accomplished the de-
composition or rotting of the canvass, and the consequent
destruction of the paintings. The first thing to be done
was to dry the canvass perfectly, which was accomplished
by laying down each picture successively on its face, upon a
clean dry carpet, and exposing the back to the influence of
the warmth of a dry and well aired room. The next thing
was to devise and apply some substance which would act per-
manently as a preservative against future possible exposure.

I had learned that a few years ago, some of the eminent
chemists of France had examined with great care several
of the ancient mummies of Egypt, with a view to ascertain
the nature of the substance employed by the embalmers,
which the lapse of so many ages had proved to possess the
power of protecting from decay a substance otherwise so
perishable as the human body. This examination had prov-
ed that, after the application of liquid asphaltum to the cav-
ities of the head and body, the whole had been wrapped
carefully in many envelopes, or bandages of linen prepar-
ed with wax. The committee of chemists decided further,
after a careful examination and analysis of the hieroglyphic
paintings with which the cases, &c. are covered, that the col-
ors employed, and still retaining their vivid brightness, had
also been prepared and applied with the same substance.

166 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

J also knew that, towards the close of the last century, the
Antiquarian Society of England had been permitted to open.
and examine the stone coffin deposited in one of the vaults of
Westminster Abbey, and said to contain the body of King Ed-
ward I, who died in July, 1307. On removing the stone lid of
the coffin, its contents were found to be closely enveloped in a
strong linen cloth, waxed. Within this envelope were found
splendid robes of silk, enriched with various ornaments cover-
ing the body, which was found to be entire, and to have been
wrapped carefully in ali its parts, even to each separate fin-
ger, in bandages of fine linen, which has been dipped in mel-
ted wax ; and not only was the body not decomposed, but
the various parts of the dress, such 2s a scarlet satin mantle,
and a scarlet piece of sarsnet which was placed over the face,
were in perfect preservation even to their colors, The knowl-
edge of these facts persuaded me that wax, applied to the
back of the paintings, would form the best defence, hither-
to known to exist, against the destructive effects of damp
and stagnant air; and therefore,

2dly. Common beeswax was melted over the fire with an
equal quantity (in bulk) of oil of turpentine; and this mix-
ture, by the help of large brushes, was applied hot to the
back of each cloth, and was afterwards rubbed in with hot
irons, until the cloths were perfectly saturated.

3dly. In the mean time, the niches in the solid wall, in which
the paintings are placed, were carefully plastered with hydrau-
lic cement, to prevent any possible exudation of moisture from
the wall; and as there isa space from two to eight inches .
deep between the surface of the wall and the back of the
pannels on which the cloths are strained, I caused small] open-
ings to be cut in the wall, above and under the edge of the
frames, and communicating with those vacant spaces, for
the purpose of admitting the air of the room behind the pain-
tings and thus keeping up a constant ventilation, by means
of which the same temperature of, air willbe maintained at
the back of the paintings as on their face.

Athly. The cloths were finally strained upon pannels, for
the purpose of guarding against injury from careless or inten-
tional blows of sticks, canes, dc. or children’s missiles. These
pannels are perforated with many holes, to admit the air
freely to the back of the cloths; and being perfectly dried,
were carefully painted, to prevent the wood from absorbing
or transmitting any humidity. ‘The whole were then restored

Intelligence and Miscellames. 167

to their places, and finally cleaned with care, and slightly
revarnished.

5thly. As the accumulation of dust arising from sweeping
so large a room, and what is much worse, the filth of flies,
(the most destructive enemies of painting,) if not carefully
guarded against, renders necessary the frequent washing and
cleaning of the surface of pictures, every repetition of which
is injurious, I have directed curtains to be placed, which can
- be drawn in front of the whole,. whenever the room is to be
swept, as well as in the recess of the Legislature during the
Summer, when flies are most pernicious.

6thly. As nothing is more obvious than the impossibility
of keeping a room warm and dry by means of fire, so long
as doors are left open for the admission of the external air,
I have further directed self-closing baize doors to be prepar-
ed and placed, so that they will unavoidably close behind
every one who shall either enter or leave the room.

When the doors are kept closed, and fires lighted in the
furnaces below, to supply warm air, I find the temperature
of this vast apartment is easily maintained at about 63° of
Fahrenheit ; and the simple precaution of closed doors be-
ing observed, in addition to the others which I have employ-
ed I entertain no doubt that these paintings are now per-
fectly and permanently secured against the deleterious effects
of dampness.

I regret that I was not authorized to provide against the
danger of damage by violence, whether intended or acciden-
tal. Curiosity naturally leads men to touch, as well as to
look at, objects of this kind; and, placed low as they are,
not only the gilded frames and curtains, but the surface of
the paintings are within the reach of spectators: repeated
handling, even by the best intentioned and most careful, will
in the course of a few years, produce essential damage. But
one of the paintings testifies to the possibility of their being
approached for the very purpose of doing injury: the right foot
of General Morgan, in the picture of Saratoga, was cut
off with a sharp instrument, apparently a penknife. I have
repaired the wound, but the scar remains visible. If I had
possessed the authority I should have placed in front, and at
the distance of notless than ten feet from the wall, an iron
railing, of such strength and elevation as should form a com-
plete guard against external injury by ill-disposed persons;
unless they employed missiles of some force.

168 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

I beg leave to commend to the attention of the House
this farther precaution.
All which is most respectfully submitted to the House, by
; Jno. TRrumBuxt.

1. Dimensions of the Capitol of the United States, and its
Grounds.—The ground within the Iron railing, 221 acres.
Length of foot walk, outside of railing, 2 of a mile and 185
feet.—The building is as follows:

Length of front, - - 352 feet 4 inches.

Depth of wings, - - - 121do.6 do.

East projection and steps, - 65 do.

West do. do. - - 83 do.

Covering 11 acres, and 1820 feet.
Height of wings to top of Balustrade, - 70 feet.
Height to top of centredome,_— - - - 145 do.
Representatives’ room, greatest length, - 95 do.
do. do. do. _ height, - 60 do.

Senate chamber, greatest length, - - 74 do.

- do. height, - - 42 do.

Great central rotundo, 96 feet in diameter, and 96 feet high.
The north wing was commenced in 1792,

and finished in 1800, cost - - $480,262 57
South wing commenced in 1803, and finish-

ed 1808, cost - - - - 308,808 41
Centre building commenced in 1818, and

finished in 1827, cost - - - 957,647 35

$1,746,718 36

2. New book of travels—We have been permitted to
hear read parts of a MS work now in progress, which will, if
we mistake not, form a book of a kind somewhat peculiar.
The author, a man of mental power and liberal education,
taste and acquirements, accompanied an American squad-
ron around the shores of the Mediterranean, and was absent
from this, his native country, from the autumn of 1825 to
that of 1828. Inhis character of instructer of the midship-
men, he was, in some sense, a privileged man, was of course
exempt from every kind of naval duty, was at liberty to ob-
serve the peculiarities of life and character, of incident, dis-
cipline and duty, among the members of the navy, was at-
tentive to marine scenery and natural phenomena, and avail-

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 169

ed himself of opportunities, in which he was liberally indul-
ged, of visiting many places in several of the interesting
countries that surround the Mediterranean.

In observing these regions, the cradle of man; famous
alike in song and story, in arts, in commerce and in war; the
seats of empire, risen, fallen and gone; the birth place of true
and false religion; the theatre of noble struggles for liberty,
both ancient and modern, he was not an idle observer, and
men and things were alike embraced in his survey.

But his leading object seems to have been, to unfold the
interior of the American navy, so that this national institu-
tion, so much spoken of, but so little understood, may be dis-
played to the national eye; and to present such graphic
sketches of those scenes which are beyond a landman’s
view, that he may see them as if he were sailing with the
traveller.

We have obtained permission of the author, to insert the
following sketch of a night squall.

U.S. frigate Constitution, Mcnday, Sept. 4, 1826.
* * * ¥ x Ht *

On Friday the green shores of Sicily came in view, but
the breeze was light, and we advanced slowly. On Satur-
day it left us altogether, and, when I turned in at night, the
sea was smooth and bright as a mirror; the vast firmament
seemed to descend below us; the ship appeared suspended
in the centre of an immense sphere, and if I may say so,
one felt in awe and silence the majesty of space. The sails
hung idly by the mast, and the officers’ tread along the deck
was the only sound heard. Solleftthem. About midnight
I was awaked by a heavy swing of my cot, succeeded by a
sudden dash to the other side: the water was pouring into
our room, and I could hear its rush across the upper decks,
where all was noise and rapid motion. I hurried on my
clothes and ran up: the gun deck was clear; hammocks
had already been lashed up and stowed; it was lighted up,
and the lamps shewed it flooded in its whole extent. I as-
cended to the next: the rain came down in torrents, but I
did not feel it, so deeply absorbing was the scene. I wish I
could describe it. The sky was in a constant blaze: the sea
was not high, but the waves were broken, confused and
foaming, and taking from the lightning an unnatural hue.
Above me were the yards covered with human beings,

Vou. XVI.—WNo. 1. 29

170 Intelligence and Miscellanes.

thrown by each flash into strong outline, struggling hard to
secure the canvass and to maintain their precarious footing:
the ship rolled tremendously. And now add the wild uproar
of elements, the “ noise of many waters,” the deep and con-
stant roar of winds, the cries of men aloft, the heavy and
rapid tread of those below, the reiterated orders of officers,
and the sounds of the trumpet rising above all; and then
add to this the heavy rolling of thunder, at times drowning
all these sounds. The first lieutenant had the deck; he had
sprung to it at the first alarm, and seizing the trumpet had
called for Black, his favorite helmsman. The ship was
soon under snug sail, and now dashed onwards at a furious
rate, giving to the gale a yet wilder character. All at once
a rocky island seemed to start up from the waters, but the
next broad flash shewed a good offing, and we were safe;
when suddenly came a loud shout from the forecastle, “a sail
on the starboard bow,” and then another, ‘a sail close on
the larboard bow.” I trembled then; not for ourselves, for
we should have gone over them and _ have scarcely felt the
shock, but for the poor wretches, whom it would have been
impossible to save. ‘The helm was put hard down; we shot
by, and L again breathed freely, when some one bade me
look up to our spars. I did so, and found every upper yard
arm and mast head tipped with lightning. Each blaze was
twice as large as that of a candle, and thus we flew on with
the elements of destruction playing above our heads.

In about thirty minutes the wind, which was from the
S. W. changed suddenly to the S. E. and became as hot as
air from the mouth of an oven: tt was the sirocco, and, I
was told afterwards by those most above the deck, brought
with it a quantity of fine sand. We were then a few miles
from Maratimo, sixty six from Cape Bon, the nearest African
shore, and three hundred from the nearest land in the direc-
tion of the wind. It lasted half an hour, and was a stiff,
smacking breeze, but not near so strong as the one that had
preceded it.

Asimilar electric phenomenon occurred to the ship in which
Castor and Pollux sailed, in the Argonautic. expedition, only
the light appeared on the caps of the two heroes: the storm
subsided and they were received as patrons of sailors. Hence
the ancient medals represent them each with a star or flame
of fire at the apex of his cap. In this way too, we may ac-
count for the story, that they often appeared to sailors in dis-

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 171

tress, and also to the Roman armies, leading them to victory.
The latter was nothing more than the electric fluid on their
spears. I recollect hearing Professor Silliman, in one of his
lectures, relate a case nearly similar, of the late Mr. Whitney
of New Haven. He was riding on horseback, near East
Rock in the vicinity of that town, during a night thun-
der-storm of great severity, and was astonished to find, all
at once, his horse’s ears tipped with fire: he alighted, but
now discovered the same phenomenon at the end of his
whip, stirrups, and every prominent object. His own person
and that of an attendant, were tipped in the same manner.
Similar appearances, probably suggested to Virgil, the fic-
tion of the flame about Ascanius’ head, the night Troy was
burnt.

Our sailors call them complaisants, (from Corpo Santo:)
I went among them yesterday, to discover whether such ap-
pearances were common, and began with a group of old
quarter-masters: most of them had followed the sea from
their youth. I found each had seen them three or four times
before, and that they occur most frequently among the West
Indies. They tell me, they often appear on the lower yards
first, and ascend as the storm abates. “ Well,” I asked,
‘‘what do you think they are?” They shook their heads—
it was a hard question. At last one spoke very seriously ;
“Pll tell you sir, what I think they are: they are foul air
that the wind rolls together into alump: it gets a little light-
ning im it and sticks fast on the yards.”

Yesterday we had a strong wind and a rough sea all day:
another squall threatened as evening drew round: the sea
was wild and foaming; the waves came rolling on as if
eager to overwhelm us: the clouds rose like dark walls on
the horizon, appearing to shut us up forever to the treacher-
ous element, while a broad heavy mass rolled on, over head,
“noctem hiememque ferens.”” Nothing else could be seen,
except the North Carolina, [the flag line of battle ship,] an
indistinct mass, several miles distant. She too faded and be-
came a misty speck, but the usual light was raised at her
mizen-top to govern our course. But this suddenly disap-
peared, and nothing could be seen; we answered its disap-
pearance by raising a light to our fore-mast head: all looked
in her direction, when suddenly another light appeared, a
mere point in the distance; it spread and brightened, and
then shot up so as to lighten the whole stern and sails. It

172 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

-sunk and was succeeded by another, and this by another
similar one; then was darkness a moment, and next follow-
ed three successive flashes. We lowered our lantern; her
mizen light again appeared, and all hands were called to
execute the order. This is the first time I have introduced
to you a night signal: we had two on Saturday night in the
midst of the storm: their effect, in rough or calm weather,
is always very fine.

The gale came on soon after; it brought one complaisant,
and this appeared at our mizen royal-mast head: our main-
mast has a chain conductor.

Cum “ magno telluris amore.” Yours, &c.

3. The number five, the most favorite number of nature.—
Pror. Eaton.

Although lilies and many other plants have the organs
of fructification in sixes, also some in threes, others in fours,
and the honey-cells of bees have sides in sixes, &c. yet na-
ture’s favorite number appears to be five. At least, the half
of all known plants have the parts of fructification in fives,
or in a number which is the product of five.

On examining the radiated division of animals, we find
the sea star and medusa’s head (asterias aculeata and ca-

put medusz) have their medullary processes incased in five
rays. The genus actinia has its rays in fives or in a num-
ber produced by some product of five. Every species of
the coral rock, called madrepora, also the spongia, flustra,
tubularia, sertularia, encrmus, &c. have rays of similar
numbers.

Throughout Cuvier’s whole vertebral division, five is the
leading number. For example we have five fingers to the
hand, and five toes to the foot, in common with most of the
mammalia. Hence our numbers five, twice five, (ten,) twen-
ty times five, (one hundred,) &c. We have five principles,
constituting the highest order of vertebral animals, man—
to wit. 1, %mert matter, 2, the attractive principle, 3, the
living principle, 4, the sentient principle, 5, the intellectual
principle. In proof of this we observe them disappearing in
an inverted order at death. I will state a case, which has
recently passed under my immediate inspection.

A near and dear relative died of the pulmonary consump-
tion. His intellectual faculties were never more brilliant,
than at 11 o’clock in the evening of Nov. 13th, (1828.) In

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 173

an instant his intellectual faculties disappeared. Hissentient
faculties seemed to continue; for groans, and other eviden-
ces of pain did not cease. At midnight his body became in-
sensible to pain. His groans ceased, and the mere simple liv-
ing principle seemed to be all that remained. At one o’clock,
on the 14th, the living principle was suspended. Death then
becoming triumphant, his body was given over to the laws
of chemical attraction. Could matter be divested of this
last power, (attraction,) mere inert matter would remain.
Hence I would infer, that the most perfect being which
comes from the hand of the Creator, consists of five princi-
ples. 1, Inert matter—2, the attractive principle—3, the liv-
ing principle, (so far even plants may go,) 4, the sentient
principle (so far the lower orders of animals go,)—5, the in-
tellectual principle, peculiar to man; being the immortal soul.

I need not add any remarks upon our five senses—seeing
—hearing—smelling—tasting—feeling. No one has over-
looked this fact.

4. Alcohol, or spiritous liquors, from succulent fruits,
farinaceous fruits, and herbage of plants——Pror. Eaton.

I propose for a medical dissertation the following query.
Are spiritous liquors obtained from succulent fruits, as grapes,
apples, pears, and peaches, more inflammatory than those
from grain, as wheat, rye, corn, oats and barley ?

From some observations made on the effects of intemper-
ance upon persons within my knowledge, I imagined, that
the following results were clearly evinced. ‘Those who drank
wine, cider, perry, brandy, and cider-brandy, presented red,
bloated, and highly inflamed surfaces. ‘Those who drank
gin and whiskey, became pale, and debilitated. Those who
drank rum were at a medium in this respect. Hence I in-
ferred, that, although pure alcohol is always the same, there
is something combined with it, which influences its effects,
and that alcoholic liquors from succulent fruits had a ten-
dency towards the surface ; that the same from farinaceous
seeds, caused a recession of the fluids towards the heart,
and that when derived from the herbage of plants, as the
stalks of cane, its effects were of the medium kind.

5. On the use of alumina with pigments designed for the pal-
let.—In preparing his paints, by levigating pigments with oil,
the artist is often perplexed by the diversities which they ex-

174 Intelligence and Miscellames.

hibit after this operation. Some pigments present a chem-
ical combination with the oil, while others can be suspended
in it only by considerable labor, and soon separate when left
at rest. These differences can be rendered of trifling impor-
tance, by employing such a substance as will retain those com-
pounds which possess no attraction for the oil, ina state of
uniform supension and whose action will be in some respects
analogous to that of the gum used in inks and water colors.
The property which the hydrate or carbonate of alumina
possesses, of mixing freely with oil so as to form a transpar-
ent, consistent, and almost colerless compound, admirably
fits it for this purpose. At the request of Mr. Rembrandt
Peale, I prepared some pigments by mixing them with alu-
mina while moist. When ground with oil, he found them
to possess all the most valuable properties of the best col-
ors. The tendency to separate from the oil and the disagree-
able property, which some colors possess, of becoming more
fluid when an attemptto preserve them is made by immer-
sing the pallet in water disappear, after they have been
ground with a small portion of alumina. The artist has it
in his power thus, to increase or diminish the fluidity of his
paints and to render them uniform. Some pigments become
valuable as glazing colors, as the Prussiate of copper, (Hatch-
ette’s Brown.) Vermillion and Naples Yellow, acquire new
properties.

For printing from blocks, as in the manufacture of orna-
mental floor-cloths, it is often desirable to increase the fluid-
ity of the paint, so as to prevent the dropping of small
thread-like parts on the work, without causing it to spread.
This may be accomplished, by adding a small quantity of
whiting to the pigment while grinding ; the artisan can then
load his blocks with paint and consequently give a thick coat-
ing to the print.

A. A. Hayes, Roxbury Laboratory.

6. On a fine scarlet pigment for the pallet.— While prose-
cuting some experiments on the pigments employed by art-
ists, I prepared a quantity of the biiodide of mercury and
gave it to Mr. R. Peale, requesting him to make some ex-
periments on its working properties and permanency. This
distinguished artist, obligingly commenced them, but they
were not finished, at the time he left thiscountry. He found
that it readily mixed with oil; combined with other colors

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 175

it gave delicate and beautiful shades and exposed for weeks
to the direct rays of a midsummer sun, it remained unciiang-
ed. These properties induce me to recommend it as an ad-
dition to the number of pigments among which the artist
can make a choice.

An economical process for preparing this salt, consists in
boiling a mixture of one hundred and twenty five parts of Io-
dine, and two hundred and fifty parts of clean fine iron filings,
with one thousand parts of rain water, in an oil flask. When
the brown color of the liquid, is succeeded by a light green, the
clear fluid is decanted and the residue washed with warm
water; the washings being added to the green solution, two
hundred and seventy two parts of corrosive sublimate, dis-
solved in two thousand parts of warm water, are then added
to the former liquor and the resulting precipitate, is after-
wards washed and collected.

This salt either in crystals, or in powder, presents two dis-
tinct and beautiful colors. If the precipitate, obtained as
above, be heated in a small subliming apparatus, or in a glass
tube, it melts and sublimes copiously, and the vapor is
condensed in large transparent rhombic tables, of a fine sul-
phur yellow color. ‘These crystals are permanent in the
air and unaltered by the direct solar rays ; but the slightest
friction, or the contact of a fine point, issufficient to alter
their interior arrangement. The point of contact instantly
becomes of a rich scarlet and the same color spreads over
the whole surface if a single crystal, and extends to the most
remote angle, if a group of crystals be the subject of exper-
iment. This change of color is accompanied by a sensible
mechanical motion, so that a small heap of the crystals, ap-
pears as if ammmated. An ordinary electroscope does not
indicate the developement of any electricity, nor is there any
considerable elevation of temperature, during the change.

By gently warming the crystals supported on paper over
the flame of a lamp, the original yellow coloured salt is ob-
tained, and the same experiments may be often repeated; af-
fording an elegant illustration of the connexion between col-.
ors and the mechanical structure of bodies. Transparent,
but minute rhombic prisms of this salt, may be obtained by
allowing a hot solution of it, in asolution of corrosive sub-
limate to cool very gradually.

A. A. Haves, Roxbury Laboratory.

176 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

7. Use of iodine in gout and angina pectoris; extract o

a letier to the Editor from Dr. B. L. Oliver, dated Salem,
Mass. Feb. 4, 1829.—You have kindly inquired concerning
my health. I have now the pleasure of stating to you, that
the alarming symptoms of angina pectoris, which I have had
for several years past, and which were relieved and kept at
bay, by the use of a solution of the oxy-muriate of mercury,
seem entirely to have yielded to the power of iodine. I took
the medicine, dissolved in alcohol, of the strength of twenty
grains to the ounce, thrice in the day; beginning with six
drops, and gradually increasing it to sixteen or twenty. I think
that I derived as much benefit from the iodine in a fortnight,
as I had from the solution of sublimate* in eleven months, and
indeed I may say much more. I have never heard of the ad-
ministration of iodine, in angina pectoris, until my trial of it.
The circumstance which induced me to try it was, that I had
seen a patient in this town, under the care of Dr. Choat, who
had been cured of a fit of the gout by iodine, and had read,
that a physician in Europe had, by the same agent, cured sey-
eral patients suffering under the above malady. I therefore
thought it not improbable, that when angina pectoris occur-
red in a gouty subject, it might yield to the same medicine.
My father and great grandfather, were subject to gout; and
it is not improbable that I may have a gouty habit. I have
not, however, had any regular fits of the disease, but it may
perhaps have been a cause of the angina pectoris, under
which I have suffered for years. I think that I have known
several patients that did not complain more than I have
done, that have died very suddenly. They have generally
been persons that thought the complaint so slight as not to
require the taking of medicines, or putting themselves under
medical care.t

* The solution of corrosive sublimate in this disease, was first recommended
by Dr. Fisher, of Beverly, (Mass.) who has cured several patients with it.

+ Besides my own case, I know of two other cases which have been relieved,
and the disease at least suspended by the iodine. I am not ignorant that the
angina pectoris has been cured by several other remedies, as by issues recom-
mended by Dr. McBride, by nitrate of silver, by the arsenical solution, by
sulphate of zinc, by the application of a solution of tartar emetic, (Mem. in
the Memoirs of the London Medical Society,) and in our own country by Dr.
Hosack, by bleeding and evacuations. But perhaps they have all sometimes
failed; hence the use of anew remedy. Sometimes the disease may arise, no
doubt, from such organic affections as will admit of no remedy, and of course
must be mortal.

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 177

Perhaps sir, if you could find a place in your Journal for the
above article on iodine, it might be the saving of some lives,
or at any rate, it would give a new peg to hang a hope upon,
and thus tend to relieve the patient from that constant dread
of impending death, which places him in a situation like that
of the person at the feast of the tyrant of Syracuse, who
found himself sitting under a sword suspended by a hair.

8. Notice of the manufacture of the chloride of lime, and
of some of its leading uses, in a letter from Mr. G. W. Car-
penter to the Editor, dated Philadelphia, Jan. 1829.—The
chloride of lime is manufactured on a very large scale, at the
Maryland chemical works at Baltimore. A large chamber
lined with lead is made use of, and about 5000 Ib. of hydrate
of lime is placed thinly on moveable shelves, the chlorine
gas is then introduced into the chamber and is absorbed by
the lime, the top shelves are saturated first, the lime is then
stirred and the shelves reversed, the top placed at the bot-
tom and the bottom at the top, and so on through the whole,
introducing additional quantities of chlorine as the shelves
are transposed and the gas absorbed or united. The chlo-
ride thus made is considered fully equal to the best bleaching
salt which can be imported.

It is, you know, an article extensively employed in the arts;
especially in bleaching ; one grain of it will destroy the col-
oring matter of two grains of the best Spanish indigo. Al-
though the chloride of lime is applicable to so many impor-
tant purposes, still its usefulness is as yet so little known, that
I will select a few, from its various important applications.

It is generally employed in solution, which is made in the
proportion of four ounces to one pint of water, and as only
aboutone half of the lime is dissolved, it will be necessary to fil-
ter, in order to obtain the clear solution. Dilute one part of
the liquid with 40 parts of water, a pint with five gallons, or a
a wine glass full to three quarts of water, stir the mixture
and it is then fit for use. It is the most powerful, disinfecting
agent hitherto discovered, and an instantaneous destroyer of
every bad smell. It is an infallible destroyer of all effluvia,
arising from animal, and vegetable decomposition, and effect-
ually prevents their deleterious influence, hence, it is particu-
larly recommended to the attention of those, residing in ep-
idemic districts, as there is reason to expect, that the mix-
ture sprinkled about apartments would prevent the access

Vou. XVI.—No. 1. 23

178 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

of contagion to a certain extent around. Its value will be
appreciated by the faculty in examinations for inquests, dis-
sections and anatomical preparations. For all these desira-
ble purposes, it is only necessary to sprinkle the diluted liquid
in the apartment, or on the object requiring purification.

The effluvia from drains, sewers, and other receptacles of
the same nature, will be destroyed by pouring into them a
quart of the mixture, added to a pailful of water, and re-
peating the operation until it is completely removed.

Tainted meat, and animal food of every kind, may be ren-
dered sweet by sprinkling them with the mixture. Water
in cisterns may be purified, and all animalculz destroyed, by
putting into it a small quantity of the pure liquid, say about
half a pint to one hundred and twenty gallons of water, and
consequently it is highly valuable on board ships.

The nuisances arising from disagreeable and unhealthy
manufactories, may be equally obviated by the mere sprinkling
of the chloride of lime, and the health of the workmen ve-
ry materially preserved in such deleterious processes as the
preparation of oil colors. It destroys the smell of paints so
effectually, that a room painted in the day may be slept in
at night, without any smell of paint being perceived, if it be
sprinkled some hours before with the mixture.

Smelters of lead, glue and size makers, tallow and soap
manufacturers, skin dressers, &c. may deprive their premises
of all offensive smell, by the same processes. The close and
confined air of hospitals, prisons, ships, &c. will be almost
instantaneously purified by sprinkling the diluted chloride of
lime in small quantities from a watering pot. The stains from
fruit, &c. &c. may be removed from table linen, &c. by dip-
ping the article stained in water, applying the chloride of
lime until the stain is removed, and then rinsing well in cold
water previous to being washed.

The chloride of soda has lately been most beneficially in-
troduced into the materia medica. The chlorides have the
instantaneous effect of arresting animal and vegetable de-
composition, more especially, when generated in certain pu-
trid disorders. It appears evident, that chlorine acts chem-
ically upon the pernicious matter, and resolves it nto innoc-
uous principles; the application of the chloride of soda is
therefore limited only by animal and vegetable decay, and
the cause of its action in the following instances, extracted
from M. Labarraque, will be readily perceived, viz. carbun-

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 179

cle, hospital gangrene, ill conditioned ulcers, gangrenous sores
of the worst description; the fetid discharge of cancer,
herpes ulceratia, porigo favosi, atonic ulcers, ulcers of the
uterus, mortification, &c. &c.

The proportions to be used vary of course with the virulence
and state of the disease ; when applied externally the weak
solutions, frequently repeated, are likely to be more effectual
than the stronger mixtures. From the French mode of prepar-
ing it, the use must be suspended when the sores are red
and inflamed. In this country it has been most successfully
used in all the foregoing cases; as a gargle in ulcerated sore
throat, ptyalism, and tumours. Diseases of animals of a
similar nature will be cured by the same means.*

9. Specimens in Materia Medica, Pharmacy, and Chem-
istry.— We are informed that Mr. George W. Carpenter, No.
301, Market-street Philadelphia, puts up complete collections
of chemical and pharmaceutical preparations, with the vari-
ous subjects of the materia medica, embracing an entire suite
of specimens, to illustrate lectures on pharmacy and materia
medica, giving a full and complete idea of each species, from
their physical and sensible properties and external charac-
ters, by which the genuine, and inferior or spurious, may be
recognised and distinguished ; also articles resembling each
other in external characters, such as color, crystaline form,
é&¢., as epsom salts, oxalic acid, sulphate of zinc. The dif-
ferent varieties of Peruvian bark, with the quantity of qui-
nine they respectively contain, the varieties of opium, rhu-
barb, ipecac, jalap, &&c. &c. and the articles they are general-
ly adulterated with. ‘These specimens have been found high-
ly useful in public lectures, and are in fact, almost indis-
pensable in a course of instruction. We understand that Dr.
Carpenter has furnished collections for the medical colleges
of Pennsylvania, New York, North and South Carolina, and
Virginia, to the entire satisfaction of their respective profes-
sors, and that a similar collection has been ordered by Prof.
Ives, for the Medical Institution of Yale College. The spe-
cimens are neatly put up in square bottles, handsomely label-
led and fully described at 40 cts. a specimen; a complete
suite consists of about one hundred and twenty specimens.

* The chlorides of lime and soda may be procured from Carpenter’s Chem-
ical Warehouse, 301, Market St. Philadelphia—price, by the small quantity,
25 cents per lb.

180 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

10. Patent “for an improvement in the construction of
ships, steamboats and other vessels and boats as respects
their metallic fastenings, and sheathing, by John Revere.” —
At the meeting of the Lyceum of Natural History of New
York, March 17th, 1829, Doctor Revere communicated to
the Society the results of an experimental investigation of
the electro-chemical relations of iron and some of the other
metals with a view to their application to the useful arts, es-
pecially ship building. After adverting to the different sub-
stances that have been employed for the fastenings and sheath-
ing of vessels, and theadvantages and disadvantages of each,
he pointed out the great superiority of iron for the fasten-
ings of that stupendous, moveable fabric, a modern ship, in
every respect, except its liability to oxidate in sea water, es-
pecially when the vesse] is sheathed with copper. He re-
marked that with this exception, iron combines for this pur-
pose all the valuable properties of all the other metals. It
is most abundant; its malleability is sufficient for all useful
purposes; in strength or tenacity it surpasses them all, being
in this respect to copper as five hundred and forty nine to
three hundred and two, and it possesses the property of be-
ing welded, which is peculiar to it and platinum. Having
pointed out the cause of the rapid oxidation of the iron fas-
tenings of vessels when sheathed with copper, which was
first suggested by Fabroni, viz. a galvanic influence; and
having spoken particularly of the admirable researches of Sir
H. Davy on preserving the copper sheathing of ships, he ob-
served that since it was so desirable an object to use iron
fastenings, and inasmuchas the cause of the rapid decay of the
iron fastenings in copper-sheathed vessels was understood,
it seemed to him surprising that no one had attempted to cor-
rect this defect by means founded on this knowledge. In
the autumn of 1826, he formed the resolution of undertaking
the solution of this problem but did not commence his exper-
iments until thespring of 1827; and.from that time to the pres-
ent, this experimental investigation had occupied all his leis-
ure. He observed, that the problem first proposed to himself
was the preservation of the iron fastenings in copper sheath-
ed vessels, but that as he advanced in the inquiry, he be-
came satisfied of the practicability not only of preserving
the iron fastenings under these circumstances, but also of
employing iron sheets for sheathing. He added that he
now thought himself authorized to announce to the Society

Intelligence and Miscellames. 181

that he had demonstrated the practicability of accomplish-
ing both these objects, by electro-chemical agency. He then
exhibited to the Society two iron spikes which after being
filed bright, had been driven into a block of wood, and kept
immersed in sea water since June 14th, 1827. A part of
one of the spikes had been accidentally exposed in chipping
the block in consequence of a knot in the wood; the heads
and the paris of the spike exposed were bright as at first,
and without the slightest appearance of corrosion. He also
placed before the Society a small iron plate which had been
scoured bright and fastened with iron nails to a piece of
board. This had been likewise immersed in sea water since
June 14th, 1827—the iron plate exhibited its metallic lustre
without having undergone the slightest oxidation. Dr. R.
concluded by remarking, that the chief merit to which he
could aspire was having perceived the practical value of the
inquiry and perseveringly followed in the path indicated by
Sir Humphrey Davy; that the practical importance of the
subjects as connected with many of the useful arts must be
apparent to all; that his object at present was merely to an-
nounce to the Society some of the results, but that he pro-
posed at a future period to publish an elaborate account of
this investigation. He invited the Society to examine his ex-
periments made on a larger scale, and among others a boat
sheathed with iron, and placed at the Navy Yard at Brooklyn.

11. Steam Pump.
Communication.
West Point, Feb. 15, 1829.

Sir—I take the liberty of laying before you the result of
some experiments made with the steam pump, an invention
described in this Journal, Vol. XIV, p. 169.

The experiments were made at the West Point foundry,
where a machine has been constructed of cast iron. The
boiler used is fifty inches in length and fifteen in diameter :
giving a surface exposed to the fire of about ten square feet,
or sufficient for a one horse engine of the usual kind. The
cylinders or receivers are each of about three cubic feet or
twenty four gallon capacity. The pumps are fifteen feet
high and four inches in diameter. The escape tubes are ten
inches long and of diameters the same as the pumps. The
operation of the machine was to make five strokes per min-
ute, or to fill and discharge one receiver three times and the

182 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

other twice ina minute. Now after making the greatest
deductions for incomplete strokes that can be demanded,
there will remain, for the actual performance of the machine,
at least eighty gallons of water, raised fifteen feet. It is
to be observed that, as the steam is used in precisely the
same manner, whether the receivers are twenty feet or but
one foot high, there will be the same quantity of steam used .
in the above machine, as though it were to work at its great-
est height, or about twenty eight feet. The maximum effect
then of the steam that would move a one horse engine,
when applied to work the above machine, will be to raise
eighty gallons of water twenty eight feet per minute.

The work of a horse of the average strength, is found,
when reduced to the raising of water, equivalent to raise
seventy gallons, twenty five feet per minute, one fifth less
than the above performance.

But let it be supposed that the work of this machine is
the same, or something less, than the power of the same
steam, as commonly applied: it is obvious, that for many
purposes, it would be beneficial to use it as a mechanical
power ; for instance, where fuel is cheap, and the required
power will not be sufficient for an expensive engine.

The principal object proposed by this invention, is to af-
ford a cheap method for raising water, where it is required
to be raised in large quantities, to heights less than twenty
eight or twenty nine feet. It will be seen that the expense
of all working machinery will be saved by this invention, as
well as the force lost by keeping it in motion, two very mate-
rial points in the use of machinery.

It is believed that this machine could be used to great ad-
vantage in dry docks, and for all other purposes where water
is required to be raised in a similar manner. These are the
objects of the invention, and should any farther explanations
be thought necessary, they will be promptly prey: ‘

12. Efficacy of ammonia in counteracting poison ; extract
of aletter from Dr. Austin Church to the Editor, dated Coop-
erstown, IV. Y. Feb. 6, 1829.—A young man in this place had
accidentally overset a hive of bees, and before he could es-
cape, they had settled, in great numbers, on different parts of
his body and limbs and'stung him very severely. It was about
half an hour after the accident happened, when he came to

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 183

my office in great agony, and he had scarcely time to give
an account of it before he fainted. I immediately applied
the ammonia to the parts that had been stung, his legs, arms
and breast. He directly recovered from his faintness, and
experienced no pain or other inconvenience afterwards.

It is several years since I first used the aqua ammoniz, to
counteract the effect of the bites of insects and stings of
bees, and it has invariably produced instant relief—generally
complete. Ihave often seen children crying in excessive
pain from the sting of a bee, and on the application of the
ammonia they would immediately cease complaining and
become cheerful; so complete and sudden. is the relief it
produces. I always use it for musquito bites, and they never
trouble me farther. I was led to the use of it in these cases,
from the instantaneous effect it was said to have in counter-
acting the operation of prussic acid. Inthe second num-
ber of the American Journal of Medical Sciences, (Phila-
delphia,) for last year, it will be seen that Dr. Moore, of
Alabama, used it with great success in the cure of bites
of venomous serpents. From his account, it is probable that
the pure uncarbonated aqua ammonie is most efficacious.
I have sometimes noticed that the application is more effica-
cious than at others, and J think it must be on account of its
being sometimes carbonated and at others not.

13. Atomic Weight of Mercury.

(Communicated.)

In a recent examination of the powder, supposed to be a
protoxide of mercury, my attention was turned to the sub-
ject of the atomic weight of mercury, and upon applying to
some of its combinations, the generally received theory, that
binary compounds are more difficult of decomposition than
ternary, I have been led to the conclusion, that its equiva-
lent number has been misstated by chemical writers.

The protosulphuret and protochloride, are both more ea-
sily decomposed than the compounds containing double the
proportion of their respective electro negatives. The only
cyanide of mercury is now considered as containing two at-
oms of cyanogen. The protoxide I believe exists only in
combination with acids.

I have very frequently decomposed several of the proto-
salts of mercury with alkalies, and the resulting powder has
uniformly contained metallic globules, either visible to the

184 Intelligence and Misceilanies.

naked eye, or easily rendered so by a slight degree of fric-

tion with my finger; the pressure attending which could

only have brought already existing unccmbined particles

within the sphere of each other’s attraction. When calomel

(protochloride of mercury) is decomposed by an alkaline so-

lution, if the latter be cautiously dropped upon it, a reddish

powder is at first apparent.* ‘This fact and the subsequent

evidence of the existence of metallic mercury in the powder,

may serve to explain each other. A muriate of the alkali is

formed at the expense of a portion of water, and the oxygen.
being left to the free exercise of its affinity, forms with half
of the metal—a binary compound—the red oxide, through

which the remaining proportional of mercury, in a state of
extreme comminution, is mixed. The powder will be found -
capable of amalgamating gold, and the uncombined metal

may be rendered evident, by friction, percussion, or elevation

of temperature, or by pouring upon it a minimum quantity

of diluted acetic acid. The supernatant liquor will contain

peracetate. ;

I do not know that more conclusive evidence of an error
in the atomic weight of any body could be adduced. An-
nexed is a table of the corrected atomic weights of a few of
the mercurial combinations.

Samvuet Axuinson, Jun.

Philadelphia, 11mo. 11th, 1828.

Proportions by| Atomic Atomic

analysis. Proportions. | Weights.

Suboxide, - - - - |100M+40z|2M+10wz| 208
Oxide, - - + = |100M+80z|!M+10z| 108
Subchloride, --- - - |100M+18chi2M+1ch 236
Chloride, - - - = {100M+36ch\1M+1ch 136
Subiodide, - - - - {100M+62I |2M+11 324
Todide, - - = - {100M+12471M-+1T 224
Subsulphuret,- - - - {100M+8s |1M-+1s 216
Sulphuret, - - - - {100M+16s |iM+1s 116
Cyanide, - - - = J100M+26c |1M+1c 126

* A careful repetition of this experiment has placed its accuracy beyond a
doubt. Oncalomel, (prepared by precipitation from a solution of crystallized
protonitrate of mercury, with muriate of soda) which was repeatedly washed
with warm distilled water, with solution of muriate of ammonia and with warm
alcohol, I dropped a small quantity of potass water. A reddish powder was
very distinctly observable. When sufficient alkali was added to decompose all
the calomel, the powder was of a brownish black color, and when dry contain-
ed visible globules of metal. This shows the fallacy of one of the reputed tests
for the purity of calomel.

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 185

14. Novaculite in Georgia.—Extract of a letter to the Ed-
itor, from Mr. J. C. Keeney, dated, “ Sparta Female
Academy,” Jan. 16th, 1829.

“T take the liberty of addressing you relative to a mineral
which I have been examining, and pronounced novaculite,
believing it identical, if not with the Turkey oil stone, with
that found in N. Carolina, and described, | think, in the thir-
teenth volume of the American Journal of Science and Arts.

“Since I came to this conclusion, I polished a specimen
of it, and prepared it by boiling in oil, after the manner of
the Turkey oil stones, and put it into the hands of a carpen-
ter, who, after trial, pronounced it ‘a Turkey oil stone of a
superior quality.’

“This mineral is found in Lincoln and Oglethorpe coun-
ties, Georgia. I have recently visited the locality in Lin-
coln. It is situated on a low hill, about two miles from Lin-
colnton court-house. It is seen projecting above the surface
of the earth, through four or five acres of ground, and is
therefore probably quite extensive. It is found very much
inclined, or nearly in a vertical position. There are several
varieties of color in the same locality. That which is found
exposed to the atmosphere, is mostly of a yellowish straw
color; but that which is taken from beneath the surface of
the earth, is mostly of a greenish white, a fair specimen of
which [ now send you.”

Prof. D. Olmsted, to whom we have exhibited the above
named specimen, and who, from his familiarity with the ex-
tensive beds of novaculite in North Carolina, is well qualified
to judge, agrees in opinion with Mr. Keeney ; and if it were
of any importance, we could add our own assent.— Ed.

15. Notice of the locality of the Bronzite, Jameson; or
Diallage metalloide, Hauy and Brongnart ; at Amity, Or-
ange county, State of New York; by J. Finch, Hon. Mem.
West Point Lyc. Nat. Mist. &c.

On an excursion, in the autumn of 1828, over the cal-
careous formation of Orange county, and the Northern part
of the state of New Jersey, accompanied by Wm. Horton, Jr.
M. D, of Goshen, N. Y. and Lieut. Mather of the U. States’
Army, we discovered the above mentioned mineral, which
had not, I believe, been previously noticed in the U. States.

The Bronzite occurs in foliated masses, composed of lam-

ine, which vary in size, from minute scales, scarcely two lines
Vor. XVI.—No. 1. 24

186 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

in diameter, to large plates, eight or ten inches in length,
and six or seven inches wide ; sometimes, though rarely, it is
found in thin hexahedral tables.

The lamine vary from one tenth part of a line to two lines
in thickness; they are usually parallel to each other, but are
sometimes divergent, and at no very uniform angle; they are
generally straight, but sometimes curved, and are occasion-
ally separated from each other by thin plates of calcareous
spar. They are traversed by seams dividing the whole
surface into very minute rhombic tables, which are also cross-
ed by other lines, that pass through them obliquely or di-
verge from a centre.

The plates will usually break, in a direction perpendic-
ular to their surface, without separating any of the laminz
which adhere together with such tenacity as to require a
considerable degree of force to divide them. Cross frac-
ture of the plates uneven and splintery.

The surface of the lamine, exhibits a constant and bril-
liant metallic lustre, so strong as to reflect very distinctly the
images presented to it. Color, deep brownish red, varying
occasionally in some specimens to a copper color; the pow-
der, after it has been acted upon by acids to free it from the
carbonate of lime, is of a beautiful orange red.

It is infusible when exposed to the action of the blowpipe,
but loses its color.

The thin lamine, are usually translucent, sometimes trans-
parent; the folize are opaque or but slightly translucent on
their edges.

It marks glass with difficulty.

Specific gravity, 2.86; but as the specimen which was ex-
perimented upon contained some calcareous spar, it is prob-
able that pure specimens would be 3.0 or even 3.10, which
latter may perhaps be regarded as a near approximation.
The bronzite occurs disseminated in a vein about four inch-
es wide in calcareous rocks ina field about two hundred
yards from the church at Amity.

It is associated with brown and red brucite or condrodite,
xanthite, tale and graphite, crystalized magnesian carbonate
of lime and spinelle.

- Intelligence and Miscellanies. 187

i6. Note on the presence of Tron in the Salt Springs of
Salina, N. Y. by Lewis C. Beck, M. D.—The question
whether the Salina waters contain iron has been frequent-
ly discussed. Drs. Benjamin Dewitt and McNevin, and
Mr. Chilton, in their analyses do not mention it as an ingre-
dient; and the only affirmative statement is by Dr. Noyes,
who conducted his researches in iron kettles, and whose tes-
timony on this point is therefore open to objection. In the
paper which I published upon these waters, I stated the rea-
sons which induced me to believe that they did not con-
tain iron. These were that the ferrocyanate of potash and
nutgalls, did not produce the changes of color to be expect-
ed from the presence of any of the known salts of that
metal.

In a notice of the Salt Springs published in a late num-
ber of your Journal, (Vol. 15. pa. 6,) by Mr. Stephen Smith,
my analysis is quoted with the remark, that there is an omis-
sion of the iron, “ which evidently exists in the salt water
of every spring discovered in this vicinity.” The experi-
ments which the author adduces in proof are as follow. “ Wa-
ter has repeatedly been taken from the different wells, as it
flowed in from the earth, and where it could not possibly
have been in contact with the iron of any part of the pumping
machinery, and on scraping into it some nutgalls with a piece
of broken glass, there has been observed, in a short time, a
change from limpid transparency to a purple color, which
soon became green and finally of a reddish brown; and af-
ter standing two or three weeks, there was a dark brown
deposit that covered the bottoms of the tumblers in which
the experiments were made.”

Now whatever may be the final decision upon this point
the facts above presented are inno degree conclusive. Nay,
the changes of color here described, are I believe in no
case, offered by a combination of galls andiron. ‘The only
change occuring under these circumstances is from that of
a blue or purple to a black, which last is invariably the col-
or of the precipitate when it is exposed for any length of
time to the air.

The facts stated by Mr. Smith may, I think be satisfac-
torily accounted for without the necessity of referring them
to the presence of iron. The Salina waters are known to
contain lime in various states of combination. Gallic acid,
one of the constituents of the gallnut, is also known to com-

188 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

bine with lime and to afford an insoluble precipitate of a
brownish color. |

The following experiment which I have often performed,
and which may be easily repeated will show the faliacy which
attends Mr. Smith’s conclusion on this point.

To some perfectly limpid lime water, previously ascertain-
ed by the ferrocyanate of potash, to be free from iron, add a
few drops of infusion of galls. The whole immediately as-
sumed a purplish color, and in a short time there is deposit-
ed at the bottom of the vessels a greenish brown precipitate.

It may not be amiss to refer to higher authority. According
to Dr. Thomson, gallic acid when dropped into barytes wa-
ter, strontian water, or limewater gives them a bluish red col-
or and occasions a flaky precipitate composed of the acid
combined with the earth. (Vol. 2. p. 158 Amer. Ed.) The
same fact is mentioned by Thenard and Brande, the latter
of whom states the precipitate to be of a brownish color.
This acid also decomposes the earthy carbonates.

Again “ when barytes, strontian or lime water is poured in-
to the infusion of galls, an olive colored precipitate falls,
which consists not only of tannin, but also of the extract and
most of the gallic acid combined with the earth.” (Thom-
son Vol. 2. p. 158.)

But I need not occupy time with other quotations. I may
however remark, that the difficulty which attends the detec-
tion of iron has been sufficiently shown by Mr. Richard
Phillips in his “ analysis of the Bath Water ;” where it will
be seen that other processes, besides mere precipitation, are
necessary to prove its existence.

17. Tin in Massachusetis.

« AmueRsT, March 10th, 1829.
To the Editer of the American Journal of Science.

Sirn—I am happy in being able to send you herewith a
specimen of genuine New England Tin. 1 can indeed
spare you but a very small quantity—only a single globule,
reduced before the compound blowpipe: yet, as it is well
characterized, and the first, if I mistake not, that has been
found in the United States, I trust that it will prove ac-
ceptable.

It occurs at Goshen, Massachusetts; at the well known
locality of spodumene, limpid and-rose beryl, rose mica,

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 189

green tourmaline, indicolite, and siliceous feldspar, three miles
north west from the center of the town, on the farm of Mr.
Stearns. I have found only a single crystal, which I ob-
tained several years ago, in the granite containing the above
minerals: but I did not examine it till Jately. A recent visit
to the spot did not furnish me with any additional specimens.

The prevailing rock in the vicinity is mica slate, with oc-
casional veins and beds of granite. At the spot no granite
appears in place; but numerous large bowlders are scattered
over an extent of several rods, where there appears to be a
considerable depth of soil. Unquestionably these were
broken up from a bed or vein beneath. It may be hoped,
therefore, that further research will discover a deposit of this
interestng metal: For in Cornwall “it is generally in the
vicinity of a vein of tin ore, that disseminated grains of tin-
stone are found in the rock.”

The specimen which I found consists ofa single crystal,
weighing about fifty grains: or rather of a portion of one
large crystal, with parts of several smaller ones, projecting
from it hemi-tropically. 'The form is evidently an octahe-
dron, with a square base; but its angles, as measured with a
common goniometer, differ several degrees from the meas-
urements of the primary form of tinstone, as given by W.
Phillips. His results (making use of Brooke’s notation) are,

P onjl!), t33° 30!
Pon P 67/152
That from Goshen gives
Bony P! b25°
Pon P" 86

Whence this discrepancy arises I am unable to say. f
would suggest, however, that it is not impossible, that I have
mistaken the true form of the crystal; as only a few of its
faces are exhibited in perfection.

As to the external characters of this mineral, it will be suf-
ficient to say, in general, that they correspond almost exactly
with the oxide of tin from Cornwall and Bohemia. Its spe-
cific gravity is 7.14.

On charcoal it was readily reduced before the oxy-hydro-
gen blow pipe, without decrepitation; and after reduction,
it burnt with the brilliant white light of tin. Tinstone from
Bohemia was not reduced so easily.

In order to ascertain whether the reduced globule would
give the crackling sound, so striking in metallic tin, I placed

190 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

it between my teeth; and upon pressing it between them, I
was surprised at the distinctness with which this property
could be perceived.

The quantity reduced was so smail, and the balance I used
so poor, that I could not ascertain very accurately the spe-
cific gravity of the metal. It appeared however to be not
far from 7.

In color, hardness, and malleability, it corresponds exactly
with common tin.

“ In muriatic acid, with a gentle heat, it was entirely dis-
solved. Hence I infer its comparative freedom from those
alloys which remain as a black powder when common tin is
dissolved in this acid.

While the solution thus obtained was in the state of a pro-
tomuriate, the following tests of tin were applied. For com-
parative experiments, a piece of common block tin was dis-
solved in muriatic acid, and the same tests applied. Jn every
case the results were exactly alike.

1. Muriate of platinum gave a deep orange precipitate.

2. Muriate of gold, a purple do.

3. Ferrocyanate of potassa, a white do. slight-
ly tinged with blue. |

*4, Perchloride of mercury, a white do.

5. Protosulphate of iron soon acquired the reddish hue of
the persulphate.

The following tests were tried to ascertain whether the
metal under examination were not cadmium. They are
given by Joyce in his Practical Chemical Mineralogy, page
225. Here too comparative experiments were made with
the solution of block tin, and the results corresponded pre-
cisely with those on the metal from Goshen.

1. Pure caustic potassa gave a slight precipitate, of a
white color.

2. Aqua ammonia, a white do. not so-
luble in excess of ammoma. ;

3. Hydrosulphuret of ammonia, an orange do. inclin-
ing to brown. :

The second experiment would seem, according to Joyce,
to indicate that the metal under examination is not cadmium.

*Joyce in his Practical Chemical Mineralogy, states that this test gives a
black precipitate with tin: but this is obviously a mistake.

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 191

Upon the whole, there seems no reason to doubt that it is
genuine tin. Respectfully yours, &c.
Epwarp Hirtcucock.

18. A mineralogical and chemical description of the Vir-
ginia Aerolite;* by Charles Upham Shepard, Assistant to
the Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in Yale Col-
lege.—Since collections of meteoric stones have begun to
be formed, and a more nice attention to be bestowed upon
their differences and resemblances, our information concern-
ing their nature, as might have been expected, has been
greatly augmented; and although we may still be far from
solving the curious problem of the origin of these singular
bodies, we are nevertheless certain, that a minute observa-
tion of all the facts connected with the subject, affords the
only rational promise of our ultimately attaining so desira-
ble an object.

In giving a description of the Virginia aerolite, I shall in
the first place consider the specimen before me in relation to
its compound character, or, so to speak, as a rock ; and af-
terwards I shall attempt to point out the nature of the indi-
vidual substances of which it is composed.

The weight of the fragment is a little short of two pounds,
which is about half that, as we are informed, of the mass
from which it was detached. That portion of the external
surface which remains in the specimen, indicates that the en-
tire piece was less oval in its figure than is usual in these
stones. Besides this difference in general shape, the surface
exhibits hollows and circular cavities, some of which are half
an inch in diameter and about the same in depth; and is in-
vested with the black coating which always accompanies such
bodies, although this is interrupted in a few places, and no
where appears to have resulted from a very perfect fusion.

Its interior, at first glance, reminds one very forcibly of
certain volcanic rocks. Its color is a bluish ash grey, inter-
spersed with a sprinkling of white, and here and there with
specks of brownish rust. It contains numerous ovoidal, ir-
regular shaped cavities, varying in size from one tenth to
half an inch in diameter, which are lined in many instances
with brilliant metallic crystals. Its compound character be-

* Which fell seven miles from Richmond, Virg. June 4, 1828—for the par-
ticulars, see Vol. 15, pa. 195 of this Journal.

192 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

comes sufficiently obvious on bringing it near the eye, when it
appears to be composed principally of a bluish grey substance,
in globular masses, from the size of a mustard seed to that of
a pea, and a white, loosely cohering mineral: the former in
much the largest proportion. After these, on closer inspec-
tion, are visible minute hook shaped, and sometimes slightly
flattened globular masses of a metallic nature, which are of-
ten partially coated by rust, and minute steel grey grains
and crystals, which for the most part occupy the cavities be-
fore mentioned, and are sometimes arranged so as to resem-
ble the characters used in the eastern languages. Besides
these, by the aid of a microscope, we discover occasionally a
greenish transparent laminated substance, and more rarely
a honey yellow mineral in minute grains.

In comparing it, in its general aspect, with such meteoric
specimens as the cabinet of this college embraces, we ob-
serve in it a considerable resemblance to the Weston aero-
lites. Like these, the two substances of which it is chiefly
composed are in masses sufficiently large to appear quite dis-
tinct to the naked eye, although from the description already
given, it will be perceived that it differs considerably even
from them, by its numerous cavities and their crystallized
contents. It differs very essentially from the Maryland
stones, which are almost wholly made up of a white feld-
spathic substance; as well as from those of l’Aigle and
Stannern, the former of which being quite compact and ho-
mogeneous, and the latter abounding mostly in albite.

The firmness of the Virginian stone is superior to that of ei-
ther of those above mentioned, except perhaps those of !’Aigle,
it requiring a pretty smart blow of the hammer to produce a
fracture, and the small masses refuse to separate by the mere
strength of the fingers. Its specific gravity, as determined
in two fragments, one weighing 82:3 grs. and the other 38°5
was 3°29, and 3°31.

After these observations upon the general character of the
specimen under examination, I proceed to the separate de-
scription of the minerals it contains. ;

1. Chrysolite.

‘The globular shaped bodies which compose the chief
part of the Virginia aerolite are thus denominated, because
in their mineralogical characters, they approach very closely
our species crysolite. I offer the following description of its
characters.

‘

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 193

External shape spheroidal, or sub-angular.

Structure lamellar, cleaving in two directions; at right an-
gles to each other, or as nearly so, as the perfection of the
planes will allow us to observe. One of these cleavages is
effected with greater ease than the other, and presents im-
perfect horizontal striz. The lamellar structure is often in-
terrupted by a sub-conchoidal fracture.

Lustre vitreous, and splendent in the most perfectly cleav-
able masses, but glimmering only, on the conchoidal surfaces.
Color grey, often with a tinge of blue, and rarely, olive green.
Translucent onthe edges, and in a few instances, transparent.

Hardness equal to that of crystallized adularia: the one
impressing the other, only when great mechanical violence
is exerted. It scratches the crystallized pyroxene of Mussa.

Specific gravity was determined upon a mass, which be-
fore its fracture into two pieces, weighed 6:1 grs.; the entire
mass gave 3°3. and the largest fragment 3°38. - Another mass
weighing 3°4 grs. gave a specific gravity of 3°90. The mean
of the three experiments is 3°259.

Chemical Examination.

Before the blow pipe, in small fragments, with the most
intense heat that could be urged, it fused with ebullition up-
on its thinnest edges into a shining black glass, and the frag-
- ment became immediately attractable by the magnet. With
borax, in powder, it dissolved, forming a greenish transpar-
ent glass. With carbonate of soda it entered into fusion,
with difficulty, becoming transparent, or nearly so in the full
heat of the blowpipe, but immediately turning dark reddish
brown and becoming opake on being removed from the
flame, and finally changing to white. With microcosmic salt,
it dissolves with readiness, and the glass assumes a deep straw
yellow color, which on cooling becomes of a paler tinge and
contracts a degree of cloudiness.

1. Asmall portion of the mineral reduced to the state of
an impalpable powder was introduced into a flask upon
which diluted muriatic acid was affused. To the flask was
fitted a glass tube to deliver over the gas which might be
extricated, into a vial containing a solution of acetate of lead.
A gentle heat was applied to the flask, when sulphuretted hy-
drogen gas made its appearance and the precipitation of
the lead commenced. The apparatus was disengaged as
soon as it was perceived by the smell (through the means of

Vou. XVI.—No. 1. 25

194 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

a glass tube coming from the flask, upon which the finger
was placed, and which was used as a safety tube to prevent
the contents of the vial from rushing over into the flask) that
the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen had ceased. Floc-
culi of silex were seen floating through the solution, thus in-
dicating that the integrity of the substance was partially
overcome. It was separated from the insoluble residue by the
filter, and a stream of chlorine gas passed through it, to bring
the iron it was supposed to contain, to the maximum of ox-
idation.

2. A portion of the solution (1.) was decomposed by am-
monia. The precipitate was of a deep reddish brown color,
and the supernatant liquid remained perfectly colorless.

3. The colorless liquid (2.) was evaporated to dryness in
a platina capsule, over an alcoholic lamp. As it approached
to dryness, a smart decrepitation was noticed. ‘The residue
was heated to redness, after which, water was boiled uponit
for a few moments, and the solution separated from the inso-
luble part by the filter.

4. To a portion of this solution (3.) oxalate of ammonia
was added, which occasioned no cloudiness.

5. To another portion was added nitrate of silver: a pre-
cipitate immediately made its appearance.

6. Another portion contracted no cloudiness from muriate
of platina or tartaric acid.

7. A portion of the solution (3.) was now evaporated
nearly to dryness, and set aside to crystallize by spontane-
ous evaporation. After the liquid was entirely evaporated,
small cubic crystals were seen by the aid of a magnifier.

8. The residue, (3.) not soluble in water, was treated with
muriatic acid, in which it was immediately taken up. ‘To
the solution was added carbonate of potash: no precipitate
made its appearance until afier the ebullition of the liquid,
when a copious one ensued.

9. The precipitate by ammonia-(2.) was dissolved in mu-
riatic acid, and to the liquid, rendered neutral by evapora-
tion, was added a few drops of chloride of lime: no red
flocks made their appearance.

10. A part of the original muriatic solution was decom-
posed by potash in excess, and after being boiled for some
time was separated from the precipitate. ‘To it was added
muriate of ammonia, which occasioned no cloudiness.

11. The portion of the stone (1.) which refused to dis-
solve in muriatic acid, was treated with double its weight of

Intelligence and Miscellamies. 195

potash, and heated to redness for half an hour in a silver
crucible. The mineral entered into perfect fusion, and the
mass assumed an intense green color.’ By the aflusion of
warm water, it was transferred to a wedgewood capsule,
and on the addition of nitric acid, a clear yellowish solution
was obtained.

12. The nitric solution (11.) was evaporated to perfect
dryness, in order to decompose the nitrate of iron and sepa-
rate the silex. Warm water was added to the residue, and
a solution of a yellow color was formed, leaving behind the
' oxide of iron and silex.

13. To the yellow solution (12.) was added proto-nitrate
of mercury, which occasioned an orange colored precipi-
tate: this when dried and heated assumed a grass green
tinge, and communicated to borax while in a state of fusion
a deep green color, but in cooling, it faded to a pale yellow.

The conclusions which these trials enable us to form, with
regard to the composition of the mineral under examination,
appear to be the following. No. 1. proves the existence of
sulphur ; though with regard to this ingredient, subsequent
trials, in which I repeated this experiment upon larger quan-
tities of the mineral, without obtaining any very appreciable
precipitate, satisfied me that it was wholly due to minute parti-
cles of the proto-sulphuret of iron (a substance hereafter to be -
noticed) adhering to the surfaces of the globular masses of
our mineral. No.’s 2. and 8. prove the absence of nickel,
and 4. that of lime. No. 5. exhibits the presence of an al-
kali, which 6. and 7. prove to be soda. No. 8. shows the
existence of magnesia; 9. and 10. the absence of manga-
nese and alumine: and 13. the presence of chrome. Be-
sides the above mentioned ingredients, silex and oxide of
iron are to be added, whose existence in a large proportion
became sufficiently obvious during these trials.

I went through the process of analysis by fluoric acid, in-
vented by Berzelius, with the hope of ascertaining the pro-
portion of the soda, adopting the expedient of Rose for the
separation of the sulphates of magnesia and soda,* but as |
was operating upon 10 grs. only of the mineral, the quantity
of carbonate of soda was too trifling to enable me to ascer-
tain its weight with precision.

\
* Ann. de Chim. t. xx, p. 334.

196 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

In two trials also, which I made, one upon 14 grs. and the
other upon 20 grs. of the mineral, to learn if possible the ex-
‘act proportion of chrome it contained, (in one instance sepa-
rating it from its acid combination with potash, by the addi-
tion of muriate of barytes, and in the other by the proto-
nitrate of mercury,) [ became satisfied from the smallness of
its proportion, which was such as to prevent my estimating
it by weight, that it did not form an essential ingredient in
the composition of the mineral,

After these preliminary experiments, I entered upon the
following

ANALYSIS.

A. 17.8 grs. reduced to powder, were mingled with double
their weight of potash and 10 grs. of nitrate of potash. The
mixture was kent at a red heat in a silver crucible for one
hour. The calcined mass which had evidently undergone
fusion, presented a yellowish green color, which it commu-
nicated to its solution in water.. On the addition of nitric
acid, the fused mineral became perfectly soluble, with the
exception of a few white flocculi of silex, which were seen
floating through the solution.

B. The nitric solution was evaporated to dryness, in which
state it was kept at a heat of 212° for upwards of half an
hour, to ensure the complete decomposition of the nitrate of
iron and the separation of the silex. The dried mass, which
was reduced to the state of a powder, and frequently stirred,
assumed throughout a deep reddish brown color. Warm
Wwaier was now aflused, and the oxide of iron and silex sepa-
rated by means of the double filter.

C. This solution, (B.) reduced by evaporation to a con-
venient bulk, was boiled for upwards of an hour with an ex-
cess of carbonate of soda. The precipitate which ensued
was washed, dried and heated to ignition in a platina cruci-
ble for twenty minutes, after which: its weight was 5.5 grs.
Its color was pure white, and upon the addition of dilute
sulphuric acid it was wholly taken up, with the exception of
a few flocculi of silex, whose weight it was not attempted to
ascertain. The solution was partially reduced by evapora-
tion, and set aside to crystallize. In two days, it shot into
erystals of Epsom salt.

D. The insoluble oxide of iron and silex (B.) was heated to
redness in a close platina crucible over an alcoholic lamp,

Lan

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 197

after which they weighed 11.62 grs. The mixture was now
digested with muriatic acid until the oxide of 1ron was whol-
ly dissolved ; the silica remained behind in white flocks, and
was separated by the doubie filter, washed, dried and ig-
nited. Its weight was 7.53 grs. This amount, deducted
from 11.62 grs. gives 4.09 grs. per oxide of iron, which, re-
duced by calculation to the protoxide, the condition in which
it probably exists m the mineral, equals 3.68 grs.
The constituents of this mineral therefore appeared to be,
in this instance,
Silex, . j : < j 3.48.
Magnesia, . ; : = : 5.50.

Protoxide of iron, : § : 3.68.
Soda, . 4
Oxide of chrome, : A ; 1.09.
Sulphur and loss, aaa
17.80.
Or per hundred,
Silex, 42.30. containing oxigen, 21.27.
Magnesia, 31.46. : : : 12: Wiis
Protoxide of iron, 20.67. é : : 4.59.

Soda,
Oxide of chrome, 5ubW.
Sulphur and loss,

100.00.

Considering the soda and oxide of chrome as accidental,
the preceding analysis, it will be observed, agrees very well
with the supposition that the present variety of chrysolite is
a compound of one atom bisilicate of iron, with three atoms
silicate of magnesia; and its coincidence with the miner-
alogical formula fS? + 3MS will be still more striking, if
we suppose the oxigen of the iron is estimated a little too
high, in consequence of the probable union of a small por-
tion of that metal with sulphur, to form the proto-sulphuret
of iron,—a substance whose mechanical admixture, in aslight
degree, with this mineral was sufficiently evinced by our first
experiments.

I am aware that the difference in composition between
the specimens just examined, and those of the chrysolite .
analyzed by Klaproth and Stromeyer* may seem opposed to

* The specimens examined by Klaproth came from the Levant; the formu-
la of whose composition isfS-+- 4MS. For Stromeyer’s analysis of meteoric
ehrysolite, see Vol. 13, p. 184, this Journal.

198 intelligence and Miscellanies.

the idea of their specific identity: perhaps it might really
be so in a chemical system; but their strong affinity in nat-
ural properties, certainly proves them to belong to the same
mineralogical species,—the only difference between the com-
mon chrysolite and the present substance being, that the
former possesses a livelier color, a higher lustre, and in gen-
eral, a more perfectly conchoidal fracture ; though even this
disagreement is not always observable, for fragments are oc-
casionally met with, in the Virginia aerolite, which it would be
impossible to distinguish from the most strongly marked spe-
cimens of chrysolite.

The proportion formed by this mineral, in the Virginia stone,
does not fall short of two thirds of its entire bulk. I find it al-
so constitutes the principal ingredient in the Weston meteor-
ites, and is occasionally seen in those from Maryland. In
endeavoring to ascertain if the small black grains dissemina-
ted through the Stannern meteoric stones might not be this
substance, I was led to conjecture from their easy fusibil-
ity before the blowpipe, that they were pyroxene; a mineral,
from the researches of G. Rose, well ascertained to exist
in aerolites.*

2. Feldspar.

Under this name I allude to one of the most common in-
gredients of meteorites, although in the present specimen
it forms somewhat less than one quarter of the mass. It is
every where dispersed through the stone, filling up little in-
terstices and investing the chrysolite in thin coatings.

Mineralogical description.

Iixternal shape, exceedingly minute grains, possessed of
feeble degrees of coherence and appearing like powder to
the naked eye.

Structure lamellar, and visible only with a microscope.

Hardness such as not to allow of its impression with the
point of a knife.

Lustre vitreous: color white, rarely with a faint tinge of
green: translucent.

Chemical characters.

It was with some difficulty that pure pieces of sufficient
size could be obtained for blowpipe trials. A thin scale in

* Ann. de Chimie et de Phyisque t. xxx1. p. 81.

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 199

the most powerful heat of this instrument, melted down into
a pearly white translucent glass, or enamel. With micro-
cosmic salt it appeared to dissolve, with the greatest reluc-
tance, into a transparent colorless glass, leaving behind small
skeleton-like masses of silex. With borax, it dissolved with
difficulty and without effervescence, into a transparent, and
colorless glass.

The present mineral appears to correspond with that allu-
ded to by Rose in the memoir before mentioned, and which
he found to compose nearly half of the Juvénas meteorite.
He ascertained that it contained 0°60. p. c. of soda: a quan-
tity so small, that he suggests unless it be a new mineral,
it belongs to his species, labradorite,—a substance better
known generally under the name of labrador feldspar. Its
general aspect, however, as it appears in the Virginia stone,
would render it more probable that it belonged to the varie-
ty albite, than to the labradorite. y vir

It also forms a large proportion in the Maryland and Stan-
nern aerolite, and exists in the stones of l’Aigle and Weston,
though in the last, in but very small proportion.

3. Phosphate of Lime.

The only remaining earthy mineral distinguishable in the
Virginia stone, I take to be the above mentioned substance.
Its proportion in the mass is so trifling that it is scarcely per-
ceptible without the aid of a microscope, and even then,
only in a few points. When a fragment of the stone is bro-
ken down, however, we rarely fail to distinguish a few grains
which are at once recognized by their color.

Mineralogical description.

External shape, globular andreniform. Structure lamel-
lar. Brittle: fracture conchoidal.

Lustre vitreous. Color honey yellow: transparent. Hard-
ness such as to scratch crystalized arragonite from Bilin, but
not asparagus stone: is scratched itself by the knife.

Chemical characters.

Before the blowpipe upon charcoal it phosphoresces with
great distinctness, and becomes rounded on the edges with-
out undergoing any perceptible ebullition, and without loss
of transparency. With microcosmic salt, it forms a trans-
parent glass, at first with a tinge of yellow, but becoming

200 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

colorless when cold. Comparative experiments were made
with the asparagus stone attended by similar results.

Several small angular fragments were put into a flask,
to which colorless nitric acid was added; and a slight heat ap-
plied for nearly an hour, when their complete solution was
effected.

I was the more particular in my examination of this sub-
stance, not being aware that phosphate of lime had ever
before been detected in these stones; and I regret that the
smallness of the quantity prevented me from making still
farther experiments, by means of which, my conclusion con-
cerning its nature might have been rendered quite certain.

4, Meteoric Iron.

This hitherto nearly invariable ingredient of meteoric
stones is not wanting in the prevent instance. Its propor-
tion however is very small, as may be judged of from the fact,
that I did not find above eight grains in breaking down near-
ly half a pound of the stone.

Its form was for the most part that of rounded grains
slightly flattened, the largest of which did not exceed a mus-
tard seed in size. It also existed in little hook-shaped mass-
es, as well as in the most delicate filaments, resembling the
finest wire, and capable of being straightened out in single
pieces, to a length exceeding half an inch. Its color was of
a silvery whiteness, except in those instances where the frag-
ment was situated in a large cavity, when it was partially in-
vested by rust, and in some cases by a thin coating of the
proto-sulphuret of iron.

Chemical Examination.

1. Upon a portion of the meteoric iron, rendered as free
as possible from foreign matter, was poured nitro-muriatic
acid. A brisk action ensued, and every thing was taken up
except a few grains of earthy matter.

2. To the solution was added ammonia in excess ; and af-
ter a few moments’ simmering, to effect the complete de-
composition of the muriate of iron, the precipitate was al-
lowed to subside. The supernatant liquid was withdrawn
by the dropping tube. It exhibited a very distinct blue color,
indicative of the presence of nickel. |

3. The ammoniacal solution (2.) was evaporated to dry=
ness in a platina capsule. ‘The residue presented an apple-

Intelligence and Miscellames. 201

green color, and after the volatilization of the muriate of
ammonia by ignition, a brown powder remained, which, with
borax, before the blowpipe, gave an orange red color, but
on cooling, became almost colorless. The heat was urged
for some time without inducing any tinge of blue. This res-
idue therefore, consisted of the oxide of nickel, without con-
taining any trace of cobalt.

4, A portion of the precipitate by ammonia (2.) was min-
gled with nitrate of potash and ignited. To a watery solu-
tion of the mass was added proto nitrate of mercury, without
occasiong any precipitate, from which the absence of chrome
was inferred.

5. Another portion of the precipitate by ammonia (2.)
was dissolved in muriatic acid, and rendered neutral by evap-
oration. The addition of chloride of lime produced no red
flocks indicative of the presence of manganese.

ANALYSIS.

From the foregoing trials I inferred that the meteoric iron
was alloyed with nickel only, and accordingly I endeavored
to form an estimate of the relative proportions of these met-
als by determining the weight of per oxide of iron, afforded
by a certain quantity of the compound. For this purpose
3 grs. of the mineral were dissolved as usual in nitro-muri-
atic acid. The solution was perfect, with the exception of
0.05 gr. earthy matter, which remained undissolved. Am-
monia was added, and the liquid heated for a few moments.
The precipitate, separated, washed, dried and ignited,
amounted to 3.96 grs. equal to 2.77 metallic iron; thus,
leaving by deduction, 0.18 gr. nickel, in 2.95 grs. of the al-
Joy, or per hundred,

Iron, - - - 93.90
Nickel, - - - 6.10
100.00

5. Proto-sulphuret of Iron.

This is the only remaining constituent of the Virginia ae-
rolite, I have to describe.* Although every where dissemi-

*JT must not however, omit to mention a green capillary fibre, which I no-
ticed occupying a cavity, and two other specks of the same substance, engaged
in the stone, all of which I had the misfortune to loose, in separating them

Vou. XVI.—No. 1. 26

202 Intelligence and Miscellames.

nated through the stone, and almost completely lining its
cavities in little grains and semifused crystals, yet such is
their minuteness, that it scarcely forms a more considerable
ingredient than the meteoric iron.

Mineralogical description.

Form: distinct crystals, of which I obtained three, of sufli-
cient dimensions to enable me, with the aid of a magnifier,
to ascertain their shape, and to determine the value of their
principal angles by the reflective goniometer. The most
perfect of the three, offered only the sides M, M’, and their
four adjoining pyramidal planes c, c, c’, and c’, with the trun-
cature a, as seen in the annexed diagram :—the other planes
of the figure were inferred from the relations of these, the
regular six-sided prism being known to be the fundamental
form of the species.

M, on M,- - - - -
— onc - - - - -
C,;ON a, - - - - =

Structure: cleavage imperfect. Brittle. Lustre steel
like and splendent. Color steel grey upon the crystalline fa-
ces; copper yellow on fractured surfaces. Extremely sub-
ject to tarnish, of which the steel blue and red form the most
frequent colors.

Hardness: not impressible by steel.

Chemical characters.

Before the blowpipe, on charcoal, it enters into immediate
fusion, emitting at the same time sulphureous fumes: the
globule formed assumes a deep red color while hot, but turns
to a dull black, and becomes strongly magnetic on cooling.

To 0.4 grs. in powder was added muriatic acid. The
flask was fitted with a tube dipping into a solution of ace-

from their gangue, for the purpose of submitting them to trial before the
blowpipe. Their intense green color reminded me of malachite.

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 203

tate of lead. An action immediately commenced, on slight-
ly warming the fluid, and a copious precipitate of sulphuret
of lead ensued.

The difference in magnetic properties between the mete-
orice proto-sulphuret of iron and the same mineral belonging
to our globe, led M. Rose to examine the former for nickel ;
conceiving that as the sulphuret of nickel of Johann Geor-
genstadt is not magnetic, a portion of this metal combined
with our mineral, might perhaps be the cause of its not af-
fecting the needle. He was unable, however, to detect the
smallest trace of nickel in the pyrites of the Stannern stone.
Nevertheless, as the common magnetic pyrites possesses but
feeble and very variable degrees of magnetism, the slight dis-
crepancy here observed between the two substances in ques-
tion, does not interfere in any force with the idea of their
specific agreement.

Yale College, March 20, 1829.

19. Native Soda Alum, in Milo.

Mr. George Jones, at present, a tutor in Yale College, and
recently returned from the Mediterranean, brought with him
among many other valuable minerals, a rich case of alum spe-
cimens from the ancient locality of Milo ; and which he has
had the kindness to present to the cabinet of this institution.
The following is a memorandum of the circumstances under
which it occurs as observed by himself, and with which he
has favored me to be inserted in this place, in connexion
with the remarks I have to offer concerning its nature.

“The alum comes from two places in the island of Milo.
One of these is upon the south west side of the island, called
by the natives Calamo, where it occurs near to the shore in
a cave, above which rises a steep hill consisting of a decom-
posing lava of various colors, and strongly impregnated with
sulphur. The cave is about twelve feet deep and five feet
high, and is completely lined upon its roof with alum. The
bottom of the cave is composed of a loose earth through
which is constantly rising heated sulphureous air, which dur-
ing its passage through the crevices precipitates the most
brilliant crystals of sulphur. In front of the cave is a hot
spring, and near by, are other caves, in none of which, how-
ever, the formation of alum is at present taking place.

204 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

“The other spot alluded to, is called Stipsy by the inhab-
itants. It is near the centre of the island, and was well
known to the ancients, being spoken of by Pliny, as afford-
ing an alum, held next in estimation to that procured from
Egypt. This is a cave also, and at the bottom of a hill. Its
entrance is low and narrow, but it forms a chamber one hun-
dred and twenty feet inlength. Its atmosphere preserves a
heat of 90°, and in some places of 100° Fah. The rock
forming the roof and sides is of a pasty consistence, and
every where inflated into oval cells often a foot in length.
It is in these cells that we find the alum, which lines them
all around with the most delicate incrustations or frost work.
Towards the entrance of the cave occur masses of branchy
gypsum, and within delicate acicular crystals of the same
substance.”

As soon as] saw the Milo alum, I was struck with its
want of similarity in appearance to the specimens of Eng-
lish and Scotch alum which I had seen in cabinets, and I
was immediately led to think of the native soda alum of
South America, recently analyzed and made known by Dr.
Thomson.* I accordingly made use of the following pro-
cess, to render my conjecture concerning its nature, certain.

A portion of it was dissolved in water, to which was ad-
ded in excess, carbonate of ammonia, to precipitate the alu-
mine and other earths, as well as any metallic oxides which
might be present. The residual liquid was evaporated to
dryness and heated to redness in a platina crucible to dissi-
pate the ammoniacal salts. The residue was dissolved in
water, in which it proved highly soluble. By its taste it was
recognized to be sulphate of soda. The solution was set
aside for spontaneous evaporation. It shot into short pris-
matic crystals, which on being slightly heated underwent
the watery fusion. In the course of a few days, the entire
mass became covered with a white efflorescence. There-
fore, there can remain no reasonable doubt concerning the
nature of the substance in question.

The specimen examined was from the cave first mention-
ed, between which and the specimens from the other, there
is a slight difference in appearance ; they are both however
the same inall important respects. ‘The former consists of
parallel straight fibres not very closely aggregated, from one

* Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York, Vol. LIT, p. 19.

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 205

to two inches in length, none of which are composed of con-
tinuous masses, but are often interrupted by fissures and oc-
casionally corroded or broken off. ‘They are white of a vi-
treous lustre and transparent except at their termination up-
on the surface, where they are opaque from the loss of water
of crystallization. The specimens from the latter spot, on
the other hand, present a botryoidal surface like prehnite,
from which radiate perpendicularly, perfectly straight and
almost inconceivable minute crystals, much resembling, ex-
cept that the fibres are shorter, some of the most delicate
Zeolites from the Giant’s Causeway. The fineness of the
fibres which form these tufts communicates to them a degree
of silkiness like the native alum of Hurlet, near Paisley, in
Scotland, but they differ strikingly from this last in never
being curved, and in rarely being closely aggregated.

Dr. Thomson finds the composition of the native soda
alum to be,

3 atoms sulphate of alumine, : - QiunS,
1 atom sulphate of soda, - - - 9.00.
20 atoms water, - - - - 22.90%

53.25.

and the only difference between it and the artificial soda _
alum is, that the former contains 20 atoms of water, while
the latter contains 25 atoms. To this circumstance he at-
tributes their difference in crystallization,—the artificial soda
alum assuming the octohedron, whereas the native affects,
apparently, a quadrangular prism.
> Cuartes UpHam SHeparp.
Y.C. March 22d.

20. Proceedings of the Lyceum of Natural History of New
York.

(Continued from Vol. XV. page 360.)

Juty, 1828.—Mr. Parnes made a report on the Helices
from the West Indies presented at a former meeting. He
stated that great difficulties existed in determining the Amer-
ican species, and that he had received many from the Car-
ribean seas of which he could find no descriptions in the
systems.—Dr. Mitchill submitted specimens of plants occa-
sionally sold in the shops for Digitalis. Mr. Halsey, to
whom it was referred for examination, reported it to be the

206 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

Stachys germanica.—Dr. Dekay, read a paper on two fossil
Ammoniies from the Red river and Cahawba, (Alabama.)
—Prof. Buckland of Oxford, in the place of Dewit Clinton
deceased, and Prof. Thomson of Glasgow, in the place of
Sir James Edward Smith, deceased, were elected honorary.
members. H. Brevoort and Rev. T. C. Levins, were elect-
ed resident members.

Aveust.— Ur. Featherstonhaugh presented a specimen of
transition limestone charged with organic remains, occur-
ring in thin layers in greywacke at Duanesburgh, (N. Y.) per-
fectly identical in arrangement, composition and fossil con-
tents with the Dudley limestone of England.—Dr. Dekay
read an amended description of the Amia calva of Linneus,
from a specimen sent by H. R. Schoolcraft, Esq. from the
Sault de Ste Marie, (Michigan.) The specimen was nearly
two and a half feet in length, mottled, highly prized as an
article of food, and is the first known example of this species
inhabiting the western waters.—Mr. Featherstonhaugh pre-
sented specimens of a root highly prized by the Indians as
an article of food. It is the earliest food used by them in
the spring of the year, and is called Itapineeg by the Chip-
peways. It is the Dentaria diphylila.—At the request of the
secretary of the navy, instructions were ordered to be drawn ~
up for the use of the naturalists, to be attached to the con-
templated voyage of ‘discovery in the South Seas, and com-
mittees were appointed for that purpose. Joseph C. Hart
elected a resident member. .

Serremper.—Mr. Featherstonhaugh reported upon the
specimens presented at a former meeting by Dr. Swift, of
the U. 8. navy. They consisted of well defined oolite, frag-
ments of echini, flint, white chert, d&c. &c. from Florida and
Cuba. Of these it was remarked, that the white chert is said
by Williams, (View of Florida,) to abound in the chalky rock
(oolite) at Tampa, but of this chalky rock we have no speci-
mens. But as we have well defined specimens of the Key
West oolite with the cherty matter ; itis a proper deduction
that the same oolitic formation underlies all that region com-
prehending the south and west coasts of Florida, as well as
the island of Cuba.—A valuable collection of animals was
received from corresponding members, Drs. James and
Pitcher, of the U. 8. army, collected by them on the north
western frontier.—The president deposited in the cabinet of

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 207

the Lyceum, a mass of pure native copper, the property of
H. R. Schoolcraft, Esq. This mass weighs 47 lbs. and was
obtained at the mouth of the Ontonagon river. It is not to
be confounded with the larger mass lying higher up the river,
and which is composed in part of serpentine disseminated
through it in veins.—Dr. Dekay read a description of a new
species of reptile from Paza, belonging to the genus Lepos-
ternon of Spix. It was thus characterized. L. oxyrhinchus.
L. fiavido-albidum ; sulcis tribus longitudinalibus dorso late-
ribusque. Rostro acuminato non mucronato.—Dr. Torrey
read an extract of a letter from Prof. Thomson of Glasgow,
containing analyses of several American minerals. That of
Sillimanite corresponds in the main with that of Mr. Bowen,
but contains 18 pr. ct. of zircon. Cummingtonite is un-
doubtedly a new mineral species allied to Karpholite. Prof.
T. has also made a partial analysis of Disluite. It is not an
aluminous mineral, but a new species allied to spinelle-—Dr.
Torrey announced that he had received from Mr. Nuttall, a
mineral from Nova Scotia, which he is inclined to believe
will prove to be Nepheline, a new mineral species for this
country. It is the same mineral which has been considered
as a new species and termed Lederite——Dr. Hosack pre-
sented the hydrophytologia of Lyngebye with other valua-
ble works; also a rich collection of marine plants from the
coast of Sweden, illustrating the work of Lyngebye.—Dr.
Mitchill read a portion of a paper entitled “a notice of oc-
currences in natural history and the sciences connected with
it, for the last few years in the U. S.— Mr. Henry Carey was
elected a resident member.

Octoser.—Mr. Reynolds read a communication contain-
ing the result of his enquiries among the whalers and sealers,
and the observations and discoveries made by this class of
citizens in the Southern Seas. About 10,000 whales are
supposed to be annually destroyed. Mr. R. has collected
and embodied a mass of evidence sufficient to show the pro-
bable existence of nearly two hundred islands, rocks and
reefs not laid down in any chart.——Specimens of phyllite
from Lancaster, (Mass.) described in vol. 3d, of the annals,
and crystals detached and mounted, of the American topaz
from Monroe, (Con.) were presented by Dr. Torrey.—Dr.
Dekay read a paper entitled, “ description of a fresh water
fish of the Linnean genus Gadus, from Lake Superior.”— Mr.

208 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

©. T. Jackson of Boston, presented a box of minerals col-
lected by himself, illustrating the geology and mineralogy of
Nova Scotia, and a part of Massachusetts. The collection
consisted of upwards of seventy choice and well selected
specimens, among which the following were more particu-
larly noticed. Laumonite, Thomsonite, and radiated Meso-
type; purple Scapolite, white Heulandite, yellow Chabasie,
Petalite, (pink variety,) with crystals of ferruginous oxide of
cerium, &c. &c.

Novemser.—WMessrs. Cooper and Cozzens, who have re-
cently returned from an extensive tour through the western
states, presented a mass of tertiary rock from the shore of
the Potomac, sixty miles below Washington. It contained
casts of Turitella, Arca, Calyptrea, Pectunculus, Ampulla-
ria, &c. and was considered as precisely similar in fossil
contents with the clay of the London basin.—A letter was
received from the secretary of the navy, returning thanks to
the Lyceum for the interest they had taken in the proposed
voyage of discovery, and for the ample instructions with
which he had been furnished by the Lyceum.—Dr. Mitchill
read a continuation of his paper on the progress of the nat-
ural sciences in the United States——Dr. Torrey presented.
specimens of the rare mineral Glaukolite, from the vicinity
of Lake Baikal.—The same gentleman announced the dis-
covery of Cadmium among the zinc ores of New Jersey.—
Prof. Buckland, of the university of Oxford, presented a
series of excellent casts of the Mastodon latidens and ele-
phantoides recently discovered in the kingdom of Ava.—The
president delivered a discourse founded upon the recent de-
cease of a member, Mr. D. H. Barnes.— Messrs. Cooper and
Cozzens presented specimens of the rock formations in the
neighborhood of Bigbone Lick, (Kentucky,) with two maps
illustrating the geology of that place. ‘They also exhibited
an extensive series of specimens of the teeth and bones of
the mastodon of various ages, and the elephant.—They pro-
pose to give a detailed description of these specimens at
some future meeting.—Mr. Louis Ianin of Paris, was elected
a corresponding, and Dr. I. Brinkerhoff, and Mr. Isaac S.
Hone, resident members.

Decemser.—Dr. Torrey stated that having treated a por-

tion of a fossil tusk from Kentucky, (probably that of a mas-
todon,) with dilute muriatic acid, the animal matter still re-

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 209

mained, though somewhat modified.—Mr. I. L. Williams
of Florida, a corresponding member, presented a box of spe-
cimens illustrative of the geology of that region.—Ool. Tot-
ten, of the U. S. engineers, a corresponding member, pre-
sented a large collection of fossil plants from the slate for-
mation of Rhode Island, among them were casts of doubt-
ful fossils which were referred for examination and report.—
Messrs. T. G. Cary and G. C. Peterson, were admitted resi-
dent members.

21. Baron de Zach—Inberty of opinion and of the press—
Education—General views of Europe, 6c.

Extract of a letter from an American gentleman, to the Editor, dated,

“ Horwy , Switzerland, Dec. 22, 1828.

“Baron de Zach, as you have probably heard, underwent
a very dangerous operation in Paris, but seems now restor-
ed. He passed the summer in Switzerland, but I was una-
ble to discover his residence in time to visit him. One of his
friends who received the account from himself, told me that
the reason assigned, on the demand of the Prussian ambas-
sador for his banishment, by the Sardinian government, was
that he had maintained in his astronomical journal the revo-
lution of the earth around the sun, which was in direct con-
tradiction with the decrees of the church! It is almost in-
credible that such darkness should prevail in the midst of
light, as one finds in Italy, and even in some parts of Swit-
zerland, Itis painful to an American to find even on politi-
cal subjects so much of the illiberal spirit of past ages, in this
land, which boasts so much of its freedom. The press is in
many cantons under severe restrictions. Exterior and for-
mal instruction is indeed encouraged ; but efforts to produce
real illumination among the people are often frowned upon
or censured, or even persecuted by the still powerful aristoc-
racy. The Jesuits, driven out of France, have taken post in
Switzerland, and promise to involve its catholic cantons in
grosser darkness than ever. Indeed the promises and insti-
tutions to which the princes of Europe have been driven by
the force of public opinion, are but a cloak under which, in
most states, views as tyrannical, and measures as illiberal,
as ever are concealed.

“ Still the efforts of individuals, and of individual states in
Europe, are doing immense service to the cause of education

Vor. XVI.—No. 1. 27

210 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

in general, and providing materials which will produce great
effect, when they are allowed to operate freely on the mass
of the people. I have but just begun to examine this sub-
ject, and so important and extensive do I find it, that if Prov-
idence permit, I shall return to complete observations and
inquiries which my state of health has scarcely allowed me
to commence until the present summer. I shall deem my-
self happy if I can, in this way,become a humble instrument
of promoting that moral elevation of character, that intel-
lectual light among the mass of the people, so necessary for
the security of institutions like ours, so little thought of as
a part of the business of education, and so little valued in
comparison with those mechanical acquisitions made in our
schools, which for want of proper direction are often only
the instruments of evil. I have come hither to pass the
winter in the examination of an institution, which for the ex-
tent and rationality of its means of education, is among the
first in Europe.

The season is thus far very mild, and it is singular that at
the height of one thousand seven hundred feet above the
level of the sea, we have had scarcely any severe cold, while
in most of the adjacent countries the winter is long since set
in, and even in Turkey, the Russians have almost realized
the sufferings of the French at Moscow. I find that the most
liberal men here rather rejoice that the proud steps of the
northern colossus are somewhat arrested, and that Russian
despotism is kept at bay by the Mahomedan, to the greater
security of the rest of the world. The great objects which hu-
manity had to desire, the independence of Greece, and the
repose necessary to build up its ruins, and the better protec-
tion of Wallachia and Moldavia seem to be secured; and if
the success of the Russians had been complete, who can an-
swer for the ambition of Nicolas, or the passions of his semi-
barbarous subjects? You will probably have heard that the
ambassadors of the allied powers lave been occupied with
the President in preparing to fix the boundaries of Greece,
which it can scarcely be hoped (if desired) will at present
be extended beyond the Isthmus. It is a striking evidence
of the deplorable state of this country, that at their meeting
at Poros, the best houses which could be found for them,
~ were destitute both of doors and windows. There is not
enough wealth remaining to replant the desolated vineyards
and olive yards. The price of two or three crops will pur-
chase the land. Candiais at present the scene of the same

Intelligence and Miscellanes. 211

sanguinary contest which has desolated the Morea, but the
ambassadors have interfered, with the hope of checking it.

I am surprised to find how much interest our presidential
controversy excites in Europe; and to hear and see the names
of Jackson and Adams in every language. God grant that
the issue, whatever it be, may be overruled for good, and that
the storm of evil passions it appears to have excited, may sub-
side. This seems tome a more alarming circumstance than
the character of any individual could be in reference to our
prospects and institutions.

22. Literary Notice—Mr. H. Howe, Bookseller, of this
city, has just published in one octavo volume, a reat edition
of “ Bakewell’s Introduction to Geology,” the first Ameri-
can, from the third London edition, which came from the
hands of the author the past year, entirely recomposed and
greatly enlarged, and illustrated with new plates.

This is probably the most attractive and intelligible book
on Geology in the English language.

To this edition is added “an Outline of the Course of
Geological Lectures given in Yale College.”

93. OBITUARY.

Died, on the 26th of January, in the 67th year of his age,
Naraan Smuitu, M. D. Prof. of the Theory and Practice of
Physic and Surgery, in the Medical Institution of Yale Col-
lege.

ve interesting eulogium, pronounced by Professor Knight,
one of the colleagues of the deceased, exhibits a very just
delineation of his character. Dr. Smith was born at Reho-
both, in Mass. Sept. 30, 1762: he was furnished in early life,
with only the common elements of knowledge, usually taught
in the New England schools. His father, having removed
to Vermont, he was occupied exclusively in agricultural pur-
suits, although with occasional calls, during the war of the
revolution, to perform arduous military duty, in repelling the
incursions of the savages.

At the age of 24, he was accidentally present at a surgi-
.cal operation, performed by Dr. Josiah Goodhue.* This cir-
cumstance kindled in his mind an ardent desire to know

* This venerable man has survived his early and favorite pupil, and now, in
honorable old age, lives at Hadley, Mass.

212 Intelligence and Miscellanics.

something more of the structure of the human frame. By
the recommendation of Dr. Goodhue, Mr. Smith went
through such a course of preparatory study, as would have
qualified him to enter the freshman class in Harvard col-
lege, and was then received as a private pupil by Dr. G.
After studying medicine and surgery for three years, and
practising in his profession two or three more, at Cornish in
New Hampshire, he resorted again to Harvard, to attend the
courses of Medical and Philosophical lectures, under the
eminent professors, who adorned that institution, among
whom was the elder Dr. Warren. Dr. Smith received a
medical diploma at Harvard, and gained much credit by his
inaugural dissertation on the circulation of the blood. He
now returned to his practice with increased advantage, and
prosecuted it with so much vigor and success, that he was, in
the course of a few years, able to compass a very favorite ob-
ject—the establishment of a medical school m connexion
with Dartmouth college, at Hanover, N. H. This hght was
raised in a region, where the darkness was before palpable,
and its rays shone with such lustre as to attract the eyes of
multitudes even at a distance. Professor Smith’s school
soon became eminent, and it was esteemed both an honor
and an advantage to have been his pupil. In the earlier
years of this institution, Dr. Smith discharged the duties of
all the departments, and at the same time attended to an
extensive medical and surgica! practice, which led him, often
by night, almost always on horseback, and in every Vicissi-
tude of the seasons and weather, over the rugged mountains
of that region, then comparatively wild, and furnished with
few good roads.

Although engaged in an honorable and lucrative course
of professional duty—impelled by an ardent desire to per-
fect his knowledge, Dr. Smith left his practice and his
school, and resorted to Edinburgh, where and m London
he passed a year, under illustrious ‘masters, among whom
were Doctors Black and Monro, and returned to his own
station with powers of uscfulness greatly augmented. His
career was alike useful to others and honorable to himself;
his practice was greatly extended; his school was augmen-
ted to the number of sixty pupils or more; and having
trained those who could in some good degree supply his
place, he accepted, in 1813, an invitation to a professorship
in the newly instituted medical department of Yale College,

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 213

which station he occupied, with the most distinguished honor
and usefulness, till his death.

Dr. Smith possessed a powerful and active intellect. He lov-
ed knowledge in every form, and gave the whole of his influ-
ence to promote its progress. His industry was unwearied,
and his mind was always employed, even when he was en-
gaged in his active duties.

As a practical surgeon he had few equals, and his opera-
tions—numerous, various, and often dangerous—were re-
markably successful.

As a practitioner of medicine, he was devoted ; full of re-
source, and so absorbed in the case before him that he rarely
despaired while iife continued.

Although not indifferent to the rewards of his profession,
they seem never to have been his primary object.

The writer of this brief notice speaks from personal know]-
edge, when he states, that Dr. Smith was equally prompt
to leave his repose at midnight in a winter’s tempest, to
resort to the bed side of a suffering African, who could give
him no reward, as to that of the most wealthy and munificent
patient.

With him, duty was discharged as much from impulse as
from principle ; and both conspired to produce prompt, vig-
orous and unremitting effort. The kindness of his temper
was inexhaustible; the suffering infant was watched with as
much assiduity as the most valued adult; and in anxicus
hours, when hope and fear were conflicting in filial or paren-
tal bosoms—multitudes can testify, that this devoted man of-
ten spent the night by the sick bed, or, without leaving his
post, caught only a transient and often interrupted repose.

Not only beloved and revered in his own family, in train-
ing whom he was very successful in the formation of intelli-
gent and virtuous character—he was every where at home,
for he was every where welcome. Great in his profession—
rich in his stores of general knowledge—delighting in con-
versation—holding the female character in high estima-
tion, and uniting assiduity with purity—he was the favorite
of a wider circle of personal acquaintances and friends,
than (as his respected eulogist observes) any other man
probably ever enjoyed in New England.

He did more than any other man ever did to extend med-
ical and surgical knowledge in the northern states; and the

214 Intelligence and Miscellames.

beneficial effect of his exertions and example will remain to
distant generations.*

Foreign extracts, by Prof. J. Griscom.

24. Carbonic Acid of the Atmosphere.—A memoir on this
subject, by Theodore De Saussure, read before the Helvetic
society, in June, 1828, contains some interesting facts. The
author determined the amount of carbonic acid in a given
portion of air at any one time, by enclosing barytic water in
a large glass balloon, full of the air to be examined, and as-
certaining the weight of the carbonate formed. The por-
tion of carbonic acid, he observes, is undergoing almost con-
tinual changes. The mean quantity as determined by ex-
periments commenced in June, 1816, and continued to 1828,
in a meadow at Chambeisy, near Geneva, is, at mid-day 4.9
parts in 10,000 of air. The maximum was 6.2; the mini-
mum 3.7.

The mean quantity of carbonic acid in the atmosphere is
greater in summer than in winter. The author finds that
the relative proportions are as 100 to 77.

There are occasional exceptions to this difference. In the
month of January, 1828, which was extraordinary for the
mildness of its temperature, the quantity of carbonic acid
rose to 5.1. In the month of August following,t remarka-
ble for its being singularly cold and rainy, the quantity at
mid-day, the mean of four observations, was only 4.45.

The author finds that there is an increase of carbonic acid
during the night. The mean of 9 results, obtained at mid-
day, is 5.04, and of corresponding observations at 11 in the
evening, 5.76.

A comparison of the air over the middle of Lake Leman,
with that at 200 yards from the shore, showed a slight differ-
ence. The quantity over the land being to that over the
water, as 100 to 98.5 The air of Geneva was found to con-
tain more than that of the country, m proportion of 100 to
92, by simultaneous observations in the two places.

* For a just and affectionate notice of Dr. Smith’s character, see the Chris-
tian Spectator for March, 1829; some traits of character not peculiarly appro-
priate to this Journal, are there noticed.

t These experiments were made after the reading of the memoir before the
Helvetic society.

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 215

The author designs to publish a more circumstantial ac-
count of his observations.—Annales de Chimie et de Physi-
que, Aout, 1828.

25. Autumnal coloration of Leaves—A memoir on this
subject, by M. Macaise-Princep, read before the Societé de
Physique et D’histoire naturelle de Geneve, concludes as fol-
lows:

1. Ali the colored parts of vegetables appear to contain
a particular substance, (which the author, in conjunction
with Prof. DeCandolle, agrees to call Chromule,) suscepti-
ble of a change of color by slight modifications.

2. It is to the fixation of oxygen, and to a sort of acidifi-
cation of the chromule, that we are to ascribe the autumnal
change in the color of leaves.—Jdem.

26. Singular Galvanic trough.—M. Watkins, philosophi-
cal instrument maker of London, has constructed a Voltaic
pile, with a single metal and without any liquid. It consists
of from 60 to 80 plates of zinc, four inches square, fixed in a
wooden trough at a short distance from each other, having
only a thin plate of air between them. One side of each
plate is smoothed and polished, the other left rough. The
polished faces are all turned in one direction. If one ex-
tremity of the pile be made to communicate with the ground,
and the other with an electroscope, the latter immediately
indicates one or other of the two electricities, according to
the pole with which it isin contact. The humidity of the air
favors the action of the pile, which may be considered as a
kind of dry pile in which air is substituted for paper, and the
two surfaces of the zinc do the office of two heterogeneous
metals. It appears to be owing to the stronger oxidation
of the polished surface that we are to ascribe the develop- —
ment of electricity in each plate of the zinc ; the intermedi-
ate strata of air, and perhaps the trough permitting this elec-
tricity to accumulate as in the ordinary pile.—Jdem.

27. On amethod of measuring some varieties of Chemical
action, by M. Babinet.—In producing the disengagement of
a gas in close vessels, the chemical action ceases when the
gas acquires a sufficient elastic force ; and this action is sus-
pended until the compressed gas is liberated, the force of

216 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

which, by some means, forms an equilibrium to the chemi-
cal action which disengages it.

In producing gas in an apparatus similar to Papin’s diges-
ter, surmounted by a little copper ball closed by a stop cock,
the ball was unscrewed and opened under a graduated bell
glass, in order to measure the volume of gas which it con-
tained, when it was ascertained that hydrogen disengaged
from water by zinc and sulphuric acid, possessed an elastic
force of more than 33 atmospheres, at 25° c.—Ferussac’s
Bulletin, Juin, 1828.

28. Sulphur.—The manner in which this substance is
affected by heat and by sudden cooling, has often claimed
the attention of chemists. The following detail of some ex-
periments on this subject, is given by J. Dumas.— Annales
_ de Chime, Sep. 1827.

Suddenly cooled by immersion

Temperature. Sulphur. in iter

110° Cent. very liquid, yellow. very friable, common color.
140° liquid, deep yellow. very friable, common color.
170° thick, orange yellow. friable, common color.

° : 3 soft and transparent at first, but
490 more thick, orange. soon friable, common color.

0 5. oc : soft and transparent, amber
met viscid, reddish. ealek Hs
230 to 260° less viscid, reddish very soft, transparent, reddish

brown. brown.

30. Dr. Wollaston.—The death of this eminent philosopher
is announced in the London Journals. We hope to insert a
notice of him in the next number. He has had few equals,
and has probably left no superior. His inventions and dis-
coveries have been numerous, and every thing he did was
finished. Of him it may be truly said, nahal tetagit quod non
ornavit,

We regret that the pressure of domestic articles, although
we have added a sheet, has obliged us to omit a copious
collection of foreign intelligence, which shall appear in
our next,

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AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.

—<f>——-

Art. I.—Analysis of the Meteoric Iron of Louisiana, and
discovery of the Stanniferous Columbite in Massachusetts ;
by Cuantes Upuam Sueparp, Assistant to the Professor
of Chemistry, Mmeralogy, &c. in Yale College.

Tue circumstances relating to the occurrence and natural
properties of the Louisiana iron, as well as the detection of
nickel in its composition by Prof. Silliman, have, for several
years, been before the public;* but no extended examination
with a view to determine the presence or absence of other
metals, or to ascertain the relative proportions of the iron
and nickel, so far as | am informed, has hitherto been at-
tempted. Having been permitted to detach a few fragments
from the fine specimen of this iron, belonging to the Cabinet
of Yale College, | engaged in the following examination.

1. Upon a fragment of the meteoric iron, was poured ni-
tro-muriatic acid. Its entire solution was effected without
the aid of heat, and the liquid assumed a reddish brown color.

2. To a part of the solution, was added muriate of ba-
rytes ; no precipitate took place, from which the absence of
sulphur was inferred.

3. The remainder of (1.) was decomposed by ammonia in
excess; and the liquid after being warmed for a few moments

* See Vol. VIII, p. 218 of this Journal.

t The mean specific gravity of three specimens, whose greatest difference was
one tenth of a grain, was 7:543. This result differs slightly from that obtained
by Dr. Bruce, who places it at 7-400. A want of perfect agreement in differ-
ent trials may be expected, however, notwithstanding the homogenity of the
mass; since the fragments examined, will rarely possess the same density,
owing to the different degrees of mechanical force applied, to effect their sepa-
ration.

Vor. XVI.—No. 2. 1

218 Analysis of the Meteoric Iron of Lousiana.

upon its precipitate, was separated by the filter. It present-
ed very distinctly, a blue tinge ; which on evaporation grew
more intense, and passed to a shade of green.

4, The ammoniacal solution, (3.) was transferred to a pla-
tina capsule, in which it was evaporated to dryness, and
heated to redness for the purpose of expelling the muriate
of ammonia. A greenish gray powder incrusted the capsule
after its ignition. —

5. A portion of this residue, (4.) when treated with borax
before the blowpipe, give no indication of cobalt; the re-
mainder was dissolved in muriatic acid, and characters tra-
ced with its solution on paper, which failed to become visible,
on being warmed. Cobalt was therefore inferred, not to
exist in the iron under examination.

6. The muriatic solution, (5.) from its peculiar green col-
or, and from its affording, with prussiate of potash, a green-
ish white precipitate, was recognized as containing nickel.

7. A part of the ferruginous precipitate, (3.) was heated
in a platina crucible along with nitrate of potash ; and to the
residue, water was added, and the excess of potash neutral-
ized by nitric acid. The colorless solution was not affected,
either by the proto-nitrate of mercury, or by nitrate of silver.
Accordingly the absence of chrome was inferred.

8. Another portion of the precipitate by ammonia, (3.)
was dissolved in muriatic acid; and the solution, after being
rendered neutral, was decomposed by the succinate of ammo-
nia. The supernatant liquid, on being boiled with carbonate
of soda, afforded no precipitate; by which, the absence of
manganese was proved.

Satisfied by these preliminary experiments, that the Lou-
jsiana iron was alloyed only by nickel, I proceeded as follows,
to ascertain the propoxtion in which it was present.

Analysis.

A. 50 grs. of the meteoric iron, were dissolved as usuai
and decomposed by ammonia in excess. After a slight sim-
mering, the supernatant liquid was separated by means of
the filter, and the ferruginous precipitate thoroughly washed.
This fluid, whose bulk, from the washings of the oxide of iron,
was very considerable, was reduced by evaporation to half
a pint; and the double salts of nickel and ammonia it con-
tained decomposed by potash. The evaporation was con-
tinued to dryness, in order to expel every portion of ammo-

oh

Analysis of the Meteoric Iron of Louisiana. 219

nia. ‘To the residue was added warm water, which dissolv-
ed the salts of potash, and left the oxide of nickel floating
in the solution, in the form of a flocculent, apple green pre-
cipitate. Separated by the filter, dried, ignited and weigh-
ed, it amounted to 5:8 grs.; which being in the condition of
the protoxide, equals 4°837 grs. of the metal.*

B. To another portion of the meteoric iron, weighing 10grs.
nitro-muriatic acid was added, and the solution decomposed
as before. The oxide of iron, after being thoroughly drench-
ed with warm water, was dried and heated to redness in a
close platina vessel, over an alcoholic lamp. It weighed
12°89 grs.: which in the metallic condition would be 9:002 gers.

' We have, therefore, in the meteoric iron of Louisiana,

PROM i ueecousetshuslth'e | api tar, oats Bee Meee Ose Oe
ING Kel gs Ai oh oal ae sinh Ws) eabrlodar auth he We OpOI ae

99°694.
PEGS he SPN alec ais: Kouiay Inna Gaiman atte OOk

100-000.

The similarity which was before known to exist, between
the meteoric iron of Louisiana and Santa Rosa, in South
America, as regarded the circumstances of their situation and
general properties, heightened as it now appears to be b
their close agreement in composition,t seems almost to lead
to the supposition, that they were derived from one and the
same meteorite, which traversed the atmosphere of our plan-
et in a direction, lengthwise of the American continent.

* Since the method for separating the nickel here adopted had been objected
to, on the ground, that a portion of the oxide of nickel remains behind along with
the precipitated iron, I examined that precipitate by acetic acid, without obtain-
ing any indication that such had been the fact in the present instance. And
that this is not always the case, the experience of Dr. I. Noggerath may be men-
tioned, who in his examination of the Bitburg meteoric iron, was, in like manner,
unable to detect any remaining oxide of nickel in the precipitate by ammonia.—
Journal fiir Chemie und Physick. B. XIII. 8S. 15.

{+ The meteoric iron of Santa Rosa, is composed of iron 91°41. and nickel
$-59.—.Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, tom. xxv, p. 438.

220 Discovery of Columbite m Chesterfield, Mass.

CoLumMBITE.

In May, 1828, while on a visit to the remarkable deposit of
tourmalines in Chesterfield, Mass., my attention was called
to a loose rock in the foundation of a stone fence, by the large
and delicate folia of yellow mica it contained. The mass
bore signs of having had fragments detached from it before;
but the wall being now displaced for the purpose of affording
a passage to cattle, I was enabled with the aid of a hammer,
to reduce it completely to fragments. Towards its centre, I
found imbedded, a number of black metallic crystals, whose
form and weight led me at once to think of Columbite. They
were situated within a few inches of each other; sometimes
engaged in feldspar, at others in beryl, and occasionally,
between the folia of the mica. They presented much di-
versity in their dimensions; the smallest of them not weigh-
ing above 15 grs., and the largest a little above 400 grs.
The weight of all the crystals and fragments obtained, as
near as | can estimate them at present, did not exceed 12
or 1400 grs. Not having until very lately, been able com-
pletely to verify my conjecture, concerning their nature, I |
have withheld until the present moment all notice of the lo-
cality; which I now take much pleasure in making public,
together with a minute account of the steps followed in ar-
riving at the conclusions here announced.

Mineralogical Description.

Form. Right rectangular prism: the height of which may
be represented by 8, the length of the base by 6, and the
breadth by 4. The annexed figure, presents the most fre-
quent modification observed among these crystals. Their
angles are determined, by the common goniometer.

Pon Nevo one -00
M on Dei. ep Oe Oi u00
Pima! ea. Qik oo Lane dr388! 00
M ona oy ais EGs:G0
Ponies) Ji eho nee ee oo ROO

Discovery of Columbite in Chesterfield, Mass. 221

Cleavage, parallel with M, quite perfect; in other direc-
tions uneven. Lateral planes vertically streaked.

Lustre, shining, sub-metallic. Color, iron black. Tar-
nished upon the cleavage planes, mostly blue. Streak, brown-
ish black: powder, chocolate brown: opake.

Hardness. Scratches glass. Brittle.

Specific gravity, 6-00.

Chemical Examination.

Alone before the blowpipe, in very thin fragments, it be-
comes rounded upon the edges, and assumes a glossy black
color; but is not taken up by the magnet, even when redu-
ced to powder. When pulverized, it enters into fusion along
with borax, to which it communicates a faint bottle green
stain: with phosphate of ammonia and soda, it also dissolves,
affording a lemon yellow glass, which on cooling, becomes
clouded and fades to a cream color.

Digested, in the state of an impalpable powder, with nitro-
muriatic acid, it offered no signs of decomposition.

1. After having tried to effect its decomposition, by ignit-
ing it alone, first with potash and then with carbonate of soda,
neither of which succeeded perfectly, I employed a mixture
of five parts of carbonate of soda, and two of calcined borax.
This process proved nearly effectual; and by the addition of
two parts of nitrate of potash to the same proportions, in.a
succeeding trial, the whole of the mineral employed was
decomposed.

2. The fused mass indicated manganese by an intense
green color, which it communicated to the water, added
to effect its separation from the crucible. With muriatic
acid the green color passed to a red, and finally to a rich lem-
on yellow; at the same time, occasioning an abundant white
precipitate.

3. The muriatic solution, (2.) separated from its insoluble
precipitate, was digested with nitric acid; and a part of it de-
composed by potash in excess, and the solution boiled for a
few moments upon its precipitate.

4, To the alkaline liquor, (3.) separated by the filter from
its precipitate, was added muriatic acid, and through the so-
lution a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen passed ; a copious
orange colored precipitate made its appearance, and imme-
diately settled to the bottom. The precipitate was collected
on a filter, dried, and exposed upon charcoal to the intense

222 Discovery of Columbite in Chesterfield, Mass.

heat of the blowpipe, when globules of metallic tin made
their appearance.

5. To another portion of the muriatic solution, (2.) ren-
dered neutral by ammonia, was added oxalate of ammonia:
a slight cloudiness was perceptible, and after several days a
small precipitate collected at the bottom of the solution ;—
thus indicating the presence of lume.

6. The remainder of the original muriatic solution, (2.)
was neutralized by the cautious use of ammonia, and to it
was added succinate of ammonia; a copious precipitate of
oxide of iron made its appearance.

7. The solution from which the iron had been thrown
down, (6.) was boiled with an excess of carbonate of soda,
which occasioned a precipitate of oxide of manganese.

8. The white precipitate, insoluble in muriatic acid, (2.)
was thoroughly boiled with warm water. A portion of it
was digested in aqua ammonie; the liquid, after having been
passed through the filter, was saturated with muriatic acid,
without producing any cloudiness. ‘Therefore it was infer-
red, that no tungsten exists in the mineral under examination.

9. I then engaged in the following examination of the re-
mainder of the white precipitate, (2.)in which I took the great-
er interest, from never before having had it in my power to re-
peat any of the experiments that have been made upon the
compounds of columbium, on account of the rarity of that
metal; and I have thought it worth while to connect an ac-
count of them with the present notice, for the satisfaction of
those whose confidence, with regard to the nature of a doubt-
ful mineral, is increased by its chemical examination; al-
though I am aware, it may appear superfluous to the mere
mineralogist, who is accustomed in such cases, to rely sole-
ly upon the characteristics of his science.

A small portion of it, still moist; was placed upon a
piece of bibulous paper, which had been moistened with a so-
Jution of nut galls; the mass immediately assumed a rich or-
ange color.

A portion of it was heated to redness in a platina crucible
along with six times its weight of carbonate of soda. The
resulting mass presented upon its surfaces delicate silky
white, prismatic crystals. Warm water was added until the
whole was dissolved. The solution when treated with the
following reagents, produced the following effects.

Discovery of Columbite in Chesterfield, Mass. 223

Prussiate of potash. No change.

Gallic acid. An orange red color, without a precipitate.
Solution of nut galls. The same.
Sulphuric acid,
Nitric acid,
Muriatic acid,
Hydriodic acid.
Phosphoric acid,

Chromic acid, A milk white cloudiness.

A milk white precipitate.

(G9 ED OB G9 YO

10. Acetic acid.

11. Arsenic acid,

12. Oxalic acid,

13. Tartaric acid,

14, Tartrate of potash.
15. Nitrate of lead, A copious, milkwhite precipitate,
16. Nitrate of silver. not re-dissolved by nitric acid.

If any one will be at the trouble of comparing these vari-
ous results, with those obtained by Mr. Hatchett, in his ori-
ginal memoir upon columbium,* or with those of Dr. Thom-
son, in his attempt to ascertain the atomic weight of colum-
bic acid,f he can entertain no doubt that the substance just
examined, was the columbate of soda.

I now introduced about ten grains of the columbic acid,
into a small gimblet hole, made in a very compact piece of
charcoal, stopping the orifice by means of a plug of the same
substance. The charcoal was surrounded by sand in a covered
Wedgewood crucible, and subjected to the heat of a powerful
forge for one hour. On the cooling of the crucible, the colum-
bic acid was found to be completely reduced into a porous,
firmly cohering, metallic mass, of an iron grey color; and oc-
cupying nearly the same bulk as before its reduction. It was
with difficultly impressible by the knife, and when recently
scraped, showed a feeble metallic lustre. Specific gravity,
5°571. It was brittle, and reducible to powder under the
pestle. A portion of the powder was boiled for one hour in
nitro-muriatic acid, without being made to undergo any
change; but when fused along with potash, it afforded a so-
lution in water, from which the strong acids threw down the
previously obtained white precipitate. Thus there appears
to remain no doubt of the identity of the metal here obtain-
ed and the columbium.

No change.

* Phil. Trans. for 1802, p. 49.
t First Principles of Chemistry, Vol. II. p. 77.

224 Discovery of Columbite in Chesterfield, Mass.

It was not my object to determine the proportions among
the constituents of the present mineral, and I am therefore
unable to make any precise statement upon the subject: but
having paid some attention to the relative bulks of the pre-
cipitates in one or two instances, I was led to conjecture, that
the columbic acid does not form less than two thirds ‘of
the mineral, and that the tin is present in a proportion, but
little inferior, either to the iron or the manganese ; while the
lime exists only as a trace.

Before concluding this account, I would remark, that I am
not without hope, that a further supply of this desirable min-
eral, may be found in Chesterfield ; although all search which
has been made, since the discovery of my specimens, has
proved ineffectual. The fact, that the loose mass which af-
forded them, was situated, at a little distance from the
south end of the tourmaline ledge,* and that it corres-
ponded so very remarkably in its general structure with that
part of the rock, seems to indicate that this was its original
deposit ; and holds out, I think, sufficient inducement to the
collector to search for it, in this direction.

It may also appear worthy of notice, as it seems to indi-
cate that columbite is probably a more widely diffused sub-
stance, than has been supposed, that, I possess minute masses
of it from two places in Goshen: one, from the farm of Mr.
Weeks; and the other, four miles distant, from the first discov-
ered locality of spodumene. In both of these instances, they
are engaged in the spodumene, in the form of imperfectly
tabular crystals. I have also noticed the same substance, in
very distinct, though minute crystals in Middletown; (Conn.)
upon one of the high granite hills, about half a mile north
east of the tourmaline deposit. It occurred in a loose frag-
ment of granite, consisting chiefly of beryl.t

* Now famous throughout the mineralogical world, for its beautiful parti-
colored tourmalines. .

t When at Haddam, about a year since, one of the quarry men, showed me
a black crystal, nearly an inch in diameter ; which he informed me, had been
considered columbite. It was black spinelle; but the summits of two of its
opposite pyramids being wanting, its form was not at first distinguishable. I
mention this fact, not as doubting at all the existence of columbite at Haddam,
for this is established upon the best authority ; but to put the collector, who vis-
its that spot, on his guard, lest he should be deceived in the specimens offered
him, since both these substances occur together in the chrysoberyl rock and
often in masses so minute, that their crystalline form cannot well be distinguish-
ed. The spinelle, is more abundant than the columbite; an opinion of the
scarceness of which, may be formed from the fact, that I never have met with
a single specimen of it, among the products afforded by three blasts of this rock.
which I have had, at different times.

Translation from the Astronomical Jour. of Hamburgh. 225

Art. I].-- Translation from Mr. Schuhmacher’s Astronomical
Journal, (Astronomische Nachrichten,) Hamburgh, No.
137. On the plans, arrangements and methods, proposed
and used by Mr. F. R. Hassler, with a view to an accu-
rate survey of the coast of the United States, by the Chev-
aler F, W. Bessel, Professor in the University of Ko-
mgsberg. Communicated by Pror. James Renwick, of

Columbia College, New York.

In 1807, Mr. Hassler then in Philadelphia, was requested,
on the part of the government of the United States, to fur-
nish a plan for the survey of the whole coast of that coun-
try. This was done in a letter to Mr. Gallatin, which proves
great insight into the nature of such operations. It is evi-
dent from it, that the survey was to have been a work of
great extent, and such as should satisfy the requisites both of
geography and of navigation.

In consequence of this plan, Mr. H. went to England to
procure the necessary instruments, &c. A most complete
apparatus was brought together, consisting principally, of
instruinents constructed upon Mr. H’s own ideas, and in the
year 1816, the operation itself began. [t appears to have
been interrupted soon after, and therefore not to have given
the expected results.*

But Mr. H. describes his arrangements and methods in
a paper which has also been printed, as an extract from the
Philosophical Transactions of Philadelphia, which contains
so many new views in relation to instruments, that I believe
I shall make an agreeable communication to the readers of
this journal by an extract from this paper, which has proba-
bly not become very extensively known (in Germany.) Mr.
Hi. appears by it as a man, who would rather think for him-

* The suspension of the operations for the survey of the coast of the Uni-
ted States, begun in so admirable a manner by Mr. Hassler, may be considered
as a national misfortune. It is such in truth, not so much from the loss of the
previous expenditures, in consequence of the delay, or from the deferring of
its advantages toa future period, as from the fact, that the principles and
methods proposed, and some of them actually used by Mr. Hassler, were in
advance of the science of Europe at the period. As these principles and meth-
ods require the highest proficiency in mathematical and physica! science, their
application to practice originally in the United States, would have redounded
to the national honor.

Vout. XVI.—No. 2. 2

226 Translation fromthe Astronomical Jour. of Hamburgh.

self, than imitate others, and whose arrangements therefore,
always bear an independent character.

It is to be lamented that circumstances should have oc-
curred, which hindered the complete execution of the work.
To judge from the contents of the publication, not only com-
plete success, in reaching the intended object would have
been obtained, but also many other useful results.*

According to Mr. H’s plan, two observatories were to be
established, one in Washington, and one in New Orleans,t
these were calculated not only for the purposes of the sur-
vey, but also to subserve the general objects of astronomy.
Of the observatory for Washington, the whole plan is given,
which appears to me very appropriate ; it recommends itself
by a minute attention to all that can secure the accuracy of
the observations ; we miss in it none of those arrangements
which on this side of the Atlantic have been made in the
most modern observatories ; in its special arrangements this
observatory often agrees with the most modern one in Ger-
many, that of Altona.t The instruments are, a transit, of
five feet of Troughton; a clock of Hardy, an eighteen inch
repeating circle ; there were also to be placed in it finally a
zenith sector and a meridian (mural) circle, &c. I cannot
describe the building in detail, but I will remark that it was
to be surrounded by a ditch in order the better to avoid the
oscillations of the ground, by the passage of waggons, &c.
The pillars of the instruments were to be placed upon solid
bases six feet thick, standing in a cellar of five feet depth,
and to pass through the floor of the observatory, which was

* The opinion thus expressed by Mr. Bessel, is praise of the highest descrip-
tion, for no man has ever stood higher as an astronomer, than that distinguish-
ed professor.

+ According to Mr. Hassler’s original plan, one of the observatories was to
have been established in the State of Maine, near the north eastern frontier,
the other in Louisiana near the south western boundary of the United States.
Circumstances led to the choice of Washington for one, the exact place of the
other, although it must have been near New Orleans was not decided.

t The close coincidence between the plan proposed by Mr. Hassler for the ob-
servatory at Washington, and that erected under the superintendence of Schuh-
macher at Altona is very remarkable. This last is unquestionably the best in
Europe, as well as the most modern. Mr. Hassler’s plans were presented to
our government in 1816, but his papers were not published until 1826. The
observatory at Altona was finished in the last named year. Thus it appears
that these two astronomers deduced from obvious principles two plans of the
closest similitude, each without any knowledge of the other’s proceedings,
while the American project is prior in point of date by several years.

Translation from the Astronomical Jour. of Hamburgh: 227

to be supported independent of them. The axis of the tran-
sit is thirty three inches long, which also corresponds to the
views of Reichenbach, who considers long axes as not ad-
vantageous; the cylindrical parts are of bell metal, as usual
with the English artists. ‘The supports are not between the
pillars, but upon them; a strong metal plate is fixed upon
the middle of the pillar, bearing the parts which move the
Ys, and these are moved in the direction of the meridian by
‘screws, by which the adjustment to that direction is made ;
the usual vertica! screw is notin the arrangement; instead of
this, the piece bearing the Ys, is formed like an arch, the mid-
dle of which is supported by a screw, the higher or lower
position of which, elevates or depresses it by the different
degree of tension of the metal which is produced by the
action of the screw and its own elasticity. This method
promises to secure complete stability ; but it is supposed that
the two pillars have the same altitude, and also that no re-
markable change should take place in them. The counter-
poising apparatus is placed about five inches from the end,
and consists of springs, which press rollers under the axis,
performing what Reichenbach effects by levers and weights.
By Mr. H’s arrangement, this counterpoising apparatus oc-
cupies the place on the pillars, which the supports formerly
did; this arrangement likewise appears to me good; whether
it would be applicable to very heavy instruments remains stil]
to be tried.* The two conical axes are not joined by a cube
in the centre, but by a zone of a sphere of eight inches di-
ameter, to which the two parts of the telescope tube are
screwed ; this arrangement is made with a view to greater
stability.

Of the other instruments of Mr. H. it will not be possible
to give an adequate description without drawings, but I may
however indicate some of their peculiarities. ‘The theodo-
lite of two feet, not constructed for repetition, appears to me
to possess a peculiarly good construction. From a hexago-
nal centre piece emanate six horizontal conical arms, whose
bases are three inches, and ends one and a half inches in di-
ameter. Upon these arms the two feet horizontal circle is
made fast; three of these cones are longer; these contain

* The transit of the observatory at Greenwich is adjusted in this manner, and
as itis ten feet in length, the doubt whether the plan be applicable to large in-
struments is settled by actual experience.

228 Translation from the Astronomical Jour. of Hamburgh.

at their ends the screw work for the stands by which the in-
strument rests upon three vertical cones of brass, fastened
to the wooden stand of the instrument ; between this and
the six horizontal conical arms there is room for the verifi-
cation telescope, which has precisely the arrangement of a
transit, and hangs in its Ys, which are fastened underneath
to two opposite radii. This telescope has no lateral motion,
but the wires in the focus are directed by means of a screw,
to the object which is taken as the pomt of comparison du-
ring an observation. In the same hexagonal centre piece is
fastened the vertical axis, eleven inches long, and two inch-
es in diameter. Upon this revolves a drum nine inches in
diameter, and five and a half inches high; upon the upper
surface cf this, stand two columns bearing the Ys for the
transit telescope by which the observations are made; this is
a complete transit, and the columns are sufficiently elevated
to allow its passage through the zenith. The horizontal an-
gles are measured by the revolution of this upper part of the
instrument, upon the vertical axis, and are read off by three
microscopes, which are fixed at the end of as many conical
arms, coming from the central drum, each having a micro-
meter screw. The illumination is made through the axis of
the telescope, the one side of which is perforated, the other
has an altitude circle of six inches diameter. The axis is
about twelve inches long, which is more than the interval
between the columns. Its supports are therefore set upon
pieces of brass, elevated above the columns, and extending
outwards; they have the same kind of vertical adjustment as
the large transit described above.

In relation to the observations with this instrument, Mr. H.
properly remarks: that the eccentricity is equally corrected
by means of three equidistant readings, as by two, four, or
so on; he also shews, that when the vertical axis is not per-
pendicular to the plane of the horizontal circle the errors
of the angle will be corrected if the position of the instru-
ment’s place is alternately changed to the three truncated
cones of the stand, so as to give the three regularly succeed-
ing positions of a full revolution. These three observations,
each made in the two diametrically opposite positions of the
telescope, and by a half revolution of the instrument, give
a mean which is free from eccentricity, from any error arising
from the inclination of the cirele towards the axis, or from any
inequality in the supports of the axis, the readings being be-

franslation from the Astronomical Jour. of Hamburgh. 229

sides made upon twelve different parts of the division. This
two feet theodolite is very properly considered as the main
instrument for the survey. For the other observations, re-
peating circles of eighteen inches, repeating theodolites of
twelve inches, and repeating reflecting circles of ten inches
diameter, smaller theodolites, needles, planetables, &c. are
provided. To the most of these instruments Mr. H. has giv-
given a peculiar construction, but it would be too long, and
perhaps without figures not sufficiently intelligible, to give a
description of them here.

As signals Mr. H. employed truncated cones of block tin,
about nineteen inches high, seventeen inches diameter at bot-
tom and fourteen at top ; these were erected upon poles eight
feet high, and rendered the best services. Ata distance of
about forty (English) miles they appeared as a luminous
point, when the sun stood so that the rays of it were reflec-
ted towards the observer, which lasted during a sufficient
length of time. At shorter distances the light was so strong,
that a dark glass was often required for the observation.
Here the same principle is made use of which in Mr. Gauss’s
heliotrope, produces such a decided effect, but the advan-
tages of the different arrangements are very unequal, because
the cones of Mr. H. do not constantly reflect an image of
the sun to the observer, while the heliotrope is constantly
kept in the proper position to produce this effect. If the an-
gle of the cone is represented by 2 m, then the cosine of half
the azimuthal angle, when light shall be reflected to the ob-
server, must be equal to the sine of half the sun’s altitude
divided by the sine of m. This would take place only du-
ring a moment if the sun had no diameter, and generally
speaking, one signal would be invisible, when the other is
visible, but as, m, is only a small angle, in the cones used by
Mr. H. it is only 4° 58’; and as from the aliitude of the sun, on
account of the magnitude of its disk, two limits may be accep-
ted, which are at 32’ distance from each other, the azimu-
thal distance corresponding to the altitudes of the sun, which
admit of a reflection to the observer in a direction nearly ho-
rizontal, has a considerable magnitude within these limits;
it therefore can have rarely happened, that both the signals
needed for the measurement of an angle, could have shewn
at the same time, an equally well reflected image of the sun;
it seems therefore, that the use of these signals might rather
be recommended in particular cases than generally. How-

230 Translation fromthe Astronomical Jour. of Hamburgh.

ever Mr. H. says, that even without the direct light of the
sun, they also rendered good service, and were visible at
reat distances.*

Mr. H. has also communicated his metheds for the com-
parison of the standard measures of length, and the results
of their application ; we gain by this a new comparison of
the French and English measures, which I shall quote more
in particular. ‘There were three meters present. One of
iron, which was one of those made by the committee of
weights and measures in Paris 1799, and distributed as au-
thentic among the foreign deputies; the two others, the one
brass, the other iron, were of Lenoir, but not compared di-
rectly with the original, they therefore were not considered
as principal in the results of comparison. These meters
were compared with a scale of Troughton, of eighty two
inches in length, divided upon silver to tenths of inches, to
which is added, a micrometric apparatus to take off measures
from the scale. Instead of the usual method in comparing
a meter d bouts with one dtraits, to place butting pieces with
lines drawn near to the end of them, the distances of which,
are measured by the microscopes when these pieces are laid
together, Mr. H. employed the end planes themselves, for
that purpose he constructed the butting pieces exactly of
the same thickness as the meters, and obtained, by the close
juxtaposition of both, a line, which presented itself like a
division line of the scale. By means of several experiments,
(reduced to 32° Fah. and adopting the expansion of the
iron and the brass, as Mr. H. determined it by his own exper-
iments, namely between the point of melting ice and the
boiling heat of water ;)

* To use the heliotrope, two conditions are indispensable: the attendance of
an assistant at each signal station to direct it to the observer, and its actual il-
lumination by the raysof thesun. Had Mr. Hassler’s operation been intended
to include no more than a net work of great triangles, the heliotrope might per-
haps have been used, as no more than two signals need have been observed
from each station, and two assistants would have sufficed for their management.
But the survey being necessarily conducted with a view to its immediate ap-
plication to geographical and hydrographichal purposes, it would have been ne-
cessary to multiply the signals to such an extent as to have rendered it impos-
sible to employ so many separate attendants. Mr. Hassler’s signals also answer
well even in a cloudy state of the atmosphere, if the other circumstances be
favorable, as frequently happens. The objection that two signals could rarely
have shewn an equally well defined image of the sun, does not hold good,
when a fixed instrument observing without repetition is employed. We can-
not therefore but think, that for all general purposes, the signals of Mr. Hass
Jer are preferable to the heliotrope of Gauss.

Translation from the Astronomical Jour. of Hamburgh, 231

iron=0,0012534363

brass=0,0018916254
the length of the meter was determined to be 39,381022708
inches of the scale, which, as the standard temperature of
the English measure is 62° Fah. gives the length of the me-
ter in English inches

39,381022708 ranldebueichlis nal aeh ne
=7,0003152709 => 1 inches English.

The two copies of meters give less, (0,001 inch,) but these
were compared with both: the scale of Troughton in Amer-
ica, and that which this artist himself uses in London, and
had upon both very nearly the same length; whence it may
be concluded, that both English scales agreed very nearly.
Thus according to Mr. H.’s comparison the meter is 39,3686 1
English inches: according to the comparison of two other
copies by Kater =39,37079. According to Vol. III. of
Base du Systeme Metrique, page 369, the meter of platinum
was =39,382755; that of iron =39,382649: both measur-
ed upon the brass scale of Mr. Pictet, reduced to the tem-
perature of melting ice; at a mean =39,3827, which, ac-
cording to Borda’s expansion for brass, (0,001783,) by which
the experiments made in Paris were reduced to the point of
melting ice, from a temperature =12°,75 centigrade, at which
they were made, gives 39,37100. The two last comparisons
agree very nearly, and their difference lies entirely within
the limits of the uncertainty of the thermometrical influ-
ence. The authentic meter of Mr. H. appears, however,
really to be shorter, though it could be brought nearer to
the others by accepting other proportions for the expansion
of metals.* This, however, appears not to be allowable,
when the results of different comparisons are to be collected ;
for the determination of the expansion is as important as the
comparison itself; therefore, each observer must remain an-
swerable for that one which he adopts. I think it should be
enquired whether two metals of the same chemical compo-
sition, have always the same proportion of expansion ; or if

* The meter used by Mr. Hassler in his comparisons, and which the Cheva-
lier Bessel suspects to have been too short, was an original issued by the
French commission, and is therefore far more authentic than the copies used
by Kater. We are happy, however, to be able to state, that Mr. Hassler has
recently been engaged at Washington in further comparisons, and will proba-
bly make his results public ina short time. They are said fully to confirm his
former experiments.

232 Translation from the Astronomical Jour. of Hamburgh.

a small chemical difference may not have a remarkable influ-
ence upon it: this investigation is more easy than that of the
absolute expansion itself. It can be known only after a pre-
vious experiment of this kind, whether the results of two ob-
servers must agree in the same metal ; or if it is really neces-
sary to determine the expansion for each piece of metal in
particular: I fear that without this enquiry there must always
remain an uncertainty in respect to the comparisons of stan-
dard measures.*

Among the various copies of the toise, which Mr. H. com-
pared to the English scale, that constructed by Lenoir and
compared by Messrs. Bouvard and Arrago, appears worthy
of being accepted as authentic. When both measures are
at the temperature of melting ice, this toise measures
76,74192710 inches of the scale of Troughton. By the
normal temperature of both,

1,0002036843

iid pe ee ee Ue ie
76,74192710; 9993152709 76,73336 English inches.

As the meter is = 443,296 lines of the toise, (Base metrique,
tome iii, page 433,) the proportion between the English and
French feet, according to Mr. H. will be by the

39,36861 3
meter, = 443,296 12 =1,0657063,
f 76,73336
toise, SSueete =1,0656411.

According to Kater’s comparison, it is =1,06576411.

It appears then, that the different copies of the meter do
not always agree together. Mr. H. deduced from several
comparisons the value of the meter in parts of the toise, but
this, I consider, is not allowable; for the ratio between
the two is determined by a law, by which the meter has re-
ceived its true definition; and the earlier one, that it shall
be the ten millionth part of the earth’s quadrant, was lost.
If certain copies of these measures do not agree together, it
shews only that the law is not exactly fulfilled by them; and
as itis much more difficult to transfer to another metallic bar
443,296 lines of the toise than the whole length of the toise,
the comparison of the meter is a circuitous and unprofitable

* Copies of the meter have been made of platinum, but it will be obvious
from these remarks of Bessel, that it is by no means a fit substance for such
purposes, inasmuch as it is both difficult to work and to free from adventitious
substances,

Translation from the Astrononical Jour. of Hamburgh. 233

way, as long as the toise itself is yet obtainable as easily as
it was at the time of the construction of the meter.

The apparatus which Mr. H. had constructed for the meas-
urement of the base line, differs essentially from all that are
known to me; therefore I will describe it somewhat more
particularly. ‘The ends of the bars are not planes, but cut

out, so that viewed from above they present the form oy,

over this middle excavation the hair of a spider’s web is
stretched, which therefore indicates the end of the bar:
over each of the ends a compound microscope is placed,
which stands upon a separate support, and therefore does not
change its place when the bar is moved or taken away.
When this microscope is placed over the spider’s web, the
place of the end of the bar is determined by it; the bar can
then be taken away, and the other end of it can be made to
coincide with the point where the first had been before seen
to coincide with the cross strokes of the microscope, which
in the mean time has retained its position independently.
The microscope has the following arrangement: the object
glass consists of two half lenses of different foci, one of
which makes, in the focus of the eye glass, an image of the
spider’s web of the bar, and the other an image of two rec-
tangular crossing black lines, drawn upon an ivory plate,
which is fastened to the microscope: this arrangement can
be elevated and lowered, and moved in two horizontal direc-
tions at right angles to one another. In the use, the stand
being first properly placed, the microscope is brought to that
elevation in which the spider’s web thread 3s distinctly visi-
ble, then it is moved until this thread appears exactly to cut
the cross upon the ivory plate; the bar is then removed and
advanced one length forwards, the end of it is next brought
into the proper position by the mechanism of the bar, and it
is moved by it until the spider’s web of this other end coin-
cides again by an optical contact with the cross on the ivory
plate. Of these microscopes there are three with all their
arrangements ; the last ones always remain standing during
the next subsequent operation, that in case of any accident
the work might be begun again from them. The bar itself
is a junction of four pieces, each of two meters in length,
held together by iron clamps: the inclination of this bar to
the horizon is measured by a sector, nearly as in Delambre’s
apparatus. When the work is interrupted during the night,
Vou. XVI.—WNo. 2, 3

234 On the Effect of Quantity of Matter in

the last position of the bar and the microscopes remain un-
disturbed in their position until morning. ‘The arrangement
of the boxes in which the bars are contained and the mechan-
ism of the movements appear to me very well planned.

From what little I have quoted, it may be easily seen, that
the paper of Mr. H. deserves the attention of those who take
an interest in the mechanical arrangements necessary in
practical astronomy and geodesy. It is to be lamented,
that such a complete apparatus as that now on hand in
America, has not been applied according to its intention
and by its author. (Signed,) F. W. Besset.

Art. III.—On the Effect of Quantity of Matter in Modify-
ing ths Force of Chemical Attraction; by Exisna Mircs-
ELL, Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy, and Geology, in
the University of North Carolina.

In my present communication to the Journal, I do not pro-

pose to bring forward any new fact or argument. With
reference to the subject of which it treats, both have already
been sufficiently multiplied. My object is merely to call the
attention of chemists, to some facts that appear to have been
unaccountably neglected, and to correct mistakes respecting
others, which have found their way into books of the greatest
authority.
_ It is stated, in substance, in our treatises of chemistry, that
the force of chemical attraction is modified by the quantity
of matter by which it is exerted, and in some of them, the
opinion is advanced, that quantity of matter may in some
cases, compensate for a weaker aflinity. But the statement
is generally made in such a way, and accompanied by so
many qualifications and expressions of doubt and hesitation,
that it appears like a reluctant admission of a disagreeable
truth rather than a free and willing enunciation of a law of
nature. The following extract from one of the best of our
elementary books, may serve for illustration.

“Though this mode of determining the relative forces of
affinity, cannot be admitted, it is possible that quantity of
matter, may some how or other, compensate for a weaker af-
finity, and Berthollet attempts to prove it by experiment.
On boiling the sulphate of baryta, with an equal weight of
pure potash, the alkali is found to have deprived the baryta

Modifying the force of Chemical Attraction. 235

of asmall portion of its acid, and on treating oxalate of lime
with nitric acid, some nitrate of lime is generated. As these
partial decompositions are contrary to the supposed order of
elective affinity, it was conceived that they were produced
by quantity of matter acting in opposition to force of attrac-
tion. But they by no means justify such a conclusion. In
the decomposition of sulphate of baryta by potash, no care
was taken to exclude the atmospheric air during the opera-
tion: the alkali must consequently have absorbed carbonic
acid, and it is an established fact, that carbonate of potash,
decomposes partially the sulphate of baryta. A similar omis-
sion appears to have been made in the other experiments,
where decomposition was attempted by pure potash or soda.
In many instances, the result may fairly be attributed to oth-
er causes.” “ On the whole, therefore, we may infer that
Berthollet has given no satisfactory case, in which quantity
of matter is proved to compensate for a weaker affinity.””*

To the experiments of Berthollet, we shall presently have
occasion to return. In the mean time, we may remark that
the influence of quantity of matter in modifying the force of
chemical attraction, in some particular cases, Is universally
admitted.

1. Inthe case of solution. It is well known and acknowl-
edged, that a given weight of any salt thrown into so much
water as is barely sufficient to effect its solution, will not dis-
appear as rapidly as when the quantity of water is considera-
bly greater.

2. In those cases where an element A. enters into combi-
nation with another element B, in two, three or more differ-
ent proportions; each additional dose of A, appears to op-
pose a feebler resistance to any force that may be employed
to separate it from B. A familiar example is furnished by
the black oxide of manganese, which from a tritoxide, is con-
verted into a deutoxide, by the application of a low red heat,
whilst no elevation of temperature to which it can be sub-
jected, effects a perfect decomposition and the separation of
all the oxygen.

* Turner’s Chemistry, p. 87.—See also, Davy’s Elements of Chem. Philo-
sophy, Div. 1, Chap. 6, Sect. 13—18. Paris’s Med. Chem. Sect. 237. Ure’s
Dictionary, Art. Attraction. Brande has neglected this subject while he has
introduced a minute account of such obscure subjects as uranium, tungsten
and molybdenum into a work intended for persons obtaining a knowledge of
Chemical Philosophy, and “ the principal facts of the science.”

236 On the Effect of the Quantity of Matter in

But does not this substance, in the common process for
obtaining oxygen, afford a striking instance of the effect of a
relative increase in the quantity of matter, in modifying the
force of attraction, even beyond those limits at which definite
proportions are formed? It is not necessary for us to attend
at all to what remains after the operation is finished, or to
enquire whether it be a pure deutoxide or a mixture of that
and the protoxide. It is sufficient to observe that a lowred
heat determines the separation of the oxygen—that a con-
tinual elevation of the temperature is necessary to maintain
a regular and uniform flow of the gas—and that the process
is stopped when the gas-bottle is heated to whiteness, and
the gas still continues to come over, though but slowly.*
The carbonate of lime affords corresponding results. A low’
red heat drives off the carbonic acid but for its entire sepa-
ration, a violent heat is required, even when the carbonate
has been procured from the muriate, by means of a carbo-
nated alkali, and is therefore in the state of an impalpable
powder. i

These examples are valuable on account of their stmplici-
ty, and because they are not embarrassed by the question
about sub-salts and super-salts, and the state in which the
chemical elements exist ina solution. Why is it that the
low red heat which decomposes one particle of the carbo-
nate, does not decompose every particle? The fact may be
explained, (and the explanation extended, mutatis mutandis,
to other chemical combinations,) upon either of two suppo-
sitions.

1. The improbable one that between different atoms of
lime and carbonic acid, there is a difference in the strength
of their affinities, so that there may be a separation of the
component atoms of one particle of carbonate of lime, by a
force that is altogether inadequate to the decomposition of
any other particle.

2. ‘That the force of affinity reaches beyond the distance
at which atoms combine, and compounds definite in their
proportions are formed, so as to exert an influence upon
atoms between which there is no proper chemical combina-
tion, and enable a large number to compensate by the
strength of their united action for the feebleness of the force

* Lorsque oxide sera pres de la chaleur rouge il commencera a se degager
du gaz oxigéne. Vous pourrez regarder Vopération comme faite lorsque le
fourneau étant plein de feu il ne se dégagera presque plus de gaz.— Thenard.

Modifying the force of Chemical Attraction. 237

exerted by each. This hypothesis admits of the following
illustration.

Oppel) at Oy aay) Ce a i aed

The letters (a) represent atoms of lime; the letters (e) at-
oms of carbonic acid, and all of them together, a quantity of
carbonate of lime, which has experienced the decomposing
agency of heat. The double letters (@) represent atoms of
carbonate of lime undecomposed; upon the carbonic acid
(e) of which a force is exerted by the surrounding particles
of uncombined lime (a) to prevent its escape. The force
exerted by each uncombined (a) upon the (e) of the carbo-
nate, is very small when compared with that exerted by the
(a) in proper chemical union; and capable of being overcome
by the weak affinity of water or other agent—and yet the
united force of all the uncombined (a’s) though amounting
to only a third, a half, or some other larger or smaller frac-
tion of that of the single (a) in chemical combination, is such
as to require a considerable elevation of temperature to
overcome it. The tendency to definite proportions, in all
cases, and its existence in most, is here fully admitted.

But passing by this, which is merely an hypothesis, desti-
tute of proof and incapable of it, we return to the principal
subject of this paper: That it is a law of extensive applica-
tion, that the quantity of matter modifies the force of chemi-
cal attraction, and compensates for a weak affinity. The
recollection of every practical chemist, will suggest to him
other examples analogous to the above, and pointing to the
same conclusion, but perhaps no facts are more to our pur-
pose than those collected by Berthollet, and laid by him asa
foundation on which to build his theory of chemical affinity,
if once the mistakes and misapprehensions prevailing re-
specting them are cleared away.

At the beginning of the present century, few names were
more honored and respected amongst chemists than that of
Berthollet. He was always spoken of as the profound and
accurate. That the quantity of matter modifies the force of
chemical attraction, so as to compensate for a weak affinity,
was his favorite theory. In support of it when first advanced,
he brought forward seven new experiments, instituted by
himself for the express purpose of testing at once, and demon-
strating its correctness, besides calling into view some im-

portant facts with which chemists had long been familiar.

238 On the Effect of the Quantity of Matter in

But Berthollet was not content with the establishment of this
law. He drew the additional conclusion that except where
the existence of definite proportions is determined by the
forces of cohesion, elasticity, etc. chemical agents combine
in all proportions indiscriminately. As this was altogether
at variance with the views which chemists were presently en-
gaged (with a zeal hardly commensurate to its vast impor-
tance) in establishing, respecting chemical combination,
comprising the doctrine of definite proportions and the
atomic theory, they looked with an evil eye upon Berthollet,
his experiments and conclusions—regarding him apparently
as a powerful antagonist, who might suddenly demolish
their favorite doctrines. ‘Two of his experiments were
attacked by Sir Humphrey Davy, who in the Elements of
Chemical Philosophy, supposed himself, and was supposed
by others, to have “pointed out several sources of fallacy,
which had escaped the observation of Berthollet.”"* The
confidence of men of science in the accuracy of the French
chemist, was thus shaken and his experiments and opinions
alike neglected.

And yet Berthollet was by no means that inaccurate and
short-sighted being he has sometimes been represented to be
—and [| think it will appear on a careful examination of his
experiments, that the fallacy was on the side of his critics
and commentators.

“T have kept an equal quantity of potash and sulphate of
barytes in a small quantity of boiling water. The potash
had been prepared by alcohol and contained no carbonic
acid: the same served for the following experiments. ‘The
operation was performed in a retort, and consequently not
in communication with the air; and it was continued until
the mixture was desiccated; the residue was washed with al-
cohol, which dissolved the potash, and after that with water,
which also produced an alkaline solution, the alkali of which
I saturated with acetic acid; after which by evaporation, the
solution yielded crystals possessing all the characters and
qualities of the sulphate of potash. Whence it appears that
the sulphate of barytes was partially decomposed by the pot-
ash, and that the sulphuric acid was divided between the two
bases.”°—Berthollet’s Researches into the laws of Chemical

affinity.

* Paris’s Med. Chemistry.

Modifying the force of Chemical Atiraction, 239

“ Berthollet has asserted, indeed, that a large quantity of
potassa, is capable of separating a small quantity of sulphur-
ic acid from the sulphate of barytes; but his experiments
were made in contact with the atmosphere in which carbon-
ic acid is always flying about; but it is well known that the
carbonate of potassa and sulphate of baryta, mutually decom-
pose each other.”*—Davy’s Elements of Chemical Philoso-

hy. |

. ft appears therefore, that “ the sources of fallacy” did not
“escape the observation of Berthollet,” and that he suppo-
sed himself to have obviated them. He knew very well
that carbonate of potassa and sulphate of baryta mutually
decompose each other and that carbonic acid is absorbed
by potassa, when it is boiled in contact with the atmosphere.
He took care therefore, to employ such potassa as “ contain-
ed no carbonic acid,” and then carried on the process in a
retort, which being kept constantly filled with watery vapor,
the contact of the atmosphere was effectually prevented.
Even if this had not been the case, the quantity of carbonic
acid that could have entered by the beak and travelled along
the neck of the retort to the materials, must have been in-
appreciable; certainly not adequate to the production of a
quantity of sulphate of potassa that could be crystallized.
It is obvious however, that Berthollet’s experiment did not
differ from the common process, invented by him, for procur-
ing pure potassa, except that the retort was filled with the
vapor of water instead of the vapor of alcohol.{

* As I have no English copy of the Chemical Philosophy to refer to, I sub-
join so much of Van Mons’ French translation, as is retranslated above. “M.
Berthollet a posé en fait qu’une grande quantite de potasse peut séparer une
petite quantité d’acide sulphurique d’avec le sulfate de baryte ; mais ses expe-
riences furent faites en contact avec Patmosphére dans laquelle voltige tou-
jours de acide carbonique ; ou le carbonate de potasse et le sulfate de baryte
se décomposent mutuellement.”

+ I have sometimes suspected, that a trivial mistake of the translator of the
Researches into the laws of Chemical Affinity, in writing out his copy for the
press, or of the corrector of the proof sheets of the first edition, has been the
source of these errors. In my copy, Berthollet is made to say, “‘ The opera-
tion was performed in a retort, and consequently in communication with the
air ;” and with this the quotation of Dr. Murray, (Chemistry, Vol. I. p. 81,)
agrees. Berthollet, instead of any such confession, says in fact, “‘ L’opération
s’est faite dans une cornue et par consequent sans le contact de V’air.”? The
conditions of Berthollet’s experiment, were such as should have suggested the
appropriate correction. ‘That lesser men should commit such blunders as this,
must evidently be, if the case be as I have supposed, it is quite natural: but
that Sir Humphrey Davy should build an argument, to overturn the theory of

240 On the Effect of the Quantity of Matter m

Turner says, “ A similar omission [to exclude the atmo-
sphere] appears to have been made in the other experiments,
where decomposition was attempted by pure potash or soda.”
Though Berthollet does not state in express terms, at the
commencement of every experiment, upon the results, of
which the carbonic acid present in the atmosphere could
have an influence, that it was excluded, he does make this
statement in substance, respecting the second as well as the
first ;* and where we find these marks of scrupulous caution
in two cases, it is but a piece of common justice, to suppose
they were not wanting in the others, and that the mention of
these was omitted, merely because it was supposed to be
unnecessary.

The language of Davy, in the objections he has framed
to the seventh, or last and least valuable of Berthollet’s ex-
periments, shows that he did not recur to the writings of that
chemist, to see what the experiments really were; and
though it is barely possible, there might be something like
the play of affinities supposed by him: the view of the
change taken by Berthollet, is far more simple and has a
stronger probability in favor of its correctness. Of the facts
long known to chemists and cited by Berthollet—that no
amount of quick lime, for instance, will completely decom-
pose the carbonate of potash, no explanation is attempted.

All these arguments and experiments therefore, by which
Berthollet was once supposed to have proved, and proved
decisively, that the quantity of matter modifies the force of
chemical attraction so as to compensate for a weak affinity,
remain unanswered and unshaken; at least so far as Sir
Humphrey Davy and the English chemists are concerned.

Experiments were brought forward by Pfaff, tending to
show, that in some cases quantity has no influence. ‘These
it was necessary for Berthollet to explain, in accordance
with his views, and he published an answer to the paper,
in which they were detailed. But'with this dispute we have
here no concern, though Pfaff’s experiments are sometimes
absurdly enough cited to prove that quantity of matter has

a distinguished chemist, solely on his own misconceptions of the experiments
by which that theory is supported, and the error be propagated from one book
to another for years, is lamentable.

* «Le sulfate de potasse ayant été soumis a la méme epreuve avec poids
égal de chaux,” etc.

Modifying the force of Chemical Attraction. 243

no influence in any case. The probability is, that like the
attraction which it is supposed to modify, (and which, pow-
erful as it is well known to be between oxygen and the bases
of the alkalies, becomes evanescent in the case of carbon
and the metals,) its influence varies through the whole range
of chemical agents, and that it sometimes produces no effect
whatever. But unless we will abandon the fundamental
maxim of the Baconian philosephy—that our opinions are
to follow in the track of observation and experiment, it ap-
pears to me that we must admit it to be a law of extensive
application, that the quantity of matter modifies the force of
chemical attraction, so as often to compensate for a weak af-
jiity: and having admitted it, apply it in the explanation
of the fact, that in the manufacture of nitric acid, it is of
advantage to employ more sulphuric acid than is barely suf-
ficient to neutralize the potash of the nitre; and other cor-
responding cases, without resorting to the intricate and
roundabout hypothesis of Bergman.

The principal obstacle to the general reception of these
views, seems to have been found in their supposed inconsist-
ency with the truth of the doctrine of definite proportions
and the atomic theory, though it would be difficult to show
_ that they are absolutely incompatible. Thus with regard to

Berthollet’s first experiment with potassa and sulphate of
baryta, instead of supposing with him, that the sulphuric
acid detached from the baryta, combines in the first instance
with all the potassa, and that the existence of the sulphate,
with definite proportions, is determined by the force of cohe-
sion, we may hold, (if it be safe to hold any opinion about
the mode of existence of the chemical elements in a solu-
tion,) that there are in the boiling liquid, four different sub-
stances, sulphate of baryta, sulphate of potassa, baryta and
potassa; the influence of the uncombined baryta, being ex-
erted to prevent the decomposition of the sulphate of baryta
from proceding any farther, and that of the uncombined po-
tassa to maintain in existence the sulphate of potassa that
has been already formed.

I will, in closing, only call the attention of any reader of
the Journal, who may have had the patience to accompany
me thus far, to the following extract from the preface to
Thomson’s First Principles of Chemistry.

“ But itis much more difficult to obtain substances in a
state of complete purity, than chemists in general are aware:

Vou. XVI.—No. 2. 4

242 Iodine in the Mineral Waters of Saratoga,

it was in reducing the different salts which I employed, to
the greatest possible degree of purity, that the greatest part
of my time was wasted. I have in all cases, in which it was
in my power, deduced the atomic weights of bodies from the
rigid analysis of the neutral salts into which they enter, be-
cause it is much easier to obtain neutral salts pure, than any
of the metallic bodies which constitute their bases. Indeed,
not a few of the metals have never yet been exhibited in a
state of absolute purity.”

This obstinate adhesjon of contaminating substances, ap-
pears very little like the effect of either mere mechanical
mixture or ordinary affinity. It indicates rather a modifica-
tion of that affinity, by a relative increase of the quantity of
matter, so as very greatly to add to the energy of the attrac-
tive force. And it is probably in the prosecution of the very
business, in which Thomson was at this time engaged, (that
of accurate analysis,) that chemists are destined, hereafter,
to find this law of chemical action, interposing obstacles in
their way, which it will require all of their skill to elude, or
of their perseverance to overcome.

Art. 1V.—Iodine in the Mineral Waters of Saratoga.—
Communicated for the Journal of Science, by Joun H.
Sreex, M. D. of Saratoga Springs, in the State of New-
York.

Tue Mineral waters of Saratoga, which have become so
celebrated for their Medicinal qualities, are situated in a low
marshy valley, along the termmation of a ridge of seconda-
ry limestone ; they discover themselves in a bed of blue marl,
which covers the valley throughout its whole extent, and to
an unknown depth. On digging into this marl, to any con-
siderable distance, in almost any direction, we are sure to
find a mineral water; in some places, at the depth of six or
eight feet, it is discovered issuing from a fissure or seam in
the underlying limestone, while at other places, it seems to
proceed from a thin stratum of quicksand, which is found to
alternate with the marl at distances of from ten to forty feet ;
at this last depth, the mar! is interrupted by a layer of bowl-
ders of a considerable size, beyond which no researches have
yet been made.

Iodine in the Mineral Waters of Saratoga. 243

All the mineral fountains that have yet been examined in
this valley, and there are more than twenty, are found to pos-
sess uniformly, the same qualities, differing only in what is
usually termed their strength, or, in other words, in the quan-
tities of the articles which the water of each is found to hold
in solution. They belong to a class which may with propri-
ety be styled the acidulous saline chalybeate. The best
analyses agree in demonstrating that they contain the follow-
ing ingredients, viz.

Carbonic acid.

Muriate of soda.

Carbonate of soda.

Carbonate of lime.

Carbonate of magnesia, and

Carbonate of iron, together with a very minute quantity of

Silica and alumina.

The great efficacy of these waters in a variety of stru-
mous affections, for which their known properties did not very
satisfactorily account, gave origin to the conjecture, that they
might contain [odine, and the fact of that substance having
been recently discovered in some of the mineral springs of
Europe, gave confidence to the opinion which led to an in-
vestigation ; as soon, therefore, as leisure would permit, an
examination was commenced, with a view to that particular
point, and the result of the following experiments will, I trust,
be considered as sufficiently conclusive on the subject.

Having precured a quantity of the salts of one of these
fountains, soluble in distilled water, I dissolved thirty grains
of them in a weak solution of starch in cold water, and then
let fall into the solution a drop or two of sulphuric acid;
this produced a slight effervescence and the liquor immedi-
ately assumed a deep purple tinge,—on suffering this to
stand at rest a short time, the color was precipitated with the
starch giving it the well known characteristic blue tinge.
The clear liquor was now turned off and the colored starch
placed upon the surface of a warm stove, when the color
was immediately dispersed.

Having thus ascertained the fact of the existence of Iodine
in these salts, it became important to acquire a knowledge
of the manner in which it is combined and retained in the
water.

Jodine may exist in a mineral water in the state of zodic or
hydriodic acid combined with either of the alkalies, potassa

244 Iodine in the Mineral Waters of Saratoga.

or soda, forming the iodate or hydriodate of the alkali, witir
which they are united. As the presence of potassa, in any
of its combinations, in these waters, has not been indicated
by any of the appropriate tests used for the purpose, it fol-
lows that soda is the alkaline base, which retains the acid in
question, forming the iodate or hydriodate of soda. To as-
certain which of these acids forms the salt in question, I pour-
ed over a quantity of the dry soluble salts of the water, an
ounce of very pure alcohol, which, after standing a short
time, was filtered off; this was found to contain the whole
of the matter, which indicated the presence of iodine, and as
iodate of soda is not soluble in alcohol, I infer that the sub-
stance taken up by the alcohol is the hydriodate of soda.

With a view to illustrate the position still further, and to
arrive at the proportion of this salt, contained in a given
quantity of the water, I evaporated one gallon of water in
a porcelain basin placed in a sand bath, which was kept at
the temperature of about 150°, and the evaporation was con-
tinued until crystals of muriate of soda began to form on the
sides of the basin; it was now removed from the bath, and
when cold the whole contents of the basin were thrown on
a filter and the residuum, being well washed with recently
distilled water, was removed and the filtered liquor again
placed on the sand bath in a small basin, and suffered to
evaporate to dryness, in a temperature of 150°.

Alcohol of the specific gravity of .825 was thrown over
these salts, and after being frequently stirred, was filtered
and the filtered solution evaporated to dryness. The resi-
duum weighed, while warm, a trifle over three grains. It
consisted principally of the hydriodate of soda, with a very
minute quantity of common salt, which the small quantity
of water in the alcohol used, and, possibly, the imperfectly
dry state of the salts, before the alcohol was added, contrib-
uted to render soluble in that menstruum.

I now dissolved the salts thus obtained in a small quantity,
of starch and water and having placed the solution in a Flor-
ence flask, over a spirit lamp, added to it a few drops of
sulphuric acid; as it became warm, the blue color of the
starch, which had settled to the bottom of the flask, began
to disappéar, and at the same time the well known purple
fumes of iodine, appeared very conspicuous at the neck of
the bottle, furnishing the most incontestible evidence of the
presence of that highly volatile substance.

Fodine in the Mineral Waters of Saratoga. 245

Nearly all the mineral springs at this place have been
carefully examined and found, uniformly, to agree in afford-
ing indications of the presence of iodine. ‘The waters of
Ballston, have not yet been examined, with a view to this
particular object, but, from the striking similarity of the
waters in the two places in other respects, there can be but
little doubt of their agreeing in this. I had expected to have
discovered it in the brine springs of Onondaga, but a bottle
of that water, procured through the politeness of Dr. Kirk-
patrick, afforded no indications of it.

I subjoin the result of an analysis of the Hamilton Spring,
with a view to illustrate the relative quantities of the various
saline ingredients contained in its water.

This fountain is situated in the low ground immediately
behind the Congress Hall; it was discovered and named by
Mr. Gideon Putnam, one of the early settlers of the place,
not long after the discovery of the Congress Spring. It was
cleared out to the depth of only a few feet, and the water
secured by a small wooden curb, and in this situation it re-
mained for a number of years, its water being devoted most-
ly to the supply of a bathing establishment, erected in its
immediate vicinity. After the decease of Mr. Putnam, the
property passed into other hands, and the well has been re-
cently sunk to a much greater depth, and more effectually
secured against the intrusion of foreign substances; by
which means the water has been materially improved.

The surface of the spring, within the curb, is constantly
agitated, by the escape of large quantities of gas; and as
the water passes off, it leaves on the surface of the earth,
an abundant deposit of a brownish color, evidently ferrugin-
ous and calcareous.

The water, when first dipped from the fountain, is remark-
ably clear and sparkling, but on standing exposed to the at-
mosphere, soon becomes turbid. It is saline, and acidulous
to the taste, and when taken to the quantity of five or six
half pints, is usually, powerfully cathartic and diuretic.

The temperature at the bottom of the well is uniformly
at 50°; and its specific gravity, at the temperature of 60°,
Barometer at thirty inches, is*

The analysis was conducted upon the most approved prin-
ciples of modern analytic chemistry, and affords conclusive

* As there was evidently an error in copying the number in the MS, we
leave the specific gravity blank, rather than hazard the filling of the space
erroneously.—EpiTor.

246 Observations on Ignis. Fatuus.

evidence of the correctness of the results here given; the
details I am constrained to omit, as they would, obviously,
extend this communication to too great a length.

One gallon, or 231 cubic inches, of this water, when first
taken from the well, contains

Muriate of soda, - - - grains 297.3
Hydriodate of soda, - - - - 3
Carbonate of soda, - - - - 19.21
Carbonate of lime, - - - - 92.4
Carbonate of magnesia, - - - 23.1
Oxide of iron, = - - - - : 5.39

grains 440.4 together
with a minute quantity of silica and alumina, probably 0.6
of a grain, making the solid contents of a gallon amount to
441 grains.

Carbonic ‘acid gas, - - - 316 cubic inches.
Atmospheric air, - - - - 4
Gaseous contents in a gallon, - 320 cubic inches.

It may be proper to observe, that the gas was extricated
from the water, by the application of heat, but was kept in
the receiver, at the temperature of 60°, and under a pressure
of the atmosphere, indicated by the mercury in the barome-
ter standing at 29.5 inches. A part of the atmospheric air
was undoubtedly obtained from the tube used to conduct the
gas to the receiver.

Art. V.—Observations on Ignis Fatuus; by Rev. Joun
MiTcHELL.

Hose luminous appearances, which are popularly called
* Will-o’the-wisp” and ‘ Jack-a-lantern,” have been alike
the object of vulgar superstition and philosophical curiosity ;
and notwithstanding all attempts to apprehend and subject
them to examination, they are not much more the subjects of
knowledge now than they were centuries ago. They are
still but an ignis fatuus to the philosopher, and a thing of
mystery to the credulous.

I was myself, formerly, familiar with these appearances ;
they were of frequent occurrence near my father’s residence,
owing, probably, to the proximity of extensivé wet grounds,
over which they are usually seen. ‘The house stood upon a

Observations on Ignis Fatuus. 247

ridge, which sloped down on three sides to the beautiful
meadows which form the margin of the Connecticut, and of
its tributary creeks, and which, owing to their own luxuri-
ance and the deposits of the vernal freshets, are covered
with rich and constantly decaying vegetable matter. From
the circumstance, also, that we had no neighbors in the di-
rection of these grounds, a light could not be seen over
them without attracting our notice. I mention this by way
of suggesting, that probably the ignis fatuus, in consequence
of its not being always distinguished from the lights of sur-
rounding houses, and therefore exciting no curiosity, is often-
er seen than it is supposed to be.

These mysterious luminaries used often to be seen by the
fishermen; who plied their nets by night as well as by day.
They commonly reported that they saw them a little above
the surface of the meadow, dancing up and down, or gliding
quietly along in a horizontal line. Sometimes two, or even
three, would be seen together, skipping and dancing or sail-
ing away in concert, as if rejoicing in their mutual compan-
ionship. I might entertain you with abundance of fabulous
accounts of them—the offspring of imaginations tinctured
with superstition, and of minds credulous from a natural love
of the marvellous. Fables, however, are of little value for

1e purposes of science: if the following account of some
of the phenomena of the ignis fatuus, shall, with the obser-
vations of others, contribute towards a true theory of its na-
ture, you will think them worthy of a place in your Journal.

_A friend of mine, returning from abroad late in the even-
ing, had to cross a strip of marsh. As he approached the
causeway, he noticed a light towards the opposite end, which
he supposed to be a lantern in the hand of some person whom
he was about to meet. It proved, however, to be a solitary
flame, a few inches above the marsh, at the distance of a few
feet from the edge of the causeway. He stopped some time
to look at it; and was strongly tempted, notwithstanding the
miriness of the place, to get nearer to it, for the purpose of
closer examination. It was evidently a vapor, [phosphuret-
ted hydrogen ?] issuing from the mud, and becoming ignited,
or at least luminous, in contact with the air. [t exhibited a
flickering appearance, like that of a candle expiring in its
socket; alternately burning with a large flame and then sink-
ing to a small taper; and eccasionally, for a moment, be-
coming quite extinct. It constantly appeared over the same
spot.

248 Observations on fgnis Faiuus.

With the phenomena exhibited in this instance, I have
been accustomed to compare those exhibited in other in-
stances, whether observed by myself or others ; and general-
ly, making due allowance for the illusion of the senses and
the credulity of the imagination in a dark and misty night,
(for it is on such nights that they usually appear,) I have
found these phenomena sufficient for the explanation of all
the fantastic tricks which are reported of these phantoms.

They are supposed to be endowed with a locomotive pow-
er. They appear to recede from the spectator, or to advance
towards him. But this may be explained without locomo-
tion—by their variation in respect to quantity of flame. As
the light dwindles away, it will seem to move from you, and
with a velocity proportioned to the rapidity of its diminution.
Again as it grows larger, it will appear to approach you.
If it expires, by several flickerings or flashes, it will seem to
skip from you, and when it reappears you will-easily imagine
that it has assumed a new position. This reasoning accounts
for their apparent motion, either to or from the spectator ;
and I never could ascertain that they moved in any other
direction, that is, in a line oblique or perpendicular to that
in which they first appeared. In one instance, indeed, I
thought this was the fact, and what struck me as more sin- _
gular, the light appeared to move, with great rapidity, di-
rectly against a very strong wind. But after looking some
time, I reflected that I had not changed the direction of my
eye at all, whereas if the apparent motion had been real,
I ought to have turned half round. ‘The deception was oc-
casioned by the motion of the wind itself—as a stake stand-
ing ina rapid stream will appear to move against the current.

It is a common notion that the ignis fatuus cannot be ap-
proached, but will move off as rapidly as you advance. This
characteristic is mentioned in the Edinburgh Encyclopeedia.
It is doubtless a mistake. Persons attempting to approach
them, have been deceived perhaps as to their distance, and
finding them farther off than they imagined, have proceeded
a little way and given over, under the impression that pursuit
was vain. An acquaintance of mine, a plain man, told me
he actually stole up close to one, and caught it in his hat, as
he thought ;— and what was it?” I asked. “It was’nt
nothin.”* On looking into his hat for the “ shining jelly,” it
gd ee a EL cae) el
* In the colloquial double negative of the common people of New England.— Ed.

Observations on Ignis Fatuus. 249

had wholly disappeared. His motions had dissipated the
vapor, or perhaps his foot had closed the orifice from which
itissued. To this instance another may be added. A young
man and woman, walking home from an evening visit, ap-
proached a light which they took for a lantern carried by
some neighbor, but which on actually passing it, they found
to be borne by no visible being; and taking themselves to
flight, burst into the nearest house, with such precipitation as
to overturn the furniture, and impart no small share of their
fright to the family.

The circumstance that these lights usually appear over
marshy grounds, explains another popular notion respecting
them; namely, that they possess the power of beguiling
persons into swamps and fens. ‘To this superstition Parnell
alludes in his Fairy Tale, in which he makes Will-o’the-wisp
one of his dancing fairies ;

<*Then Will who bears the wispy fire,
To trail the swains among the mire,” &c,

In a misty night, they are easily mistaken for the light of a
neighboring house, and the deceived traveller, directing his
course towards it, meets with fences, ditches, and other ob-
stacles, and by perseverance, lands at length, quite bewil-
dered, in the swamp itself. By this time, he perceives that
the false lamp is only a mischievous jack-a-lantern. An ad-
venture of this kind | remember to have occurred in my ovin
neighborhood. A man left his neighbor’s house late in the
evening, and at daylight had not reached his own, a quarter
of a mile distant; at which his family being concerned, a
number of persons went out to search for him. We found
him near a swamp, with soiled clothes and a thoughtful coun-
tenance, reclining by afence. The account he gave was,
that he had been led into the swamp by a jack-a-lantern.
His story was no doubt true, and yet had little of the mar-
vellous in it. The night being dark, and the man’s senses
a little disordered withal, by a glass too much of his neigh-
bor’s cherry, on approaching his house, he saw a light, and
not suspecting that it was not upon his own mantel, made
towards it. A bush or a bog, might have led to the same
place, if he had happened to take it for his chimney top.

Vor. XVI.—No. 2. 5

250 Resuscitation from apparent death by drowning.

Art. VI.—Resuscitation by Oxygen Gas, from apparent
death by drownmg.

Letter I,

TO THE EDITOR.
Cambridge, Md. March 31, 1829.

Dear Sir—Ar the close of my chemical amusements of
this winter, an accident occurred, which gave rise to an ex-
periment, whose result deserves, I think, to be classed among
the subjects of your invaluable Journal; it is one, upon the
efficacy of oxygen Gas, in an extreme case of Asphyxia.

A fayorite young beagle hound had fallen into a neigh-
bor’s cellar, full of water, and was drowned; how long he
lay there, (which is a prominent point in the case,) can be
only conjectured, from the following facts; he was heard
flouncing and yelping in the water; and the family believ-
ing he was a mad dog, did not venture in, to his relief, until
their negro man returned from a ride of two miles, on which
he had been sent, shortly before the accident; when they
supposed he had got out, as he had been long silent; but on
searching, he found him lying dead under the water, and
dragged him out; finding it was my dog, he informed my
servant, who obtained a wheel barrow, and brought him
home, and then went in quest of me; when I arrived, with
some gentlemen, who accompanied me, to witness the ex-
periment, which I proposed,—we found the dog’s body and.
limbs, so cold, hard and inflexible, that, taking him by the
foot, he was turned over, as a block with four pegs attached
to it.

Having at hand some jars of gases, and fortunately, one of
oxygen, which I had recently prepared. for a similar experi-
ment, with smaller animals, to be placed under asphyxia,
from carbonic acid gas, but not having executed my design,
I filled a large bladder with the oxygen, not diluted with any
portion of nitrogen, because { wished to produce the great-
est possible excitement, in a case so desperate; I attached
to the bladder, a small brass stop-cock, with along beak, and
infused into his lungs, by a violent pressure of the bladder, a
copious dose of the gas; upon which, he instantly made a
convulsive and solitary yelp, to the full pitch of his usual and

Resuscitation from apparent death by drowning. 251

shrill voice in the chase; the dose was repeated with the same
effect, until the gas was consumed; he was placed by the
fire, in warm blankets, friction constantly applied, and a
strong dose of diluted volatile ammonia, forced into his stom-
ach; his body and limbs became relaxed; his respiration
short and rapid, with subsultus tendinum.

This experiment commenced at one o’clock, and at eleven
that night, he raised himself on his feet, and made a few fee-
ble steps; the next morning, he left his bed, in the kitchen,
and walked to his kennel, a distance of fifty yards; but du-
ring the second, and also the third day, he suffered under a
total anorexy; I ordered an enema of sulphate of magne-
‘sia, and the following night, tinct. opi 11 drachms. On the
fourth day he took a small portion of meat; on the fifth and
sixth days, he shows the marks of excessive atrophy ; in fact,
his vital functions are restored, but I am candid to say, those
of the animal will (I fear) never be fully regained.

I have been minute with this case, not from a belief, that
it is the first instance of the revival from asphyxia, by oxygen
gas, for I have read of one, and one only; and that arose
from carbonic acid gas, inhaled for experiment, by a Prof.
Higgins, in Europe; but Dhave never met with a case of re-
covery from apparent death by drowning, and if any exist,
they are rare; it is certainly a subject worthy of attentive pros-
ecution. I have the honor to be yours very respectfully.

JosrerH EK. Muss.

In answer to a request, that the history of the case might
be continued, the editor received the following :—

Letter If.
Cambridge, Md. April 24, 1829.

Dear Sir—In reply to your inquiry, I am gratified to be
enabled to state, that my experiment, in the case of asphyxia
has become more perfect. In the course of eight or ten days,
after my communication to you, the health of the subject be-
gan to improve rapidly and his appetite, repletion and viva-
city, now indicate a thorough renovation of the animal func-
tions; which candor had compelled me to declare, I did not
then anticipate.

One other incident may be worthy of notice,—that his
voice, which was naturally sharp and shrill, has astonishingly
altered into the full and coarse; though his cough, resulting

252 Hassler’s Repeating Theodolite.

from the accident, has, with every other symptom of disease,
wholly disappeared.

Allow me to acknowledge my obligations, for the re-
spectful sentiments, you have done me the honor to express,
in your last,* and on former occasions; which, in truth,
I cannot too highly appreciate, as coming from the founder
of a Journal, which is dispensing the fruits of science, to an
ungrateful community; and which, though suffered to ex-
pire, will have erected, by its kindly influence, on the moral
condition of man, a monument imperishable.

I am, dear Sir, truly and respectfully yours,
JoserH E. Muse.

Art. VIL—Hassler’s Repeating Theodolite.
Notice of this instrument, in a letter to the Editor, dated New York, May8, 1829.

Sir—Permit me to make known, through your useful Jour-
nal, an improved repeating theodolite, by Mr. Hassler, who
is so well known both in this country and in Europe, for his
improvements on repeating and reflecting circles and theo-
dolites. This instrument has just been constructed, for the
first time, by Mr. Richard Patten, instrument maker of this
city, for the exploring expedition, and will be found on exam-
ination as near perfection in principle, as it is possible to arrive
at ; compensating not only the faults of workmanship, but the
errors of observation. Its adjustments are those of the re-
peating circle and theodolite, so well and fully described by
ihe inventor, in his paper on the coast survey. An inspec-
tion of the drawing with the annexed description, I hope
will make the superiority of this instrument well understood.
It will be seen that its proportions are well adapted to give
it solidity, and all its adjustments permanency. The cen-
ters, collars and axis, are all of bell metal truly turned. The
iriple center work, of different sized cones, moving in each
other, is a very great improvement, giving great solidity and
little friction, and making the instrument susceptible of any
number of repetitions. I should be doing great injustice to

e

* Allnding to the letter to which this is an answer: I should hardly have
been willing to allow the above paragraph, (of certainly too partial commenda-
tion,) to remain, had it not been for the present posture of affairs, as regards
the prosperity of this Journal._— Hd.

Hassler’s Repeating Theodolie. 253

Mr. Patten, if I omitted to bear testimony to the excellency
of his work, not only in the construction of this, but also of
other instruments for the expedition. The beauty and ac-
curacy of the division, (an operation hitherto deemed by
many impossible in this country,) would not suffer in com-
parison with that of European artists. He cannot be too
highly recommended to the patronage of the public.
Your obedient servant,
Cuarues Wivkes, Jr.
Professor Silliman. Lieutenant U.S. Navy.

Fig. 1 is a perspective view of the instrument.

- Fig. 2. The horizontal circle with its alhidades, &c. &c.

Fig. 3. The vertical circle with its alhidades, &c.

Fig. 4. A section of the whole instrument.

The letters of the perspective view answer to those of
the sectional parts.

a, a, a, are three horizontal radii of six inches radius, in
the ends of which are simple levelling screws, which fit in
sockets on similar radii, 4, @, @, screwed to the top of a three
legged stand, which serves as the support of the instrument
in the field. 6,6, is the horizontal or azimuth circle, of nine
inches diameter, with a silver arch attached to the middle
conical center, y, divided and read off, by means of verniers,
to fifteen seconds. c, c, is the lower or standing alhidade,
attached to the outer centre, x, having four arms, three bear-
ing verniers, the fourth a clamping and tangent screw, for
slow motion to the circle. d,d, is the upper or moving alhi-
dade, attached to the inner conical centre, z, having four
arms, three of which bear verniers, the fourth a clamping and
tangent screw, for slow motion, on two of these arms are
placed the hollow conical pillars, e, e, of an inch and a quar-
ter diameter at their basis; to the top of these is fixed the
Y’s, for the axis of the telescope, having a vertical adjust-
ment in one of them. ff, f, is the telescope, of twelve inches
in length, with its conical hollow arms, g, g; the pillars, e, e,
are of sufficient height to allow the telescope to have a free
motion through the vertical; on one of the arms is fitted the
vertical circle, h, h, of six inches diameter, with a silver arch
moving on a bell metal collar, and read off by means of ver-
niers to fifteen seconds, having two alhidades similar in every
respect to the horizontal circle. 7, 7, is the inner alhidade,
attached to and moving with the telescope, having four arms,

254 Remarks on American Rock Formations.

three bearing verniers, the fourth the clamping and tangent
screw. k,k,is the outer alhidade, having also four arms,
three bearing verniers, the fourth a clamping and tangent
screw, for slow motion to the circle, the fourth is extended
downward to a projecting piece, m, m, from the pillars, e, e,
and furnished with a clamping and tangent screw, for the
adjustment of the level, 7, fixed to the outer alhidade. On
the upper horizontal alhidade is placed a compass, n, 7, for
the magnetic bearings, and two small levels, 0, 0, for adjust-
ing the instrument more readily. p, p, is a larger level for
the adjustment of the axis of the telescope, which passes
through the arms of the vertical circle and its alhidades, and
resis on the axis of the telescope, as shown in fig. 4; it is
removed after adjustment. An illumination is effected
through one of the conical arms, 2, 2, by means of a small
lamp, 7, fastened to a support, s,s, that is attached to the
three legged stand, by which it is detached entirely from the
instrument, and of course can have no influence on its ad-
justments.

Art. VIII.— Remarks on the characters and classification of
certam American Rock Formations; by Larpner Va-
nuxem, late Professor of Chemistry, &c. in the College of
South Carolina, in a letter to Professor Cleaveland.*

In American Geology, there are, in my opinion, many al-
terations to be made, and which would have long since been
made, if observers, of different schools, had examined the
regions, to which my assertions have reference. The allu-
vial of Mr. Maclure, (as I made known in a paper left with
the Academy of Nat. Sci. of Phil.) contains not only well char-
acterized alluvion, but products of the tertiary and secondary
classes. Littoral shells, similar to those of the English and Pa-
ris basins, and pelagic shells, similar to those of the chalk de-
position or latest secondary, abound in it. These two kinds of
shells are not mixed with each other; they occur in different
earthy matter, and, in the southern states particularly, are
at different levels. The incoherency or earthiness of the

* To whom the communication was originally made, in reference to the
forthcoming new edition of his Mineralogy, and it is now published by the
consent both of the author and of his correspondent.

Remarks on American Rock Formations. 255

mass, and our former ignorance of the true position of the
shells, have been the sources of our erroneous views,

The second error of American geology, is the extending
or covering of the western country, and the back and upper
parts of New York, with secondary rocks. It was taken for
granted, that all horizontal rocks are secondary, and as the
rocks of these parts of the United States are horizontal in
their position, so they were supposed to be secondary ; and
as such are copied by every writer I am acquainted with.
With those writers, who do not admit a transition or inter-
mediate class, the generalization of inclination, and no in-
clination is admissible ; but is not so, when a transition class
forms a part of the system. This class, (the transition,) is
formed of mechanical particles, and nothing is more certain
than the tendency of such particles, when undisturbed, to
form horizontal layers or masses. It is also certain that an
uplifting or downfalling force, or both, have existed ; but it
is not certain that either or both these forces have acted in
a uniform manner, giving the same or nearly the same incli-
_nation to rocks of the same age, and to every part of the
same rocks. These two suppositions are to be admitted,
before the characters drawn from inclination can be general-
ized, as has been done by Mr. Maciure.

Innumerable are the facts, which have fallen under my
observation, which show the fallacy of adopting inclination
for the character of a class, and the geological boundaries of
the two classes in question, in the United States, abound in
such facts. ‘Those rocks are highly inclined, whose proto-
types are horizontal towards the west, or otherwise removed
from the mountain range. The analogy or identity of rocks
I determine by their fossils in the first instance, and their
position and mineralogical characters in the second or last
instance. One observation, and then I sha!! terminate this
part, with the facts observed in the western country and in the
state of New York, which place certain rocks in a more ad-
vanced geological period, than has been ascribed or given to
them. It appears from what I have been able to observe,
that where the primitive or even the first transition rocks, ex-
ist as mountain or level ranges, those rocks, which are not
nearer than the bituminous coal depositions resting upon
them, are usually more or less inclined; but if the primitive
be far removed from such rocks, no rule can be given; they
may be horizontal or inclined. Also, the greater the extent

256 Remarks on American Rock Formations.

of such rocks, (old rocks with mechanical products,) and the
nearer they are to the level of the ocean, the more likely they
are to be horizontal. This rule is the result of observation,
and of a theory, which I may, hereafter, give to the world.

In the states of Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee, the oldest
rocks, or those lowest in position, I found to be characterized
by the same shells and fossils found at Trenton Falls n New
York, which are similar to the shells and fossils, which char-
acterize the transition recks of Europe, namely, the orthocera-
lite, trilobite, productus spirifer, and others of the new genera
of Sowerby. ‘To these may be added the many species of
favosi, and the isotelus of De Kay, which | found in this,
at Frankfort in Kentucky, and at Nashville in Tennessee.
All these products I observed were below the bituminous
shale; for where it commenced these products disappeared,
the encrinite taking their place along with ¢erebratula.

Above the coal shale were terebratula, and that species
of Linnean madrepora now the genus stylena. ‘Those
formed the characteristic of the most modern rocks I met
with. It is worthy of remark, that all the barrens I crossed
over, consisted of the rocks above the shale; and the finest
lands of the three states I visited, had their soil underlaid
with the rocks below the shale. In these latter, little or no
siliceous particles are observable, whilst, in the rocks above
the shale, they abound; they form nodules, irregular masses,
&c. All the stylena, which are very numerous, are replaced
with silex. It is to these siliceous masses, that the barren
nature of the country is owing; for drought being frequent,
and they being good conductors of heat and bad absorbers
and retainers of moisture, vegetation does not find the con-
ditions for vigorous life, as is found where they are absent.

Most of the French geologists I studied with, assigned to
the transition the bituminous coal deposition, making it the
last member of that class; so with those, who are governed
by authority, [ presume, this will have weight. With myself
it is sufficient to know, that the shells and fossils mentioned,
are of the same genera with the transition rocks of Europe—
our types; that, as in our country, they abound in such
rocks, and if found in’more modern rocks, they occur but
occasionally ; that such rocks in the western country contain
no coal; all the coal there, is in rocks posterior to them.

Translations and abstracts from the French. 257

Arr. IX.—Translations and abstracts from the French ; by
- Proressor Griscom.

. Perchloride of Cyanogen and Cyanic acid.

. Specific gravity as a minerological character.
Effects connected with Magnetism.

. Effects connected with Galvanism.

. Maximum density of water.

Or 09 20

1. Perchloride of Cyanogen and Cyanic Acid.—A com-
pound of chlorine and cyanogen, not before described, has
been discovered by M. Serulas. Its formation and properties
are stated in an interesting memoir read before the French
Academy, on the 28th of July and Ist of Sept. 1828.

The new substance is obtained by pouring into a quart
flask, full of dry chlorine, fifteen grains of pure hydro-cyanic
acid, prepared by Gay Lussac’s method. The flask being
well corked, is exposed to the light for several days. A sol-
id substance forms on the sides, which is to be removed, (af-
ter blowing out with a bellows the remaining gas,) by pouring
in a little water and a number of fragments of glass, which,
by agitation loosens the solid particles. These after being
separated from the glass, are to be washed on a filter until the
water no longer reddens litmus paper, nor forms a precipitate
with nitrate of silver. The washed substance is then pressed
and slightly warmed, between folds of blotting paper, until
perfectly dry. It must next be distilled from a small retort,
in the neck of which, or in the receiver, (which must be kept
cold,) it crystallizes in needles of a dazzling whiteness. Its
odor is so pungent as to excite tears, especially when warm-
ed, and has some resemblance to chlorine, but its analogy to
the odor of mice is very striking. It is but slightly soluble
in cold water; but much moreso in hot, and is then soon
decomposed. Alcohol] and ether dissolve it easily, and from
these solutions it is separated by water. Its aqueous solution
at common temperature, is slowly decomposed, and the li-
quid becomes acidified more and more. By ebullition,
somewhat prolonged, all the perchloride disappears ; there
is no disengagement of gas, but a production of hydro-chloric

acid, and cyanic acid, Sepals in this case, must be formed of
one atom of cyanogen and two atoms of oxygen.

Vom 2ouk—=No- 2: G

258 Translations and abstracts from the French,

The action of the perchloride of cyanogen on the animal
economy, is very deleterious; a grain dissolved in alcohol
and introduced into the esophagus of a rabbit killed it in-
stantly. Anounce of water in which another grain had been
agitated, and filtered so as to separate the greater portion
which remained undissolved, killed in twenty five minutes
another rabbit which had been made to swallow it. The
experiments of M. Serulas, to ascertain the composition of
the chloride of cyanogen, results as follows :-—

Chlorine, . - - .7346=2 atoms.
Cyanogen, - - - .2654=1 atom.

Cyanic Acid.—This is also a new compound, evidently
differing in some important particulars, from either of the
two substances described as cyanic acid—the one by Woh-
ler who did not succeed in isolating it,—and the other by
Liebig and Gay Lussac, who ascertained the existence of a
cyanic acid in the fulminating compounds of mercury and
silver.

M. Serulas has shown that among the most remarkable
characteristic preperties of perchloride of cyanogen, is that
of decomposing water, and producing hydro-chloric acid and
cyanic acid.

All that had been previously known of cyanic acid, would
lead to the opmion that its elements possessed but little sta-
bility, and that it could exist only in combination with a base.
But M. Serulas, perceiving the tendency of this acid to give
rise to an acid salt, and not very soluble, inferred that in its
natural state it ought to be solid, for he had long thought
that no acids except those which are susceptible of becom-
ing solid, have the property of forming fixed acid salts, such
as tartrates, oxalates, phosphates, iodates, dc. This con-
jecture he has fully verified. ‘The cyanic acid is solid, very
white, and crystallizes in brilliant transparent rhombs, not
very soluble and consequently without any very marked taste.
It reddens litmus: its density is rather less than that of sul-
phuric acid, in which it remains suspended, but sinking when
the acid is in the least diluted.

It is volatilized at a heat a little above that of boiling mer-
cury: strongly heated a portion is decomposed, leaving only
charcoal: if it is not well dried it yields ammonia and car-
bonic acid, in quantities proportional to the humidity it may
contain. .

Translations and abstracts from the French. 258

it dissolves in both nitric and sulphuric acid, by heat, but
undergoes no change of properties even if those acids are
boiled down upon it. Neither nitrous nor sulphurous acid
gases are disengaged, and the cyanic acid remains without
the least alteration, perfectly crystallized, in plates of the
purest whiteness. These are remarkable evidences of its
stability.

With potassium it combines, forming potash and a cyanu-
ret of potassium, which produces a blue color with the sul-
phate of iron and an acid.

It unites with bases, producing salts, some of which are
perfectly characterized by their crystalline forms, and by in-
teresting chemical properties.

It appears to have no decided effect on the animal econ-
omy.

rane acid is cbtained, by submitting to slight ebullition,
perchloride of cyanogen in much water. As a portion goes
off with the vapor of the water, before it is converted into
hydro-chloric and cyanic acids, it is best to use at first a bal-
loon with a long neck, in order to condense and throw back
what may be volatilized, until the entire disappearance of
the solid substance and the odor peculiar to it. The fluid,
being then a mixture of hydro-chloric and cyanic acids, is
to be gently evaporated in a porcelain capsule, almost to
dryness, in order to expel the greater part of the hydro-
chloric acid. The cyanic acid begins to crystallize at the
commencement of the evaporation, in the midst of the hydro-
chloric. It isto be washed on a filter, with a little cold
water to remove the last portions of the hydro-chloric acid,
till the washings give only a slight precipitate with nitrate of
silver, soluble in nitric acid, and insoluble in ammonia, not
in excess, which, on the contrary increases the precipitate.
It must be redissolved in hot water, filtered and evaporated
to a certain point, and on cooling the cyanic acid separates
in small rhomboidal crystals, transparent and very pure.

The analysis of this substance has rigorously confirmed
ihe composition presumed from that of the perchloride of
cyanogen, which gives rise to it.

It is formed of

Cyanogen, - - - - 0.6189=1 atom,
Oxigen, —— - - - ° 0.3811 =2 atoms.

Le

260 Translations and abstracts from the French.

* It is evident from the preceding statement, that chlorine
combined with cyanogen, exerts an action upon water anal-
ogous to that of other chlorides, iodides and bromides; that
this combination is transformed, by the decomposition of
water into hydro-chloric and cyanic acid; that the latter
being more fixed and very stable, may be separated, by
evaporation, from the other, which is very velatile.

The discovery of the perchloride of cyanogen, indepen-
dently of the interest which it presents in itself, becomes
more important by the discovery of cyanic acid, which re-
sults from it, since the latter creates a class of salts before
unknown to chemisti”.

M. Serulas has combined the acid with several oxides, but
as the cyanates may be numerous, he reserves them for the
subject of another memoir.—Annales de Chimie et de Phys-
ique, Aout, 1828.

Preservation of Hydro-cyanic Acid, by M. Schiitz.—A
quantity of hydro-cyanic acid, prepared agreeably to the
process of Ittner, having begun to turn yellow in the course
of a month, M. Schitz rectified a part of it from calcined
sulphate of zinc, and obtained a colorless acid, which pre-
served its qualities three years and a half: ten drops were
sufficient to kill a large dog.—Ann. de Chim. et de Phys.

2. Specific gravity considered as a mineralogical charac-
icr.—The statement given in treatises of mineralogy, of the
specific gravity of different varieties of the same substance,
shews so much discordance among these varieties, as to pre-
vent specific gravity from being worthy of any reliance as a
character. F. 8. Beudant, suspecting that this difference
has arisen in part, from the presence of foreign substances in
the specimens examined, and partly from the want of per-
fect accuracy in the different persons who have described
them, has taken pains to ascertain what actual agreement
there is, in the specific gravity of the same substance in a
pure state in its different forms.

The specific gravity of carbonate of lime, varies accord-
ing to the books, from 2.324 to 3.672, M. Beudant, in limit-
ing himself strictly to those varieties which were identical in
chemical composition, so as to avoid the influence of mix-
tures, finds indeed in different varieties some difference of
specific gravity, but far more limited in its extent than ap-

Translations and abstracts from the French. 261

pears to have been noticed .»y others. Carbonate of lime
rhomboidal, hexagonal and metastatique, Iceland spar, of
various modifications ; lamellar, saccharoidal], fibrous, com-
pact and stalactitic spar, varied in the extremes, from 2.7041
to 2.7234, Pure arragonite, crystallized, fibrous and fibro-
compact, varied from 2.9467 to 2.9053; coralloid trans-
lucid, 2.8321; opake, 2.7647. Malachite, pure, from 3.5907
to 3.3496. Carbonate of lead, from 6.7293 to 6.7102. Sul-
phate of lime, from 2.3257, in small crystals, to 2.2615, nivi-
form. Sulphate of strontian, from 3.9593 to 3.9297. Sul-
phate of lead, from 7.7593 to 7.7398. Quartz, pure, from
2.6541 to 2.6354. It results from the researches of M. Beu-
dant, that small crystals always have the greatest specific
gravity, and hence it follows that it is in small crystals we are
to look for the greatest homogeneity, as well as what has
been long known, the greatest perfection in form.

The lowest specific gravity is always found in the fibrous
or epigene varieties. Hence it appears that the difference
of specific gravity in the same substance, depends on the
manner in which the rudimental crystals are aggregated to
form masses more or less considerable, and M. Beudant has
accordingly found that when reduced to powder, all the
varieties of the same substance present what may be con-
sidered as the same absolute specific gravity, the differences
being such only as come with the limits of possible errors
im the operation. He therefore recommends that the abso-
lute specific gravity of the substance be taken, as a minera-
logical character, by reducing it to powder, and allowing it
to imbibe the liquid which serves as a common measure.

When thus treated, the following is given as the specific
gravity of the eight following substances, which is constant
in all the varieties, and which may serve to distinguish them
when pure.

Carbonate of lime—rhomboidal, - 2.7231
Arragonite, : - - - - 2.9466
Malachite, - - - - - 3.5904 ,
Carbonate of lead, - - - - 6.7290
Sulphate of lime, - . - - 2.3316
Sulphate of strontian, . - - 2.9592
Sulphuret of lead, — - : : - 7.7592
Quartz, - : - : : : 2.6540

Idem.

262 ‘Translations and abstracts from the French.

3. Influence of Magnetism.

(a) On chemical action in general—The Abbe Rendu,
professor of chemistry at Chamberry, communicated to M.
Biot the following experiment.

A tube bent in the form of the letter V was filled with the
tincture of red cabbage. Aniron wire was plunged in each
branch, and one of them was supported by the north pole and
the other by the south pole of a horse shoe magnet. Ina quar-
ter of an hour the color of the tincture became of a beauti-
ful green. It was the same in both branches of the tube.

The same change was effected, though in much longer
time, (two days,) when the wires in two small tubes closed
at the extremities, which were plunged in the liquid.

The discoloration was not the effect of a spontaneous
change, for the fluid, of itself, becomes red and not green.

[t was found, by Ritter, that a magnetized iron wire, com-
bined with another not magnetized, produced a galvanic
palpitation in frogs. Ritter placed a magnetized iron wire
on pieces of glass, in an earthen plate, and poured over it
weak nitric acid: the north pole was more rapidly attacked
than the south pole, and was much sooner surrounded with a
deposition of oxide.

When three small flasks were filled with water, ‘either pure
or slightly acidified, and in the first, the north pole of a
magnetized wire was placed, in the second, a wire not mag-
netized, and in the third, the south pole of a magnetized
wire; the oxidation began with the south pole, and was
considerably advanced in that, and sensibly with the non
magnetized wire, before it was perceived in that with the
north pole. In this experiment it was necessary to cover the
water with fresh oil of almonds, to prevent oxidation from
the air, and to avoid all difference of exposure to solar lights.
—Annales de Chim. et de Phys. Jun, 1828.

(b) Effect of terrestrial magnetism on the precipitation of
silver.—A singular result with respect to terrestrial magnet-
ism was obtained in 1817, by Prof. Muschman of the Univer-
sity of Christiana, and has since been confirmed, by Prof.
Hansteen. A tube of the form of the letter V, about half
an inch wide and four or five inches long—each branch
has a quantity of clean Mercury poured into it, but not suffi-
cient to close the communication between the two branches.

Translations and abstracts from the French. 263

A solution of nitrate of silver, with excess of acid, is then
poured in so as nearly to fill the tube. When this tube is
placed in a plane, coincident with that of the magnetic meri-
dian, the precipitation of the silver and the formation of the
arbor diane, is abundantly more rapid than when the tube
is placed at right angles to the meridian, and it is more rapid
in the north branch than in the south, and the crystals at the
same time are more brilliant and more perfectly needleform.

After the crystallization had become very manifest in the
north and south tube, and while little or no change had ap-
peared in that placed east and west, two artificial magnets
were placed opposite to the mercury in the latter tube, one
with its north pole adjacent and the other with its south pole.
The silver then began to appear in the usual manner.

To give the silver greater freedom to extend itself during
precipitation, in a certain direction, small squares of glass
were procured, on which were described circles with tallow ;
within these a solution of silver was poured, and in the center
was placed a round piece of zinc. The silver immediately
began to form in circular zones ; but in such a manner that
the circles extended much more towards the north than to-
wards the other point of the globe. The zinc and its oxide
was in this case observed to incline towards the south.

The glass plates were afterwards placed at two inches
distance from the pole of a strong magnet, while others were
placed at a distance beyond its influence. The effect was
then striking, for on the plate near the south pole of the
magnet, the silver was formed rapidly in that direction, and
the entire precipitation was effected in one fourth the time of
that on the plate distant from the magnet.

These results appear to demonstrate the influence of mag-
netism, terrestrial and artificial, on chemical action.—Ibid.

4. Galvanic protection by the contact of heterogeneous
metals—A communication of A. Van Beek, of Utrecht, in
Holland to the editors of the Annales de Chimie et de Phys-
ique, furnishes the following remarkable examples of chem-
ical influence.

1. I piaced in a vase filled with sea water, a plate of cop-
per: the metal was promptly oxidized, and the water acquir-
ed in a short time a deep green color.

2. A plate of copper, placed under the same circumstan-
ces, but to which I had attached a small plate of iron, tin or

264 Translations and abstracts from the French.

zinc, was completely preserved. The copper retained its
brightness, while the iron, tin or zinc were strongly oxidated.

3. A simple plate of very thin mica placed between the
copper and the iron of the preceding experiment, promptly
destroyed the preserving effect of the iron: the copper was
oxidated.

4, A platina wire was placed so as to unite the copper and
the iron, the immediate contact of which had been broken
by the mica: the copper was again perfectly preserved, and
not an atom of oxide of copper appeared in the fluid. This
phenomenon of the preserving effect of iron, even when it is
not in immediate contact with the copper, and when con-
nected with it only by a conducting wire of another metal
was perfectly demonstrated by the following experiment.

5. A plate of copper was connected by a platina wire with
a plate of iron, and the plates were placed separately in two
vases filled with sea water, while the fluids themselves were
connected by moistened cotton or by a syphon filled with
the same fluid. The copper was completely preserved—the
water retaining its perfect transparency—while the iron in
the other vessel was highly oxidated.

6. Having kept the apparatus as last described, in action
during forty seven days, I took it into my head to cut the pla-
tina wire, in the expectation of finding the copper soon cor-
roded, as is commonly apparent within twenty four hours af-
ter its immersion in sea water. But to my great surprise,
the copper remained perfectly clean and bright, and the fluid
retained its transparency. On the fourth day I interrupted
the communication between the fluids by taking away the
cotton: this circumstance had no influence on the preserva-
tion of the copper—it remained perfect. Imagining at first
that the sea water might have lost, by the chemical action
which had taken place, the power of oxidizing the copper, |
took asmall quantity of the fluid, and placed in it another
picce of copper, which was oxidized within the first day.
The water therefore had lost none of its power and the phe-
nomenon admits of no explanation on that ground.

Neither had the copper lost the property of being oxidiza-
ble by sea water, for the same piece, placed in ancther ves-
sel of sea water was quickly attacked. It would seem then
that the electric preserving action which iron and sea water
exert upon copper, prolonged during a certain period, produ-
ces between the elements of the copper and those of the fluid

Translations and abstracts from the French. 265

a certain continued electric tension, which invincibly opposes
the combination of oxygen with the metal, though that ac-
tion is so strongly manifested on ordinary occasions.

I assured myself that a certain duration of contact of the
metal is necessary to effect this state of things, for when I
interrupted the contact in a similar apparatus, which had
been in operation but a few days, the copper was speedily
oxidated. Iam engaged in new researches to ascertain the
limit of time necessary to effect this preserving power, and
also the limits of the preservation itself.*

The copper of the apparatus whose contact was inter-
rupted after forty seven days, still continues, (now more than
twenty days,) perfectly preserved, and no indications of oxi-
dation appear in the vessel.

5. Maximum density of water.—A series of experiments
to determine the question of the probability of there being
a superior current in the ocean, setting from the equator to-
wards the poles, and an inferior current from the poles to
the equator, has been made by G. A. Ermann, Jr.

This question, the author observes, depends necessarily
and exclusively on the solution of another, that is whether the
water of the sea, like fresh water, attains its maximum of
density before it arrives at the point of congelation.

Four methods of trial were pursued.

1. By taking the specific gravity of the water at different
temperatures by an excellent hydrostatic balance.

2. By Nicholson’s areometer.

3. By the method of Dr. Hope, in determining the tem-
perature of ascending and descending currents.

4, By a simple and elegant method suggested by the
other, viz. the determination of the intervais of time in the
cooling of the water under examination, through every suc-
cessive half degree, from 15° or 20° I. above, to the freez-
ing point.

* My experiments have led me to perceive that Sir H. Davy, in the Bake-
rian Lecture of 1826, has committed a serious error in recommending the use
of zine or tin in the preservation of steam boilers in which sea water is used.
I have tound decisively, that tin, far from preserving iron, is on the contrary
preserved by it. Hence a piece of tin introduced into aa boiler, instead of
diminishing the danger of explosion by preserving the boiler, would power-
fully contribute to its destruction.

Vor. X VI.—No. 2. ~ 7

266 Translations and abstracts from the French.

The author states, that agreeably to this last method, he
placed a Reaumur’s thermometer in a glass vessel full of
fresh water, one inch and a half high and an inch in diame-
ter, so that the ball was about a line from the bottom. On
exposing it to a cold atmosphere, the intervals of cooling
were as follows.

Temperature. Intervals of time.
-+6.6 - - - - - - DO

aya) - - - - - - 55

5.0 - = - - = - 50

5.0 - - - - - ° 50

4.5 = 5 = - - - 65

4.0 - = - - - - 198

3.9 = = = - - - 60

3.0 - = = = - - 70

2.0

The influence of a maximum density is abundantly mani-
fest in this experiment. The sudden retardation of cooling
between 4° and 3° would be inexplicable without a previous
knowledge of the anomalous dilatation of water.

But in salt water the effect is different. The result of the
several series of experiments is :

1. That salt water, specific gravity 1.027, has no maxi-
mum density ./hile it remains liquid ; and even when ice has
begun to form, the part which remains fluid, increases con-
stantly and considerably in density.

2. Salt water at 1.020 attains no maximum density ; or at
least none while it is sensibly distant from the freezing tem-
perature, 1°.25.,

3. Salt water at 1.010 acquires a maximum density, but
at a temperature inferior to that of the greatest quantity of
fresh water, viz. +1°.5.

It thus appears that a mixture of marine salt lowers the
maximum temperature, and, in proportion to its strength,
and finally causes the maximum to disappear. It is probable
that it is only the maximum repelled to the point of solidifi-
cation. ‘This circumstance which is demonstrated in the
metallic mixture of Rose, would probably be met with in
other bodies, if their changes of volumes in the vicinity of
the fusing point were carefully examined.—Bib. Univ. Oct.
1828.

Action of Sulphuric Acid on Alcohol. 267

Art, X.—A memoir on the Action of Sulphuric Acid on Al-
cohol, and the products which result fromit. Read before
the French Academy; by M. Srerutras, on the 15th and
22d of September, 1828.

Translated and abridged by Prof. Griscom.

In this valuable memoir, the author states that the sub-
stance called sweet oil of wine, results from the decomposi-
tion of the yellow liquid formed of sulphuric acid and car-
buretted hydrogen: a decomposition produced either by its
prolonged contact with the colorless liquid which distils with
it, or by the operations to which it is subjected in order to
separate and depurate it.

M. Serullas calls this substance neutral sulphate of carbu-
retted hydrogen, or, sulphate of ether. Although it has been
seen and handled by all those who have prepared sulphuric
ether, it is no less true, that its real nature remains unknown.
To obtain it pure the author directs that a mixture of 21 parts
of sulphuric acid and | part of alcohol at 36 should be dis-
tilled as for the preparation of ether. After a little ether has
come over, the oily liquid, more or less yellow, will make its
appearance, sometimes sinking below and at others floating
above another colorless liquid which comes over at the same
time. In the former case, it is mixed with more sulphurous
acid and less ether than the colorless liquor, and in the latter,
the acid is mingled in greater quantity with the colorless
liquid.

To purify it, after having separated it from the colorless
liquid, it must be immediately washed by agitating it with a
certain quantity of water to deprive it of sulphuric acid, a
portion of alcohol, ether and sulphurous acid; then placed
in a capsule under the receiver of an air pump, within which
m another vessel is a portion of sulphuric acid, and the vacu-
um must be carefully continued until the volatilization of the
sulphurous acid, ether and alcohol causes an active ebulli-
tion. When this terminates, the liquid becomes colorless
and transparent, but the vacuum must be continued in order
to free it from water. In the course of twenty four hours
the sulphate of carbonated hydrogen is of a beautiful deep
green, after having passed through the successive shades of
elear green, bluish green and emerald blue.

268 Action of Sulphuric Acid on Alcohol.

In this state it is pure, and if kept in a closed bottle, it
undergoes no alteration.

M. Serullas concludes that the green color is owing to the
absence of air. It has a peculiar, penetrating, aromatic
odor, a fresh, sharp taste, somewhat bitter, resembling mint ;
its specific gravity is 1.133; it is slightly soluble in water ;
alcohol and ether dissolve it easily, and from these solutions
it can again be abstracted.

Placed under water, at the end of a certain time, it is
transformed into a light oil, (sweet oil) which rises to the
surface, and into an acid sulphate of carbonated hydrogen
which remains in solution,

The light oil is opake; left at rest it deposits crystals of
the same nature as itself.

This separation of the neutral sulphate, into an acid sul-
phate and sweet oil, may be hastened by heating it with
water. In this case a few minutes are sufficient.

The most remarkable property of this acid sulphate of
carbonated hydrogen is that of being transformed by ebulli-
tion into sulphuric acid and alcohol, without any disengage-
ment of sulphurous acid or gas of any kind.

This acid sulphate of carbonated hydrogen bas been hith-
erto considered as a sulpho-vinic or hypo-sulphuric acid, uni-
ted to some vegetable matter.

Thus, my analyses of the neutral sulphate, incline me to
regard it as a double sulphate of ether and carbonated hy-
drogen.

When treated with bases, it abandons, as with water, the
- sweet oil, and forms with them, salts which have been called
sulpho-vinates, but which must be considered, as Faraday
and Hennell first advanced, only as salts with a double base,
one of which is the carbonated hydrogen.

This oil, observed in the decomposition of sulpho-vinates,
the nature of which no one has hitherto pointed out, is no
other than the neutral sulphate of carbonated hydrogen, cb-
tained in such cases in large quantity ; so that 1 may recom-
mend this as a method to be employed in the preparation of
the neutral sulphate and consequently of the sweet oil. For
this purpose, we may heat for a few moments, without dis-
tillation, equal parts of alcohol at 38° and sulphuric acid; if
the mass is considerable, the elevation of temperature on
mixing will be sufficient, for even in the cold we obtain a
certain quantity. Saturate with clear lime water (bouillie

Action of Sulphuric Acid on Alcohol. 269

claire de chaux eteinte) and filter. After concentrating it a
little by a gentle evaporation, cool it, filter again and allow
it to evaporate inastove. It crystallizes slowly but perfectly,
and we have thus a large quantity of suipho-vinate, very pure.
This sulpho-vinate of lime, being dried with great care, and
heated ina retort, the principal product collected is the neu-
tral sulphate of carbonated hydrogen.

The sweet oil of wine obtained in the best manner, by
treating the neutral sulphate of carbonaied hydrogen with
water and heat, 1s slightly yeilow like olive oil, has an aro-
matic odor, density .921, greases paper like oils, thickens by
cold without losing its transparency, and at 35°is solid. When
perfectly deprived of water it is a non conductor of electri-
city, and may be taken as a type of non conducting oily
fluids.

The author infers from his analyses that it consists of 6
parts of carbon and one of hydrogen.

The crystalline matter which separates from it has the
same composition.

The inferences which M. Serullas draws from his investi-
Sghon, are on the whole, as follows.

That in the action of sulphuric acid on alcohol, there is
ie for med, as has been believed, hypo-sulphuric acid, united
to vegetable matter, (sulpho-vinic acid.)

2. That there is produced, on this occasion, a combination
of sulphuric acid in excess, carbonated hydrogen, and eie-
ments of water in proportions which constitute ether (bi-sul-
phate,) which abandons successively, by ebuillition the ether
which it contains; consequently the sulphuric acid has taken
from the alcohol, an atom of water.

3. That the bi-sulphate of ether, in the reaction observed
at a later stage, in the same operation, loses the part of sul-
phuric acid which rendered it acid, or rather becomes satu-
rated with carbonated hydrogen, and forms then a neutral
sulphate of ether, or a double sulphate of ether and carbon-
ated hydrogen, one part of which disti!s, while another is de-
composed and gives rise to all the products which are known
to appear at the same time.

4, That the neutral sulphate of ether, which must now
be ranked among well characterised chemical compounds,
and which may be assimilated with ethers of the third kind,
is susceptible by its exsiccation, and remaiming in a vacuum
of acquiring a fine green color ; that it passes by prolonged

270 Action of Sulphuric Acid on Alcohol.

contact with water, at common temperatures, to the state
of bi-sulphate, by abandoning the portion of carbonated hy-
drogen which rendered it a neuter or double sulphate, which
carbonated hydrogen having experienced during combina-
tion, a condensation of its elements, preserves that form, even
after its separation from the compound of which it constitu-
ted a part, forming liquid carbonated hydrogen, (sweet oil
of wine,) and solid crystallised carbonated hydrogen.

5. That the bi-sulphate of ether (sulpho-vinic acid,) is
transformed by ebullition in water, into sulphuric acid and
water, without any disengagement of gas.

6. That the compounds which the bi-sulphate of ether is
susceptible of forming with bases, which in this case, replaces
carbonated hydrogen, compounds which have been called
sulpho-vinates, are double salts, which, also by ebullition in
water, are entirely transformed into alcohol and a sulphate
of the base with excess of acid.

7. That the sweet oil of wine, and the crystalline matter
which it abandons by repose are formed, as M. Hennell has
stated, of hydrogen and carbon in the same proportions as
that in which these two bodies exist in bi-carbonated hy-
drogen. .

Si That the sulphuric ether, from the first period of its dis-
tillation contains bi-sulphate of ether, and at a later stage,
a greater or less quantity of neutral sulphate of bi-carbona-
ted hydrogen, products which are quickly isolated by the
evaporation of the ether. :

9. Finally—that a means of obtaining the neutral sul-
phate of carbonated hydrogen, and consequently, of sweet oil
of wine, is to decompose the sulpho-vinate of lime, as the
most economical mode of preparation, by heating it in a re-
tort, after having dried it, and collecting the product.—An-
nales de Chim. et de Phys. Oct. 1828.

Wilder's Algebraic Solution. Q71

Art. XI.—Algebraic Solution ; by Mr. C. Witper, of New

Orleans.

Remarks on the determination of y, in y"+-ay"—! +by"~?
+cy"—3+dy"-* ... +hky+l=0.
ies Be tag) CAD)
If we assume the function Foe an and then deter-
mine S,, so that (B) may be a factor of (A), independently
of x, we shall have

r? —y?
“ary
by writing y-+-z for y, it is changed to
x* —y? — Qzy—z?

w+y+z
which gives to (A) the form of the function
y? -Lay+b=0.
Now if we make (B)=0, we shall also have (A)=0; hence,
by comparison,
2z—=a, (1),
2?—x2=6, (2), these two equations
together with x+y-+-z=0, (B), are sufficient to deter-
mine y; for from (1) and (2),
x? =a? — 4b.
m 9

and from (1) and (B),y= =5 — x, which is the common rule.

In like manner, assuming the function
x°+8,c°+8, (C)
xt+yxt+p ' (D)

eee

x? +yx-+p
writing y+-z for y, and it is changed to
av! +(y? + 32y? + (32? — 3p)y +2 — 3pz)e*+p>
xu? +yxr-+p
Now when (D)=0, we also have (C)=0, and we may there-
fore, after dividing (C) by 2°, compare it with the equation
y*+ay? +by+c=0,
which gives 32—d,| (1)
32? —3p=), (2)

272 Wilder’s Algebraic Solution.

gets — Spi =c, (3). These three

equations joined to Bt YATE tala (D), are aes
to determine y.
For brevity make z=0, then

(2) “e
and (2) and (3) pita Ke al yh = (be)
forthen (D) (ether) becomes
ya 2D) which is the rule of

Cardan.
z°+8,07!+8,27+5, (E)

eitye?tprtq ~ (FY
comes, when (I) is a factor of (E) independently of x,

Sr OVE aoa 0)
L* yx? -pxr+q
writing (2ny+2z) for y, and (2n?y? ae —p) for
p, and i : changed to
xv? — pat +(Anty4 +16n% zy +(24n22? — An *p)y? +
~ @® + (Qny+22)e2 +

(16nz* —8npz—4nq)y-+4z* — 492? +p 2° +p? * —4qz)28 jet — 9?
(Qn2y? +4nzy +22? —p)x
dividing by 4n‘z?, the function (E)=0, and then comparing
with y* ay? +by? Sey do,

Az
we shall have oe (1)
1
—(6z2p)=b, (2)

1
pal4e5 — 2pz—q) =e, (3)
1 x* pur . p* q?
gal pir gs ee Op 28 tpl d8 9 ea) te)
These equations joined to
x? +-(Qny+2z)x? + (Qn? y? + Anzy-+2z? — p)x+-q=0, (F),
are sufficient to determine y. When z=0 and n=1, we
have x*+2bx4 +(62 —4d)x* —c*=0, which is the reduced
of Des Cartes. When z=0 and n=1, we have

be-

So also the Songer’ =

Wilder’s Algebraic Solution. 273

24

b b? d c? 1 ee ;
x6 aC ile Ge-p”’ — 64% which reduced is given in
most books of algebra.
g124+8,2°+8,748,, (G) :
Again, let us arame i fe ap aT which
becomes, when (H) is a factor of (G) independently of x,
= eA ie ka
xe +-yx? +pr+gq
so ale UE eA ES NSE!
x? + yx? +pxr+q ; ;
(H)=0 and of course (G)=0, we have by comparison with
y*+by?-+cy+d=0, after having divided

9 2
(G) by x p+ =—8, (1)

2p?
4q — 3 1=o, (2)
(Piss ore) ede
SEG coy OP ae a Gia —ad, (3): |
eliminating 2-4 from (1) and (2) by the process indicated
2p? (1) +q (2), we have 8p3+4q?+2bp2—cq=0. This
equation is satisfied by making 4p-++b=0, (4), and 4g—c=0,
(5). The three equations, (3), (4) and (5) joined to (H), are
sufficient to determine y, for from (3) we have
x£12+(d—2p?)x*+(p*+4q?)x1 —q*=0, then we obtain by
the second example, x1 =9(bcd), and from (H),
(@®+pe+q) | (w?-2e+9)

We OO erh as. Carre. tes bles
we evidently have (—4qyp?+2q2y?)2*, identically nothing,
otherwise, there would be a relation between a, b and ec,
which is not the case.

G :
Let us write in = Qy for y, and 2y2—p for p, which
changes this function to
v12+8y4-8py?—-Sqy—2p? )a > +(16y°—32py °—32qy > 124 p72 y"*
Li 4-Qyx?
+:32pqy? +(16q? — 8p*)y? — 8p2qy-+tp* +4pq?)e* = 9" ,
+(2y? —p)z-+q
and then we have, by a comparison with the function
y®-ay® +by* +-cy* +dy3 ey? +fy +s=0,
Vor. XVI.—No. 2. 8

Q74 Wilder’s Algebraic Solution.

2p=—a, (1)
29—6, (2
Zt Bp == 20,13)
2pq=d, (4)

BE gpk aed COND
qe) +p? q=— 2f, (6)
ze 2 4 29 4
ren pete a ve =, (7);
or better, v'? —2p278-+-p4—4q*p — 16g)x4 — q*=0:
eliminating x4 from (3), (5) and (7) by the process indicated,
and we have

p(3)—(5) . p>+q°?=pete, (8)
q(3) — (6) p?a=aesf, (9)
P(6)—4q(5) q°=qe—f. (10).

The equations (8), (9) and (10) are satisfied by making p? =e
and q?=e, f being equal to nothing. This changes the
given equation, by writing — 2p for a, and —2q for —6, into ~
y* — 2py°— 2qy° +p7y* +2pqy*> +4q7y? +g=9, or better,
ys —py? —qytV g=0:
which shows that the reduced is nothing but the rule of
Des Cartes, applied to the above equation.
Since the given is parted into two factors,
(y* —py? —qy + 8)(y* —py? — qy—Vg)=0, the rule ap-
plied to ¥4~—py? —qy+V g=o, gives for the reduced
(a), £°+4+2pr4+p2x2~p?=-4Vg; changing the
signs of the second and fourth term of the first number,
we have (6), 2° — %px4+-p222+q2=—4V 2. These two
equations give 22 —p2x7!+(p4-+4pq?)«? —q!=lé6g,
which is (7). It is easily seen that we have another equa-
tion, (2*—p*)y* —py? —qy=(24 —p?)“g, which is the

same as the given equation.
ted 1 :
We might have treated the function a} otherwise by

writing it thus,
at? +-(8y4 — 8py? — 8qy — 2p?)a*

x? -- Qya? + (2y? —p)x-+q

(4y*= Apy?— 4qytp? *—Apq?)x4 —g)

a> -+2yx?+(2y2—p)e+tq |
we have by transposition, and extracting the square root, and

G
> Fy andwhen(g)=0,

Wilder’s Algebraic Solution. 275

making the absolute term equal to Vo, y* —py? ea ial
4

ee ns

pe Pee CU PY OH ee
ae 4X

—_—_—__ —-2
reducing x!*-+(8y* — 8py? — Sqy — 2p?)«c? +(p2 —4A/ ge

—4*p)x*—q'=0, but 8y*—&py* —8qy=8V ge; hence,
our reduced is

= Ta
x12 —(Qp? —3Vv g)a8 +(p? _ Av g —4Aq?p)x4 —q*=0,
which is the product of the factors (a)=0 and (6)=0, re-

sulting from the transposition of —4V g.

From the foregoing examples, one would be led to think
the method pursued here was applicable to all rational al-
gebraic equations; but let us, before we attempt to follow
the analogy, recall, and demonstrate the following proposi-
tions.

; LOW BS, HMO DAS HMO DAS v4)
sti Clomere crm 6 TOR = ae
LO aa a) FANT wl ON a Fa

Soaae eam ahem. (CY)

..- tlr+u ” (B’)
be a function in which g, y, p, etc. are independent functions
of any number of other quantities whatever, then I say that
Sm; Som: Sam, etc. can always be determined in functions of
Y, Pp, 7, etc. independently of x, so that (B’) shall be a factor
of (A’); for, continue the operation indicated till the index of
xz in the remainder is n—2, and then make the remainder
equal to zero independently of x, which can always be done,
since the whole number of unknowns, Sy, Sim) Sam, ete.,
and the whole number of equations ism — 1; and it is evident
that they are of the first degree, relative to Sn, Som Sam, ete.

It is plain that the function (A’) may be decomposed into
(n—1) factors, (2"--#") (2"-+- 8”) (x™-+-y”) (x”-+0") etc.; and
if we put at+8+y7-+4, ete. =y

a8—+-oy-+od-+ Py etc. =p
aBy+-o80-+ Byd-+-ayd ete. =
SR eaiisie etc.
ayo ete. =u;
then adopting the notation and formula of Lacroix Comple-
ments des Elemens d’Algebre, we have

276 Wilder’s Algebraic Nolution.

+S'1S’m—-1 +8/18S’m—1 )
+pSm— 2 | +-p'S'm —2 |
em TPSm — 3 % gninmay by Sim — 3 amr)
ism—(n—2 | +72'S'm — (n — 2) |
+uSm—(n—1) ) +u?Sim—(n—1) J
+S”1S’m—1 ) Se sO S301 1 ee
+pS’'m—2 + pr 3(YS2— 30) 9 2
+q"S"m—3 & ym(n-4) i : : d = yt Seay) m_—3 Lz
+t'S"m—(n—2) | Lc LR MUMS as i ce ar | 7
+u?S”m-(n-1) j + u-1S"— 3 m—(n-1) J =

for the general expression of (A’); the accented letters hav-
ing the same relation to oS+oaytod+By etc., aBy+taBd
ayd+Py6 etc., a8yd+ete., that S1, Sm—1, p, Sm—2,
etc., have toa+S8+7-+6 etc., o™—1 +61 47"-1 1. §"—1 et¢,,
ao tay ad + By etc., on 2 Bmx Sa + jm—2 etc.

Proposition second. Let o(aypq ete.), and o'(xypq ete.),
be two functions of the independents xypq etc., and let 9 be
a factor of 9’, then I say that if any function 9(xpq etc.),
written for y in 9’, makes it identically nothing, it will also,
when written for y, make 9 identically nothing. For if not,
we shall have by putting y’=9"(xpq etc.),
?'(xy'pq etc.) 9)
o(xy'pq etc.) — ?(y'pq ete.) ’
thing. And, reciprocally, if” when written for y in 9, makes
it identically nothing, it will when written for y in 9’, make
it identically nothing. For if not, we shall have
e'(xy'pg ete.) 9% (xy'pq etc.)
o(a'ypq etc.) 0
impossible.

Proposition third. If the function @”(zpq ete.), written for
y, makes both » and #4’ identically-nothing, then I say that
either is a factor of ¢’ or o' is a factor of %, for we either have

e'(ry'pg ete.) 0 9o(xy'pq ete.)
9(xy’pq ete.) 0° * &(xy'pg etc.) 0
does not take place independently of y’, or what is the same, y,
we shall have a relation between z, p, g, etc., which is contra-
ry to the hypothesis. We either have therefore 9(cypgq etc.),
a factor of ¢'(xypq ete.), or ¢(wypq ete.), a factor of o(aypgq
etc.), according as 9’ > or<e.

or nothing divisible by some-

, or O, a factor of ', which is

; and, if the division

Wilder’s Algebraic Solution. 277

Proposition fourth. Let p(«ypq etc.) be a factor of
y'(xypq etc.)-+o" (xypq ete.), independently of 2, y, p, etc.;
then I say that if 9’’(ypq etc.) written for y, makes
9'(aypq etc.)=0, it will also make 9’(xypq etc.)=0, and
p(xypq etc.)=0; for writing y’=9'" («py etc.), we shall have

o'(ay'pg ete.)+-9"(xy'pq etc.)

Ware ete” mae
“(ay'pgq ete. : :
or better Sra! 3; since therefore o(xy'pq etc.) di-

vides the whole 9'(xy'pq etc.) +9" (xy'pq etc.), and the part
9 (xy'pq etc.), it must also divide the remainder 9/(xy'pq etc.) ;
o'(ay‘py etc.) 0

p(ay'pq etc.) y(ay'pq ete.) ul

P(xy'pq etc.)=0; but o(xy'pq etc.) is a factor of o'(xy pq etc.),
therefore, o'(«y'pq etc.) =0.

Further, it may not be amiss to observe, that a function is
equal to the continued product of all its factors; and if a is
a root of (z"+-1)=0, different from unity, then the roots of
this equation are,

1 a a? LANE A ae eer ten ne

Let us now return to the second example, and continue to
denote by x?, o(bc), we have then,

x=(be),

consequently,

w=a?o(bc), and consequently
Ger)

wv
_(a?a* +p)
Se aes ’
42
pol oP) thus (c) admits of but
a2 x

three simple factors.

2 22 1
The continued product (gakeeat? Sai ae

ay ace
a*x? +

P j
an ) cught to reproduce (c) ; and accordingly we have
[ele )

ax? |
| 3 | 3 |
| ape iat) tp? eet
ye ts oui EU) 2 ry+ = = (by having
i v
| ate tye! at-bat) +p2
Y arn? 3

278 Wilder’s Algebraic Solution,

3
regardtol a a?,) to y® — Spy tas +4, the function we

parted from.
We may further observe the function,

_S8?,
Tre

———;— _ becomes, when the

S, Ss,
a ae ar +(y+z) (a: — =?) +p
Ansar isa factor of ae numerator, independently of x,
_(yi+3ey? + Be? —Sp)y+

4
(w9(y? ++ S2y? +(327—Sp)y-+z° — 3pz) *+(yt2)(v? - (y2+
4
73 —3 2
pz) Lp?

ULE Ra GO A aL

hence, when at we have the following equations,
3p= =D :
(x 6 +p*)?=«,
(x? —c)? +y(x? —c)?+p=0; ; from which y is known.

ty? (y? pug)? = DRY is also proper to reduce

y>--ay+b
eubics; for if we make
(yee PUch a) = ee

Vase Ue, $+ Ay?+By+C, and determine A,
B, and C, so that the denominator is a factor of the numer-
ator, we shall have,

The function ———

A ope
B+a=3q+3p?,
C+Aa+b=6pq+ q?,
Ba+ Ab=3q? +3p7q,
Ca+Bb=3pq?,
Ch=q?+2? ; or

Wilder’s Algebraic Solution. 275

A=3p, (1),
B=3q-+ 3p? —a, (2);
C=6pq+p* —3ap,(3),
3aq-+3p?a—a? +3pb=3q? + 3p7q, (4),
6apy-+-p*a— 3pa? —2ab + 3bq+ 3p?b=3pq?, (5)
x3-+¢q?=6pqb—3pab—b?, (6).
If we multiply (4) by p, and subtract it from (5), we shall
have (3¢ —2a)p*+(3q — 2a)ap+-(3q—2a)b=0. This equa-
tion is satisfied by making 3q¢=2da.

2
Whiting 3 for q, in (4) and (6,) and we have,
a?
ap? + 3bp—3-=0; and
3 a qt Se fi hence

«3 =bp*abp —b? —5-—; trom whe
we have y; for when y?--ay-+b=0, we have y?+py+q
—x*=0; and we have already p, q and 2, in functions a and
b. This is the rule of Tschirnaus. We may still vary the
calculation, by assuming the function,

(0? +a? + (a+-p)a+b+q+x)(82+82 +(a+p)8+b+q+2)x
y?+ay+b

(y2-+7? +(a+p)y+b+4+2) ;
for, making the coefficients of « and x?, equal to nothing,
and eliminating the symmetrical function «+8-+-7, «? +8?

+y7?, etc. by means of aand 8, we obtain,
3qg=2a,
a?
ap? +-3bp — = =0, and
3 3 2 aur 3
x? =bp*?-+abp—b —o7

now, if we make y?+ay-+b=0, we also have y*+py+q
=0, from whence y is known, y standing for one of the let-
ters «, @, or 7.

Let us next recall the function,

x12 —(y4—Any? +4ny+2p?)e%+(p* —4qyp? +497 P+

vs —+yu? -+px+q
2gty?)etta', (GB),
(H)

280 Wilder’s Algebraic Solution.
Ge x
i ms for y in (G), we have

y'* — py! +-Agy!--9p2 2 ay PF Aap b2gey +

here, writing y'=—

2 10),
x

And since p, q and «x are independent, we may make any
three hypotheses we choose ; accordingly, comparing

4
Y APUG ai av Gh 2h aS Gane

a function y'*-+ by’? +-cy'+-d=0, y' being the same in both
functions, we have 4p=—b
4q=c and
x1? (d—2p?)x* +-(p4 +-4q?p)x* —g*=0,

the same as obtained before.

The fourth proposition gives the same result, perhaps more
satisfactorily. Continuing to denote by « the function (bcd),
we shall then have,

y'= —(e8-tpx+q),
Ad

ie
3

ee? with

‘= — (a'0* +ape+q),
7) ete (ioe t
y'=—(a°2? +a2pa+q),
y'= — (a°2*+a%pe+q)
ON Ds Vg coe aces
second members, and it requires no great skillto see that
the continued product of the four factors will be,
y'*—Apy’? +4qy'+2p? —(p* ras Aqy'p? +4q?p+2q7y'*)

a i a ee

; let us transpose the

at
q*
+73 — 2*=0; but by the hypothesis,
4 4 2 4
Oe —Apy'+4qy'+2p? = — 2*=0, conse-
oa p2 LIq2y!2
quently, ses A es Bak =0; hence, the product of the

four factors is y’4 +-by'?-+cy’+d=0.
Let us now take y° +-by? +cy? +dy-+-e=0, for the given

equation. Heren=5, and if we make m=5, the function (B’)

will be proper to resolve this equation.

Wilder’s Algebraic Solution. 281

It would be useless to repeat the calculation by which we
have determined the functions, S.,S,,,8,,3 it is sufficient
to say that (A’) will be,

ee Ny

—oqgyp*
“TB Onl +5ry? p? EPP yo)
— 5py* | — Srp* | — Sprq? |
ogy Sag" p? umeie N

x? ° 4+ 5py x15 —5q?y"*p eo — 5p*r2g xi+p?

— ory —agry> | — dr°q
— 5pq —sq?y | = —dpréy J

+ 5py?

—10r?p

+5q7r J

and Bi, #4-+ye%-+px2-+gqe+r.

Let us now suppose that such a function o(«pqr) is
written for y, as renders x? °(y° — 5py? --5qy? +-5p*y— dry
—Spq)e'* --(p§ —drp3-5q?p? —10r2p-+5q?r)a'? + (q> —
5prq* + dp?r2q — 5r°q)x>-+r?>=0, we may then compare it
with y° +by*+-cy? +dy+e=0, after dividing the first equa-
tion by «'*; this done we have,

ee b, (1),
5q=c, (2),
5p? — 5r=d, (3),
2 — 5pq+(p§ — d5rp3+5q2p? —10r*p — 5q?r)-+

Ae
(q° —5prq?+5p?r2q—5p%q) 7?
Care kPa ty presdes (4),
or better,

w? °—(e-+5pq)«!°4(p> —Srp?5q*p? —10r2p — 5q?r)a! 9+

(q° — 5prq?+5p*r2q —5r3q)x5+qi= c

These four equations, joined to y+(e4-+px?-+qx+r)=0,
xs

are sufficient to determine y. 1) ao

It is very evident, that it is a matter of indifference, which
of the letters y, p, q, or r, we treat as the unknown; for they
are all of five dimensions in the function before us.

This remark is applicable to other cases; as, for example,
a® +(y*— 3py)0*+p*

x? --ye-+p

Vor. XVI.—No. 2. 9

C
the function (D)’ which is ; here, ma-

282 Wilder’s Algebraic Solution.

king (D)=0, then (C)=0; treating p as unknown, and com-
paring with p*+-bp+c=0; we have

3u°y=—, (1),

x5 -}- x 543 =e, (2);

p=—(x?+yz), (D).

From (1) and (2) we have «1? —cx® —5- =0;

from (1) then y=— these two equations joined to (D),

303?
determine p.
Let us take for the last example
y® bby *-Ley? + dy? cy +f=0.

There are several functions, resulting from different values
of m, equally proper to resolve this equation. The one, in
which the function is most easily calculated, is that in which °
m=2. Our function is then,

o°4+S, 08 +S, 2°+S 044+S,07+8,, (A)

~ oo bye 4px? +qe?+ra+s ‘ (B’),
2
Calculating S,,S,, etc., and afterwards writing 2 7) P for
3 3py —2
p, and d fiat for g, we shall have,
Tae eR
+6py*
== y* ") --Aqy 3 +r?

+ 6py? Vy Spy? asa
c}° —px'+8qy Cayte tery: raat tp (3° —S? (A!)
+3p? |*" —12pqy +-2qs
PLAY.) — 72sy
—4q? |
— spr J

ys — 3— 3ny — 2 an
25 yn why 4. Tae ate +re+s (B’)

Now, if we make (B’)=0, (A’) will also be equal to noth-
ing; and the five independents 2, p, rT, q, and s, allowing
as many separate hypotheses ; we therefore make y, being

the same in (B’)’ and y°+-by* +cy?+-dy? +ey+f=0,

Solution of a Problem in Flucxions. 283

6p=—b, (1),
4q=—¢, (2),
9p? — 36r=d, (6)5

12pq+72s=e, (4),
1 1
a} °— pre --7(p?+8r)x° — 9(288f+-9? +9pr)x4 —

i
g(r? +2qs)x?—s?=0, (5).

These five equations, joined to (B’)=0, are sufficient to de-
termine y.
We evidently have, at the same time,

1 1
g (Spy? +4qy)x® +.(sy® +3psy)x4 ==(js
or better,
(3py+4q)x? +2sy? +6ps=0, an indentical equation.

Art. XII.—Solution of a Problem in Fluxions; by Prof.

THEODORE STRONG.
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.
New Brunswick, June 8, 1829.

Dear Sir—Should you consider the following solution of
a well known problem of sufficient importance, you will
oblige me by giving it a place in the Journal.

Problem.—Supposing that a particle of matter, projected
from a given point, in a given direction, with a given veloci-
ty, is deflected from its rectilineal course into a curve line ;
It is required to determine the equations of its motion.

Solution.—Let its motion be defined by the three rec-
tangular axes (a, y, z,) =r. Cos. 6 Cos. v, y=r. Cos. 9 sin. v,

x
z=r.sin. 9, .:. r?=a2+y2-+2? (1), “tan, v (2), >=cos. v

cot. 6 (3), 4 sin, v cot.9 (4). Let ¢ denote the time, (or

the independent quantity, which varies as the time, increas-

ing by equal elements dé, in equal elements of the time.)
The question requires that x, y, z,7,9,v, be found in
terms of ¢, and constants, (which are to be determined from
the initial circumstances of the motion,) in other words, z,
d*x

y, &c. are to be considered as functions of ¢. Put X=— ya

284 Solution of a Problem in Fluxions.

: yey 3 d?z ad? 0 +-yd?y+2d2z
Yo pat 2 galls mpg ee
dy —yd: an — xdz
day = EVicie tees: vxa(- +) sin. v
dain Pp fae) +
zdy—ydz
a( ae = —I'” (d); s= the portion of the curve de-
dt

scribed, (in the time f¢,) its concavity being supposed to be
turned towards the origin of the co-ordinates ; it is evident
that r= the distance of the particle from the origin of (a, y,
z); let de= the elementary angle contained by r and r+dr;
then rd and dr are the legs of a right angled triangle, whose
hypothenuse is ds; .". ds? —dr? =r2d9?, (e); but rd@ is the
hypothenuse of another right angled triangle, whose legs are
r cos. dv and rdo .*. r2>de2 =r? cos. 29dv?2 +r2do2, (f). The
second differential of (1) relatively to z, (considering dt as con-
dr?+rd*r dx?+dy? Bde ny Od ieee

eae Te

stant,) gives Fey mat di2 dl?
(g); but it is evident that dx? -+dy? +dz? =ds?, .:. by substi-
naa hs dr2-+-rd?r_ ds?
tution in (¢) of ds? and by (6), I have a ge
und?r.. ds? —dr? h

OY ap? eo Pa he th oe DY Me) oe Cea eine
. . 2edy2 “de2 — d2r

ceria a “"=F,(A). Multiply the differential

* cos. 26d
of (z), (taken relatively to t,) by z?, and I have iba sil

Hee ae
ae the differential of this gives a(= = ide
(

dt
cay Dn
=d i “)aF, (B), by (c). Multiply the differen-

dt

?

tials of (3) and (y), by 22, and there results —-7~-—=

(r? cos.vd9-+-r? sin.vcos. sin. ddv) zdy —ydz r? sin. ede

dt Gap Nera dt
r? COS. v Cos, 8 sin. 6

a > multiply the differential of the first of

Solution of a Problem in Fluxions. 285

these by cos. v, and that of the second by sin. v, then add the
products, and by (d) I have “(=7) i ht Cul Nuns ial Celie,

dt?

dt
(C). The equations (A), (B), (C), are those which I pur-
posed to find. The solution of the question is now reduced
to the integral calculus, and the integrals of (A), (B), (C),
d2 2, 2
manifestly depend on the values of — at -=3 - ee or
their equals, X, Y, Z, which are involved in F, F’, F”, as
d?
given by (6), (c), (d), respectively. The quantities — a
GAun » d2z :

— 72’ — qe’ are supposed to be given at the commence-
ment of the motion, or at some determinate point of the
described curve, and to vary according to some given law;
by which means their general forms of expression (or X, Y,
Z) become known. In the language of dynamics, X, Y, Z,

; aa EEO BEG diz
are the forces which cause the changes ——74> — plea a?

~
a

we _, dx dy dz. oh
in the velocities of the particle “de de dre the direction of

the axes x, y, z, respectively in an assumed unit of time, (as
(1) second for instance in terms of which ¢ is Supposed to
be given; that is, if the unit is (1) second, ¢ denotes sec-
onds.) Also, F, as given by (6) is the expression which
would result by decomposing X, Y, Z, in the direction of r,
by the usua! rules of decomposing forces, and F’, F”, res-
pectively denote the changes caused by the action of the
forces (in the assumed unit of time) in the areas described
by the orthographic projection of r on the plane of (2, y),
and by the motion of rin a direction perpendicular to the
plane of (x, y); in other words, F’ is the moment of the for-
ces which act upon the particle decomposed in the direction
of the plane (2, y), and F” is their moment decomposed in
the direction of a plane passing through r, at right angles to
the plane (x,y). The equations (A), (B), (C), are the same
as the equations (H); given by Laplace at page 149 of the
Mec. Cel. they become much simplified when the conditions
of the question are such that the motion of the particle is
always in the same plane; for supposing (x, y) to denote
the plane, I have z=0, .-. 9=0) and the equation (C) does

286 Solution of a Problem in Fluxions.

rdv? —d?r
not exist ; also (A) becomes HEGEL (A’), and (B) be-
2
comes d() =F’, (B’). These results can readily be
dt
; ate ba Lage
found from the equations r?=2?+y? . . 7 = tan. v, by the

same method as before. Again, if F’=0, I have r?dv=ce'dt
/2 t2

(G), (c’= const.), hence dv?=

/2 d2

(A’), and there results [> — a7,=F (D), multiply by dr, and

integrate aaa to r, and reduce, and there results
rdr c'dr
me ———— / —yp2 . pes —$_______
dt Setorey sl but c/dt=r?dv, . hie hy eo = ae
(E), which agrees with Laplace’s result, (Mec. Cel. Vol. I.
p. 113,) and is the same as that of Newton, (Principia, Vol. I.
sec. Vill. prop. 41.)
The equation (D) may be put under the form
c!? dr? k rdv?
a) =F, substitute for dt? its value Tagtaue andit

> substitute this in

rs dt?
2dr
6? ay \oA jf dn? : ;
becomes 73-9” () =F (H), which agrees with
dr
(4) of Laplace, at the place before cited; (H) can also be
C2) El” TCO. y y
put under the form; —9-d (= =F (1), (+ being the
dr

: dr
angle at which the radius vector r cuts the curve and —7—

its cotangent. By substituting in (A’) for dt? its value as
rdv? —d?r

given by (G), I have (2) =F (K), or F varies as
c

rdv2 —d?@r : ; ; {
ipa: (since for a given centre of force in a given

curve, c’, is constant) which agrees with Newton’s result,
(Prin. Ist, sec. second, prop. 6. cor. ist. his QR being the

Solution of a Problem in Fluxions. 287

rdv* — d?r
same as ——-5——’_ and SP? XQT?=r‘dv?,). The use of
the equation (E) is to determine the curve when the force
F is given, and it is obvious that it requires F to be a func-
tion of r, since it involves the integral SFdr; also (H), (K),
and (1), are for the purpose of determining the law of force
for a given point in a given curve; either will answer, but
that one ought to be used which will accomplish the object
most expeditiously. It appears to me, however, that (1) will
generally be found to be quite as easy in practice as either
of them: an example of this may be given in the case of
the logarithmic spiral, the centre of force being at the cen-
tre of the spiral ; in this case ¥ is invariable ; since r always

c'*cosec.?4
cuts the curve at the same angle, .*. by (I) ——~,—— =

?

1
. .F variesas —> for different points of the curve, (which

agrees with prop. 9th, sec. second, Prin.), if ¥= a right an-

gle, the cosec. ¥=1, and the spiral becomes a circle, and

cl? i i d

5 =F=const. for the same circle, and for different cir-
* y2 4

cles substituting for c’? its value dB | it becomes

dvr? We hg HEU : }
ta = =F, by putting a =the velocity,(which

; Rebbink

agrees with Prin. sec. second, prop. 4th, cor. Ist.) Again, by

taking the finite difference of (D), relatively to c’? and F,
2

‘ if De’?
regarding r and Gas constant, I have gaan oes ibe

ing the characteristic of finite differences,) if Dc’? is consid-

1

72 (which in prop. 44th, sec.
9th, Prin.) I shall here leave the subject, as I suppose I have
said enough and perhaps too much already.

ered as constant, DF varies as

CORRECTIONS.

Page 284, 6th line from bottom, dele (z) and insert (2).
66 6c 3d 6c 66 66 (y) cc 6c (4). }
“ bottom line, insert dv after sin. 9 in numerator thus, sin. dv.

Some smaller corrections, not deemed important, have been omitted.—Ed.

Meteorological Table, &-c.

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Meteorological Table, §-c.— Remarks. 289

REMARKS.

From the foregoing table, it appears, that the mean tem-
perature of the last twelve months was 44.2, which was
about 1° colder than the twelve months preceding, The

temperature of the summer months was _ - : 67.8
winter do. - - - 19.9
Difference, - - “ 47.9

That August was 2° warmer than the other summer months,
and February about 2° colder than the other winter months.
That March was 3° colder than December, and June warm-
er than July. The highest temperature was 90°, and was
the same on the 27th day of June, and on the 26th day of
August. The lowest temperature was on the 1/th of Janu-
ary, and was 22° below zero. But it fell below zero eigh-

teen nights within the months of January and February.

We had lightning and thunder on forty five days; Aurora
Borealis was seen on ten evenings only.

The quantity of water which fell in rain, hail and snow,
was 73.3 inches, which is believed to be beyond a parallel
in the recollection of any man living. The whole quantity
of snow was 100 inches, which is only 3 inches more than
fell in the winter of 1826—7.

On the 2d, 3d and 4th days of Sept, there fell 9.7 inches
of rain, which produced a most destructive freshet, through-
out Vermont and New Hampshire, the ravages of which will
probably be visible for half a century.

For many years, since I have resided in Vermont, I have
been of opinion, that much more water falls annually in rain,
hail and snow, upon the Green Mountains, than in most oth-
er parts of the United States; and from three years’ accu-
rate observation, I am confirmed in the belief. Inthe win-
ter months it is a common occurrence that there are storms
upon the mountains, when ten or fifteen inches of snow fall,
and at the same time, only a few miles distant, at the foot of
the mountains, on the west side, they have very little or no
storm of any kind. So in the summer, the clouds are often
seen to accumulate over the mountains, and there exhaust
themselves, in violent showers, and their extension is limited
to a few miles.

Itappears by Dr. Hildreth’s observations, made at Mari-
etta, Ohio, for three oe past, (published in the Journai of

Vou. XVI.—No. 2 10

290 The Aurora Borealis or Northern Lights.

Science, Vol. xvr, No 1,) that the whole quantity of rain which
fell, within that time, was 132.6 inches ; and from my. obser-
vations made in Vermont, for the last three years, the quan-
tity of water, which has fallen is 189.9 inches—differeuce,
57.3 inches. I believe, however, so great a difference would
not be found by a long series of observations, made at both
places, for the seasons have been unusually humid in Ver-
mont, during the three years above mentioned.

From thirty years’ observation, I am confident that light-
ning, thunder, and hail, in summer, are far less severe in the
mountainous region of Vermont, than in level champaigne dis-
tricts, situated in the same degrees of latitude. The eleva-
ted peaks, probably, serve as conductors, which convey the
electricity from the clouds without shocks; and almost uni-
versally, when the lightning strikes the earth, it occurs in
vallies, or on the sides of mountains, far below their highest
points.

In conclusion, I would remark, that notwithstanding the
great quantity of rain, which fell during the last summer, in
Vermont, some of our crops were abundant. The grass and
hay crop, perhaps were never better. Indian corn, potatoes
and some garden vegetables were light. Spring wheat, rye

and oats suffered severely by blight.
Fayetteville, Vt. May 1, 1829.

Art. XIV.— Speculations with respect to the cause of the
Aurora Borealis or Northern Lights.

Various have been the attempts to account for this phe-
nomenon; as yet no satisfactory theory has been offered to
the public, most of the essays on the subject, being destitute
of a sufficient number of facts on which to erect any lasting
hypothesis.

If the positions herein taken as ‘true, are, as they are be-
lieved to be, founded on admitted facts, some progress will,
perhaps, have been made in explanation of a subject hitherto
so’obscure. The first question that presents itself is, what
is the immediate cause of the Aurora Borealis ?

It seems to have been generally conceded, that electricity
in some form, is the immediate cause of this phenomenon.
The extreme rapidity with which the Aurora climbs and over-
spreads the heavens, assimilates it in this appearance, to no
other substance known to us but electricity.

Tne Aurora Borealis or Northern Lights. 291

At some remarkable periods when it has assumed its most
terrific forms, something strongly resembling the electric
chain of the thunder cloud has been observed: If we add to
these facts, the late discoveries of the French philosophers, of
the effects of those lights on the magnetic needle, there can
be little doubt as to the nature of the agent that produces
the northern lights. The next question; How comes there
to be such an accumulation of electricity toward the nor-
thern pole, and by what means does it ascend to produce the
alleged effect—is an enquiry of vastly more difficult solution,
and on the correct and clear explanation of the causes pro-
ducing these effects, depends the whole of this hypothesis.

Before | proceed farther in developing the theory, I would
remark, that the different kinds of minerals, although found
combined with others, in various forms, and scattered by the
convulsions of nature, over the whole globe, still abound
(whether agreeably to some established law, I will not pre-
tend to decide,) in particular regions, and are in a great meas-
ure absent from other regions. _ For instance, gold, silver, pla-
tina and quick silver, although found in other zones, are partic-
ularly abundant in the tropical regoins ; copper, lead and tin
occupy the latitudes next north; iron, (except meteoric,) is the
native product of the northern regions. In the further dis-
cussion of this subject, [ shall assume as historically true, the
following mineralogical facts. First, that south of the equa-
tor, there are not to be found any considerable masses of iron
under any form; our knowledge as to the mineralogy ofa
portion of those regions, is admitted to be extremely limited.
So far as those regions on this continent have been explored
by Humboldt and other modern travellers, no masses of this
mineral have been discovered, nor as far as our knowledge
extends, have we any reason to believe, that any such mass-
es are to be found on the eastern continent. The next fact
assumed is, that no great masses of iron, are to be found
within 32° north of the equator; that near that point the
iron region commences and continues northerly as far as
the land continues, towards the north pole, the great-
est accumulation being between the 45th and 65th de-
grees of north latitude. As to all purposes of this discus-
sion, this iron region may be considered, as a world by
itself, and the centre of electrical attraction, in other words,
the theory is this, that the electric fluid is gradually drawn off
from the clouds and incumbent atmosphere by the peaks of

292 The Aurora Borealis or Northern Lights.

the high mountains, and the iron region generally. The
power of iron gradually and noiselessly to disarm the clouds,
is strikingly exemplified by the following simple experiment,
Take and insulate an iron rod through the roof of your house;
bring it down to your chamber, and when the thunder storm
comes within two miles of the rod, sparks of electricity may
be drawn from the rod; connect the rod by a chain with the
ground and the effect. ceases, as the fluid passes impercepti-
bly to ihe earth. Now tf such are the extensive effects of a
small rod in disarming the clouds and atmosphere of the elec-
tric fluid, what must be the effect of those immense masses
of iron, situated in those northern regions, in gradually draw-
ing down the same fluid? This hypothesis derives support
from the following well known facts, to wit; that south of
the equator, the thunder storms are much more frequent and
terrific than north of the line, particularly within the iron re-
gions. This remarkable fact cannot be so well and satisfac-
torily accounted for, as upon this hypothesis of the accumu-
lation of the electric fluid south of the equator, until seeking
an equilibrium natural to all fluids, it bursts forth in torrents
to the land and to the water; whereas at the north and within
the specified region, it is gradually drawn off without noise
or struggle. A point of much difficulty still remains to be
discussed, to wit, what causes the electric fluid to ascend
near the pole; and what is the medium of conveyance?
And here I must assume another fact, if that indeed can be
called an assumption, that is proved by the strongest evi-
dence that can be produced, except by absolute and perfect
knowledge or demonstration, to wit, that around the north
pole there is an open sea, at all seasons of the year. Without
citing authors by name, I refer to all the accounts published,
as well by those who have sailed on scientific voyages of
discovery, as to the accounts of those who have been em-
ployed in the whale fishery. And more particularly to the
latter, who have penetrated still ‘farther to the north than
any scientific expedition. ‘This fact being taken as histori-
cally true, the theory is as follows. The electric fluid, seek-
ing an equilibrium, spreads itself by attraction in al] diree-
tions from the centre of the iron regions, but of course
most in that direction where most attracted, which is
northerly, until it reaches the open sea near the pole where
it rises in the vapor that constantly ascends from the water
in that region. That electricity ascends as well as descends,

Chemical Instruments and Operatoons. 293

is demonstrable, a priori, and is proved by an abundance of
historical facts. ‘That vapor is a powerful conductor, is
proved by the multitude of cases of persons struck standing
at doors and windows at the approach of a thunder gust.
The mist thus ascending, rises to the upper regions of the
atmosphere, and then spreads itself, accompanied by the
electric fluid, which causes those wonderful displays that
bafle description, and exceed the power of imagination.
It is not incumbent on me, but foreign to my subject, to ex-
plain what becomes of that portion of electricity that goes
southerly ; but it is not irrational to conjecture, that it may
be one of the causes that produce those extensive earth-
quakes, that have traversed the ocean and have been felt in
different parts of the globe. This theory also accounts for,
and derives strength from the fact of the detachment of
those immense masses of ice from the polar regions; no
philosophical reason or adequate cause, has been or can be
assigned, for this singular and wonderful fact except electri-
city. No other cause that we are acquainted with, is suffi-
ciently powerful to separate those frost bound masses and
set them afloat. It is a well known fact, that those floating
continents of ice are much larger, at some periods, than at
others; and that they have greatly increased within the pe-
riod that the northern lights have been observed to increase,
is certainly true; but to decide whether the former have fol-
lowed so soon as to be coupled as cause and effect, requires a
knowledge of facts beyond my observation and research.
Many facts in confirmation of these views, might indeed be
added, but they would introduce other subjects vastly more
important, which I am not prepared now to discuss: and
perhaps enough has been offered to determine whether the

discussion is worth pursuing.
Whitesborough, Oneida county, N. Y. Feb. 16, 1829.

Art. XV.—Chemical Instruments and Operations ; by Ros-
ert Harz, M. D. Professor of Chemistry in the University
of Pennsylvania.

A modification of the process for ascertaining the specific
gravity of the gases.

The principal difficulty in weighing the gases accurately,
arises from the small proportion which the weight of any

94 Chemical Instruments and Operations.

gas, can have, to that of any receiver, capable of sustaining
the unbalanced atmospheric pressure, consequent to ex-
haustion. It has been already mentioned that the accession
of weight, produced in an exhausted glass globe by filling it

' with hydrogen, cannot be ascertained by an ordinary bal-

ance. This led me to adopt another mode of manipula-
tion, which I shall proceed to describe and explain.

The weight of a bladder is exactly the same, however
large or small the quantity of atmospheric air which it may
include, provided the air which may be within it, be under no
greater compression, than that without. Hence, if by means
of a volumeter, we introduce a known quantity of any other
gas, one hundred cubic inches for instance, whatever the
bladder gains or loses in weight, will be the difference be-
tween the weight of the gas introduced, and that of a like

volume of air. If the gas be lighter, we must deduct the

weight necessary to restore the equilibrium from 30.5 grains,
which is the weight of one hundred cubic inches of air. The
remainder will be the weight of one hundred cubic inches of
the gas. A varnished silk bag might be preferable toa
bladder.

The accuracy of this process may always be subjected to
trial, by ascertaining whether the weight of the bag or blad-
der employed, is the same when nearly void, as when con-
taining a volume of atmospheric air, equal to the volume of
gas, which it is intended to weigh. When a bladder is used,
it must be dry; as otherwise the loss of moisture, during the
experiment, may influence the result.

It must be evident that this process is predicated upon the
idea, that the gravity of atmospheric air, has been already
determined with a sufficient degree of accuracy.

As there is no method by which a bag, or bladder, can be
exhausted of air, so that a portion will not remain between
its folds; neither nitric oxide, nor phosphuretted hydrogen
could be weighed, by the process last mentioned, unless the
residual air were previously washed out by the gas to be
weighed, by hydrogen, or some other gas with which they
exercise no chemical reaction. A portion of nitric oxide
might be introduced, and then expelled as a mean of get-
ting rid of oxygen.

Chemical Instruments and Operations. 295

Another process suggested.

I will take this opportunity of
suggesting, that the comparative
gravities of the gases might be
found, by means of two bodies,
counterpoised, as represented in
the accompanying cut, by ascer-
taining the rarefaction or conden-
sation of each gas, which would
make the bodies equiponderate
im it, as if it were atmospheric
air. In that case, the smalier
body should be of platina, which
of all bodies is the heaviest in
proportion to its bulk; and the
larger should be of glass, as thin
as would be competent to sustain
the requisite changes of pressure;
since I know of no body, equally
firm, and impervious, which would
be as light in proportion to its
bulk. The changes of density
being effected by the air-pump or
condenser, might be measured by
means of a barometer gage.

cies ||

Protozide of nitrogen or nitrous oxide.

This substance does not exist in nature.

When artificial-

ly obtained, it is gaseous; yet the experiments of Mr. Fara-
day have taught us that under great pressure, it may be con-

verted into a liquid.

Means of obtaining miirous oxide.

It may be obtained by the action of dilute nitric acid upon
zinc: by exposing nitric oxide gas to iron filings, sulphites,

or other substances, attractive of oxygen.

It is best procur-

ed by exposing nitrate of ammonia to heat, and receiving the
product in an apparatus described in the following article.

Chemical Instruments and Operations. 294
Apparatus for evolving and preserving nitrous oxide gas.

A, represents a copper vessel of about eighteen inches in
height, and nine inches in diameter, which is represented as
being divided longitudinally in order to show the inside.
The pipe, B, proceeds from it obliquely, as nearly from the
bottom as possible.

Above that part of the cylinder from which the pipe pro-
ceeds, there is a diaphragm of copper, perforated like a cul-
lender. A bell glass is surmounted by a brass cock, C, sup-
porting a tube and hollow ball, from which proceed on op-
posite sides, two pipes terminating in gallows screws, D D,
for the attachment of perforated brass knobs, soldered to
flexible leaden pipes communicating severally with leathern
bags, F F. The larger bag, is capable of holding about
fifty gallons, the smaller one, about fifteen gallons.

The beak of the retort must be long enough to enter the
cylinder so that the gas in passing from the mouth of the
beak, may rise under, and be caught by the diaphragm.
This is so hollowed as to cause it to pass through the perfo-
rations already mentioned, which are all comprised within a
circle, less in diameter than the bell glass. The gas is, by
these means, made to enter the bell glass, and is, previously
to its entrance, sufficiently in contact with water, to be
cleansed from the acid vapor which usually accompanies it.
On account of this vapor, the employment of a small quan-
tity of water to wash the gas, is absolutely necessary ; and
for the same reason, it is requisite to have the beak of the
retort so long, as to convey the gas into the water, without
touching the metal; otherwise, the acid vapor will soon cor-
rode the copper of the pipe, B, so as to enable the gas to
escape. But while a small quantity of water is necessary,
a large quantity is productive of waste, as it absorbs its own
bulk of the gas. On this account, I contrived this appara-
tus, in preference to using gasometers or air holders, which
require larger quantities of water.

The seams of the bags are closed by means of rivets,
agreeably to the plan of Messrs. Sellers & Pennock for fire
hose. The furnace is so contrived, that the coals, being
situated in a drawer, G, may be partially, or wholly removed,
in an instant. Hence the operator is enabled, without diffi-
culty, to regulate the duration or the degree of the heat.
This control over the fire, is especially desirable in decom-

Vor. XVI.—No. 2. 11

298 Chemical Instruments and Operations.

posing the nitrate of ammonia, as the action otherwise may
suddenly become so violent, as to burst the retort. The
iron netting, represented at N, is suspended within the fur-
nace, so as to support the glass retort, for which purpose it
is well qualified. The first portions of gas which pass
over, consisting of the air previously in the retort, are to be
allowed to escape through the cock, H. As soon as the ni-
trous oxide is evolved, it may be detected by allowing a jet
from this cock, to act upon the flame of a taper.

To obtain good nitrous oxide gas, it is not necessary that
the nitrate of ammonia should be crystallized ; nor does the
presence of a minute quantity of muriatic acid, interfere
with the result. I have employed advantageously in the
production of this gas, the concrete mass formed by satura-
ting strong nitric acid, with carbonate of ammonia.

The saturation may be effected in a retort, and the de-
composition accomplished by exposing the compound thus
formed, to heat, without further preparation.

Rationale.— Of the production of nitrous oxide, by the de-
structive distillation of nitrate of ammonia.

Nitrate of ammonia, consists of nitric acid and ammonia.
Nitric acid consists of five atoms of oxygen, and one of nitro-
gen; ammonia, of one atom of nitrogen, with three atoms
of hydrogen. In all five atoms of oxygen, three of hydro-
gen, and two of nitrogen are present, in one atom of the
salt. It must be evident, that if, in consequence of the heat,
each atom of hydrogen takes one of oxygen, there will be
but one atom of oxygen left for each atom of nitrogen.
Hence, the whole of the salt is resolved into water, and pro-
ioxide of nitrogen, or nitrous oxide.

Properties and composition of nitrous oxide.

It is a permanent gas. One hundred cubic inches weigh
about fifty grains. It supports the combustion of a candle
flame vividly; though nitric oxide gas, containing twice as
much oxygen, does not. Phosphorus is difficult to inflame
in it, but burns with rapidity, when once on fire. The habi-
tudes of sulphur are, in this respect, analogous to those of
phosphorus. An iron wire burns in it nearly as well as in
oxygen gas. Nitrous oxide may be exploded with hydrogen,
forming water, and sometimes nitric acid. It has no attri-

Argullite, embracing Anthracite Coal. 299

bute of acidity. It stimulates and then destroys life. Its
effects on the human system are analogous to a transient,
peculiar, various, and generally very vivacious ebriety. It is
much more rapidly and extensively soluble in water, than
oxygen.

Mr. Faraday has shown that nitrous oxide may be lique-
fied under great pressure. When nitrate of ammonia was
heated at one end of a sealed recurved tube, nitrous oxide
was condensed into a liquid at the other end.

One volume, or one atom of nitrogen = - 175

And half a volume, or one atom of oxygen = - iP

Condensed into one volume, constitute one atom of
nitrous oxide, equivalent to - - - - 278

Art. XVI.—Argillite, embracing Anthracite Coal ; by Prof.
Amos Eaton.

TO PROF. SILLIMAN.

AppitionaL geological surveys, having been directed by
Mr. Van Rensselaer, the regular course of the report, com-
menced in your yournal, will be interrupted for a few months.
In the mean time, I hope that a few isolated facts may not
be unacceptable.*

I shall not, at present, discuss the question whether we
have a primitive and a transition argillite, or a transition argil-
lite only ; but shall briefly state a few facts now established
by careful observation.

The glazed or japan-varnished variety of argillite, extends
from Baker’s Falls, near Sandy Hill, Washington county, N.
Y. to the Highlands, on Hudson river, a distance of one hun-
dred and forty miles. Throughout its whole extent, it em-
braces in small quantities, anthracite coal, passing into a
mixture of anthracite and plumbago. ‘Talc and argillite are

* The Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer, of Albany, N. Y. well known for his
munificent contributions in aid of science, has directed Prof. Eaton, aided by
Mr. Courtland Van Rensselaer, to extend the geological principles developed
by the Erie Canal survey, to all parts of the state of New York, and the adjoin-
ing parts of New England, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. These gentle-
men have already commenced a course of examinations, for obtaining the ne-
cessary materials for completing the work. The result of their labors may be
expected in this Journal in due time.—Zditor.

300 Argillite, embracing Anthracite Coal:

also often intermixed, and grains of quartz frequently enclos-
ed. The anthracite is always between the layers of argillite,
and these layers are considerably inclined, dipping at their
south eastern edges. On traversing these layers in a south
easterly direction, they are found to pass into talcose slate,
sooner or later—generally at the distance of about twenty
miles from the Hudson. In some localities of the glazed argil-
lite, on the banks of the Hudson, we find remains of bivalve,
moluscous animals and chambered univalves, which are in
some cases, intermixed with the anthracite. Troy and Water-
ford, in N. Y. afford the best localities yet discovered. No
beds of anthracite have hitherto been discovered in the argil-
lite on the Hudson, of sufficient extent to promise a reason-
able reward to the miner.

Between two and four miles west of Bellow’s falls, on the
Connecticut river, in the town of Rockingham, Vt., there is
also a north and south range of argillite. The position of its
layers, is perfectly vertical; and it passes into talcose slate
at its eastern side. But it has not yet been thoroughly ex-
amined, and no anthracite has been found in it, in the state
of Vermont. Its extent north and south, is not precisely
known; but it has been traced about ons hundred miles.
Anthracite has been found near Hadley falls, in Southamp-
ton, Mass. which may have some connection with it. This
last range is nearly parallel to the first, at the average dist-
ance of forty miles, east of it, in a straight line.

Another range of argillite, in all its characters, precisely
like that along the Hudson, runs in a direction parallel to the
other two, about forty miles east of the last mentioned; but
the dip of its edges, is in the contrary direction. It pass-
es on through Worcester in Mass., two miles east of the vil-
lage, to Providence in R. I., exactly under Brown college ;
and probably dipping under the waters of the Narraganset,
passes through the island of Rhode Island, on which New-
portis situated. Its northern extent is not ascertamed. Like
the two other ranges, it passes into talcose slate every where
on the eastern side. Like the Connecticut river range, its
breadth is very limited. Larger beds of anthracite have been
discovered in this range than in either of the others. One bed
is now wrought in Worcester, which is five feet wide, sixty
feet deep, and five hundred feet long. About one hundred
and sixty tons of anthracite coal have been already taken
from it. It often contains asbestus, plumbago, and grains

Telescopes—Life of Fraunhofer. 301

of quartz. A well has been sunk into it at Providence, but
nothing is yet known of its extent there. At Newport, large
quantities of anthracite have been taken from the same
range, and the beds are still extensively wrought.

A fourth range of argillite crosses the stage road at Cam-
bridge, about three miles west of Boston, Mass. It is about
forty miles east of the Worcester range. Its extent north
and south has not been ascertained. I believe no anthracite
has yet been discovered in it, but as it agrees with the other
three ranges in all its characters, it is probable that it con-
tains anthracite.

It is a remarkable fact that these four ranges of argillite,
are nearly parallel to each other, and about equidistant, leav-
ing the intervals occupied with primitive rocks of very simi-
lar character. Granite, hornblende rock, and talco-mica-
ceous rocks, are present in all the intervening ranges. Gran-
ular limestone and quartz, occur in some, and mica slate in
others.

Having myself made an examination of all the localities
to which [ have referred, I speak from personal knowledge ;
excepting as to quantities of coals taken from the beds, and
as to a few other facts, for which, it will be seen, that I must
rely upon information given by others. In these cases, I was
particular to collect unquestionable testimony. William N.
Greene, Esq. of Worcester, was with us, at that bed, on the
2d of June, and gave me the information which I could not
obtain from inspection.

_ Finally, Lam willing to stand pledged to the scientific pub-
lic, for the foregoing statement of facts. I am thus particu-
lar, because it appears to me that here are facts enough to
answer the great question—iZave we such a rock as primitive
argillite ? Amos Harton.

June 9, 1829.

Art. XVII.—Telescopes—Life of Fraunhofer.

REMARK.

Tue subjoined extracts from a letter to the editor, written
by Dr. B. Lynde Oliver, dated May 21, containing impor-
tant information, appear worthy of publication, and we sub-
join the memoir of the life of Fraunhofer, mentioned by Dr.
Oliver, being willing that an article of such high interest
should be made more extensively known in this country.

ise)
jos)
ihe)

Telescopes—ILife of Fraunhofer.
Letter from Dr. Oliver.

TO THE EDITOR.

Dear Sir—I have recently been favored with an answer
to a letter which I had addressed to that eminent artist Lere-
bours, of Paris,* which makes me regret that Yale College
should have sent to London for an achromatic telescope.}{
Nothing can more fully evince the great superiority of the
telescopes of Lerebours, than this consideration, that while
the English thirty inch telescope has an aperture of two
inches diameter, and magnifies seventy five or eighty times ;
the best thirty two inch achromatic of the above eminent
artist, has an aperture of four inches, and magnifies three
hundred times.{ The reported excellence of his instru-
ments does not rest on the artist’s word, but on the report of
a committee of the National Institute, composed of M.
Arago and several other astronomers of the first rank among
the philosophers in Europe. The telescope made for the
Royal Observatory of Paris, had an aperture of nine inches,
and cost three thousand dollars. He has made one since of
nine inches aperture, and which magnifies from nine hun-
dred to a thousand times, according as the atmosphere is
more or less favorable for the application of a great power.
You will recollect that Fraunhofer’s great telescope made
for the observatory of Dorpat, magnified with its greatest
power, only seven hundred times. M. Lerebours informs me
that he is now engaged in making a telescope of twelve
inches aperture, which he expects to finish this year. M.
Tully wrote to me, that a disc of flint glass of seven inches
diameter was out of the question, as a piece of glass of this
size could not be obtained either at Paris or Munich, since
the death of Guinand senior. But I am informed by Lere-
bours, that the glass-house in which he is interested, in com-
pany with the son of Guinand, now make discs of twelve
and fourteen inches in diameter. There are also, two very
good artists besides, that make good flint-glass for telescopes.

* Dated Paris, Dec. 12, 1828.

+ Dr. Oliver alludes to a telescope presented to Yale College, by a private
individual, of whom more particular mention may be made when the instrument
arrives, which we trust will shortly be the fact, and we indulge the hope that
it may prove that the British artist, Mr. Dollond, is not far behind his conti-
nental brethren.— Editor. -

{ Tne price of such an instrument is eight hundred dollars, and several of
them are placed in the Royal observatory of Paris.

Telescopes—Life of Fraunhofer. 303

I hope to see a specimen of Lerebours’ telescopes, as a
person belonging to Salem, has, by my advice, sent out for
one that will cost two hundred dollars; this is the price of a
small instrument, but still it will show the skill of the artist.
Aneminent philosopher in Great Britain, in a letter to me,
remarks, that the continental achromatic telescopes surpass
them all; [the different telescopes lately made in England, |
and he rebukes the negligence of the British government.
I wrote to Europe, with the special view of obtaining infor-
mation which might be useful to all our scientific institutions.
But it was so long before it arrived, that I do not wonder
your college should have engaged an English artist; although
I am now sorry for it. You have, sir, no doubt, read the
beautiful memoir of the life of Fraunhofer, published in
Brewster’s Journal, 1827, page 1. How feelingly the wri-
ter expresses himself on the death of this truly great and
eminent artist and philosopher, and how indignant he seems
to be at the neglect of the English government to Dollond,
the inventor of the achromatic telescope.

Permit me sir, to inquire of you, if you have repeated the
experiments of the French chemists on the making of dia-
monds?* It is a very remarkable circumstance that the dia-
mond, should unite a very high refractive with a low disper-
sive power. I do not recollect any other instance of it.

Rapport du Jury Central Exposition, 1823.

M. Lerebours, opticien, a Paris, place du Pont-Neuf, qui
regut en 1819 une médaille d’or, a exposé plusieurs instru-
ments d’optique qui sont tous trés dignes de la réputation
dont il jouit dans le monde savant. Deux de ses lunettes,
dont une a neuf pouces et demi d’ouverture, ont fixé l’at-
tention du jury. Rien de plus parfait n’est certainement
sorti des ateliers d’aucun opticien.

Le jury décerne une nouvelle médaille d’or 4 M. Lerebours.

* The materials mentioned by the French chemists, namely, sulphuret of
carbon and phosphorus, were placed in contact as soon as the facts were an-
nounced, in February, but, as_it requires the greater part of a year to produce
the result, it cannot be expected as yet. It is said that the phosphorus oper-
ates by detaching the sulphur from the sulphuret of carbon, and that thus the
carbon is gradually made to crystallize, so as to produce diamond, in small
masses, but transparent and hard, so that the Paris jewellers have pronounced
them to be identical with the natural diamonds.— Editor.

Since this note was written, we observe that this reputed discovery is dis-
puted by some of the most eminent of the French chemists.

304 Telescopes—Life of Fraunhofer.

Life of Fraunhofer—from Dr. Brewster’s Journal, No. X11.

Of all the losses which science is occasionally called to
sustain, there is none which she so deeply deplores as that
of an original and inventive genius, cut off in the maturity
of intellect, and in the blaze of reputation. There is an
epoch in the career of a man of genuine talent when he em-
bellishes and extends every subject over which he throws the
mantle of his genius. Imbued with the spirit of original re-
search, and familiar with the processes of invention and dis-
covery, his mind teems with new ideas, which spring up
around him in rapid and profuse succession. * Inventions in-
completed,* ideas undeveloped, and speculationsimmatured,*
amuse and occupy the intervals of elaborate inquiry, and he
often sees before him, in dim array, a long train of discoveries
which time and health alone are necessary to realize. The
blight of early genius that has put forth its buds of promise,
or the stroke which severs from us the hoary sage when he
has ceased to instruct and adorn his generation, are events
which are felt with a moderated grief, and throughout a nar-
row range of sympathy ; but the blow which strikes down
the man of genius in his prime, and in the very heart of his
gigantic conceptions, is felt with all the bitterness of sorrow,
and is propagated far beyond the circle on which it falls.
When a pillar is torn from the temple of science, it must
needs convulse the whole of its fabric, and draw the voice
of sorrow from its inmost recesses. ‘To those who have not
studied the writings, or used the instruments of the illustrious
subject of this memoir, these observations may seem extrav-
agant and inapplicable; but there is not a philosopher in
Europe who will not acknowledge their truth, as well as their
application; and there is not a practical astronomer within
its widest boundaries, that has not felt the tide of grief for
the loss of Fraunhofer flowing within his own circle.

Joseph Fraunhofer was born at Straubing, in Bavaria, on
the 6th March, 1787. His occupations in the workshop of
his father prevented him from giving a regular attendance at
the public schools. At the early age of eleven he was de-
prived of both his parents, and the person to whose charge
he was entrusted destined him for the profession of a turner ;
but his weak frame being ill suited to such an occupation,

* These are the words in the Edinburgh Journal,

Telescopes—Life oF Fraunhofer. 305

he was dpriremnicea to M. Weichselberger, manufacturer
and polisher of glass at Munich. Being too poor to pay any
thing to his master, he was taken on the condition that he
should work for him six years without any wages.

At Munich Fraunhofer frequented the Sunday school, but
as his attendance was irregular, it was a long time before he
learned to write or to count. In 1801, in the second year of
his apprenticeship, an accidental circumstance gave a new
turn to his fortune. Two houses having tumbled down sud-
denly, Fraunhofer, who lived in one of them, was buried un-
der its ruins; but while others perished, he fortunately occu-
pied a position to which it was considered practicable to
open a passage. While this excavation was going on, the
King Maximilian often came to the spot to encourage the
workmen and the young prisoner ; and it was not till after a
labor of four hours that they were able to extricate him from
his perilous situation. His majesty gave directions that his
wounds should be carefully attended to, and as soon as he
had recovered, he was sent for to the palace to give an ac-
count of the peculiarities of his situation during the accident,
and of the feelings with which he was actuated. On this
occasion his sovereign presented him with eighteen ducats,
and promised to befriend hin in case of need.

Mr. Counsellor Utzschneider, afterwards his partner in the
great optical establishment at Benedictbauern, took him also
under his protection, and occasionally saw him. Fraunho-
fer, full of joy, showed him the king’s present, and commu-
nicated to him his plans, and the way in which he proposed
to spend the money. He ordered a machine to be made for
polishing glass, and he employed himself on Sundays in grind-
ing and finishing optical lenses. He was, however, often
Hartied!: in his gohemes: as he had no theoretical and mathe-
matical knowledge. In this situation M. Utzschneider gave
him the mathematical treatises of Klemm and Tenger, and
pointed out to him several books on optics. Fraunhofer
soon saw, that, without some knowledge of pure mathemat-
ics, it was difficult to make great progress in optics, and he
therefore made them one of the branches of his studies.

When his master saw lim occupied with books, he prohib-
ited him from using them, and other persons whom he con-
sulted did not encourage him to undertake the study of math-
ematics and optics without assistance, and at a time when
he was scarcely able to write. ‘These obstructions, how-

Vor. XVI.—No. 2. 12

306 Telescopes—Life of Fraunhofer.

ever, served only to redouble the efforts of our author ; and
though he had no window in his sleeping chamber, and was
prohibited from using a light, yet he acquired a considerable
knowledge of mathematics and optics, and endeavored to
apply them to his own schemes.

In order to obtain more leisure, he employed the remain-
der of the royal present in buying up the last six months of
his apprenticeship; and that he might gain some money for
his optical experiments, he engraved visiting cards without
ever having been taught the art of engraving. Unfortunate-
ly, however, the war which then desolated Europe put an
end to the sale of his cards, and left him in greater exigen-
cies than before.

Notwithstanding the kind assurances of protection which
the king had given him, Fraunhofer had not courage to re-
quest it, and he was therefore compelled to devote himself to
the grinding and polishing of glasses, still continuing to de-
vote his Sundays to the study of the mathematics.

Mr. Utzsclineider was at this time seldom at Munich, and
could do nothing for our young artist ; but he recommended
him to a professor of the name of Schiegg, well versed in
mathematics and natural philosophy, who paid frequent visits
to Fraunhofer.

About this time was formed the celebrated establishment
at Benedictbayern, near Munich, by MM. Reichenbach,
Utzschneider, and Liebherr, and in August 1804, they be-
gan the manufacture of optical and mathematical instru-
ments, which were divided by the new machine of Reichen-
bach and Liebherr. The whole of the apparatus was made
there excepting the lenses, for they could not procure good
crown and flint glass, and wanted also a skilful optician.

Vith this great defect, the establishment would certainly
have failed, unless they had endeavored to snpply it.

Mr. Utzschneider now undertook a journey to make in-
quiry respecting crown and flint- glass, and respecting a
skilful working optician; but, after all his labors, he was
convinced that the new establishment had no alternative
but to form an optician within its own bosom. ‘Through
Captain Grouner of Berne, he had heard of the labors
of Louis M. Guinand, an optician at Brenetz, in Neucha-
tel, and having received from him some specimens of his
flint glass, he was so pleased with them that he paid a
visit to Brenetz, and engaged Guinand to accompany him
to Munich. As soon as he arrived there, which was in

Telescopes—Life of Fraunhofer. 307

1805, M. Utzschneider constructed furnaces for carrying
on the experiments upon a well organized plan. The first
attempt created much expense, on account of the repeat-
ed experiments which it required, but it nevertheless fur-
nished several good pieces of both kinds of glass. The
optician, Rigel, polished the first lenses in 1866 and 1807.
At this period Fraunhofer found himself in a very critical
situation. Professor Schiegg always encouraged him to go
to M. Utzschneider, but Fraunhofer was long ia resolving to
do this, believing that the latter had forgotten him, and
knowing that he was well satisfied with his own optician.

M. Utzschneider received Fraunhofer in a very friendly
manner, and after a short conversation, it was agreed that
he should also become an optician in the establishment.
Fraunhofer was then employed to calculate and polish len-
ses of considerable dimensions which came from the furna-
ces of Benedictbauern. These lenses were destined for the
instruments of the observatory of Buda. It was afterwards
agreed to transfer all the optical part of the establishment
to Benedictbauern, and to give the complete direction of it
to Fraunhofer. Our philosopher had already studied catop-
trics, and had even written a Memoir on the aberration
which takes place without the axis in reflecting telescopes.
He showed that hyperbolic mirrors are preferable to para-
bolic ones, and he also communicated the invention of a
machine for polishing hyperbolic surfaces. He now, howev-
er, resolved to give up this branch of the subject, as his time
was fully occupied in the preparation of lenses,

One of the most difficult problems in practical optics is
to give to spherical surfaces the last polish with that degree
of exactness which theory requires, because this final opera-
tion destroys in part that form which had been previously
given to the surfaces. M. Fraunhofer succeeded in remedy-
ing this evil by a machine which not only did not injure the
fine surface obtained by grinding, but which actually correc-
ted the irregularities committed in the first operation. It has
also the advantage of making the result independent of the
skill of the workman.

In examining the glass which he used in reference to the
undulations and strize which it contains, he found that, in
the flint glass manufactured at Benedictbauern, there was
often not a single piece free of those irregularities which dis-
perse and refract the light falsely. Pieces of the same melt-
jng had not even the same refracting power, and this was

306 Telescopes—Life of Fraunhofer.

perhaps more common in the English and French flint glass.
After obtaining these results, F rane reconstructed the
furnaces, procured the necessary instruments, and took the
‘direction of all the meltings.

He had learned from experience, that flint glass could be

made so that a piece at the bottom of the pot had exactly
the same refractive power as a piece from the top; but his
success was of short duration, for the succeeding meltings
showed that this was merely aceidental. Undaunted, how-
ever, by failure, he recommenced his experiments, in which
ee always mejted four quintals at once, and after long and

vere labors, he discovered the numerous causes W hich oc-
al ae his want of success.

As the English crown glass had many undulations and im-
purities, Fraunhofer resolved to manufacture it also. Diffi-
culties of a new kind here presented themselves, so that he
did not partly succeed till after a whole year’s labor. He
found also, that with whatever degree of accuracy he follow-
is the theory in the construction of achromatic ‘object-glas-

s, his expectations were never realized. On the one hand,
He ‘was convinced that it was wrong to neglect certain quan-
tities, such as the thickness of the Jens and the higher pow-
ers of the apertures, merely to obtain commodious “formule ; 3
and on the other hand, there was no exact method for deter-
mining the exponents of refraction and dispersion in the
glass, used for achromatic object-glasses. The first of these
inconveniences he avoided by a new method, in which he
neglected no quantity upon which the required degree of ex-
actness depended. JHitherto, achromatic object-g glasses had
only been calculated for rays proceeding from a point in the
axis of the lens, but Fraunhofer considered the deviations
from all points situated without the axis, and this is always a
minimum in his object-glasses. In this consists principally
the difference between ‘his giasses and those made in Eng-
land. :

The difficulty hitherto experienced in determining the re-
fractive and dispersive powers of bodies, arises chiefly from
the circumstance that the spectrum has no definite termina-
tion, and that the passage from one color to another was so
gradual, and indistinctly marked, that in large spectra the an-
gles could not be measured with a greater accuracy than
from ten to fifteen minutes. In order to avoid this inconven-
ience, Fraunhofer succeeded, by a very ingenious contrivance,
in obtaining homogeneous light of each color in the spec-

Telescopes—Life of Fraunhofer. 309

trum. In these experiments, he discovered in the orange
compartment of the spectrum, produced by the light of the
fire, a bright line, which he afterwards found to exist in all
spectra, and by means of which he was enabled to determine
the refractive powers of the bodies which produced them.

By using prisms entirely exempt from veins,—by carefully
excluding all extraneous light, and even stopping those rays
which formed the colored spaces that he wished to examine,
he discovered that the spectrum was intersected by a great
number of black lines parallel to one another, and- perpen-
dicular to its length.* In the spectra formed by ail solid and
fluid bodies, he not only discovered the same lines, (of which
he has reckoned five hundred and ninety in all,) but he found
that they had fixed positions, and that the distances between
them in diflerent spectra afforded precise measures of the
action of the prism on the rays which formed the correspon-
ding colored spaces. ‘The valuable Memoir in which these
discoveries are consigned, was published in the fifth volume
of the Memoirs of the Academy of Munich for 1814 and
1815, and also in a separate pamphlet entitled Bestimmung
des Brechungs, und Farbenzerstreuungs, Vermogens ver-
schiedener Glasarten. The writer of this notice had the
satisfaction of first translating this memoir into English, and
of publishing an abstract of its results in the article Optics
in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia.

About this time, in 1817, Fraunhofer was elected a mem-
ber of the Academy of Bavaria, of which he was an active
supporter.

In speculating on the cause of the dark lines of the spec-
trum, our author was led to consider them as arising from
the interference of the rays, and he was induced to make a
complete series of experiments on the inflexion of light.
These experiments he published in the eighth volume of the
Memoirs of the Academy of Munich, under the title of Neue
Modefikation des Lichtes durch gegenseilige Hinwirkung
und Beugung der Strahlen und gesetze derselben. In these
experiments, of which we have given a ful! account in the
article Optics in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, Fraunhofer
employed a heliostate for giving a fixed direction to the solar
ray, and he examined all the phenomena through a telescope

* Above twenty years ago, lines were discovered in the spectrum by Dr.
Wollaston. See Phil. Trans. 1802.

310 Telescopes—Life of Fraunhofer.

mounted upon a large theodolite, by means of which he
measured the deviation of the inflected light. The object-
glass was twenty lines in diameter; its focal length was 16.9
inches, and its magnifying power from 30 to 110. The he-
liostate was placed thirty eight feet seven and a half inches
French measure from the centre of the theodolite. The di-
ameters of the apertures were measured by a micrometer
microscope, which showed distinctly the two hundred thou-
sandth part of an inch, and sometimes even half that quan-
tity. All the phenomena which he thus observed and meas-
ured, he considered to be perfectly explicable on the undula-
ting system, with certain modifications ; and upon these prin-
ciples, he afterwards constructed a general analytical formu-
la, to express these new laws of light. From this formula,
it followed that these phenomena would be modified in a
manner not only singular, but apparently extremely compli-
cated, if a number of parallel lines could be made so fine,
that eight thousand of them were contained in one inch.
After another set of experiments, he invented a machine, by
means of which he could construct these systems of lines
with that accuracy which the theory required. The de-
tails of these experiments were read before the Academy of
Munich on the 14th June 1823, and will be found in this and
the subsequent number of this Journal.

M. Fraunhofer likewise applied himself to the study of va-
rious atmospheric phenomena, such as halos, parhelta, &e.
which he published in Professor Shumacher’s Astronomische
Abhandlungen, and of which we have given a notice in the
last number of this Journal, p. 348,

Such is a brief sketch of the scientific researches of Fraun-
hofer, but, valuable though they be, they are in no respect to
be compared with his practical labors as an optician. His
minor inventions are a new Heliometer a repeating wire Mi-
crometer, and an improved annular Micrometer. The prin-
cipal instruments which he has made, are the great parallac-
tic telescope, constructed for the observatory of Dorpat, and
of which we have given a full description and a drawing in
No. iv. p. 306 of this Journal. The prime cost of this in-
strument was L. 950. Its aperture is 2zne inches, and its fo-
callength 131 feet. His next great work was another achro-
matic telescope, ordered by the King of Bavaria, and which
has an object-glass twelve inches in diameter, and eight feet
in focal length, but it is not yet completed. Although en-

Telescopes—Life of Fraunhofer. 311

gaged in works of such magnitude, Fraunhofer was at the
same time carrying on others on a Jess scale, though not of
less importance to science. The Astronomical Institution
of Edinburgh, in the year 1825, ordered from him a very
large and complete transit instrument, with a telescope eight
feet anda half in focal length, and six inches aperture.
Upon the receipt of this order, he constructed three object-
glasses of these dimensions, one for the Royal Observatory
of Edinburgh, another for a heliometer for M. Bessel, and a
third as a spare one in case M. Bessel’s object-glass should
meet with any accident in the bisection; and, fortunately
for science, these object-glasses are all completed.

In the year 1820, when M. Reichenbach left the copart-
nery, MM. Utzschneider and Fraunhofer entered into a new
contract for continuing their optical establishment. The
former presented to Fraunhofer a share in the concern, equal
to about 24,000 francs, so that, from having several other
sources of income, he was now comfortable and independ-
ent. Inspired by his success and good fortune, all the activ-
ity of his mind was called forth, and he took the establish-
ment entirely under his direction. Since 1817 it had been
transferred to Munich, and the business had increased to such
a degree, that fifty workmen are at present employed.

In 1823 M. Fraunhofer was appointed keeper of the phys-
ical cabinet of the academy of Munich, a situation to which
a pension was attached. In 1824 after the public exhibition
of the great telescope of Dorpat, the King of Bavaria hon-
ored him with the rank of a chevalier of the order of Civil
Merit. He was also elected a member of several foreign so-
cleties, among which we may mention the Society of Arts
in our own city. The university of Erlangen also conferred
upon him the title of Doctor in Philosophy.

Thus honored and respected both at home and abroad,
Fraunhofer was enjoying all the happiness which character
and reputation and a moderate independence never fail to
yield. His mind was occupied with great views of scientific
ambition which he could not have failed to realize, and such
was the perfection to which he had brought his art, that he
was willing to undertake an achromatic telescope, with an ob-
ject-glass eighteen inches in aperture, and we have now be-
fore us a letter in which he fixes even the price ofthis stu-
pendous instrument. But he was not destined to accomplish
so great an undertaking. In October 1825 he was attacked

312 Telescopes—Life of Fraunhofer.

with a pulmonary complaint, from which he never recovered.
The injury which he sustained by the fall of his house seems
to have left some effects behind it, and for several years he
had suffered from glandular abscesses. He was, however,
seldom obliged to discontinue his labors, and there is reason
to think that he suffered from exposure to the heat of his
furnaces. His faculties never for a moment left him; and
in his few last days, his mind was occupied with the idea of
a journey to France and [taly for the recovery of his health.
He was cut off on the 7th June 1826, in the fortieth year of
his age. A few days before this event he had received from
the King of Denmark the diploma of Chevalier of the order
of Dannebroga. The whole of the city of Munich took a
lively interest in his disease, and felt the most sincere sorrow
for his death. The magistrates of the city permitted M.
Utzschneider to choose a place for his tomb, and he was in-
terred by the side of the great mechanician M. Reichenbach,
who had died a short time before. ‘

Bavaria has thus lost one of the most distinguished of her
subjects, and centuries may elapse before Munich receives
within her wails an individual so highly gifted and so univer-
sally esteemed. But great as her loss is, it is not rendered
more poignant by the reflection that he lived unhonored and
unrewarded. His own sovereign Maximilian Joseph was
his earliest and his latest patron, and by the liberality with
which he conferred civil honors and pecuniary rewards on
Joseph Fraunhofer, he has immortalized his own name, and
added a new lustre to the Bavarian crown. In thus noticing
the honors which a grateful sovereign had conferred on the
distinguished improver of the achromatic telescope, it is im-
possible to subdue the mortifying recollection, that no wreath
of British gratitude has yet adorned the mventor of that no-
ble instrument. England may well blush when she hears
the name of Dollond pronounced without any appendage of
honor, and without any association-of gratitude. Even that
monumental fame which she used to dispense so freely to the
poets whom she starved, has been denied to this benefactor
of science, and Westminster Abbey has not opened her hal-
lowed recesses to the remains of a man who will ever be
deemed one of the finest geniuses of his age, and who had
exalted that genius by learning and piety of no ordinary kind.

Thus neglected and mortified, it is not a matter of sur-
prise that this branch of science and of art should seek for

Cooper's Rotative Piston. 313

shelter in a more hospitable land, and that the pre-eminence
which England has so long enjoyed in the manufacture of
the achromatic telescope should be transferred to a foreign
country. The loss of Fraunhofer holds out to us an oppor-
tunity of recovering what we have lost, and we earnestly
hope that the Royal Society of London and the Board of
Longitude will not allow it to pass. Great Britain has hith-
erto left the sciences and the arts to the care of individual
enterprise, and to the patronage of commercial speculation;
but now, when all Europe has become our rivals, when eve-
ry sovereign, like the Ptolemies of old, is collecting round
his throne, the wisdom even of foreign states, is it not time
that she should start from her lethargy, and endeavor to se-
cure what is yet left? The British minister who shall first es-
tablish a system of effectual patronage for our arts and sci-
ences, and who shall deliver them from the fatal incubus of
our patent laws, will be regarded as the Colbert of his age,
and will secure to himself a more glorious renown than he
could ever obtain from the highest achievements in legislation
or in politics.

Art. XVIL1.—Cooper’s Rotative Piston.
Communicated for this Journal, by the Inventor and Proprietors.

REMARKS.

As we have had good opportunities of seeing, in full ope-
ration, the engines described in the following papers, and
have been much impressed with a conviction of their supe-
riority over those in common use, we publish the following
account, designedly left imperfect, as regards the construc-
tion, but not as regards the practical effect; hoping, with
the aid of the prints, to draw the public attention tothe subject.
The first part of this article is original, and it is completed, by
extracts from the printed papers issued by the proprietors,
who appear to us not to have overrated their engines. Ata
future time, after they have sccured their invention abroad, as
well as at home, a more detailed account may be given.— Hd.

Tuts invention originated with John Milton Cooper* of

* A young man of a vigorous intellect, and strong inventive powers, who (liv-
ing until that time, in the forest,) by a happy thought, hit upon this fine in-
vention; before he had ever seen or heard the word hydraulics, or knew that
there was such a thing as atmospheric or hydrostatic pressure.—Ed.

Vor. XVI.—WNo. 2. 13

S14 Cooper’s Rotate Piston.

4 ;
Vermont, and was matured by him without the aid of sci-
ence, or the benefit of a practical knowledge of mechanics,

The legislature of Vermont mcorporated Mr. Cooper and
his associates, by the name of the American Hydraulic Com-
pany, who are now manufacturing machines under the patent.
As this principle and one similar to it are applicable to steam
and a variety of other purposes, for which the company are
taking patents from some of the European governments, a
detailed description of the principle, and explanatory plates
will be delayed for a succeeding number.

Plate 1 represents the engine of size No. 7, worked by six-
teen men in three positions—a is a side view with the suc-
tion hose upon the carriage, and without the cranks—b
shows the rear of the engine and the situation of the cranks
when in the working position; c the front of the engine with
the cranks reversed, as when the engine is moved from place
to place.

Plate 2 represents the engine of size No. 3, worked by
eight men. This number has but one pair of cranks as will
be seen by the side view ina. The three positions are rep-
resented as in plate 1.

The result of several experiments is given, to enable the
reader to make a comparison with the engines of the old
construction.

An engine on the rotative principle, of the size marked
No. 11, worked by sixteen men, with eleven inches lever, dis-
charged through a four inch pipe, more water than three
eight inch cylinders, with nine inches stroke and fifteen inch-
es lever worked by thirty four men—and as much water as
four six and a half inch cylinders, nine inches stroke, worked
by thirty six men with twenty four inches lever. This exper-
iment was made at the corporation yard, in the city of New
York, in September 1827.

The same engine with twelve men, eleven inches lever,
threw more water than two engines (New York and Hydrau-
lion,) in the city of Boston, worked by thirty six men with
twenty four inches lever. This experiment was made in
State street, Boston, in September, 1827.

No 7, rotative engine, with twenty men exerting an esti-
mated power of thirty five pounds per man, with seven inch-
es lever, threw from an inch pipe one hundred and fifty six
feet horizontal, and one hundred and nine feet in height.
The atmosphere was at the temperature of 42° and perfect-
ly calm.

Cooper’s Rotatwe. Piston. 318

No. 2, rotative engine with eight men, exerting an estima-
ied power of fifty pounds per man, threw from a half in¢h
pipe, one hundred and forty eight feet horizontal, and one
hundred and three feet in height. The atmosphere was
nearly calm and the thermometer at 53°. The two last men-
tioned engines were made to discharge a large quantity, with-
out particular reference to power. One constructed for
power alone, would probably much exceed either of the
above.

The quantity of water discharged by a No. 11 engine is
five hundred and twenty five gallons for each hundred revo-
olutions. By a No 7, three hundred and four gallons, each
hundred revolutions. By a No 3, one hundred and twenty
eight gallons, each hundred revolutions.

In the No. 11 engine, the revolving cylinder is thirteen
inches long, and eight inches in diameter, and the surface
acting upon the water is forty square inches. In No. 7, the
revolving cylinder is twelve inches long, six and a half inch-
es in diameter, and it has a surface of thirty square inches.
The No. 3 cylinders are nine inches long, five inches in di-
ameter, and eighteen square inches acting surface.

The result of experiments upon it as a pump proved sat-
isfactorily, that the only deduction from the power applied,
after the inertia of the water and pump had been once over-
come, was short of seven per cent, including friction. Inthe
old pumps ten per cent 1s lost in the reciprocating motion
alone, exclusive of friction. (Allen’s Mechanics, p. 229.)

_ When, upon examination of this pump, it is found that the
quantity of water raised is sufficient to fill the pipe through
which it is discharged to its full extent, and to keep it contin-
ually filled, and moving at almost any velocity of which ma-
chinery is capable ; it is difficult to imagine what more can
be effected by any machine, as nothing can give an increase
of quantity, where no room is left unoccupied. The only
chance for improvement then, is to so construct a pump as
to give as much in quantity and with less power, or in other
words, one which by the application of one hundred pounds
power, will raise more than ninety three pounds of water.

The rotative piston is applicable to a variety of purposes,
in some of which, particularly steam, the experiments have

been very satisfactory.
x aM x * * *¥

316 Cooper’s Rotatwe Piston.

To protect life and property against fire has ever been an
object of great importance, and the ingenuity of man has
from time to time invented and adopted a variety of means
to enable him to resist with success the inroads of this dan-
gerous element. To the individual, safety is found in some
degree by insurance, but the root of the evil is still untouched,
and nothing short of actual care and exertion can be sure
of operating as a perfect safeguard. Experience has long
since shown, that the simple power of man, without the aid
of mechanical ingenuity, is not sufficient to arrest the pro-
gress of fire, aftcr it has once overstepped its proper bounds.
It becomes then an object of vital interest, that that ingenu-
ity should be so directed as to secure the object in the best,
while prudence dictates it should be done in the most eco-
nomical, manner. It would be wasting time, to go into a
minute examination of the machines which have been, from
time to time, invented for the purpose of discharging water
upon fire, and useless to point out the advantages or defects
of every invention which humun ingenuity has placed in the
possession of the public: suffice it for us to point to those
which are now in use. Even here the variety will preclude
a minute description of each, and we will only state what is
known to all, that they are generally made with one or more
piston cylinders, placed either perpendicularly or horizontally,
with solid or valve pistons playing in them, with a recipro-
cating motion. In this way one object is accomplished, viz.
the discharging of water to a much greater distance, than it
can be thrown with simple power. But with this advantage
there is a disadvantage, in as much as the stream being ope-
rated upon directly by the power, gives, in its motion, an ex-
act representation of the mode of its application; conse-
quently the stream is as unequal as the force applied, and, at
every change of the piston, stops. ‘To remedy this defect,
a vessel filled with air is placed in the vicinity of the piston
cylinder, and the water, ere its final discharge, is forced into
the bottom of this vessel and then allowed to escape. As
the pipe, through which the water makes its final escape, is
generally much smaller than the piston cylinder, consequert-
ly the motion of the piston will produce compression on the
water at every stroke, while the air, in the air chamber, be-
comes compressed in like manner. The advantage, then,
of the air chamber is, that this compressed air operates upon
the water as a spring, and exerts its power during the suspen-

Cooper’s Rotative Piston. 817

sion of the other power, while changing the brakes. The
engines in New-York are all of this construction, and are so
made as to allow the brakes to run the whole length of the
engine on each side. The leverage is generally twenty four
inches, and the number of men required to work them about
twenty. The engines, manufactured in Philadelphia and
Boston, likewise work with pistons, but the levers are differ-
ently constructed, there being generally one long lever run-
ning the whole length, having its fulcrum in the centre, while
the brakes are placed at each end. Some of the Philadel-
phia engines are of great power, allowing from thirty to for-
ty men to work at once, and have from two to four feet lev-
ers. Another mode of making engines has been tried with
success, whichis to place a small cylinder within a large hol-
low one, and attach a wing or arm to the small cylinder, and
make it sufficiently long to fill the space between the two:
a stop is then placed on the opposite side of the small cylin-
der, fitted at the end next to the inner cylinder, so as to allow
it to play on that end, while the other is attached firmly to
the outer cylinder. Heads are put upon the outer cylinder,
secured to it by flanches, and the gudgeons of the inner cy!-
inder are secured by stuffing boxes; levers are put in the
ends of the gudgeons of the inner cylinder, to which the
brakes are attached. Two sets of valves are made use of,
one between the outer cylinder and pipe, the other between
the cylinder and air chamber. An engine of this kind is now
used by the Sun Fire Insurance Company of London, and
one of nearly the same construction, by the name of the Cat-
aract, has been in Boston for several years, and is still in use.

In many of our cities the organization of the fire depart-
ments is excellent ; and particularly in New-York, Philadel-
phia and Boston, the vigilance and success of the firemen
have inspired a confidence which does honor to them, and to
the cities to which they belong. ‘The engines, in these pla-
ces, are always found in excellent order, and at first sight, it
would seem that human skill and ingenuity had been exhaust-
ed in rendering them perfect; but, upon mvestigation, many
defects will appear, which should be remedied as far as prac-
ticable. The first of these defects is the expense necessary,
not only to construct, but to work them and keep them in
repair. The best New-York engines cost from seven to eight
hundred dollars, including suction bose, and throw through
their pipes (3-4 inch) from eighty to one hundred gallons per

318 Cooper's Rotate Piston.

minute, and require twenty men to work them. The price
and power of the other engines do not materially vary from
the New-York engines. Another defect, or objection, is the
weight, which uniformly exceeds a ton, and in some approach-
es nearly two tons. They are likewise liable to be more
or less out of order, and the expense of keeping them in re-
pair is not inconsiderable.

Aware of the disadvantages of the engines now in use,
and desirous of benefitting others, while advancing our own
interest, we have devoted considerable time and attention in
constructing fire engines on a principle entirely new. This
principle was invented by Mr. Cooper, a partner in our con-
cern, and we have made a number of engines, all of which
have equalled our mostsanguine expectations, and placed their
utility beyond the shadow of a doubt. Simple in construc-
tion, and comparatively light, the expense bears but a small
proportion to that of those nowin use. Our general rule is to
afford them for about one half the price which equal sizes of
the old ones are sold for; and although our profits at this
price are not large, we hold it to be the duty of proprietors
of a patent, where the invention is of great public utility, to
fix such prices as will enable all to purchase.

The following is a summary of the advantages claimed by
the inventors and proprietors for their engine.

The simplicity of its construction, its rotary motion, its
admirable compactness and unquestioned durability, are ad-
vantages, of no slight importance, over those on the old prin-
ciple, which this machine possesses. Independently of these
advantages there are others of still greater magnitude. It
will raise and discharge double the quantity of water, in a
given time; or, in other words, it requires the application of
only one half the power, to produce the same eflect. It dis-
charges a more dense column. It is as little affected by the
frosts of a northern winter as by the heat of summer: and
it can be made for one half the expense.

Tt will raise double the quantity of water.

The fact is self-evident, that in working the old engines,
to discharge the chamber or cylinder once, the piston must
pass twice through it: an ascending stroke to create a va-
uum, anda descending one to force the water. Half the
time is consequently lost. In the rotative, on the contrary,
it is equally evident, that a continued vacuum Is created, and

2°

Cooper’s Rotative Piston. 319

a continued discharge effected, by one and the same opera-
tion. Asa further illustration of the point in question, it
may be observed,

It can be worked with one half the power.

The air vessel is totally dispensed with, and the power is
applied directly upon the water. It operates on no more
than it discharges. On the other hand, as a consequence of
the alternating motion of the piston engines, twice the sur-
face is acted upon, and the friction cf course is comparative-
ly twofold. This is not all. The power necessary to over-
come the zmertia of the water is both exerted and suspended
at every stroke of the piston. But in the rotative the cur-
rent flows instantly, continuously, and uninterruptedly.

Connected with this part of the subject is a fact of the
first importance. The extreme necessity of prompt and ef-
ficient action in case of fire, is beyond controversy. A suffi-
cient number of men to work the rotative engine with effect
may be readily and easily convened, either in cities or villages;
while a delay, waiting the arrival of the number necessary
to work the old engines, might result in a total destruction
of property.

lt is comparatively proof agamst frost.

Those acquainted with the old engines, know, by sad ex-
perience, the evils of frozen valves and obstructed pistons,
and that it is necessary to resort to means of thawing out the
machine, or to suffer it to remain useless, even at times of fire.
But a single revolution of the rotative, discharges the ice
that may have collected on the surface exposed, and an ef-
fective operation is not retarded for a moment.

It discharges a more condensed column.

It is apparent to the man of chemical science, if not to
the common observer, that water, in the form of spray,
thrown into an intense flame, is instantly decomposed,* and,
instead of diminishing, increases its fury. The advantage of
the rotative herein, as before observed, consists in dispensing
with the air vessel. In the old machine it is indispensable.
Yet, notwithstanding its use and importance to them, it con-
stantly imparts a portion of air to the water discharged, and
thus far produces the evil complained of.

* Giving its oxygen to the carbon, to increase its ignition, and its hydrogen
to augment the volume of flame,—Zditor.

320 Notice of Sketches of Naval Life.

Hence it is evident, that the following are among the most
material advantages of Cooper’s Rotative Fire Engine, over
all others hitherto invented, viz:

They are more simple in their construction, more durable,
and less liable to get out of order.

The number of hands necessary to work them does not ea-
ceed one half.

They are proof, with proper care, against the effects of

rost.

The column of water is more condensed, and consequently
strikes with more effect.

And last, though not least in the estimation of the wise
and prudent, they can be furmished for half the expense.

Prices.—No. 1. Discharging one barrel per minute, fifty feet high, eighty
feet distant; or through the hose, each one hundred revolutions, two barrels ;
plain, and plain mounting, four men, $150—with extra finish, $175.

No. 2. Discharging from two to three barrels per minute, sixty feet high,
ninety feet distant; or through the hose, each one hundred revolutions, about
four barrels; eight men; plain, and plain mounting, $225.

No. 3. Discharging about one hundred gallons per minute, sixty feet high,
ninety feet distant; or through the hose, each one hundred revolutions, about
one hundred and fifty gallons; eight men, plain, and plain mounting, $250.

No. 4. With arms of the size of No. 3, but with increased diameter, and
suction throats, throwing more water; twelve men; plain, and plain mount-
ing, $275.

No. 7. Equal in power to the engines used by the Corporation of the city
of New York, and discharging the same quantity, $400.

No. 11. Discharging double the quantity of the best engines in the city of
New York, $600.

No. 20. Discharging three times the quantity of the best engines now in
use in the United States, $1000.

Intermediate numbers, not named, in the same proportion. Force-pumps,
for the supply of cities, villages and manufactories, will be charged at about —
one half the prices named above. Suctions for Nos. 1, 2,3 and 4, will be
charged at $100 extra—for No. 7, $125—for No. 11, $150—for No. 20. $200.

Art. XIX.—Sketches of Naval Life, with notices of Men,
Manners and Scenery, on the shores of the Mediterrane-
an, in a series of letters from the Brandywine and Consti-
tution frigates, in two volumes ; bya Crvinian. New Ha-
ven, printed and published by Hezekiah Howe.

Remarks and extracts by the Editor.
Tue intellectual history of this country is becoming more

and more interesting ; both its science and its literature are
advancing with rapid steps, and it is no longer true, as be-

Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. 321

fore the revolution, that our authors could be found only
here and there,

Rari nantes in gurgite vasto.

The country is so eminently free, that its more active and
intelligent spirits turn themselves every way, in pursuit of
wealth or honor; wealth has hitherto had the ascendant,
but honor sounds her trumpet loud, and the number of those
who enlist under her banner, is constantly i increasing. ‘They
do not all take the political field; the many will continue to
throng there, but literature and science have now many
votaries ; ; and if their honors are not so easily obtained, they
are more enviable and durable. Tie man who has written
a good book, will be remembered and revered, when the
vulgar great, of courts and cabinets have passed into oblivion.
The mental character of this country will take its hue, in a de-
gree, from our institutions: the people, supreme in our laws
and policy, will cause their sway to be felt, at least as far as is
proper, in our intellectual productions. Attractive, readable,
and above all, practical books, whose useful tendency i is im-
mediately perceived, will continue to acquire the public favor.

Antiquities we have few; libraries, extensive on the Euro-
pean scale, we have fewer still; and neither our materials
nor the public taste will permit the appearance of many of
those ponderous tomes of erudition, demanding a life for a
single work, which were so numerous, in the former ages of
literature.* But, the materials which we have, we are turn-
ing to good account; and in no form perhaps more interest-
ing than in that of travels.

We are a nation of travellers. Our people are not only
intelligent but inquisitive ; fond of looking into the concerns
of other countries; pleased with useful matter, done up in
an attractive form, and as we are a young people, making
the experiment of a new kind of government, and therefore
capable of profiting by the errors of others, we have in our
hands the means of establishing or destroying our own insti-
tutions. The writings of intelligent travellers, exhibiting to
us, other systems in operation: other customs ornamenting
or depressing the species ; other principles, in the full tide of
experiment, or already well tried, are of real importance to

* Webster’s Dictionary is a late exception, equally honorable to the author
and his country.

Vou. XVI.—No. 2. 14

322 Notice of Sketches of Naval Life.

us. To Americans, there is a voice in every thing from other
nations, and such books are the medium through which it
speaks. As the bee extracts the sweets of every flower and
brings them to the common hive, so the traveller accurmu-
lates and deposits, for common use, the stores of knowledge
which he has obtained. A traveller should be vigilant, in-
quisitive, industrious, candid and honest. He should have
enlarged and comprehensive views of men and things; he
should be both a scholar and a man of the world; he should
unite keen perception and a coo! judgment; and he should
be actuated by pure and elevated meral feeling, quickened
by a healthful sensibility, and a chastened taste, which will
make him equally accessible, to the beauties of nature and
the productions of art. He should attend not only to what is
‘awfully vast” but that which is “elegantly little ;” he
should be bold and firm, yet modest and unpresuming, for
only such men will succeed well in a strange land. Above
all, as an American, (for such we suppose him to be,) he
should give all his observations a practical character; he
should bring every thing to bear on his own country, and
blend the warm patriot, with the man of information and
feeling. With all this he should have a ready pen; he
should be able to describe well; to seize on our feelings and
make us sharers in the pleasures of the Journey, while he ex-
cuses us from us fatigues; seizing the striking points of
view, whether of men or of nature, he should place before
us, a graphic representation of events and things; and ina
word should make us see as he saw, and feel as he felt.

It is giving our opinion of the volumes of Mr. Jones, when
we say, in a word, that if this beau ideal of a traveller is
rarely seen, he has come nearer to it, than most of those
who publis their observations in the form of travels. In
our last number, page 168, we gave an extract from the MS
of Mr. Jones’ work, and many have since, not only through
our own pages, but though those of our newspapers, enjoyed
the pleasure, which we experienced from seeing the ship, her
spars tipped with fire balls, and her canvass emblazoned by
lightning, reeling in the night squall, while we contemplated
the uproar, from the snug harbor of our own safe tenement,
on land.

We have already mentioned, that the author’s prominent
object is to display the police and character of our navy, es-
pecially as they struck a landsman ;—a civilian, as he chooses

Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. 323

to style himself. He says, “I was among ships, asa travel-
ler in a strange country—I give things, just as they affected
me, and as I believe they would affect all landsmen, for
whom, chiefly, the book is intended. As our men of war
present the singular spectacle, of a thorough monarchy,
sheltered under the wings of republicanism. I well recol-
lect, too the pleasure, with which I saw our navy, slowly but
surely building up a fair character for our nation abroad, and
my first wish, after enjoying these things myself, was to have
people at home enjoy them too, and hence the copious jour-
nals from which the materials for these letters have been
drawn.”

‘He says, that yielding to the judgment of persons whose
opinions he respected, he has said more than he intended of
the countries which he visited, but he did this the more
readily, “as the countries are interesting and he wished to
make the book just what the cruise was, a mixture of land
and sea, or in other words, to give in all their characters,
sketches of a sailor’s life.”

We look at the progress of our navy, as we do at every
thing connected with the country, with pleasure and sur-
prise. In October, 1775, a committee was appointed by
Congress, to provide two fast sailing vessels, one of ten guns,
the other of fourteen. We have now our men of war in
every sea; they are spoken of with admiration wherever
they appear; we are founding navy yards and docks ; amass-
ing stores and filling magazines; and shall soon launch the
largest ship in the world; efficient in a tremendous degree,
but, after all, probably a pageant of national vanity; and a
pageant may she always remain !

Such a rapid increase has necessarily been attended, as
in the case of every sudden growth, with imperfections and
errors, and as each minute of the present is doubly valuable,
from its necessary influence on the future, he merits the
thanks of his country, who will place before us these imper-
fections and errors with their remedy. Naval men are, of
course, best qualified to do this, but from them it must not
be expected ; the strictness of naval discipline will not suffer
it; he who should venture to point out an error would fall
under the charge of censuring his superiors, and subject him-
self to arrest. Still this subject, like most others, is capable
of deriving benefit from candid investigation. The volumes
before us open the way. The author seems to have felt

324 Notice of Sketches of Naval Life.

that a “civilian” is not the best judge of such matters, and
he has contented himself, as most citizens would have done,
with barely narrating facts, leaving to others the business of
making deductions or suggesting improvements. Still in the
complicated machinery of a man of war, there are many
things that belong to science as well as seamanship, and on
these he has dwelt more at length. We have an instance
of this in Vol. IT. p. 220, where the arrival of the Delaware,
American line of battle ship, at Port Mahon, is mentioned:
her crew had been in a sickly condition, and several deaths
had occurred on her passage.

“¢'T'wo causes” says the author “are assigned for it: the ship
was fitted out in winter, and the inner coat of paint, it is said,
was not well dried before the others were put on: another, and
probably a more powerful cause, is the quantity of salt among
her timbers. It is thought to preserve the wood; probably with
some truth, but in the Delaware, has been laid on in such quan-
tities, as to stream down her sides, I understand, in every part,
and send up the most noxious exhalations: their passage too has
been a rough one, and the ports could seldom be opened. One
can hardly imagine any thing more horrible than to be shut up
many hundred miles from shore, in such a vessel: to see the
paint darkening around you, and the beams sweating, and all this
from an atmosphere you are constantly breathing, and from
which there is no escape. Our ships in the West Indies, along
the African coast, and on the Brazil station, are constantly expo-
sed to similar evils. [have heard of cases where, for many days
in succession, the question regularly put by the officer coming
on relief was, whether there were any dead to be buried, and
how many. In the vessels sent to the African coast, they tell me,
it is not uncommon to see a man carry up his hammock in the
morning hale and stout, and at noon he is sewed up in it and thrown
overboard. Irefer you to Niles’ Register for Novomber of
1823, for a distressing account of sickness in the Macedonian,
while on the West India station. :

‘Ships are all more or less exposed to miasmata. Our own
hold, although this vessel is kept in remarkably good order, fre-
quently sends up the most noxious effluvia. I have seen the
paint, in our cock-pit, turned from white to brown, simply from
the removal of some casks in the spirit hold below. ‘The bilge
water is always nauseating. We use every precaution, and I
believe ships are seldom found with an atmosphere even as pure
as that we breathe. Lime is scattered largely through the hold;
the casks are whitewashed, and wind-sails are let down into it, as

Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. 325

weil as into other parts of the ship. they are an excellent con-
trivance; but are not adequate to the evil.*

‘“‘ Chioride of lime has been found a most useful agent in such
cases, and | have little doubt, would succeed inships. I wonder
the experiment has never been made. It is not an expensive ar-
ticle; it is portable as lime itself; it may be procured at the
mzanufactories at home, or be easily made abroad, and for all
purposes of convenience, is equal to the simple lime, the article
now universally employed. Allow me to refer to an article, by
Professor Silliman, on the properties of this agent.”t—Vol. I.
pp- 120—2.

We would add by way of confirmation, of what Mr. Jones
has stated, that in our opinion the chloride of lime, in large
quantities, ought to be a regular part of the outfit of every
ship, and especially of every man of war. It stands unri-
valled among those agents that counteract morbid tenden-
cies, and that correct the smell and destroy the power of
noxious effluvia. It is now manufactured abundantly in our
large cities; it is obtained for about eight or nine dollars a
cwt.; it is attended with no inconvenience ; nothing can be
more simple than the mode of applying it; if kept in tight
casks, it is liable to very little change, and can, with the
greatest convenience, be carried on the longest voyages.
Dissolved in the proportion of four ounces to one pint of
water, and this solution being diluted with forty times as
much water, that is, a wine glass full of the first solution to
three quarts of water, it will remove every foul odor and ar-
rest contagious influence, if occasionally sprinkled about the
apartment and even on the patient, and it is found to be very
effectual in curing many diseases. The navy board, we pre-
sume, will not permit so important an article to be any longer
omitted in the fitting out of our ships of war, and our mer-
chantmen ought to be not less attentive to their own safety,
and to the comfort and cleanliness of their ships.

It is evident, that the superior officers of a ship of war, are
very responsible men, and of course, ought to possess high
qualifications: the following portraits are from our author,
Vol. I. p. 40. |

* Capt. Elliott, on his late return from the Brazil station, I am informed,
passed a leathern hose to the bottom of the hold: a pump was attached to the
upper part of this, and the foul air pumped out. It is said to have had an ex-
cellent effect.

+ See the Journal of Science, for October, 1826, and for April, 1829.

326 Notice of Sketches of Naval Lafe.

“¢ The captain is an officer, so high in dignity and rank, that
he ought not even to show himself often to vulgar eyes; and
those, it is said, who succeed best, confine themselves most to
their cabins. He, consequently, seldom interferes with the ac-
tive duties of the ship: his orders are given, generally, to the
first lieutenant, or through a midshipman, to the officer of the
deck; and, though exercising a close scrutiny over every part,
it is without appearing to do so.

6 Such is this officer, in the ship: but he has other, and much
higher duties; and these should never be lost sight of, in forming
our estimate of his character. The other officers feel them-
selves members of a single vessel: he must take more enlarged
views; for he is the connecting link between his own ship and
other ships; between his own nation and other nations. In offi-
cial intercourse abroad, he, of course, appears, and his character
gives a tone to all such proceedings. To fit him for this, re-
quires an assemblage of qualities seldom found in one man—a
mind well disciplined; expanded views of society; thorough
knowledge of history, laws and governments; sound judgment;
quickness, decision, firmness and intrepidity.

«| come now to the other officers. The first lieutenant has
the actual superintendence of the ship. He is the oldest* lieu-
tenant on board, and on his character, that of the ship very much
depends. His powers are very great, and reach to every part;
and, as it is most felt, the office is apt to be an invidious one:
but murmurs, if any, are silent ones. He can even thwart the
captain, and often does so, while his actions have the semblance
of obedience. He ought to be a man, ready and prudent; not
harsh, but decisive ; and above all, well skilled in all the duties
of aship. In times of danger, he takes the trumpet; as he does
also in getting under way and coming to anchor; but, in all other
cases, is excused from the services of the deck: but he is res-
ponsible for the cleanliness and good order of the ship: com-
plaints of grievances are made to him: he decides on duties and
rights: gives permission to leave the ship, when for the day
only: signs orders on the store rooms ; and, when the captain is
absent, is commander of the ship.

“To a frigate of this class, there are five more lieutenants,
each taking rank according to his date.”

We will venture to add, that besides such a share of lite-
rature, as shall give to his common intercourse, and especial-
ly to his official returns, the lustre of perspicuity, correctness
and good taste, he ought to possess a share of science. No

a NT TET ae
* In official age.

Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. 327

reflection is intended upon those able and patriotic men, who,
in the earlier periods of our navy, rose from obscure situ-
ations, or from common pursuits, to usefulness, rank and
honor; but, the state of things is now changed, and, tilla
regular school for the navy, under the direction of the gov-
ernment, shall supply the means, the elements of science
ought to be sought by naval men, in the seminaries of our
country, and from highly qualified individuals. Natural
Philosophy, Astronomy and Chemistry are fruitful in facts
and principles with which the naval commander must be
daily conversant, and there can be no doubt, that an ac-
quaintance with them must be of great advantage in the
practice of the profession, and in giving success to efforts
to advance its interests. The British navy is adorned by
some men of this character, and Capt. Basil Hall, deserves
to be mentioned among the most conspicuous of them, both
for his real merits in this way, and for the eclat which he has
imparted to the naval character.

If naval men are acquainted with the outlines of the most
important branches of natural history, they will enjoy many —
opportunities of making interesting and useful observations,
and of selecting specimens of value; this portion of science
although highly ornamental, is however, no necessary part of
naval knowledge, like the important sciences first named.

The author’s twenty second letter in which he gives an
account of grog serving and its effects, is deserving of an at-
tentive perusal, and were it proper to occupy our pages, to

such an extent with this topic, (which is however, physical as
well as moral,) we would copy the whole letter.

No one can read Mr. Jones’s pathetic and eloquent appeal
on this subject, fraught as it is with every just sentiment, with-
out regretting, that the respectable author has conceded,
however reluctantly, that “to banish grog from our ships of
war would be a fatal experiment.” The difficulty is no doubt.
great, but is it msuperable; this cannot be known until it is
tried, and has the experiment been made in the navy of this
or of any country? If so, the report of it has never come to
our ears. It has been completely successful on board of a
considerable number of merchant ships, and one, as we are
assured, has just sailed from New York for China, with no ar-
dent spirits on board, no not even in the medicine chest f
But how! will not the crew mutiny? for they were not con-
sulted. This will be known in due time; but the better pro-

328 Notice of Sketches of Naval Life.

vision, both in kind and variety, laid in for the crew—the
greater attention paid, in every way, to their comfort ; and
the alleviation found in coffee, spruce beer, diluted acids,
and even French wines, will probably reconcile them entire-
ly.to their new regimen. Who can say that a similar experi-
ment cannot be successfully made in the navy, even, without
using those abundant means of enforcing submission, which
should be resorted to only in the last extremity, and which
are so effectual on other occasions. Who can decide, that
a war ship, on whose colors was inscribed, no grog, but more
comfort and better pay, would not enlist a crew of contented
sober men, who, in battle would be sustained by cool moral
courage, and who, on coming into port, would not disgrace
their country’s flag, by immoralities which our author, else-
where, so feelingly laments, and so justly attributes to strong
drink.

In accordance with the spirit of this work, we may be al-
lowed to add, with respect to the physical effects of stimulus ;
that it creates no power, it only acts on power already exist-
ing, and excites to effort ; a wasting effort of course, if often
repeated, under the influence of stimulus. ‘The spur quickens
the generous courser to leap the ditch, or to scale the fence ;
but, both the stimulus and the effort tend to impair the ani-
mal energy, which can be renewed only by repose and food.
_ It would, perhaps, be hard to say, that there is no possible
contingency, in which it may be proper to prompt human ef-
fort, by a measured stimulus of alcohol; but certain it is,
that such cases are few, and far between. The continued
use of the stimulus of ardent spirits creates local disease in
the organs; and ultimately in the system; and as in its pure
state, it is decidedly and powerfully a poison, operating with
rapid and fatal energy ; so in its more diluted forms, it works
the same way, and produces a sure although a more tardy
catastrophe.

Mr. Jones’s travels contain a number of notices of natural,
or other objects connected with science. In the harbor of
Mahon, where the squadron passed so much time, he found
many interesting things. He says,

‘¢ As I sauntered along its shores, my attention was drawn to a
beautiful flower, at the bottom, where the water was near a
fathom in depth. It grew on a stalk about three eighths of an
inch in diameter, and about ten inches in length; was, in shape,

Notice of Sketches of Naval Life.

329

like an inverted cone about five inches in diameter ; and was va-
riegated with brilliant colors, red, yellow and purple*. It was a

——SSSS=S=S=S=Ss
——————SsS=
————

beautiful thing, and
1 wanted it: so I de-
termined to knock
it off, hoping some
chance might bring
it to the shore. I
threw, and saw f
struck it; when the
water cleared up,
the stalk was there,
but I could not dis-

1. Stalk.
2. Flower.

cover the flower.
After a vain search,
I went on further,
and came to anoth-
‘er, near the shore.
I thought I was sure
of this, and got a
stick to draw it to
me, when, as soon

l {||

as I touched it—

NENG

—-the whole dis-
appeared. It was
all animal,—flower
andall. I have since
procured several,
and have preserved
them. Thestalk is
formed by concen-
tric coats of grist-
ly matter, which
is transparent when
the outer one is re-
moved: it is attach-
ed to the rocks be-
low. This forms a

SSS

i

=o,

3. The animal with part of
the flower attached.

tube, in which is an animal, about seven inches long, with two
rows of feet in its whole length: at its upper end is the head,

* By permission of the publisher, we here insert the wood cut of this re-
markable zoophyte, which appears to be, substantially described in Ellis, on
corallines, pa. 92, under the name of a tubular coralline, from Malta.

Vor, XVI.—No. 2.

15

330 Notices of Sketches of Naval Life.

and rising from the latter, the flower, I have spoken of. This
is formed by a vast number of very delicate fibres, each with an
exceedingly fine and variegated fringe, placed like that of a
feather: they do not form a single cup, but several; and their
roots are so ranged, as to produce a spiral channel, reaching to
the animal’s mouth. They have a strong sensitive power, and,
as soon as touched, are dragged by the animal into the stalk.
After a few minutes, it ascends again, and the flower spreads out
as before: doubtless they are intended for taking food. A touch
will spoil them, so delicately are they formed: I cut off the flow-
er, and pass a paper under it, in water: then, by laying it ona
board, and pouring water on, spread it out as I wish it: when
dried, it looks like a very fine painting. They are of the coral-
line species, and are called water pinks by the natives. I can
take you too, to parts of the harbor, where the bottom is cover-
ed with tufts of grass; some green; some dark colored; some in
plain tufts, and others with a star in the middle: this grass too,
is all animal, and if you touch it, will disappear in the ground.
There is a large quantity of it, just North of hospital island. I
find abundant amusement in the harbor: there is an old fisher-
erman, whom I sometimes accompany, and watch at his operations.
He sprinkles oil on the water, to smooth its surface, and can then
distinguish objects at a great depth. Heisnow mostly employed
in procuring date fish. ‘This isa curious shell fish, so called from
its shape, which has a strong resemblance to a date. It is pro-
cured only here, at Malta, at Trieste, and at another place,
whose name I have forgotten. It is always found zn the rocks,
generally approaching within an inch of their surface, with which
it communicates by a small orifice. This hole is formed, proba-
bly, by some corrosive fluid thrown out by the animal, as it is
smooth and shaped exactly to the shell, which is attached to the
rock, at one end, by some very small fibres: the shell is bivalve,
thin and delicate, usually three inches and a half in length, and
one inch in its greatest diameter. They procure them, by chis-
elling off fragments of the rock, with a long iron chisel; these
are drawn up, and when the boat is filled, are carried ashore to
be broken up. They export them in the rock, to the neighbor-
ing Spanish coasts. The rock is a soft free-stone, prevailing
also, all over the island. The fish has a peculiar taste, and is
considered a great delicacy: it is most abundant at the depth of
two or three fathoms. There is another shell fish; the largest,
two feet in length, and about four inches thick at the thickest
part: it is shaped like a fan half open, and always found with
the pointed end lowermost, at which part, and attaching it to the
ground, is a silky substance, often manufactured, by the natives,
into stockings and gloves. ‘The upper part of the shell, inside,

Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. 331

is red; the lower, white and pearly: pearls are usually found
in them, sometimes of large size, but colored: I have some,
however, that approach the true pearl, incolor. The sea-horse
is a curious little thing. It is not more than three inches long,
hard and bony, but with a head bearing great resemblance to
that of a horse: it has no fins: but has the power of coiling up
the lower part of the body, and, I suppose, moves by throwing
this out again; for, though we often meet them in a dried state,
I have not been able to see any in their proper element. The
finer Nautilus, (Argonauta or Argo,) a beautiful thing, is also
found here. The natives work the smaller shells into handsome
mantle ornaments: I have seen Neptune in his car, with trident
and sea-horses, and they are now making for me, two urns, with
flowers ; all of marine substances.””—Vol. I. pp. 80—3.

The catacombs of the island of Milo are interesting if
for no other reason, on account of their containing lachry-
matories made of glass.

“The catacombs are mostly single chambers, cut in the soft
rock, about eight feet square, and of proportionate height: at
each side, is a low recess, running the whole length: this is
paved with large flags, and under these flags, in a rectangular
cavity, just large enough to contain a full grown person, the body
was deposited. Some consist of a succession of chambers, like
this. ‘There are no inscriptions ; but among the decayed bones,
are found coins, ornaments of gold and precious stones for the
ears, lamps, lachrymatory vases, with large quantities of glass,
earthen and copper vessels, probably, for oils and perfumes.
You know the ancients were in the habit of coming, at stated
seasons, to weep over the dead: the lachrymatories, (long slen-
der vessels,) it is supposed, were used at such times, to catch
their tears. One of the first visitors we had on board our ship,
was aman, with a basket of these cups: for the natives dig
open the catacombs, whenever the ground is soft enough; and
drive a good trade, with these relics of the piety of their ances-
tors. One would naturally doubt the genuineness of wares,
where deception is so easy; but I have satisfied myself, that they
are what they profess to be: they would form an interesting
study to the antiquarian. Many of the earthen cups are of the
form, we call Etruscan: the larger are painted with a light pen-
cil; often only the outlines are given, but, generally, with
much force and spirit. The question, whether the ancients
knew the use of glass or not, was settled some time since, by
the discoveries in Pompeii: this is the first] have heard of,
among the Greeks. The vessels discovered are generally flat
at the bottom, and four inches over: they rise one inch, of this

332 Notice of Sketches of Naval Life.

diameter, and then suddenly narrowing into the diameter of an
inch, anda half pass thus to the height of seven or eight inches -
their shape is, consequently, much Jike that of a candlestick.
But I have several of other forms, running through a considera-
ble variety; and among them, a set of patere found together,
consisting of three dishes, very much like those brought on our
tables with sweetmeats. ‘The giass is, sometimes, like the com-
mon glass of our country; and in this case, the vessels are very
thin. Others are thick, and composed of a curious matter: it
has a pearly lustre, and in every position, presents beautiful
green and purple hues, on the surface. This last has suffered
from the damps, and the exterior scales off; the lustre I spoke
of, however, is in the glass, with which some metal appears to
have been fused; it is very brittle.*

«Some of the Commodore’s men have been digging here; but
have found only an earthen jar, containing the bones of a child.”
—Vol. I. p. 60.

Milo contains interesting minerals,

* Tournefort calls it a natural laboratory: and it isso. In
many places chemical operations are still going on; in all others
their results are deposited in the greatest abundance; the com-
mon rock of the island is a tufa: the way up to Castro leads
over hills of baked and whitened earth, filled with round masses
of obsidian: but the most interesting parts of the island, are on
the South and South Western sides. In the latter is a place
called Calamo, which we visited yesterday. They first took us
to a hill of considerable elevation : its summit was covered with
burnt rocks, of ragged surface, tossed confusedly on one another:
among them are crevices, through which hot sulphurous vapors
ascend, and deposite round, large quantities of crystallized or
sublimated sulphur. Proceeding South from this, three fourths
of a mile, you come to the locality of the plumous or feathered
alum: it is in a cave, on the sea shore: above it is a steep hill,
blue, yellow, white, red, and smelling strongly of sulphur. The
cave is about twelve feet deep, and five in height: its vault
is formed of this mineral, of which you may get some idea from
its name. Suppose fibres of nearly pure alum, an inch or more
in length, white and fine as silk, put together so as to form a
compact, but not firm mass: sprinkle this with handsome green
and yellow colors, and you have an idea of the cave as it ap-

* By permission of the publisher, we insert, on the opposite page the wood
eut of these lachrymatories,

Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. 333

No. 1. Glass
lachrymatory
from Milo.
The glass is
like our com-
mon window
glass, but ve-
ry thin.
Glass, from

Milo. Glass,

lighter in color
than the for-
mer, and not
more than one
fiiftieth of an
inch in thick-
ness
Glass, from

Egina. Glass,

very thick, sil-
very and iri-
sed.

4. Glass, from
Egina: darker
colored than the
former, and
beautifully iri-
sed. All the
glass which I
have from Egi-
na, has the sil-
very and irised

nN

ge

7 appearance.

Cri Mt f || 5. Alabaster

Fl l lachrymatory,

IW) i from Milo.
I 6. A set of glass

patere, from
Milo. Glass,
like No. 1. but
purer. They
were found to-
gether, in a
pile.

7. Glass, from
Milo: quali-
ties, like those
of No. 1.

8. Glass, from Milo: in color, like No. 2.
9. Glass, from Milo: qualities, like those of No. 3.
10. Glass, from Milo: color, a very dark green.
11. Glass, from Milo: qualities, as in No. 8: it is a beautiful little thing.
12. Lachrymatory of terra cotta, Milo. These are common.
13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18. Vessels of terra cotta, from Milo.
19, 20. Lamps, from Milo.
21. A copper vessel, from Milo: a beautiful article, though greatly rusted.

334 Notice of Sketches of Naval Life.

pears above.* 'The bottom is an earth, from which puffs up
hot air: this is strongly impregnated with sulphur, and deposits
about each crevice, beautiful small crystals of the mineral:
in front of the cave is a hot spring; and at its sides are other
caves, that have ceased to act.

‘There is another one, called by the natives, the Stipsy or
alum cave. It is near the centre of the island, and was worked
by the ancients: the alum, as Pliny tells us, being the best,
after that of Egypt, that could be procured. ‘Towards the bot-
tom of a high reddish hill, we entered a hole on all fours; and
working our way backward awhile; and then proceeding more
erect, through a narrow passage, came to a large chamber, one
hundred and twenty feet long, and with an atmosphere that
makes the thermometer rise to ninety, in some places to one
hundred degrees of Fahrenheit. 'The earth above is filled
with specks of alum, and blown into the consistency of baker’s
bread, to compare large things with small. The cells, often a
foot in length, are lined on the upper side with crystals of alum;
some small, but clean and pure, sometimes with a slight green
tinge: others are white and silky, with a covering of the most
delicate white down. Among them are spots, from which are
suspended crystals of acicular gypsum, each crystal distinct, and
falling at the slightest touch. The entrance is lined with
branchy gypsum; and selenite is scattered over the rocks with-
out. Advancing from this to the harbour, you come to a cave,
called Loutra, about ninety feet deep; at the end of which is a
fountain of hot salt water: the exhalations have coated the
rocks around it with salt. Our guide to this, was a priest: he
stripped off his upper garments, before entering, and judge of
our surprise, when we saw two pocket pistols among his trap-
pings. It will shew the state of the island: we met shepherds
with their flocks, in our excursions; but the “ piping times of
peace” are over; and instead of the “ tenui avena,” each Gar-'
ried a good long gun. The natives consider this fountain as endued
with good medical properties, and frequently use it as a bath,
as well as the waters on the shores just below: there are several
hot springs there, in the sand ; and a still larger mumber, a few
rods in the water: the thermometer rises to 128° in the spring,
and in the sand, to 135° of Fahrenheit—Vol. I. pp. 137—9.

* This very rare mineral has been examined by Mr. Charles U. Shepard,
of Yale College ; and proves to be the native soda alum, anew species in
mineralogy, lately established by Dr. Thompson.—See American Journal of
Science, Vol. XVI, No. 1, 1829.

Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. 335

Mr. Jones visited the long celebrated grotto in the island
of Antiparos, and the following passages are cited from his
account of the excursion.

“« Antiparos is about seven miles in length, narrow, and sepa-
rated from Paros by a channel, one mile in its narrowest part.”

‘The grotto is on the Southern side of the Island, facing the
South-West: our approach was from the North-Fastward: we
crossed the ridge of a high, bare eminence ; then descending a
little, and turning, had the entrance before us. A Jarge cavern
yawned, with the giant, an immense stalagmite ; and the whole
nearly as the book tells us. This is fifteen feet high, forty feet
wide, and thirty deep: but this is not the grotto: it is only the
vestibule. At the back part of this cavern, we descended a little,
and then halted before a hole, dark and silent, down which we
were to descend. While we were preparing to enter, noises
began to issue from it, and a light to glimmer; and then a mid-
shipman from the North Carolina emerged, pale and sick with
the damps and fatigue. ‘The cave seems to be now frequently
visited, and the Greeks have a rope and ladders prepared, for
which they charge: but the former is weak, and we were cau-
tioned against trusting ourselves to it, as near a dozen would
have to cling to it at a time. They made ours fast to a stalag-
mite at the entrance, and passing in, we saw no more of them;
but, after a while, were informed that all was ready : so we
lighted our tapers, and clinging to the rope with our right hand,
began the descent. No one thought of danger; for directly
after entering, one of the grandest sights opened upon us, that
eyes have ever seen. At first we heard hammering, and voices
within, without being able to tell whence they proceeded: but
soon a cave of vast dimensions presented itself, its ceiling cover-
ed with stalactites, and its sides glittering with spar. A party
from the North Carolina was below, and as they were scattered
in every direction, and every one had a light, we were able to
see at one view the whole extent of this immense chamber:
our party added very much to the effect, as they were seen, by
the dim lights they bore, descending along its side. The lower
part of the descent was effected by a rope ladder: after this,
we passed over some slippery rocks, and found ourselves at the
bottom. On our right, was a slanting chasm, which we avoided
by passing over a heap of earth towards the left ; and then
found ourselves in the most brilliant part of the grotto. The
spar, in many places, had been injured by visitors, but it is still
exceedingly beautiful. Its purity is without a speck or shade:
it is very clear, and its fracture of dazzling brightness: those
parts that are protected from the air, are covered with shining

mo

336 Notice of Sketches of Naval Life.

crystals, and in many parts, it has formed itself into singular
nodules, and other grotesque forms. Some of them our officers
not inaptly compared to cauliflowers. In two things, my im-
pressions were different from those of former travellers. The
lights below, enabled me to see that we passed at once into the
large chamber, and did not enter it, through a succession of
others, as 1 had expected to do. The size too is smaller than
I had anticipated. It is dificult to judge amid such obscurity ;
but I should think it not more than one hundred and fifty feet
long; about seventy in breadth, and of equal height: but the
shape is very irregular. ‘The shelving descent on our right,
leads, doubtless to other grottos: part of the way down isa
figure, bearing a strong resemblance to a woman with a child in
her arms, which the Greeks call “‘the Virgin.”?. An active
imagination, indeed, could find abundant employment in the fan-
tastic shapes, into which many of the spars have formed them-
selves; and might easily discover in them human forms, beasts,
and flowers. The handsomest parts, however, are fast disap-
pearing ; for as each traveller considers its beauties as a lawful
prey, and selects his pieces, without caring for the injury done
in procuring them, much is carried off, and more destroyed.

*¢ ‘Towards the further end of the cave is the altar, spoken of
by Magni, the Italian. The resemblance is exceedingly strik-
ing ; and is still greater, as the whole stands isolated in the
chamber, with a neat little area in front. A number of large
stalactites descend from the vault above: the droppings from
them have caused numberless smaller columns to ascend; some
plain and straight, others irregular, and forming altogether a
very good imitation of a Roman Catholic altar, with its tapers
and fanciful decorations.”—Vol. I. pp. 141—44.

‘Over the centre of the altar isa very large stalactite: I
climbed up, and on striking it with a hammer, it rung like a
bell. Our officers had last year, broken one of them from its
place: it is Arragonite, with radiating crystals. Near the altar,
is a small chamber, neatly partitioned off by the spar.

“* The brilliancy of this article forms the characteristic of
the cave. Nearly the whole Island is a rock of marble, equal
in purity to the Parian: the deposites are, therefore, the most
brilliant imaginable: when it is weli lighted up, the scene
must be a splendid one. Commodore Rodgers, in a visit last
year, had it illuminated with blue lights, I understand with ad-
mirable effect.

“‘]T should have liked to spend many hours there: but light
after light had ascended the shelving sides, and at last I heard
the voices of my companions chiding my delay. So I hurried
io a fountain, near the spot where we finished our descent; sip-

Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. 337

ped a little of its hard waters, and soon after was breathing
fresh air in the light of the clear day.”’

*¢ Some of our officers spent the day in rambling over Paros,
and took the Marpesus quarries in their way. They are not far
from the road between Aiisa and Parechia, and extend to a great
depth in the mountain: the cuttings were all rectangular, and
such are the numerous blocks still lying about the entrance.
There are two quarries: over the entrance of the smaller, is a
large bas-relief, with an inscription. I forgot to say that there
are also Greek inscriptions, in the outer grotto of Anti-Paros ;
but they are defaced, and of doubtful import. From the Mar-
pesus quarries came the marble for the Venus de Medicis, the
Belvidere Apollo, and the Antinous: the Arundelian marbles,
you know, are also from this Island.

‘*¢ Our ships spent some days, last year, at Aiisa; where they
watered from a fine clear stream, running through the town:
but the water was so highly impregnated with lime, as to bring
on the dysentery throughout the squadron.” —Vol. I. pp. 145—6.

To minds as inquisitive as those of our countrymen, the in-
formation which this work communicates must be gratifying.
We have seen our ships of war in our harbors, and occasionally
those of other nations in theirs; we have looked at the dark
frowning battlements and tasteful spars, and have now and
then caught a glimpse of the skilful evolutions on board; we
have passed along their decks and have admired the neatness
and good order, visible in every part; and we have wished
to know more of them, a desire only increased by the occa-
sional letters of our officers while abroad, or notices of their
appearance, in foreign papers. Our wish is now gratified.
The whole system is laid open to us; we open the book and
are carried forward, and made to live within the wooden
walls and to traverse the seas, and witness the complicated
but beautiful movements of our ships of war; and we are
thus enabled to gaze on scenes seldom accessible to lands-
men; and we lay the book down, surprised to find ourselves
possessed, after a few hours reading, of an experience of three
years among scenes, characters and events, possessing in so
high a degree, the charm of novelty. It seems to have
been the original intention of the author, to confine himself
to events and scenes in the navy, and to take only such no-
tices of countries visited, as to keep up the connexion be-
tween the parts. He found himself however, on classic
ground ; the spirit of antiquity seized on his feelings, and

Vou. XVIL—No. 2. 16

338 Notice of Sketches of Naval Life.

carried him forward with a power which he seems to have
been as little disposed as able to resist. We do not wonder
at it, for who could speak of, much more who could see and
tread the ground of Salamis, and Argos, and Athens, and
Corinth, and Constantinople, and old Rome, without having
a strong impulse imparted to his feelings.
If this Journal were exclusively literary, we should intro-
duce various passages illustrating the author’s manner of
writing on the principal subjects that came under his obser-
vation. We shall however, limit our additional quotations
to a few scenes, relating principally to the manceuvres, that in-
volve movements depending on the principles of mechanics.
The following passage describes the unfurling of the sails.

“ We will suppose, then, a fine morning, after a wet day;
and there are many such days here, I find. Suppose yourself
looking at the ships, black, silent masses, without signs of life
about them, except a sentinel or two pacing to and fro. All at
once, a few little flags are run up at the stern of the Commo-
dore’s ship, as if by magic; for no one is seen to produce this
effect. Soon after, a single one ascends, in like manner, to the
mast head of each of the other ships; and then all pass down again.
A shrill whistle and a cry are now heard; but still there is no
motion; and no sign of any; except a hat, here and there, ap-
pearing just above the bulwa.«s. 5o it remains a few minutes;
and then, as the trumpets sound, the shrouds become in a mo-
ment alive with men. hey pass rapidly to the tops; and
all is silence again. Another sound; and the rigging is again
darkened with men, new sets passing up, and those in the tops
ascending to the highest spars: they throw themselves out upon
the yards, and a busy scene ensues ; but all settles again into in-
activity. And then, at the words “ let fall,” the ships simultane-
ously, and in a moment, drop their thousand folds of canvass ;
the ensign is run up, and the pendant throws itself open to the
breeze. What I have described, is loosing sails to dry, an opera-
tion we frequently have, and always a beautiful one.”—Vol. I.
p. 62.

The sailing of the squadron from the port of Mahon, is
thus described : -

«¢ Spring has considerably advanced, in these countries ; and
this morning rose clear and bright, with balmy air, and a gentle
breeze from the North. Our ship had been well stored; her
boats were all stowed away; every rope was in its place, and

Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. 339

every eye was fixed in expectation, on the Flag ship. At eight
o’clock, the looked for signal, to ‘¢unmoor ship,” was made;
and was quickly and cheerfully answered. ‘There was a few
minute’s silence ; and then, through the whole squadron, arose
the din of whistles and calls, and oft repeated orders. I wish,
earnestly, I could place the whole scene before you; and give
you, too, a heart light as we had, to enjoy it. The little Por-
poise first dropped her white sails; glided down the harbor;
rounded a high point and disappeared. The flag ship came
next: they warped her first to the windward side of the harbor ;
she rested there a moment; her shrouds first, and then, by
simultaneous motion, her long yards were covered with men ;
the trumpet thundered ; she dropped her huge sails, that shook
themselves a moment, rejoicing “ like a giant to run his course,”
and then spreading out to the breeze, and throwing back the
bright morning rays, gave motion to the dark proud mass below.
You could almost think she had sensibility; so graceful, yet
majestic was her motion. Some hundreds of spectators lined
the edge of the precipice; and we could see admiration in all
their actions. She swept by the point; but her upper sails,
with the broad pendant and its stars, were still seen far above it.
The Ontario followed; and next came our own ship, with
music and happy hearts. As we neared the Holland, a Dutch
seventy-four, in port, her band struck up, * Hail Columbia :”
we answered with their national air: she gave us Yankee Doo-
dle, and we again replied. They also sent their boats to tow
us, if there should be occasion.—Vol I. pp. 110—11.

Tacking depends on a nice adjustment of forces between
wind and water, and is beautifully illustrated in the following
passage, describing the tacking of the ship in the midst of
the Turkish fleet.

‘© You may suppose our ship gliding on in quiet among them.
She is close hauled to the wind: it isa light breeze, and all her
sails are spread out, tapering aloft almost to a point. Thus she
speeds on, when all at once her head begins to come gracefully
round; the sails lose their fulness, and tasteful curve; shake in
the breeze, and then swell back against the masts: thus they re-
main a few moments; and then, on a sudden, and by simultaneous
motion, the two hinder sets, from skysail down, whirl speedily
round, and again spread out to the breeze: thus again we rest a
moment or two; then the head sails all take a similar motion,
and the heavy mass again starts forward in its course: and in all
this, scarcely a man is seen. You will recognize, in this, the
operation of tacking ship: it was, to-day, a beautiful operation,

340 Notice of Sketches of Naval Life.

as the sea was smooth; but I have seen it done in seas, where
one would think the ship would sink instantly, without the use
of her sails to steady her; and where her bow is acted on by
waves that produce a convulsive quivering throughout, at every
blow. ‘They sometimes throw the vessel back again: it is called
missing stays, and often produces dangerous consequences: on a
lee shore, it is nearly certain destruction.”—Vol. I. p. 168.

Anchoring in the straits of Salamis is thus described :

*‘ There are nine men of war, English, French, and Austrian,
around us, watching the course of events. I wish you could
have seen our ship as she anchored among them this afternoon.
Coming to anchor is always an interesting operation, and always
greatly enjoyed; for hearts then beat high, with the hope of
shore again ; and, generally, we have new scenes close around
us. If it is in a frequented place, the men are always ordered
to clean themselves and dress; mats are taken from the rigging ;
every rope is carefully adjusted, and the ship is made to look as
neat as possible. ‘The character of a vessel, and of her officers,
depends much on the skill and expedition with which this ma-
neeuvre is performed; for she is then closely watched, and
every evolution noted. The idea that all eyes are upon you,
gives a touch of the sublime, at least, gives a deep. interest to
the occasion. The ship seems to swell out in her dimensions ;
every event takes importance, and, landsman as I am, I have
learnt to be a critic, and detect the least impropriety, at such
times. Then, no one dares shew himself: if the men stoop to
peep through a port, they are driven away ; if an officer steps
on a gun carriage, he first gets across look, and then a message
to come down. So we glide on in deep silence, broken only at
intervals, by the lead-men’s cries—“ by t-h-e m-a-r-k, tén ;”’ “ bé
t-h-e d-é-é-p, nine ;” “ quar-t-é-r ]-é-s-s, nine.” The first lieu-
tenant has the trumpet, but it is not used; officers stand near
him, to carry his orders to every part of the ship: you catch
the infection, and words of pleasure or surprise are in low tones;
you tread softly, and a spell seems to be on the ship. But all at
once, the trumpet is used again; ‘stand by the larboard an-
chor,” is thundered along the deck; “let go the larboard
anchor ;” and a heavy plunge is the reply. The men now
gather thick around the lower part of the shrouds, the foremost
with hands and feet on the ladder, ready for a spring ; and at
the order, follows one of those scenes of fearlessness, activity
and skill, which I have described. There is a contest between
the yardsmen, who shall do his work soonest and best, and
where this is wanting, the boatswain’s colt supplies the lack.”-——
Vol. I. pp. 272—3.

Description of the High Rock Spring. 341

Where we find so much to commend, we cannot be strong-
ly disposed to censure, aud the light faults of style, if such
they are, seem hardly worthy of notice.

To a man, who in a cheerful and engaging manner, is con-
stantly imparting to us valuable and interesting information,
we feel little disposed to say ; sir, your style, delightful as it is,
is sometimes a little careless, abrupt and elliptical. It is ev-
idently not intended by the author, to march in stately grav-
ity, although on subjects of a grave and moral cast, he is con-
siderate and judicious, and never leaves us in doubt as to
his good principles.

The freedom of the author’s style, make us more and more,
parties to his adventures, and we feel that had we been with
him, we should have talked, (or wished to talk) in the same
animated and free style in which he has written.

Art. XX.—Description of the High Rock Spring, at Sar-
atoga Springs, in the County of Saratoga, and State of
New York, with a drawing, communicated for the Journal
of Science, by Joun N. Steet, M. D.

Tue High Rock Spring, one of the number of Medical
springs which have given so much celebrity to Saratoga asa
watering place, is very justly distinguished among the many
interesting natural curiosities which our country affords, and
is, unquestionably, entitled to a conspicuous place in the
scientific journals of the day; and, although it has been dis-
covered, and its water in high repute forits medicinal prop-
erties for more than half a century, yet, I believe, it has nev-
er been noticed, except cursorily, if at all, by any of them.

The late Dr. Valentine Seaman, of New-York, in the last
edition of his “ Dissertation on the mineral waters of Sara-
toga,” published in 1809, gave a very imperfect drawing of
the rock, which, I believe, is the only one ever published.—
{n remarking upon it, the venerable Dr. very justly observes :
“ The more we reflect upon it, the more we must be convin-
ced of the important place this rock ought to hold among
the wonderful works of nature. Had it stood upon the bor-
ders of the Lago d’ Agnano, the noted Grotto del Cani which
burdens almost every bock which treats upon the carbonic
acid gas, since the peculiar properties of that air have been
known, would never have been heard of beyond the environs

342 Description of the High Rock Spring.

of Naples, while this fountain, in its place, would have beet
deservedly celebrated in story, and spread upon canvas, to
the admiration of the world, as one of its greatest curiosities.

The valley, in which all the mineral springs at this place
are situated, is terminated, on both sides, by steep banks
which rise from twenty to forty feet above the level of the
little stream, which passes between them. On the eastern
side, this bank consists of sand and coarse gravel, evidently
resting upon a bed of mar], which, every where forms the bed
of the valley. From near the base of this bank burst numer-
ous fresh water springs, which, by the help of a forcing pump,
supply a great part of the village, which stands upon the op-
posite bank, with a very pure and wholesome water.

On the western side, the bank is composed of materials
altogether different. It consists of a very pure shell lime-
stone of a blue color, alternating with a kind of calcareous
sandstone, in the latter of which are imbedded large masses
of hornstone, together with crystals of quartz in great abun-
dance. [t contains likewise chalcedony and agate, and some
few specimens of organic remains, but they are not found
in it in so great abundance as in its associate limestone.—
The whole of this formation seems to terminate here, and
nearly in a perpendicular direction, as none of it is discover-
able on the opposite side of the valley. All the rock forma-
tion found in that direction belongs to the transition class.—
The mineral springs occupy stations which warrant the
belief that they have their origin, or pass up from a greater
depth, at, or near the junction of these two formations, trans-
ition and secondary. Kee

The spring, which it is the object of this memoir to des-
cribe, is situated but a few steps from the bottom of the lime-
stone ledge, on the western border of the marsh; and the
rock, which surrounds and encloses it, rests on the surface
of the marl, or is but slightly connected with it. This rock
is of a conical shape. It narrows rapidly as it rises from the
earth, and terminates in a rounded top, inthe centre of which
is a circular opening which leads to the interior cavity ; it
gradually widens as the rock enlarges, leaving its walls near-
ly of an equal thickness throughout. In this cavity the wa-
ter rises some distance above the surrounding earth, and is
there seen constantly agitated by the incessant escape of
carbonic acid gas, for which the vacancy, above the water,
forms a capacious and secure reservoir, where the curious

Description of the High Rock Spring. 343

may, at any time, make the experiment of its deleterious ef-
fects on animal life.

The following dimensions of this singular production of
nature, are taken from actual measurement : Perpendicular
height, four feet ; circumference at the base, twenty six feet,
eight inches ; length of a line drawn over the rock from north
to south, eleven feet, seven inches ; length of the same from
east to west, ten feet, nine inches ; from the top of the rock
to the surface of the water, two feet four inches ; depth of

‘water in the cavity of the rock, seven feet eight inches; the
hole is nearly circular, and measures ten inches across.

This rock, very properly, belongs to that species of lime-
stone termed calcareous tufa, being evidently the product of
the water. Itis compused of the carbonate of lime, magne-
sia, and the oxide of iron, together with a proportion of sand
and clay. It likewise exhibits, when broken, the impressions
of leaves and twigs of trees. It is somewhat undulated on
its surface, and, about the top, compact and indurated, while
near its base it is of a more spongy and friable character,
but every where sufficiently compact to render it impervious
to water.

That the water, at some former period, issued from the
cavity, anddescended upon the sides of the rock, will scarce-
ly admit of a doubt, but the precise manner in which the
rock was formed, or the time when the water ceased to
flow upon its surface, is not quite so obvious ; the most prob-
able conjecture is, that the basis of this mass was commenced
beneath the surface of the earth, that the water, thus confi-
ned within the limits of its own sediment, continued to rise,
and as it escaped over the sides of its prison, constantly ad-
ded to the dimensions of its walls. In this manner it would
continue to rise, until the column of water in the rock balan-
ced the power that forced it up,in which case it would be-
come stationary, and it is but just to infer, that, in process of
time, the power so propelling the water might be diminish-
ed in its force, when the water in the spring would of course
sink in exact proportion to the loss of that power.

There was an opinion prevailing among the early settlers,
that the rock had been fractured by the fall of a tree, and to
this‘accident they imputed the failure of the water to run over
its top, believing that it escaped through a fissure, which, al-
though invisible, they still imagined must exist. This conjec-
ture however, does not appear to be well founded ; the spring

344 Description of the High Rock Spring.

was visited as early as the year 1767, and no appearances to
justify such an opinion then presented itself, although the wa-
ter did not reach the top of the rock by several inches.

Loran Tarbel, an aged chief of the St. Regis tribe of In-
dians, told the present Chancellor Walworth, that he visit-
ed this spring, when a boy, and that he was told by the In-
dians, that it once ran over the top, but owing to some of
their women* bathing in it, the water sunk into the rock,
and never afterwards showed itself.

The conspicuous appearance which this rock presents,
must have introduced itself to the notice of the natives at a
very early period, and, although it was probably known and
visited by individuals whose business called them into the
woods, it does not appear to have attracted much attention
from the white population of the country, until about the year
1767,when it was visited by SirWm.Johnson,who thenresided
at Johnstown, about thirty miles to the west of the Springs,
inthe capacity of Indian Agent. From this period, “ the
Spring,” as the place was then termed, came more rapidly
into notice, and, for some years, was the only one to which
much consequence was attached. The extravagant stories,
told by the first settlers, of its astonishing effects in the cure
of almost every species of disease, are still remembered and
repeated by their too credulous descendants, which, in con-
junction with the mysterious character of this rock, continue
to attach an importance to the character of this water, in the
eyes of the vulgar, which no other fountain will probably ey-
er arrive at.

From a recent analysis made with a view to the strictest
accuracy, the details of which will ere long be laid before the
public, this water is found to contain the following ingredi-
ents in one gallon, or 231 cubic inches :

Muriate ofsoda, — - - - - - 189.18 grains
Carbonate of soda, - - - - 12.464
Hydriodate of soda, _—- - : : 2.5
Carbonate of lime, - - - - - 69.29
Carbonate of magnesia, = - - - - 40.425
Oxide of iron, - - - - - - 3.85
317.709

ay

* Ry Axadapota ovres.

Real and supposed effects of igneous action. 345

Silica and alumine, in very small quantities.

Carbonic acid gas, - - - - 304 cubic inches
Atmospheric air, - - - . 5
Gaseous contents ina gallon, - - 309

Specific gravity of the water at the temperature of 60° is
1006.85, pure water being 1000,* and its temperature at the
bottom of the rock is uniformly 48° Fahr.

Arr. XXI.—Real and supposed effects of igneous action.

I.—Letters from the Sandwich Islands ; by Josrr# Goopricn.
IL—A letter from Mexico ; by Wittiam Macture.

I. Mr. Goopricu’s LErTers.
Remarks.

Iy a note to an account of the volcanic character of the
island of Hawaii, published in Vol. XI. of this Journal, men-
tion is made of a box of minerals destined for the Editor.—
They having arrived, we shall annex to the extracts, froma let-
ter preceding and another accompanying them, such remarks
as may serve to explain the characteristic appearances of the
specimens. The first letter is dated Byron’s Bay, Hawaii, Oct.
25,1828. The writer says :—‘! embrace this opportunity of
sending you a small cask of minerals, of my own collecting.
They are chiefly from the great volcano, an account of which I[
gave you ina letter of 1825 ;t the crater is not so deep now
as it was then, by three hundred, or four hundred feet, the la-
va having boiled up from beneath. Ihave been there sever-
al times since [ formerly wrote to you. I can easily perceive
that great alterations are taking place at the bottom; it is
filling up gradually, and slight shocks of earthquakes occur
here frequently.

The minerals that are at the upper part of the cask, I col-
lected uponthe summit of Mouna Kea. Some of them appear
to me to be fragments of the granite rock. |The shells that
are with them, the largestt is from the Gulf of California ; the
remainder are from this island. The volcanic specimens in

* The sp. gr. of the Hamilton spring water (left blank, p. 245) is, as we
since learn, 1008.5, pure water being 1000.—d.
t Which is published in Vol. XT. p. 2. t A magnificent pearl oyster.
Vor. XVI.—No. 2. 17

346 Real and supposed effects of igneous action.

the cocoanut shells, are some of the more delicate sort ; lam
unable to say of what kind they are, not having time and
means for trying them by experiment. The white, or light
colored ones are from the bottom of the crater, together with
thecapillary volcanic glass ; some of the cocoanut shells con-
tain what I suppose to be pumice stone, (although they much
more resemble a sponge,) they are much lighter than any of
the kind that I have heretofore seen. These light materials
are very abundant about the crater, being driven about by
the winds in every direction. The remainder of the miner-
als are almost all from the inside of the crater, some from the
bottom ; others from the sides and from various places with-
in the crater. Such as they are, I forward them for your in-
spection, and I should like to receive your remarks upon
them. Should any of thembe worth notice, I should be hap-
py to forward more hereafter. If there are any researches that
you would like have made, (as you will think of many things
that do not occur tome) be so kind as to inform me what they
are, and | will attend to them with pleasure, and send you
the result by the first opportunity.

The second letter is dated Oahu, June 12, 1828. Mr.
Goodrich, speaking of the account which was formerly pub-
lished, of the volcanic character of the Island of Hawaii, says :
* There is nothing incorrect in the account of these Islands
in the American Journal, except in the spelling of a very few
words, such as names of places, &c. I gave you in my let-
ter of April 25, 1825, a short account of my tour through
the interior of theisland, from Kailua tothe volcano, and from
thence to Byron’s Bay. The interior of the Island presents
to the traveller the same dreary mass of lava, that is to be
seen in most parts of the island. Mouna Roa appears to be
but one huge pile of lava, estimated at about eighteen thou-
sand feet high. In some places I have observed the frag-
ments of lava forming something resembling the sandstone
of the coarsest kind ; the particles varying in size from that
of fine sand to that of massy rocks, the angles of which ap-
pear to havebeen worn off by attrition. Some of the strata
of lava are horizontal ; others vary in their position from that
to an elevation of eighty degrees. ‘They are in every shape
that one can imagine possible; nor can I adequately des-
cribe the appearance of lava, so that you can form any cor-
rect apprehensions of the picture it presents. The horizon-

Real and supposed effects of igneous action. 347

ial strata vary from a few inches to hundreds of feet in thick-
ness ; next above one of these strata is seen a space from
one to ten feet wide, or high, that appears to have been in a
state of fusion long after the mass above and below had be-
come consolidated, in which forms it may be seen alternate-
ly for hundreds of feet high, shewing caverns and fissures of
ali forms and sizes; some not unlike a common oven exter-
nally, but much moye spacious within, many of which were
formerly used as repositories for the dead, especially when
they were difficult of access. The volcano, of which I have
made frequent mention, was measured by a surveyor of lord
Byron’s, and estimated to be nine hundred and thirty-two
feet down to the black ledge, and four hundred more down
to the bottom; in all, thirteen hundred and thirty-two feet,
so that you may form some judgment of the dimensions of
the crater ; the depth of a place that we supposed, on our
first visit there, to be four hundred feet, is found, by meas-
urement, to be nine hundred and thirty-two. Many times
have I wished that you could accompany me to that won-
derful scene.”

Remarks on the specimens transmitted by Mr. Goodrich.

They contain most of the usual volcanic products, and are
remarkably interesting.

1. Sulphur, of all the shades between white and yellow ;
the more delicate specimens, mentioned as being in the cocoa-
nut shells, are pieces of sulphur. In the collection are nu-
merous crystals of sulphur, more remarkable for delicacy and
richness of color, and finish of form, than for size. The sul-
phur is found also investing or penetrating the proper lava.

2. Siliceous sinter, white, porous, light, tasteless, harsh to
the touch, readily scratches glass—resembles that of Ireland
and the Azores. Mr. Goodrich remarks, that the white spe-
cimens are from the bottom of the crater ; if he means these,
as he probably does, may we not presume that the silex, dis-
solved in water, probably containing alkali, and heated in-
tensely under great pressure, was liberated when the wa-
ter was rapidly evaporated, and thus the silex was deposited
in a spongy form,as the steam and gases made their way
through it.

348 Real and supposed effects of igneous action.

3, The fragments resembling rocks, consist of quartz, glas-
sy feldspar, augite, hornblende, mica, and olivine, more or
less blended, and mutually adherent, so as to form solid mas-
ses. It is impossible to say whether they are the products of
re-crystallization after fusion, or whether they are ejected
fragments thrown out from the primitive rocks, lying be-
neath the bed of the Pacific. They have a strong resem-
blance to some of the masses ejected by Vesuvius, and per-
haps it is most probable that they are types of the rocks,
in which these subterranous and submarine fires of Kirauea
are fed and sustained.

4, Among the solid masses are some that very nearly re-
semble varieties of the Trap Rocks, basalt, and green stone,
g-c. and if there had been no mistake in associating them with
the lava, and other decided volcanic products of these Isl-
ands, they would go decidedly to sustain the igneous origin
of the trap rocks.

Mr. Goodrich has expressed this opinion very clear in his
letter, Vol. XI. p. 2.

5. Obsidian, very brilliant, black and heavy. It is rarely
quite free from incipient vesicular cavities, which, on the one
hand, graduate into those that are palpable and Jarge, and
in the other, becomes evanescent in the solid substance, or
are discovered only by the microscope.

6. Olivine, imbedded in large and small masses ; when
viewed with a magnifier, it is brilliant and beautiful, with a
delicate wine yellow color, resembling, in this respect, the
Saxon topaz; it appears to be very abundant in the lava of
Kirauea.

7. Augite is probably still more abundant, for the melted
materials often exhibit decisive proof, in the black color, and
great weight and firmness, of having resulted extensively from
the fusion of this mineral and hornblende, and there appears
to have been a large proportion of iron present.

8. Scorie in vast variety, and in every state of inflation,
from those pieces that are just beginning to pass from the
condition of obsidian, and compact lava, into the vesicular

Real and supposed effects of igneous action. 349

form, to those that are blown up into innumerable cavities,
scarcely connected by the thinnest partitions, hke the mem-
branes between the air cells and blood vessels of the lungs,
and having vastly more pore and space than solid matter.—
In many pieces, the cavities are so large, that the thumb is
easily introduced, and we perfectly understand how to con-
ceive of those voleanic caverns described by Mr. Goodrich
and the other Missionaries, and which are occasionally large
enough to be used as cemeteries, or as refuges from hostile
pursuit, or as habitations. Similar caverns in lava are nu-
merous, as is well known, in the Azores, and in Iceland, and
other distinguished volcanic regions.

Among the cavities in the vesicular lava of Kirauea, there
is the most beautiful exhibition of colors that can be imagin-
ed. The surface is glossy, ‘as if covered with the most per-
fect enamel or varnish, and the iris and columbine hues are
richly displayed by every change of position. This splendid
effect is undoubtedly due, chiefly, to the large dose of iron,
and the very perfect manner in which the intense heat has
blended its oxides with the other materials.

9. Fine spun volcanic glass.—This exists sometimes in
masses which are scarcely coherent, and seem like what they
evidently were originally, congealed froth and foam, the float-
ing scum of igneous fluidity. Their color is like that of
olivin.

The most interesting form is that of fine filaments, resem-
bling spun glass, bundled together in confused masses of in-
coherent fibres. Among them are portions of a dark color
and firmer texture, of a tadpole shape, and very strongly re-
sembling Prince Rupert’s drops ; only they are much small-
er, and the fracture of the bulbous part which takes place
on breaking the stem, seems to result more from a crushing,
than an explosion of the mass; so that we cannoi say that
they are formed like Prince Rupert’s drops ; doubtless the
bath in which they were suddenly congealed was air, although
it its possible, that water might have been, at least in some
cases, concerned. It is this filamentous glass that is mention-
ed by Mr. Goodrich in his letter, (Vol. XI. pa. 2.) as being
blown away by the winds and carried to the distance of
many miles from the volcanos.

350 Real and supposed effects of igneous action.

It very strongly resembles some of the capillary products
of the great iron furnaces. I have some which | obtained
from those of Salisbury in Connecticut, which could scarce-
ly be distinguished from this volcanic glass.

10. Igneous stalactites.—These, which the missionaries
have so well described, as falling from the currents of lava
and congealing either in the caverns, or on the lips of pro-
jecting precipices, are perfectly intelligible from inspecting
those transmitted by Mr. Goodrich. They are sometimes
tolerably regular cones; at other times, twisted, protuber-
ant and convoluted in various fantastic forms, and exhibit in
their black glassy surfaces, most legible records of the ef-
fect of fire.*

It is obvious on inspecting the lavas and various products
of this, the most stupendous and magnificent volcano on our
globe,t that its products have undergone the most powerful
effects of volcanic heat; every fragment (those alone, resem-
bling the primitive rocks, being perhaps excepted,) being re-
plete with the records of fire.

Indeed how can it be otherwise! Kirauea is evidently
only the chimney of that vast furnace of fire, which is in
ceaseless activity beneath the bed of the Pacific ocean, and
whose seat is many miles below the crater. These subma-
rine volcanos have, probably by accumulation, raised many
of the Pacific islands from the bottom of the ocean: the
same tremendous agent may hereafter blow some of them
to atoms, and scatter their fragments among the trade winds ;
and other islands may, and probably will hereafter rise,
where navies now plough the ocean, without encountering
a rock.

* A magnificent specimen of stalactical lava has been loaned to me by Major
Howard, boarding officer of New York. It came from Hawaii, and is repor-
ted to have belonged to Capt. Cook. It is larger than one’s head, and in form it
is not unlike a pine apple, only the scales are represented by convoluted and
interwoven ropes of lava of a bronze color.

+ See the descriptions, Vol. XII. of this Journal, especially that of the
Rev. Mr. Stewart.

Real and supposed effects of igneous action. 351

II. Mr. Macuure’s Letter.

Remarks on the igneous theory of the earth, in a letter to
the editor from William Maclure, dated Jalapa, Mexico,
February 8, 1829.

Dear Sir—Although M. Cordier sent me his essay upon
the temperature of the interior of the earth, being at Har-
mony when it arrived at Philadelphia, I had not seen it, until
I read the analysis of it in your Journal of October last. As
in the pendulum, motion proceeds from one extreme to the
other, so it seems that our moral faculties, as well as our
physical appetites, must be stimulated by something extra,
to afford pleasure, or satisfy curiosity ; not having lately at-
tended to the process of fire against water, I was a little sur-
prised at the magnitude and respectability of the proofs of
the existence of this immense reservoir of melted matter,
occupying the earth’s centre, with all the operations of the
molecules of heat perpetually radiating from it; my limited
experience in the chopping of rocks, having almost convinced
me that the two agents, fire and water, had been alternatel
at work, in covering the primitive, as I thought I could dis-
cover rocks, with the volcanic characters, alternating with
the transition, secondary and alluvial. Perhaps, when any
phenomenon can be accounted for by visible causes, subject
to the evidence of all our senses, the inventing of mysteri-
ous and hidden agents to account for them, rather augments
than removes the difficulties, in which nature has veiled all
her actions. The common opinion of mankind, that the
sun is the evident cause of the heat of the earth, seems to
agree with all experiments made by Perone, Phillips, and
others, on the temperature of the ocean; (as you may see
by some memoirs read before the French Institute by Perone,
to be found in the Journal de Physique,) proving that heat de-
creased in the exact ratio of the distance from the surface, un-
til even under or near the equator, the thermometer descend-
ed to two degrees above freezing, which, if 1 recollect well,
corresponded with some experiments made on the waters of
the lake of Geneva, and had induced me at one time to at-
tempt experiments on our lake Ontario, but which I never
had an opportunity of trying. At the time those theories

452 Real and supposed effects of igneous action.

were pushed so far as to lead philosophers to suppose the
ocean to be frozen at a certain depth, which perhaps would
account for the vast masses of ice, of all figures and dimen-
sions, that the currents bring from the north, along the coast
of Newfoundland, during the end of February, and the
month of March, at least three months before the breaking
up of the winter in those latitudes, for which I could not as-
sign any feasible cause. The diameter of the earth at the
poles being less than at the equator, brings the imagined
central mass of melted metal nearer to the poles, with its
perpetual radiation of molecules of heat, which would pre-
vent the freezing of the earth to the depths, as experienced
by Hearne and other travellers, who found it difficult, even
in summer, to prevent water from the earth being frozen at
the depth beyond the sun’s influence ; how could this ema-
nation of heated minerals proceed all in the direction of the
equator, and avoid the nearer surface for escape at the
poles ; certainly not on the principle of radiation.

Volcanic eruptions thrown out of such a fluid mass, re-
volving and mixing up all its constituent parts for such a
great period of time, ought to have acquired, by its constant
motion, some homogeneity in its composition, which is con-
tradicted by the variety of materials thrown out; no two
eruptions being exactly alike, and the eruptions of water and
cinders being so easily accounted for, on the supposition of
the diminution of combustibles, and of course of heat, and in-
crease of water in the cavities, made by the ejection of lava;
where in this vortex of melted metal could either water or
cinders find a place ?

Werner’s error, in forming the crust of the earth solely
by the agency of water, ought to have warned the disciples
of fire from falling into the same fault, by employing fire
only, and limiting nature to the confined scale of cur imagin-
ations, which although they take an extensive range, yet can-
not go beyond ideas procured through the medium of our
senses ; itis probable that nature has many ways of acting
that our short lived experience has not yet brought us ac-
quainted with, for it is only yesterday that we were capable
either of observing or registering the natural phenomena,
and much as we have lately done, an immensity remains yet
to be examined.

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 353

INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES.

Domestic anp Foreien.

i. Report of acommittee appointed by the Lyceum of Nat-
ural History af New York to examine the splendid work
of Mr. Audubon upon the Birds of North America. May,
1829.

It is almost five years since our associate Mr. Audubon
exhibited his rich port-folio of nearly four hundred original
drawings of American Birds, at a meeting of this Lyceum—
Having afterwards carried his collection to Europe, the pub-
lication of them has been commenced in London, and the
first volume, embracing forty nine species, is now submitted
to the inspection of our society ; and it will hardly be denied
that it forms the most magnificent work of its kind ever exe-
cuted in any country. :

Every species is represented of the natural size, the Wild
Turkey and the largest Eagles appearing in their full dimen-
sions, the size of these regulating that of all the other plates.
When the birds are too small to occupy so large a sheet, it
is filled up either by giving several figures of the same spe-
cies of different sex or age, or by mtroducing the plants on
which the bird is usually found, and in most instances by
both these embellishments. In others are represented Quad-
rupeds, Reptiles, or Insects, the mortal enemies, or the favor-
ite prey, of the principal species. Thus we see in one plate,
three figures of the Baltimore Onole, male, female, and young;
and a splendid representation of the Tulip tree, the pride of
the American forest. In another, the graceful foliage and
brilliant corolla of the Trumpet-creeper are tastefully group-
ed with the portraits of a numerous family of the Ruby-
throated Humming-bird, and in a third the soft hues of the
Carolina Dove are seen to harmonize with the no less soft
and elegant Stuartia of our Southern States. The Rattle-
snake, the Harlequin snake, the American Hare, the Squirrel,
many insects, and even fishes, are brought in to give ef-
fect to the picture, at the same time that they illustrate in
the most striking manner the habits and economy of the birds.
These latter have been all drawn from life. We see them
in their living and most spirited positions. All is activity
and energy, and each is busily engaged in some peculiar em-

Vou. XVIL—No. 2. 18

354 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

ployment, procuring food, rearing or nursing its young, at-
tacking or avoiding its enemies, enjoying its prey, or prepar-
ing for its capture.

Although these elegant productions might be justly cited
as masterly specimens of pictorial composition, yet they are
scarcely less remarkable for zoological and botanical accu-
racy, being thus equally illustrative of both the great depart-
ments of Natural History. Many things there so well de-
picted have often come under the observation of members
of this Society, who are thus enabled to judge, from the un-
questioned truth of these, of the fidelity of others which
they have had no opportunity of personally verifying. We
see contrasted the luxuriant vegetation of our Southern and
Western States in the splendid Magnolias, Hibiscus, Gelsemi-
num, and even in the grasses of those regions, with the rela-
ted species, but of stinted growth, of our more northern
climes.

The work will require about fourteen years to complete it,
and will then forma collection of figures such as will leave
nothing to be wished for in American Ornithology. The
letter press will be comprised in three 4tc. volumes ; two on
the Land Birds, and the third on the Water Birds, now prepar-
ing for publication, and which will be delivered to subscri-
bers without additional expense.

Although the costly nature of this work precludes its being
in the possession of many individuals, yet it is hoped that
all public institutions whose object is the encouragement of
science or the liberal arts, may be induced to patronize it :
and your committee beg leave to conclude with the recom-
mendation, that if it be deemed advisable in the present sit-
uation of the affairs of this society, its title be placed on the
list of subscribers to Mr. Audubon’s work.

2. Proceedings of the Lyceum of Natural History of New-York.
Continued from page 209.

January, 1829-—The President offered some observations
on the doubtful fossil from the coal slate of Rhode Island,
of which a cast was presented at the last meeting by Col.
Totten. He considered it to be closely allied, if not identi-
eal, with the Thrinav parviflora, a specimen of which he pre-
sented from the coal pits of Somerset, (England.) A valu-
able collection of fossil invertebrated animals from the

Intelligence and Miscellanes. 355

neighborhood of the Ohio Falls, was presented by Messrs.
Cozzens & Cooper. Dr. Eights of Albany presented spe-
cimens of a singular variety of quartz crystal, from Palatine,
N Y. One end was a regular hexahedral pyramid, while
the other was globular and smooth as if fused. It is noticed
in Emmon’s Manual of Mineralogy under the name of globu-
Jar quartz. Messrs. Cooper & Cozzens exhibited a part of a
second collection of fossils from the Big Bone Lick, (Ky.)
consisting of teeth and bones of the Megalonyx, Elephant, and
Mustudon. ‘The public Lectures for the season were arran-
ged in the following order. Prof. Moore, on the mineralo-
gy of the ancients. Prof. J. A. Smith, on human happiness
as connected with knowledge Mr. Featherstonhaugh, Ge-
ology. Prof. Torrey, Chemistry. Mr. Halsey, Botany. A
number of valuable works were received from Prof. Buck-
land and Mr. Duncan, Curator of the Ashmolean Museum
at Oxford, (England.)

Frsruary.—The committee appointed at a former meet-
ing reported the draught of a memorial to the Legislature of
the State of New York, requesting an efficient examination
of the mineral formations of this State, more particularly
for bituminous coal. The Report was accepted, and accom-
panied by the formal approbation of the Common Council of
the city, was forwarded to the Legislature. At the anniver-
sary meeting, held during this month, the following gentle-
men were elected for the ensuing year.

JoserH Devarietp, President.

Asrauam Hatsey, Ist Vice President.

J. E. DeKay, 2d Vice President.

Jer. Van Renssevanr, Corresponding Secretary.
Joun. J, Graves, Recording Secretary.

Wm. Cooper, Treasurer.

J. E. DeKay, Librarian.

Joun Revere, Anniversary Orator.

The Annual Reports of the Corresponding Secretary, Li-
brarian, Treasurer, and Committee of Publication, exhibited
a gratifying view of the present state and future prospects of
the Lyceum. Drs. Eights, of Albany, and H. Gates, of
Whitesborough, were elected Corresponding, and Messrs. H.
Parish and O. M. Lownds, Resident Members.

Marcu.—Specimens of the Fringilla linaria or lesser red-
poll, of which large flocks are noticed in the city, were laid
on the table. Messrs. Cooper and Cozzens presented a spe-

356 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

cimen of that rare and remarkable reptile, the Menopoma Al-
leghamensis from the river Ohio. Dr. Revere read a paper
on the electro-chemical relations of iron and some other
metals with a view to their application in the useful arts,
more particularly in ship building. Specimens of native
copper from the neighborhood of Two Rivers between Green
Bay and Chicago, were presented by Mr. McCleary, of Mi-
chigan. Three papers were presented through Dr. Wag-
staff from Dr. Graham of Glasgow. One, on the absorption
of vapor by liquids, another onthe formation of alcoates, and
a third on the influence of the air in determining the crystal-
lization of sale solutions. Specimens were laid upon the
table of scoriae from an iron smelting furnace in New Jer-
sey, resembling, precisely, in appearance and specific gravity
volcanic pumice. Also specimens resembling the green
sand of European Geologists from the lower part of the
marle beds (so called) in Monmouth Co. New Jersey. Dr.
Orville Brooks and Mr. Augustus Fleming, were elected Resi-
dent Members,

Aprit.—Dr. Pitcher, of the U. S. A., a corresponding
member, presented a collection of reptiles and other zo-
ological objects made by himself, at Fort Brady, on our
North-western frontier. A number of books were received
from Messrs. D. B. Warden and Victor Audouin of Paris.
Fine specimens of the Emys geographica, Trionyx muticus,
and T. ferox, from the river Ohio were added to the Erpeto-
logical Cabinet. Thos. Graham, Esq., of Edmburgh was
elected a corresponding, and Messrs. H. McCrackan and J.
Cromwell, Resident Members.

May.— Mr. Cooper read a report on several mammalia and
reptiles sent from the N. W.Territory, by Messrs. Schoolcraft,
James, and Pitcher. Mr. Cooper also read a paper on the Ame-
rican species of the genus Sorex with a description of a species
supposed to be new, under the ‘name of Sorex exiguus.
Prof. Torrey presented a new and remarkable variety of fibrous
quartz from the Rhode Island anthracite. Mr. J.L. Williams, a
corresponding member, transmitted a communication upon
the supposed chalk formation of Florida. An extensive suite
of geological specimens from the North and South shores of
Lake Superior was received from Dr. Pitcher, and a large
and yaluable collection of animals from Messrs. H. R, School-

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 357

craft and Geo. Johnson, from the same region. Among them
were Falco furcatus, F. cooperu, Corvus pica, Tetrao albus,
Ardea exilis, Testudo serpentina. Dr. Darlington, of West
Chester, Penn., a corresponding member, communicated a
paper entitled ‘“ Description of the Prunus Americana,’ with
a drawing illustrating the same. Mr. Cooper, from the spe-
cial Committee made a report on the magnificent work of
Audubon upon the Birds of North America, which was exhibit-
ed at a former meeting. The President announced that he had
received from Prof. Zipzer of Neusohl, Hungary, and arranged
in the cabinet, one hundred geological specimens. They con-
sist of a great variety of porphyries, trachytes, and other vol-
canic rocks, as well as fossils, illustrating the geology of a very
interesting part of Hungary. The Corresponding Secretary
read a letter from Mr. Schoolcraft, announcing his intention of
visiting the Upper Mississippi, as far possibly as the Porcupine
Mountains, and offering to make any inquiries the Lyceum
may suggest. Information was also received of a proposed
private expedition up the Rio del Norte, Mexico. The
Curators were charged with the subject of both expeditions,
with powers. Dr. Del Rio, Professor of Mineralogy in the
College of Mines, Mexico, now present in the city, presented
his Compend of the new Mineralogical system of Berzelius.
A specimen of native gold in its gangue from North Caro-
lina was presented by Mr. Nash.

Dr. De Kay read a paper entitled “ Remarks on certain
phenomena exhibited upon the surface of the primitive rocks
in the vicinity of this city.” The author alluded in his paper
to those singular parallel furrows or scratches on the surface
of rocks, having an invariable N. N. W. and S.S. E. direc-
tion, and supposed to have been caused by the agency of an
overwhelming current. The writer indicated several locali-
ties where these appearances had been more particularly
noted, and the paper was accompanied by diagrams illustra-
ting the relative position of these furrows, with the direction
of the stratified rocks. Mr. T. P. Allen presented specimens
of proto carbonate of iron from Baltimore, (Md.) manganese
from Brookville, Frederick Co. Md. and sulphuret of lead,
with blende from Eaton, (N. H.) ‘The latter containing for-
ty ounces of silver to the ton—J. John J. Glover was elect-
ed a Resident Member,

358 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

3. Memorial_—The following memorial to the Legislature
of the State of New-York was presented at the last session.
A Bill was introduced in accordance with the memorial, but
owing to the pressure of business it was not acted upon.
Geological surveys similar to that proposed in this memorial
have been authorized by the Legislatures of North and
South Carolina, and of Virginia, and have developed, in no
small degree, the mineral riches and resources of these States.
It is to be hoped that their example will be followed by oth-
er States, and in the mean time we think the followmg me-
morial, as embodying a variety of useful facts, worthy of be-
ing more extensively circulated.

To the Honorable the Legislature of the State of New-York,

in General Assembly convened.

The Members of the Lyceum of Natural History in the
City of New-York respectfully represent—

That the object for which their Society was originally in-
corporated is the advancement of Natural Science; in the
which pursuit they have steadily persevered, unaided by le-
gislative patronage, and contributing from their mdividual
resources, the means requisite for the establishment of a
scientific library, and an extensive collection of objects in
every branch of Natural History, which is open at all times
gratuitously for the gratification and information of their
fellow citizens and of strangers.

Your memorialists have especially turned their attention
to the investigation of the mineral riches of the State, and
to this effect have cultivated geological knowledge with
much assiduity. They would respectfully state, that they
have been long satisfied of the probable existence of bitu-
minous coal in the State of New-York in situations and in
quantities offering the strongest inducement for instituting
a research for that valuable fuel, upon the approved princi-
ples derived from the Science of Geology, which teaches
that all the extensive and profitable beds of bituminous coal
which have been hitherto discovered and worked, are found
in constant relation to, or connexion with other mineral
formations analogous to those known to exist in this State.

Accident has already discovered many seams of bitumin-
ous coal jn our State, but the quantity contained in them
has not been sufficient to warrant their being worked, and
they are only to be considered as indications of more abund-

Intelligence and Micellanies. 359

ant beds within the reach of a skilful and vigorous research.
Your memorialists are free to declare, that such is their con-
fidence in the numerous indications which are presented, and
so strong are their desires to develop a resource of such
magnitude to the State, that if they possessed adequate
means and were authorised to carry on the requisite inves-
tigations by a set of careful borings in the appropriate strata
and otherwise, they would not hesitate to employ them, but
as has been before stated, they possess no funds to apply to
so valuable a purpose. That it is of the utmost value, it
would be superfluous on this occasion to attempt to prove.
The new branches of industry that would ensue upon the
opening of coal mines in the western part of the State; the
arrestation of the rapid destruction of wood fuel; the abund-
ance and cheapness of the finest qualities of coal for domestic
and manufacturing purposes; the augmentation of canal
revenue for its transportation; the stoppage of the present
supply from abroad and the exportation of it from our own
State; all these circumstances are of obvious and immedi-
ate application to the reasonableness of the proposition, that
no further time should be lost in commencing the investi-
gation.

In respect to the present supply from abroad, your memori-
alists conceive that they would not do justice to the subject,
if the following statements, which they are enabled to make
from what they deem sufficient authority, were withheld.

During the seven years preceding the year 1828, and in-
cluding the years 1821 and 1828, five million seven hun-
dred and ninety-four thousand one hundred and _ sixteen
bushels of bituminous coal were imported into the United
States, the whole of which might as well have been furnish-
ed from the coal districts of this State and supplied by the
coasting trade from the port of New-York. But this great
amount is inconsiderable when we look at the consumption
which an increased population and a reduction of the price
would in a very short time effect. It is estimated that about
eight hundred million bushels of bituminous coal are raised
annually for general purposes in Great Britain.

As to the present annual consumption of coal in this city,
the following approximation may be considered as not far
from the truth.

English and Scotch bituminous coal, chaldrons, 20,000

Virginia, 20,000

Lebigh and Schuylkill Anthracite. 16,000

360 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

The average price in the New-York market is $8,53 per
chaldron of thirty-six bushels, making a gross sum of $478,-
000 per annum paid out of the State for coal in the present
amount of population. The quantity of Rhode Island coal
consumed cannot be accurately ascertained; but it is thought
not to exceed 4000 chaldrons at an average of $6,50 per
chaldron.

The annual consumption of wood fuel in this city may be
considered as amounting to 280,000 cords, and it is stated
in a publication recently made, that the steam vessels which
ply from New-York consume annually more than 200,000
cords beside. Valuing the whole 480,000 at $5 per cord, we
have a gross amount of two millions and four hundred thou-
sand dollars annually expended for wood fuel. It is univers-
ally known that this article is becoming scarce, and with a
population rapidly pressing upon us, the substitution of coal is
the only measure that can save us from the inconvenience of
a scarcity of timber.

In bringing these important facts and general views before
the Legislature, your memorialists have been solely govern-
ed by the desire of making the sciences they cultivate, con-
ducive to the advantage of the country; and they respectful-
ly hope not to be deemed obtrusive if they express a confi-
dent expectation, that the Legislature will take the subject
into consideration and make provision by law for a practical
and efficient examination of the mineral formations of this
State for bituminous coal.

And your memorialists will ever pray.

Signed Jos. Drenarievp, Pres’t. &c.
Lyceum of Nat. History of New-York,
February 2, 1829.

4. Gold mines of North Carolina.—This remarkable local-
ity of the most precious of the metals, continues to attractan
increasing share of public attention ; and the territory of the
“ Gold Country,” has within three or four years been greatly
enlarged. Until within a short period, these mines were
supposed to be confined to the small county of Cabarras, in
the western part of North Carolina. The neighboring coun-
ties of Montgomery, Anson, and Mecklenberg, were succes-
sively found to contain a share of the same treasure ; but in
1823, the extent of the gold country was estimated by Pro-

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 361

fessor Olmsted,* at only one thousand square miles. Since
that time, successive discoveries have extended it over the
counties of Guilford, Chatham, Rowan, Davidson, and over
the adjacent counties of South Carolina. Indeed, very re-
cent observations have carried it westward more than one
hundred miles from the original mine of Cabarras, to the
very base, and even among the valleys of the Blue Ridge.
The following letter, from 'D. Reinhardt, Esq. of Lincoln-
ton, in the western part of North Carolina, addressed to
Professor Olmsted, of Yale College, contains the most recent
accounts we have seen of the new discoveries of gold in that
region.
«* Lincolnton, N. C. June 4, 1829.

* Dear Sir—I suppose you have seen some statements in
the newspapers, respecting the recent discoveries of Gold in
this section of country, and will excuse the liberty I take in
offering you a few additional particulars.

** In the course of last summer, an old man who had wor-
ked the mines in Cabarras, found some small parcels of
gold in Rutherford county, between First snd Second Broad
Rivers. In the month of March last, near the same place,
a few more specimens were found. Of these I purchased to
the valueof thirty seven dollars. Shortly afterwards, similar
discoveries were made in rapid succession, near the South
Mountains, and on each side of them, in the counties of Ruth-
erford and Burke.t So well were those rewarded who search-
ed for gold, that in a short time, all the common laborers
were engaged in digging for it; and one dollar’s worth of
gold to the hand per day, was thought to be only tolera-
ble business.{ Companies were soon formed, and lands that

* See this Journal, Vol. IX.

t At the base of the Blue Ridge, on the east, lie the counties of Rutherford,
Burke, and Wilkes, in eachof which the face of the country is very uneven,
being traversed by numerous spurs of the Alleghany mountains. The coun-
ty of Lincoln lies still farther east, and is less broken, but is remarkably distin-
guished for the abundance, variety, and excellence of its iron ores, which are,
tosome extent, manufactured into castings, and bariron. The South Moun-
tains above mentioned, are seen on the west, from the village of Lincolnton,
presenting a grand and interesting outline. All the foregoing counties lie
westward of the Catawba river, beyond which it was not supposed until recent-
ly, that the gold country extended.—O.

{ This amount is obtained by merely collecting the earthin small parcels,
and washing it by hand.—O.

Vou. XVI No. 2. 19

362 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

would not bring one dollar per acre, were sold as high as thir-
ty dollars.

“ The gold is got out of the small streams, and is called
“ Branch gold.” Digging is generally commenced at the bed
of the streams, and continued on each side to the adjacent
hills. After the top earth and sand are removed, round flint
rocks (quartz?) are feund, such as usually occur in the bed
of streams.* Among this earth and sand, the gold is found
in particles from a very small size, to masses of two penny
weights. I understand it was thought that no gold was to
be found below this deposit of pebble and flint rocks; but
lately, after penetrating the layer of flint stones and pebbles,
the miners came to a bed of very fine sand, varying in thick-
ness from six to twelve inches, and below this another depos-
it of round flint stone and pebbles, which is more abundant
in gold than the former.

“ The quantity of the precious metal collected since the
first of March, cannot be accurately ascertained ; but two
weeks ago, about one thousand hands were at work, avera-
ging each a dollar per day. | New discoveries of gold are
daily making in this county, (Lincoln,) but our mines have ©
not as yet proved so rich as those of Rutherford and Burke
before mentioned.

“ Quicksilver has been found connected with the gold. I
had doubted this fact, though it had been repeatedly assert-
ed; but this day,a man who can be relied on, and has wor-
ked at one of the mines in Burke,shewed me a small quantity
of quicksilver, which he asserted that he obtained at that
mine.}

“ Many exaggerated reports are put in circulation respect-
ing the value of the gold mines, with the view of enhancing
the price of land within that region ;, but so fair are the real
motives for enterprize, that many of our most prudent and
wealthy citizens are making arrangements to enter largely in-
to the business. So eager are people to find large pieces of
gold, that they hurry through the process of washing in a

* That is, probably, exhibiting the appearance of having been worn by at-
trition—shewing that this peculiarity marks the deposit of gold here, as well as
in Cabarras. (See ‘* Olmsted on the gold mines of N. Carolina,” in this Journal,
Vol: LX.) The account here given, by a gentleman not at a]l interested in the
theories of these formations, appears to favor the opinion that they are deposits
from water, and not merely, (as Professor Mitchill has maintained in a late
Volume of this work) the result of a decomposition of the associated rocks.—O.

| Probably this was not of native origin.—O,

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 363

very wasteful manner. It is even thought that the earth
which has already passed through their hands, would, by care-
ful management, yield another product as greatas that which
they obtained in the first instance. Very little of the dust is
collected, nor is the business reduced to any system. We
have great need of a few ingenious Yankees, to invent labor-
saving and economical machines for us.’

5. Pettengill’s Stellarota—The. Rev. Amos Perttengill
of Salem, Conn., has contrived a very ingenious instrument
for the use of students of astronomy, to which he has given
the name of THE STELLAROTA. It isin fact a moveable plan-
isphere, and affords, at a very cheap rate,* many of the fa-
cilities for studying the heavenly bodies, usually supplied only
by celestial globes.

Celestial maps are apt to produce much confusion in the
mind of the young learner; and since the appearance of the
heavenly bodies, which they represent, does not correspond
to their actual position at any given time, his progress in
studying the constellations is little aided by them. On the
contrary, the celestial globe is capable of such an adjust-
ment, as to bring the stars, as delineated on its surface, to
correspond with the actual appearance of the concave, at
the very moment when he js viewing it. Various astronom-
ical problems also of the most instructive kind can, as is well
known, be performed on the celestial globe, which cannot
be wrought on the common maps.or planispheres. But the
stellarota is capable of being adjusted to the time and place
in the same manner as the globe, and affords the means of
solving nearly all the problems that can be wrought on the
latter.

This instrument consists of a disk or circular card seven
and a half inches in diameter, fixed into a circular opening
of the same dimensions, cut in a thin rectangular slab of
wood. The disk is turned on its axis by means of a thumb-
piece attached to the centre on the back side of the slab.
The centre of the card representing the projected pole of the
earth, the various circles and constellations of the spheres,
take their respective stations around it. In order to under-
stand the manner in which these are severally laid down, let
us take an orange, and mark on its rind circles representing

* The price of the instrument neatly framed, does not exceed two dollars.

364 Inteligence and Miscellanies.

those of the sphere, namely, the meridians, the equator, the
ecliptic, @&c., and let us inscribe in their respective places the
leading constellations. Let us now cut off the end of the
orange next to the south pole, for the space of forty degrees
from it, and making the necessary incisions, (as is usual in
peeling an orange,) let us double back the respective por-
tions of the pcel, so as to form them into a circle surrounding
the north pole asacentre. The various circles and constel-
lations before inscribed, will now occupy their appropriate
places on the circle, constituting in fact, a projection of the
surface of the sphere, north of 40° south latiude, on a plane
parallel! to the equator. If we reflect upon the position
which each of the inscribed objects would take, we shall
perceive that the north pole would occupy the centre ; that
the meridians would be projected into straight lines proceed-
ing in radii from the centre; that the equator would be pro-
jected into a circle, described at the distance of 90 degrees
around the pole, and cut by the ecliptic at an angle of 23°
28’, on each side of which, in a belt of 16 degrees, would lie
the constellations of the zodiac; that the meridians which
were fifteen degrees asunder, would constitute true hour cir-
cles, and might be numbered accordingly at the extremity of
the radii, or the circumference of the circle; and, finally,
that when the circle was turned round on the pole, in its
own plane, the sun’s place in the ecliptic for the given time,
being brought against the hour, (as before numbered) the po-
sition of all the various objects represented on the plane
would correspond to the actual appearance of the skies at .
the same moment.

Such is, in general, the plan on which the stellarota is con-
structed, and so far the construction appears to be extremely
simple and easy. But a greater difficulty presented itself in
devising means to represent the horizon corresponding to
any given place, since every different parallel of latitude,
would seem to require its own horizon to be represented on
the plane of projection. To recur again to the orange, let
us see how the horizon of the equator, of the parallel of 45°
N. L., and of the pole, would severally arrange themselves,
as we double back the rind into the plane of projection. The
horizon of the equator being, or coinciding with, one of the
meridians 90 degrees distant, and all the meridians being
projected into straight lines, this horizon would of course be
a straight line cutting the meridian of tbe place at right an-

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 365

gles. The horizon of the pole being the equator itself, it is
a circle coinciding with that which represents the equator.
The horizon of the parallel of 45 degrees, being oblique to
the plane of projection, would be projected into an ellipse,
which would come nearer to a circle as the place to which
it belonged approached the pole, and nearer to a straight
line as the place approached the equator. The inventor has
adopted a very ingenious contrivance to represent truly all
these different positions of the horizon. The method how-
ever, cannot be rendered very intelligible without the aid of
a drawing, or without reference to the instrument itself. It
consists, substantially, of a small brass wire, coincident with .
the equator when the horizon of the pole is represented, but
moveable southward for any other place, at the same time
being made by compression to assume an elliptical figure,
and thus including, in every situation, the part of the heavens
which is visible at each place respectively.. We cordially re-
commend this little instrument to the attention of preceptors
of academies, who are not already furnished with a celestial
globe, and especially to private learners, who will find in it a
most useful guide and auxiliary ; and it is with the view of
rendering its construction and principles intelligible to such
of our readers as may procure it for their own use, that we
have been thus particular in our description of it.—O

6. Of the precipitation of morphia from laudanum by am-
monia; also a spontaneous deposition of narcotin; by R.
Hare, M.D. Professor of Chemistry in the University of
Pennsylvania.—I believe it is not generally known that the
addition of ammoniated alcohol, to common laudanum, will
cause a crystalline precipitate of morphia in the course of a.
few hours. If the precipitate thus obtained, be dissolved in
acetic acid, again precipitated by ammonia, and afterwards
collected and dried upon a filter, the morphia will be obtain-
ed nearly white, and may be rendered perfectly so, by repeat-
ing the solution by acetic acid, and precipitation by ammo-
nia. I have by these means obtained thirty grains of mor-
phia from an ounce of opium.

Instead of alcohol impregnated with ammoniacal gas, a
mixture in equal parts of strong aqua ammonia and common
alcohol will answer.

Narcotin is I find sometimes spontaneously precipitated in
a crystalline form from a solution of opium in proof spirit.

366 Inielligence and Miscellanies.

The circumstances under which I procured it are nearly
these. A quarter of a pound of opium was boiled in a quart
of proof spirit, and strained while warm through a coarse
cotton cloth. The solution, thus obtained, being allowed to
stand for about twenty four hours, crystals were observed to
be spontaneously deposited on the sides of the containing
glass jar. These being dissolved in acetic acid, on the ad-
dition of ammonia a precipitate took place which was col-
lected by a filter, and dried. Narcotin was thus obtaimed
in the form of white, beautiful silky crystals, which were
readily soluble in sulphuric ether.

When we consider how often opium has been dissolved
in proof spirit by chemists and pharmacopists, it is surprising
that crystalline principles so easily evolved, as are morphia
and narcotin, by the process above described, should have
escaped observation until lately, when Sertuerner by a much
less obvious route had the honor of discovering them.

7. An account of an extraordinary explosion, arismg from
the reaction of nitric acid with phosphorus ; by the author of
the preceding article.—In the winter of 1827-8, having made
some unusually strong nitric acid, (above 1.5 in specific gray-
ity,) | proceeded, with more than usual caution, to arrange
the apparatus for exhibiting to my class the reaction between
it and phosphorus. A tube, about seven eighths of an inch in
diameter, closed at one end, was placed within a stout hollow
glass cylinder, of about three inches diameter, of which the
glass was nearly three eighths of an inch thick. The whole
was situated about four feet in the rear of my table. About
five grains of phosphorus, in two or three lumps, was thrown
into about as much of the acid, as occupied the tube an
inch and a half in height. Very soon afterwards there was
a flash, followed by an explosion, like that of gunpowder,
and the fragments of the glass cylinder as well as of the
tube were driven in all directions so as to break many glass
articles at the distance of from five to twenty feet, and to
wound slightly some of the spectators. After my lecture
was over, [ repeated the experiment, with a smaller quantity
of materials, when an explosion again took place proportion-
ably violent. It fractured the containing tube, but did not
break a stout glass cylinder by which it was surrounded. I
have been accustomed annually to exhibit to my class the
combustion of phosphorus in nitric acid, and I have, on dif-

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 367

ferent occasions, known the phenomena to vary much in ac-
tivity ; having in some instances seen the phosphorus thrown
up against the ceiling of my laboratory. It was therefore
known to me, and I presume it is generally known to chem-
ists, that the reaction of the substances employed in the case
above mentioned is liable to become explosive. According-
ly in giving directions for making phospheric acid by means
of nitric acid, the necessity of a very cautious and gradual |
addition of the phosphorus is usually mentioned, but that an
explosion so violent as that which I have described, could
arise, under the circumstances in question, I was not led to
apprehend, either from my reading or experience.

I ascribe the result to the extraordinary strength of the
acid employed, probably caused by using in the evolution of
it from nitre, one half more of sulphuric acid than the equiv-
alent proportion, with a view of rendering the residuum less
difficult to remove from the retort. The presence of an ex-
cess of sulphuric acid, reduces the water in the nitric acid to
a minimum.

REMARKS BY THE EDITOR.

Tam pleased that the above facts and cautions have been
communicated by Di. Hare to ihe public; and it may per-
haps, add to their effect, if I state, that I saw a similar ex-
plosion at a public lecture of Dr. Woodhouse in Philadel-
phia, in 1803 or 4, and also at one of Dr. Pearson in London,
in 1805: the burning phosphorus was thrown about, and as
the occurrence was unexpected to both gentlemen, they
apologised to their hearers for the explosion.

I will here give an extract from the MS of my Chemical
Text Book, now in the press.

* Phosphorus is converted into phosphoric acid by the ac-
tion of the nitric acid: if weak, it merely boils, with red fumes
of nitrous acid; if very strong, and especially if warm, it burns
with a splendid combustion: it is thrown about in jets of fire,
and requires great caution: to render it the most beautifal,
a tall narrow deep vessel should be used, but when the quan-
tity of both substances is considerable, there is sometimes a
dangerous explosion.”’*

* This circumstance has happened so often, in my own experience, with ni-
tric acid distilled from very pure nitre, and without any waiter in the receiver,
that I cannot but repeat the caution that the operator should be much on his
guard. With a stick of phosphorus as long as a finger, dropped into two or

368 Intelligence and Miscellanies.
8. Collections in Natural History.

Extractof a letter to the Editor, from Professor John Torrey, dated New-York,
June 17, 1829. ;

My Dear Sir—I take the hberty of sending you a printed
Circular, which a number of gentlemen of New-York, de-
voted to Natural History, have had prepared, in order to ob-
tain subscribers, towards a project, which will be sufficiently
explained by the paper itself. About forty-five shares have
been taken up. ‘The gentleman alluded to, (Dr. Gales,) has
accepted the appointment of Collector to the Association,
and has already reached New Orleans. A letter received
from him a few days since, states, that owing to the lateness
of the season, he has been advised not to proceed to Natch-
itoches until next spring. He will therefore ascend the
Washita to the Saline, in Arkansas, where he will take up
his summer residence at the house of Judge Franklin, a
former member of Congress—also one of the Legislature
of Louisiana. This gentieman resides about eighty miles
from the junction of the Saline with the Washita, in a lit-
tle settlement consisting of thirty families. This place will
be the centre of his excursions during this summer, whence
he will proceed at different times to the Little Missouri,
Cadeau, up the Washita to the Hot Springs, and across
the Three Forks of the Saline, to the Kettle Rock, on
the Arkansas. Dr. G. has collected a considerable number
of plants and animals, in the neighborhood of New Orleans,
and remitted them to New-York. There is every prospect
of his succeeding to the utmost of our wishes, in the object of
his mission. We needa few more subscribers to our funds,
and, perhaps, by inserting our Circularin your Journal, we
might receive some additional names. It would be desirable
to retain the present collector in the interesting regions to
which he has been sent, for a longer term than a single year,
and if sufficient encouragement is given to our project, we
propose to extend our contract with him for the spring and
summer of 1830. Persons desiring to take shares, can address
Mr. William Cooper, Capt. Le Conte, or myself, on the subject.

a

three ounces of strong nitrous acid, I have known an explosion like that of a
swivel, and the fragments of glass wounded persons at a distance, although
the experiment was performed out of doors, and the spectators, formed into a
ring, were, none of them, nearer than fifty feet, and some who were hit were
at double that distance. ‘

Inielligence and Miscellanies. 369

CIRCULAR.*
New-York, March 2, 1829.

Sir—Several gentlemen in this city have formed an Asso-
ciation for the purpose of sending a suitable person to collect
objects in Natural History in some of the more remote parts
of the United States ; to which you are invited to contribute,
provided the plan meets your approbation.

The route to be taken is the following :—From New-York,
by sea, to New Orleans; thence to Red River; remain at
Natchitoches until July; then proceed to the Arkansas Ter-
ritory, and if the country should be healthy, proceed up the
Arkansas River as far as possible ; should any time remain
before the setting in of cold weather, examine the country
between that River and the Missouri. At the beginning of
winter, descend the Mississippi, and make collections in the
lower parts of Louisiana, the farther south the better. Ear-
ly in the spring, return through Mississippi, Alabama, Geor-
gia, and the Carolinas.

Collections are to be made in the department of Botany,
(dried plants, roots, and seeds,) animals of all kinds, (except
those common in the Atlantic states,) particularly birds, in-
sects, and shells; and geological and mineralogical specimens.

The collections, when received, will be divided by the sub-
scribers, or their proxies, into as many parcels as there are
shares subscribed for, with the addition of two shares for the
Collector, all the parcels being made equal in value, and dis-
tinguished by anumber. Lots will then be drawn for them.
In case any subscriber who wishes plants only should draw
animals, or vice versa, he can exchange the one with the oth-
er with some other subscriber.

Shares are fixed at $10 each. The expense of the journey
for one year, exclusive of transportation of collections, is es-
timated at $600. Dr. H. Gates, a gentleman well qualified, is
engaged, and will depart about the 15th of March, provided
forty shares shall have been then subscribed for.

Please reply to this as soon as convenient, stating the num-
ber of shares wanted, and the name of the person resident in
this city, who is to act as your proxy. Direct to John Le Conte,
John Torrey, or Wm. Cooper, at the Lyceum of Natural Hist.

9. *Carpenter’s Saratoga Powders, for making Congress
Spring or Saratoga Waters.—There is perhaps scarcely an

* Inserted by request.

Vor. XVI.—No. 2. 20

370 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

individual in the United States who is not acquainted, either
by experience or report, with the salutary effects of the Con-
gress Spring Water at Saratoga. From thirty to fifty thou-
sand persons annually visit these springs, many from the re-
motest sections of the United States, and some from the
West Indies, and other foreign places. The great expense
in visiting the Springs excludes the greater portion of the
community, (more than nine out of ten,) and the bottled
water, from its high price, prevents its use to the extent
of being serviceable, and confines it to a small number ; it
appears to be a serious evil that so valuable an article should
be so restricted that comparatively few should be able to en-
joy what is so conducive to general health in the hot weather
of our summer months. From these circumstances, George
W. Carpenter is pleased to announce the preparation of the
above powders, containing all the essential substances with
which these celebrated Springs are impregnated, and from
which the waters of the Congress Springs at Saratoga are
precisely and effectually imitated. With a view to accom-
modate the public, and to bring into general use so con-
venient and valuable a substitute for these waters, he has
been induced to go very extensively into the manufacture of
them, and to put them ata price to be within the reach of
most persons. [or the accommodation of the public, agents
will be appointed in all the cities and principal inland towns
to give a gencral circulation to so useful an article through-
out the country. The public are recommended to make
trial of these powders, as he finds by experience, and from the
opinion of the most eminent of the faculty, that the water
made from them possesses the same medicinal qualities, is as
effectual in its operations, and precise in taste, as that im-
mediately taken from the Springs. These powders are there-
fore recommended as a valuable remedy in all cases where
the Saratoga Waters are prescribed.

Persons on sea voyages, or residing at a distance from the
Springs, and in warm climates, will at once perceive the
great advantage of making use of these powders, which be-
sides being more portable, and less expensive than the bot-
tled water, will keep without injury for any length of time ;
and as they are equal in medical effect to that taken fresh
from the Springs, they are certainly much preferable from
the many advantages they possess.

No. 301, Market street, Philadelphia.

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 371

10. Dr. Wollaston’s scale of chemical equivalents —We
have already mentioned that an improved edition of this
very useful instrument has been published in this country by
Professors Beck and Henry of the Rensselaer school: it ap-
pears that still another edition is about appearing at Middle-
town, Conn.

Messrs. Hedge g- Co. of that place, have just commenced
the manufacture of Wollaston’s Scales. The one before us,
says a writer in the American Sentinel, is the most finished
specimen of workmanship of the kind we have ever yet seen;
and the first attempt in box wood, to our knowledge, in this
country. The scale is 21 inches in length, by 3 and 2-10ths
in breadth.

The graduation is done by machinery, and is executed with
a degree of beauty and accuracy we have never seen equal-
led by any thing of the kind.

Those who are acquainted with the use of rules, know
how difficult it is to obtain such as are accurate. Mr. Hedge,
by means of his machinery, is enabled to make the best rules
in this country, and they are, in consequence, highly esteem-
ed by all competent judges.

Great care has been taken in the plan of arrangement of
the chemical substances. The elementary bodies, metals,
and metallic oxides, are arranged on one side of the slide,
by themselves—ihe names of the metals are printed in larger
type, which adds not only to the beauty of the scale, but
renders it much easier to find their respective places,

With regard to the representative numbers of the chemi-
cal substances, the greatest care has been taken in consult-
ing the latest tables of Drs. Henry, Thomson, and others so
as to correct the errors of former tables.

The scale, thus improved, was made at the suggestion and
under the superintendence of Doct. J. Barratt.

Uniformity in the scales can be depended upon because
the graduation of the line of numbers on the slide, is done
by machinery. The names are printed upon the scale with
moveable steel types, and therefore advantage can be taken
of any improvements ; or any list of names can be printed,
to suit the particular wishes of chemists.

We may remark farther, that Messrs. Hedge & Co. have
been engaged some time past in the manufacture of gun-
ter’s scales and carpenter’s rules, of every description. The
apparatus for effecting the graduations, is of a novel and

ae Intelligence and Miscellanies.

ingenious kind, and is the invention of Mr. Hedge. So su-
perior are the scales made at this establishment, that they
are fast gaining, if they have not already acquired, the entire
ascendancy in the market.

There are none manufactured in this country or elsewhere,
that can compare with them, either in cheapness, in style of
finish, in the number of subdivisions, or in accuracy of grad-
uations. We speak with more confidence of the superior
accuracy of these scales, as we have thoroughly tested them
in practice, and we know that the method of execution is
such as to insure the greatest uniformity in all that are con-
structed.—( Communicated.)

11. Notice of a projected improvement in the method of
blasting rocks, making tunnels through mountains, &c. with
the result of some preliminary experiments—in a letter to
the editor from a correspondent, dated New York, June 2,
1829.—The projector conceives that a black of several tons
might be separated from a large mass, at once, by making
five or six blasts, tending like radii, towards the center of the
block ; all the charges being fired at the same instant; but,
as this cannot be accomplished by trains, he proposes to mix
detonating silver with the gunpowder, and to apply it in the
following manner. ‘The holes being bored, he places a cork
upon the charge of powder, through which he passes a
double wire, whose ends nearly meet, in a small! cylinder of
glass filled with a compound of gunpowder and one tenth
of detonating silver; the wires are secured in the cylinder
by bees wax. ‘Thus prepared, he lowers the cork and wires
down till it meets the charge. Now supposing all the borings
thus charged, he puts about an inch of powdered rosin upon
the corks, and fills the remainder of the holes with melted
rosin. Then connecting one of the wires of each hole with
the outside coating of an electrical jar, the others are so join-
ed as to receive the spark, which produces an instantaneous
explosion of the whole. He has tried this method in wood,
by boring augur holes, one in each of five logs, and it an-
swers his expectations.

By leave of the corporation, a trial has been made at Black-
well’s island, where they are blasting rocks for the new Pen-
itentiary. Five holes, each three feet deep, were made by
the prisoners, at the distance of seven feet from each other,

Inielligence and Miscellames. 373

forming a line. The extreme wire, A, connected with the
inside of the jar, and the other extreme, B, with the out-
side, show the circuitous route of the influence after the
knob of the jar was touched. The report was simultaneous,
but owing to the wires of two of the interior holes crossing
and touching each other, they did not explode. The rock
was cracked but the portion was not thrown off. The gen-
tleman thinks that if these two holes had exploded, the full
expected result would have been obtained ; but perhaps the
melted rosin is not the best thing to be poured in the holes,
as it would shrink on cooling, and if so, it would be like a
loose cork, having little hold of the rock. I advised him to
fill up with sand, in Jessop’s manner, and, from a trial made
to-day, it promises to answer. The iron wire, being a much
better conductor than sand, the latter did not seem to divert
the influence at all. He has gone to the island to prepare a
more magnificent experiment, the result of which I shall
hasten to communicate to you.*

12. Mode of decoying wild pigeons in New England.—The
flight and stool pigeons, as they are called, are prepared by
passing a thread through the edges of both their eyelids which
are thus closed—their legs are booted, and the flights, being
fastened to long strings, are thrown into the air, and fly as
far as they are permitted, while the stool pigeon is tied to a
narrow board, which, at the end where the bird is fixed, rises
and falls, and both kinds of decoy, by the flapping of their
wings, draw the attention of the passing flocks of wild pig-
eons, which are thus made to alight, on prepared ground,
within reach of the concealed spring-net, or on a long pole,

* We cannot but recommend extreme caution, in using detonating silver,
especially in such quantity as to form one tenth of the charge.—ditor.

374 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

rising a little from the horizontal line, so as to give the great-
est effect to the discharge of the gun from the bush-house
which conceals the sportsman.

The net, concealed by cut grass, is sprung by a rope which
is pulled at the moment after the pigeons alight upon the pre-
pared ground.

13. Ohio oil stone.—In this useful mineral this country ap-
pears to be well furnished. Professor Olmsted first directed
the public attention to the very extensive beds existing in
North Carolina, and whose excellent quality, we have had
occasion to prove by experiment. In the Jast number of
this Journal, page 185, we mentioned the novaculite of Lin-
coln and Oglethorpe counties, Georgia, and on a former oc-
casion, that of lake Memphremagog. It now appears that
the oil stone is found in Rocking county, Ohio: specimens
have been presented to the Lancaster Mechanics Beneficial
Society, and stated to possess a fine and uniform grain. Spe-
cimens were presented to the society by John P. Melfen-
stein, Esq.

14. Report of the Chester county cabinet, Pennsylvania.
—The principal minerals of Chester county have been de-
scribed by Mr. Carpenter in this Journal, and the distinguish-
ed President of the cabinet, has favored this Journal with val-
uable communications. The society which is forming a cab-
inet in Chester county, as appears by its second report, re-
commends itself to public favor by its zeal and activity,
which, with the aid of its friends and correspondents, has, al-
ready enabled it to accumulate a considerable museum, in
the principal departments of natural history. This institu-
tion appears well worthy of encouragement, and the friends
of natural history throughout the United States cannot bet-
ter dispose of a part of their duplicate specimens, than by
sending them to this institution.

In that part of their report which relates to birds, they
quote from Dr. Tinton’s preface to Linné’s System of Nature,
the following interesting passage, relating to the imstinctive
wisdom ‘of the Loxia Phillippina, a native of the Philippine
islands.

“It constructs a curious nest with the long fibres of plants
or dry grass, and suspends it by a kind of cord, nearly half
an ell long, from the end of a slender branch of a tree, that it
may be inaccessible to snakes, and safe from the prying intru-

Intelligence and Miscellanies. Sa

sion of the numerous monkies which inhabit those regions :
at the end of this cord is a gourd-shaped nest, divided into
three apartments, the first of which is occupied by the malé,
the second by the female, and the third containing the young;
and in the first apartment, where the male keeps watch while
the female is hatching, is placed on one side, a little tough
clay, and on the top of this clay is fixed a glow-worm to af-
ford its inhabitants light in the night time.”

A similar fact is familiarly known with respect to the hang-
ing bird of this country. Its nest, formed like a purse, is
pendulous from the high and slender branches of the trees,
and is scarcely accessible in any way to-invasion.

15. Chalcedony.
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.

New York, January 9th, 1829.

Dear Sir—Mr. John C. Thomson, of Brooklyn, has hand-
ed to me a specimen of chalcedony, to be forwarded to you,
for your mineralogical cabinet. |

It came into his possession a few years since, from the bal-
last of a vessel. He does not recollect what port she arrived
from, and of course cannot assign to the stone a geographic-
al location. Yours, very respectfully,

J. M. Exy.

The above remarkable specimen is a geode, of from six to
eight inches in diameter, lined with blue, white, and grey
chalcedony, in mamillary, and botryoidal, and stalactitical
concretions. It is indistinctly agatized, and altogether presents
a remarkable appearance. It has evidently been animbedded
specimen, and we should not hesitate to say, that it was
probably derived from a trap rock, (the most usual repository
of chalcedony,) were it not that there is no portion of this
kind of rock adhering to its outside ; but, on the contrary, it
seems to have been enclosed in madrepore coral, with which
a good deal of the exterior surface is thinly covered. This
makes us the more regret that its locality is unknown, as such
an association, if not novel, is singular. Perhaps it may
have proceeded originally, from a trap rock near the sea,
whose decomposition may have allowed it to fall into the
water, where coralline animats may have constructed their
cells around it, and it may have been again detached by de-

376 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

composition or violence, and thus obtained for a ballast stone,
The surface of the chalcedony is somewhat clouded, as it
has been Jong subjected to the action of sea water.

16. Uniform nomenclature in Botany.—A correspondent
who writes from Georgia, under date of February 26, sug-
gests, that a Convention be called of one person or more,
from each State Medical School, or Botanical Society, m
the United States, to some central place ; and that they adopt,
after the manner of the United States’ Pharmacopeia, a no-
menclature of known plants, which shall be uniform. )

Our correspondent adds—The proceeds ef such a work
might defray the contingent expenses, and the societies might
pay that of their own delegates; and to this convention may
be united all literary gentlemen friendly to the cause.

It is supposed that it would “ throw much light” on the
science, by convening members from the different parts of
the Union, who may be requested to bring all rare specimens
or drawings of plants with which they are acquainted, and
a liberal intercourse on the interests of science might be
cultivated.

te

17. Vegetable Chemistry, by C. C. Conwell, M.D, Phila-
delphia.—This tract, of thirty three pages, contains an inter-
esting exhibition of the principal facts in vegetable chemis-
try, whose most important proximate principles are arranged
in genera, according to the element which prevails in their
composition. They are called
Genus I. Carbonaria,

Il. Hydrogenia,
Ill. Nitrogenia,
IV. Oxygenia,
V. Hydroxygenia—oxygen and hydrogen: being in
them in the proportion to form water.

Dr. Conwell has added a number of new vegetable alka-
line principles, among which are Quassa, Serpentara, Co-
lumbia, Gentia, Gallia, Angusturia, Quercia, gc. It would
appear that Dr. Conwell has very materially simplified the
processes by which such principles are obtained, and his re-
searches tend to confirm the opinion, that the active powers
of medicinal and poisonous plants, generally reside in some
principle which is capable of being isolated, and which is in
many instances so far alkaline, that it is capable of combin-
ing with acids and forming peculiar saline compounds.

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 377

18. Group of crystals of common salt—Mr. Henry Silli-
man, of New-York, has forwarded to us, a mass of crystals
of common salt of uncommon size and beauty. It is from
the island of Curracoa, and was formed around a branch of
wood, suspended in the cistern from which the salt water
was evaporated; the cavity left by the branch is very dis-
tinct, and is two inches deep and three fourths of an inch
wide. The mass of crystals is from six to seven inches in
diameter ; it is of a snowy whiteness, with considerable lus-
tre, and presents about fifty distinct cubes, the largest of
which are three anda half inches long. They are grouped,
with salient and re-entering angles, and the assemblage of
crystals has an appearance not unlike that of the large
groups of the (so called) crystallized sandstone of Fontain-
bleau, or, more still, like the richest masses of crystals of
fluor spar. The increments and decrements of crystalliza-
tion are singularly distinct, and the whole forms a specimen
well worthy of a place in a cabinet of crystals. —

19. Fibrous gypsum of Onondago County, New York.—
Some specimens of gypsum, recently transmitted to the edi-
tor, by an unknown hand, are thus labelled: “ Found in dig-
ging a salt well, in Liverpool, Onondago County, N. Y.
twelve feet below the surface, in strata of black mud, inter-
mixed with slate stone; both above and _ below the strata,

was found soft red rock or indurated clay, full of seams,
through which the salt water passes.”

These specimens are fibrous, foliated and crystallized,

blended more or less. The fibrous has evidently formed
thin strata or veins between layers of loose incoherent slate
or slaty clay. In one of the specimens these layers alter-
nate, in their natural connexion with the gypsum, which be-
ing white and brilliant forms a pleasing contrast.
' One specimen, of a foliated structure, is blended, and still,
distinctly contrasted with, a bluish green clay. In this gyp-
sum, which is mainly white and beautiful, there are spots
and veins of ferruginous quartz—decidedly red, but not so
deeply stained with iron as to become opake, like that of
Compostella in Spain. The association is similar to that of
the Compostella quartz, so remarkable for the perfection of
the crystals; but in the present specimen the crystallization
is indistinct, and there are only traces of a regular form.

Vou. XVI.—No. 2. 91

378 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

The association of gypsum and salt is an established geo~
logical fact, and this adds only another instance. »oosiiiin

We are indebted to Lockport, and other places in the
state of New York, for splendid specimens of gypsum and
selenite, in most of the forms found in other countries.

20. Conchology of the United States.—The transactions
of the American Philosophical Society for 1827, contain a
valuable article upon the family of the Naiades by Mr. Isaac
Lea of Philadelphia ; in which are described eleven new
species of the genus Unio, and a new genus, named Symphy-
nota including eight species, four of which are new. The
distinctive character for Symphynota, is the testaceous con-
nexion of the two valves of the shell above the hinge. Mr.
Lea removes from the existing genera all the connate shells
without regard to the forms of their-teeth, with the belief,
that should this family be hereafter remodeled, it will present
only two natural genera; one having a testaceous connexion
of the valves, the other dispossessed of it. He suggests that
Symphynota will in all probability, embrace the Hyria of La-
arck, the Dipsas of Leach, and the Cristaria, Prisodon, and
Pazxyodon of Schumacher, whose species he thinks, when
they shall be found perfect, will turn out to be connate shells.

21, Nutural History in Canada.—-It affords us much
pleasure to announce to such of our readers as may be un-
acquainted with the fact, of the existence of two very flour-
ishing societies in Lower Canada, whose object is, mainly,
the promotion of natural history ; both of which were foun-
ded under the patronage of his excellency, the Earl of Dal-
housie, late governor of the British provinces in North Amer-
ica. One of these, ‘the Literary and Historical Society of
- Quebec,” has already commenced the publication of its
transactions, which, so far as they have come under our ob-
servation, appear both interesting and valuable in the eluci-
dations they afford of the mineralogy and geology of those
regions. ‘The other, called, “the Natural History Society of
Montreal,” from a printed report of their progress for one
year, in forming collections in the different departments of
natural history, promises to contribute eventually, no less for
the cause of science in Canada, than its sister society.

22. Swainson’s new zoological illustrations.—The fourth
number of this beautiful and highly finished work on natural

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 379

history, has just made its appearance in this country, the first
series consisting of 3 vols. royal, 8vo, is well known to the
scientific world, and in the present series the able author has
profited by his experience in the previous volumes.

The object of Mr. Swainson is to illustrate and describe
“ new, beautiful, or interesting animals, arranged according
to their natural affinity.” As the work has already been
embellished with some of the shells of this country, and it
being the intention of the author to devote a still greater
space to them, the work must become peculiarly interesting
to American naturalists. The admirers of natural history
will find in this work the most beautiful specimens of birds,
shells, insects, and fish, executed by the accomplished author
himself, in a style superior to any thing of the kind which has
been published in England. e sincerely wish him success
in this arduous and enterprising undertaking.

23. Cabinet of the late William Phillips.—We have re-
ceived a pamphlet of 82 pages 8vo, of which the following
is the title :—“ Catalogue of a rich and valuable cabinet of
MINERALS ; and, also, of a select CRYSTALLOGRAPHICAL CAB-
iNET, containing a great variety of curious crystals, to the
extent of some thousand specimens, with drawings and
measurements annexed ;—the property of the late Wittiau
PHILLIPS, F. RB. S., F. L. S., F. G. S., author of the “ Introduc-
tion to Mineralogy ;” and (jointly with the Rev. W. D. Co-
nybeare) of the “Geology of England and Wales:”—now
to be disposed of by private contract.” ‘“ Further particulars
may be had, by application to G. B. Sowrrsy, No. 156,
Regent street, London, to whom communications on the sub-
ject may be addressed.”

The “ Notice’’ prefixed to the catalogue contains the fol-
lowing information ;

“The collection of minerals, which forms the subject of
the following catalogue, was in part made by a Cornish gen-
tleman many years ago, and under very favorable circum-
stances: it isindebted for the remaining part, to the care and
judgment of the late William Phillips, whose devotion to the
science of mineralogy, during a period of many years is
well known.

“This collection, consisting of select specimens, embraces
nearly all the mineral substances now known, as well as very
many of their almost endless varieties. It is particularly

3

380 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

rich in crystalline forms; and, with few exceptions, furnish-
ed its late proprietor with the numerous varieties of crystals,
which are figured in the last edition of his mineralogy, as
well as the plates accompanying his papers on the oxide of
tin, red oxide of copper, &c. published in the Transactions
of the Geological Society.

“Of British, and more especially of Cornish, minerals, the
cabinet contains a large number of rare and ‘valuable spe-
cimens; amongst which may be particularly enumerated the
fluates of lime, the native and red oxide of copper, the ar-
seniates and phosphates of copper, the oxide of tin, and ma-
ny others; it contains, likewise, many very valuable foreign
specimens—as a reference to the catalogue will show.

“ The collection is now offered to the public, just as it was
left at the decease of its late proprietor; and, together with
a considerable crystallographical cabinet, will be sold entire.”

The contents of this uncommonly fine and rare cabinet
are contained, as we perceive by the catalogue, in one hun-
dred drawers. The specimens referred to and figured in the
authors excellent work on mineralogy, have numbers attach-
ed to them corresponding with the figures. Such a cabinet,
having such a relation to one of the best standard works on
the science of which it treats, will doubtless claim the atten-
tion of scientific institutions and amateurs of natural history.

24. Canada.—We are informed, that under the direction
of Col. Bouchette, of Quebec, so well known as the author
of a splendid geographical and statistical work and map,
which has been some years before the world, there wiil be
soon published, Topographical Maps of the province of
Lower Canada, exhibiting by districts the divisions and sub-
divisions, local ameliorations, and actual state of the settle-
ments of the colony, preceded by a general map of the Brit-
ish North American provinces.

This work is to be entirely of a public nature, and so cal-
culated, from the scale of its construction, and the mode of
its engraving, as to admit of future correction and ameliora-
tion, The growth of a new country is naturally rapid, and
the map, which to-day portrays it, with all possible detail,
must, in ten years hence, be deficient of that information
which might then be sought for. With a view to this object,
therefore, has the plan of the proposed topographical maps
been formed; a plan which will, at once, be found compre-

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 381

hensive and explanatory, admitting of the most elaborate
detail, and in the mean time conveying all the collective in-
formation at present desirable.

The whole work to consist of

First, A geographical map of the Canadas, New Bruns-
wick, and part of Nova Scotia, and a large section of the
United States of America, compiled with the greatest care
and precision from the latest surveys, and adjusted from the
most recent and approved astronomical observations, form-
ing a map of six feet by four feet. i

Second, A topographical map of the district of Montreal,
on a scale of two and three fourth miles to an inch, extending
westward to Fort Coulogne on the Ottawa River, and com-
prehending part of that section of Upper Canada traversed
by the Rideau Canal. ‘The map to be seven feet two inches
by three feet eight inches.

Third, A topographical map of the districts of Quebec
and Three Rivers, on the same scale, forming a map of
seven feet three inches by four feet three inches.

Fourth, A map of the district of Gaspé, on a scale of
eight miles to one inch. Length, two feet six inches by one
foot six inches,

Each map will be executed with all possible topographical
minuteness, indicating rivers, streams, roads, bridges, villa-
ges, settlements, churches, mills, &c. &c.

The maps to be accompanied by a descriptive work, in
three volumes, royal 8vo.

The 1st volume to contain a general geographical and
brief description of the British North American provinces,
and summaries of the statistical tables of Lower Canada, &c.

The 2d volume to be a topographical and statistical des-
ceription of the district of Montreal, tables, &c. embellished
with several landscapes. !

The 3d volume a topographical and statistical description
of the districts of Quebec, Three Rivers and Gaspé, with
tables, &&c. also embellished by several landscapes.

In each of the volumes will also be contained tables of
distances, post-routes, &c. &c. and a variety of other useful
information relative to each district. The whole to be pub-
lished under the immediate patronage of the local governor
and the legislature, and to be dedicated to the king.

The maps to be engraved by the most eminent English
artists.

382 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

Price of the whole work, maps, &c. seven guineas.

That of the geographical map, the ist volume of the
work, the district of Montreal, and the volume descriptive
thereof, five guineas.

The geographical map, the 1st volume of the work, the
districts of Quebec, Three Rivers, and Gaspé, and the vol«
ume descriptive thereof, five guineas and one fourth.

25. Remains of the Mammoth.—On Saturday, two tusks
of the Mammoth, brought home by Captain Beechy, were
exhibited, and described to the Wernerian Society, by
Professor Jameson. They are in fine preservation, and
not bent in one direction, but twisted spirally, like the horns
of some species of cows. The smallest, which is quite en-
tire, is nine feet nine inches in length ; the largest, which
wants a small part of the point, must have measured ori-
ginally twelve feet. Judging from analogy, Professor Jame-
son stated, that the mammoth to which the largest be-
longed, must have been fifteen or sixteen feet high, and con-
sequently larger than the elephant, which is an animal of the
same species. They were found on the west coast of America,
near Beering’s Straits, at Escholz Bay, latitude 66, in a very
remarkable bluff, which has been described by Kotzebue.—-
The bluff has a covering of earth and grass, but Kotzebue,
while encamped on it, having cut through the surface for
some purpose, was surprised to find, that what he took for a
portion of terra firma, was in reality a mountain ofice, a hun-
dred feet in height above the level of the water, but attach-
ed to the land, as such icebergs generally are. This discov-
ery led to another still more interesting. It was found that
this mass of ice had imbedded in it a vast number of the tusks,
teeth, and bones of the mammoth, of which the objects we
have described, are a part. These remains must have been
enclosed in the ice by the same catastrophe that buried the
mammoth, which was found entire in a singular envelope on
the banks of the Lena, thirty years ago ; and that catastro-
phe, beyond a doubt, was no other than the general deluge,
which extinguished the race of animals to which these remains
belonged. The bones, tusks, &c. were numerous, and some
parts of the ice near the place where they were deposited,
had a smell of decayed animal matter, arising, no doubt.
from the decomposition of the flesh. The tusks are in their

Intelligence and Miscellames. 383

natural state, but of two teeth which accompanied them, one
seems to be petrified, having doubtless been in contact with
stone. The mammoth seems to have been an inhabitant of
nearly the whole northern hemisphere, its teeth or bones hav-
ing been found on both sides of North America, in Siberia,
in England, Scotland, Italy, and other European countries.
The remains, however, found in Ayrshire, and in various
parts of England, belong toa smaller species than that which
furnished these tusks. ‘The Edinburgh Museum is indebted
for these valuable relics, to Lord Melville, who has never been
unmindful of its interests, when his official station enabled him
to do it a service.— Scotsman, Nov. 14.

Foreign extracts, by Prof. J. Griscom.

26. Two kinds of Sulphate of Manganese-—When black ox-
ide of manganese is treated with sulphuric acid (as in prepa-
ring oxygen gas) and the mother water is evaporated, two
kinds of sulphates are obtained, distinct in their physical as
well as chemical characters. One of these sulphates crys-
iallizes in long prisms with four faces, perfectly white, trans-
parent, and truncated obliquely at their extremities ;—the
other is in the form of rhomboids and of a rose color. The
first contains a greater proportion of oxide than the second,
and is composed of water 28, sulphuric acid 28.66, and ox-
ide of manganese 43.34. ‘The second is formed of water
44, of sulphuric acid 32, oxide of manganese 24. In the
latter, the sub. carb. of potash produces no change. In the
first it gives rise to a precipitate which appears to be a car-
bonated oxide of manganese, and which speedily becomes
brown by the action of the air—Ferussac’s Bulletin, Sept.
1828.

27. Preparation of Hydriodic Acid; by M. W. BranpEs.—
Dissolve 60 grains of iodine in a sufficient quantity of alcohol,
and add to it drop by drop, four ounces of water, in which
has been stirred an ounce of starch finely pulverised. When
the ioduret of starch has subsided, decant a portion of the
supernatant fluid: Into the remainder, pass a current of sul-
phuretted hydrogen; this gas soon produces an orange yellow
color, occasioned by the formation of sulphuret of iodine—the
color afterwards becomes a pure yellow, and finally disap-
pears entirely, the starch again becoming white. The liquid

384 - Intelligence and Miscellanies.

is then to be filtered ; the starch which remains on the filter is
washed with small quantities of water, and this being added
to the former liquid, the whole is gently heated, in order that
the hydro-sulphuric acid may be expelled It may be evapo-
rated to the spec. grav. of 1.5, and the hydriodic acid is thus
obtained pure.—Idem.

28. Pluranium—Two new metals have been discovered in
the platina of Oural in Russia, by M. Osann, to which he has
given the name of pluranium, (formed from the initials of pla-
tina and Ural,) and Ruthenium. (Ruthena, Russia.) The
process for obtaining the first has been published, and the
correctness of the inferences which determine the existence
of a new metal, has been confirmed by Berzelius—Idem.

29. Bichromate of Potash.—The solution of this salt, which
is used extensively in dyeing at the manufactory of Borrow-
field near Glasgow, was found to produce ulcerations upon
the hands of the workmen, which without extending much
on the surface had so remarkable a tendency to increase in
depth, that in one case it perforated the hand from side to
side. Some individuals were found to be much more easily
affected by it than others. Not only were the hands ulcera-
ted, but swelling of the face and inflammation of the eyes were
produced. Even the simple handling of the stuff, after it
came from the vat, was sufficient in the more susceptible
cases, to produce eruptions. Other solutions employed in
dyeing, occasion sometimes inflammations and various affec-
tions of the parts exposed. ‘Thus, the solution of chloride of
lime softens and sometimes destroys the nails and causes
painful excoriations.

Guided by these observations, Dr. Cumin camplayeed a sat
urated solution of bichromate of potash in the treatment of
warts and syphilitic excrescences. In some instances they
disappeared without any ulceration—in others, ulcers were
produced, but always circumscribed and easily cured, and in
these cases the remedy was more prompt. Dr. C., by this
application, in a short time, and without occasioning much
pain, cured a female of an immense number of warty erup-
tions, which had resisted all other means of treatment,—/dem
—Sept, 1828.

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 385

30. A solid compound of cyanogen and sulphur, in definite
proportions, has been obtained by M. Lassaigne. His pro-
cess is to put into asmall glass balloon some crystallized cy-
anuret of mercury in fine powder, and pour upon it half its
weight of bichloride of sulphur. In the course of twelve or
fifteen days, in a diffuse light, it sublimes in the neck of the
glass, which is kept shut, and forms small crystals—white,
transparent, or of a rhomboidal shape and highly refractive.
These crystals when sublimed, have a strong, penetrating
odor, exciting tears. A small fragment, placed on the
tongue, occasions a most pungent sensation, and the spot
which has been touched soon becomes red and painful.

One of their characters is to produce, with the per salts of
iron, a red color altogether similar to that produced by the
sulpho-cyanic acid: Agreeably to the author’s analysis, this
compound is formed of four atoms of cyanogen and one
atom of sulphur.—Idem.

31. Citric Acid from Gooseberries.—M. Tilloy, of Dijon, has
obtained from about 6200 lbs. of gooseberries, about 47 Ibs.
of citric acid, and 48 gallons of alcohol at 20. The cost of
the gooseberries and other materials, labor, &c. was 227
francs; and the value of the alcohol was 91 francs. The
balance 136 francs, brought the cost of the citric acid to
about 3 francs per lb. whereas its value in the market is 12
francs per lb.

The juice of the gooseberries is fermented and distilled,—
the materials of the still are then pressed and strained, and
while the fluid is warm it is saturated with chalk, and the
citrate of lime, being well washed, pressed, and diluted with
water so as to bring it to a clear creamy mass, it is decom-
posed by sulphuric acid, diluted with twice its weight of wa-
ter, and by the aid of heat. The liquid acid thus resulting,
is again saturated with carbonate of lime, the precipitate
strained and well washed is again decomposed, and being
deprived of its color by animal charcoal is finally evaporated.
The crystals being colored and clarified by claying as in re-
fining sugar. ‘They are redissolved and again crystallized.—
Idem.

32. Medical uses of Gold.—Preparations of this metal, as
a substitute for those of mercury, in the treatment of ven-
ereal diseases, were introduced, or at least, more exten-
Vor. XVI.—No. 2 22

386 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

sively employed, some years since, in consequence of the re-
commendation of Dr. Chrestien of Montpelier. Contradict-
ory statements of its value have been since published by phy-
sicians in different parts of Europe and America. Magendie,
in the latter editions of his formulary is unfriendly to the uses
of gold, as a remedy in syphilis, but it does not appear
that he judges of it by his own experience. Dr. Le Grand,
of Amiens, in an octavo volume, published in 1828, main-
tains the opinion that the employment of gold is the most
efficacious and least dangerous means of combating syphi-
lis. The volume contains a mass of near 400 observations,
all favorable to its employment.

Dr. Chrestien, has also addressed, within the past year, a
letter to Magendie, on the different modes of preparing and
administering gold, 8vo. 79 pp. 2 fr.

“This pamphlet,” says the reviewer, ‘written with the
dignity worthy of a practitioner, almost a septuagenarian,
written to a brother professor, placed in so elevated a sphere,
is of such a nature as to induce the honorable academician,
to modify the opinion which he may hereafter give of aurif-
erous preparations. We have no doubt that if he will make
trial of it, he will become one of its partisans and most zeal-
ous defenders.”——Rev. Ency. Nov. 1828. .

33. A Congress of Savans, assembled on the 18th of Sep-
tember, 1828, at Berlin, under the favor and patronage of
the King of Prussia The whole number assembled on the
occasion was four hundred and sixty-seven, of whom three
hundred and twenty-four were Prussians, one hundred and
nine Germans, and thirty-four were from different States of
Europe, including France, England, Holland, and Russia.

The session was opened by a discourse from Alexander
De Humboldt, President, in which he stated the object of
the convocation, and pointed out the advantages of such a
union of the friends of science, from different parts of the
world, and its influence on the discovery and propagation of
useful truths.

The mecting was continued during a week. Committees
were appointed on Astronomy, Geography, Chemistry, Min-
eralogy, Botany, Zoology, Anatomy, Physiology, and Medi-
cine. Some of the discourses have been printed, ameng
which are those of A. De Humboldt, at the opening of the
congress, and a memoir of M. Reinwardts, of Leyden, upon

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 387

the character of the vegetable kingdom in the Indian Archi-
pelago.

The session was closed by a speech of the President’s,
and it was decided that the Congress should be convoked
the next year at Heidelburg.—Rev. Enc. Nov. 1828.

34. On the detection of Potash by the oxide of Nickel—
As the method of Harkorts for the detection of potash is
but little known to chemists, and as it promises great advan-
tages, especially in mineralogy, we think it right to state
what Berzelius says of it in the new edition of his treatise
on the blow pipe, about to appear. According to this che-
mist, the method of Harkorts has answered perfectly to the
trials to which he had subjected it, to ascertain its correct-
ness. It is sufficient to dissolve the oxide of Nickel in bo-
rax, and to add to the vitreous matter a little nitre, feldspar,
or any potassuretted substance, to obtain immediately a
glass of a very distinct blue color. The presence of soda
does not prevent this reaction. Among the preparations of
Nickel, we may employ the nitrate or oxalate of this metal.
It must not however contain cobalt, as that gives the glass
a brown color.—Ferrusac’s Bull. Juillet, 1828.

35. Description of a very simple Apparatus for saturating
any liquid with gas and without loss of the fluid, by M. Hes-~
sel.—The gas is to be enclosed in a bladder, which is to be
connected by a hollow cylinder with an elastic tube, (a gut,
or something of that kind.) This tube is to be adapted to
a bottle containing the fluid to be impregnated, and which is
not to be quite full of the liquid. In the neck of the bottle
adjust a cork pierced with two holes, into one of which fas-
ten a tube, which shall pass downward into the fluid, and
over the hole place a valve opening upwards.

When the bladder is pressed, the gas passes through the
tube into the fluid, and rising to the top, it ascends through
the valve to be again pressed downwards into the fluid, until
the absorption is complete.—/bid.

36. Memoir on the Chloride of Lime, by M. Morin, Ann de
Chimie and de Phys. Fev. 1828.—The author, in saturating
hydrate of lime by gaseous chlorine, has found the following
results.

ca)

388 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

Hydrates formed of
2 lime and 1 water, absorb 1-2 chlorine

2 “i 1 do.

2 3 1 do.

1 do.

The second only of these chlorides should therefore be em-
ployed in the arts, as pointed out before by Wetter. The au-
thor has further observed that when the action takes place
in the cold, the chlorine remains entirely in the state of
chloride of oxide, but with heat, ene third or more of chlo-
rine cease to react as chloride of oxide; and if we after-
wards apply heat to this solution, the two remaining thirds
of the chlorine cease also to be in the condition of chloride
of lime, by disengaging an equal volume of oxygen. All
the chlorine of the chloride of lime prepared in the cold, un-
dergoes a like modification, by disengaging the half of its
volume of oxygen, and by transforming itself into chloride
of calcium, and chlorate of lime.—/dem.

37. Alcohol._—By distilling alcohol of 98 1-2 per cent. by
a gentle heat, and receiving the products of the distillation
successively in small flasks, numbered and of equal size,
it was found that

Density.
The ist portion which passed had 0.7972 or 97.86 per cent
ad x " 0.7970
3d < 4 0.7969
4th fl 4 0.7966
5th 7 s 0.7965
6th 7 0.7964
7th i + 0.7962
8th i i 0.7959
Mean, 98.32 per cent.

It thus clearly appears that absolute alcohol is less volatile
than that which contains a portion, of water, and that when
the degree of 97 per cent. is passed, the weakest alcohol
goes off first, and the strongest last, consequently the vol-
atility of alcohol is not in proportion to its specific levity or
its anhydrous condition.—Jdem.

38. Rapidity of the Circulation of the Blood.—A solution
of ferruretted hydrocyanate of Potash, introduced into the
jugular vein of the horse, entered the circulation and arrived

Intelligence and Miscellames. 389

at the opposite jugular in an interval of from twenty to
twenty-five seconds. It arrived in twenty-three to thirty
seconds in the opposite external thoracic vein, in twenty
seconds at the large saphena vein, in fifteen to thirty seconds
in the masseterine artery ; in ten to fifteen and in twenty to
twenty-six seconds in the external maxillary artery, and from
twenty to twenty-five and from twenty-five to thirty seconds
in the artery of the metatarsus, in each case on the side op-
posite to that of the injection. Experiment by E. Herring,
of Stutgard—Ferrusac’s Bull, July, 1828.

39. Remarkable phenomenon in a medicinal compound.—
M. Ehrenberg, apothecary at Cannern, having, agree-
ably to the prescription of a physician, made a solution of
acetate of potash in cinnamon water, found twenty-four
hours afterwards, that the solution exhaled a decided odor
of hydrocyanic acid. Thinking that some mistake had
been made in the preparation, he renewed it and obtained
the same result. M. Blei, apothecary at Pemberg, has also
confirmed the fact.—Fer. Bul. Sep. 1828.

40. Discovery of iodine in the ore of zinc.—It is known
that M. Vauquelin is the first who discovered iodine in the
mineral kingdom. He found this simple substance in some
silver ores from the neighberhood of Mexico, and according
to M. Del Rio, these mineral are found in the province of
Zacatecas. M. Bustamente has since found indications of
it in an ash colored lead ore, from the mines of Catorce.
Lastly, M. Mentzel has just proved the presence of iodine
in an ore of zinc from Upper Silesia.—Fer. Bull. Nov. 1828.

41. Size of the grains of native platina—The cabinets
of Europe scarcely contained any grains of native platina
larger than a line in diameter until M. Humboldt brought
one from South America weighing 1088 grains. This was
the largest known until 1822, when the Museum of Madrid
was enriched with a native specimen two inches and four
lines in diameter, weighing eleven thousand six hundred
and forty-one grains, obtained from the gold washings of
Condoto. But these have been outdone by a mass from the
mines of Demidoff, in Oural, proved by Professor Lubarsky
of St. Petersburgh, in 1823, to be native platina, containing
an alloy of iridium and osmium. It weighs four thousand

390 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

three hundred and twenty kilogrammes, about nine and a
half pounds avoirdupois.—Idem.

42. Observations on the evaporation of ice, by M. Schueb-
ler.—It results from these observations that the evaporation
of ice is much more considerable than is generally imagin-
ed, and that under certain circumstances, it may surpass
that of water. In adry cold air on the 9th of January, the
evaporation from ice in twenty four hours, was twice as great
as from an equal surface of water in the middle of February,
during mild and cloudy weather. We may perceive from
this the manner in which snow disappears gradually by long
exposure to a cold atmosphere.—IJéid.

43. Swiftness of Sound.—At the temperature of melting
ice, the experiments of

Parry and Foster give 333.15 metres
Moll and Van Beck 332.00
Stampfer and Myrbach 333.25
Arago, Matthieu, and Biot 331.05
Benzenberg Sasem0
Mean, 332.64
Idem.

44. On the colored flame of Alcohol, by Prof. Vogel of Mu-
nich.—After mentioning the experiments of Brewster, Pal-
lot, Herschell, Blackadder, &c., the Professor entertained
the assembly with the yellow, red, and green flames of Alco-
hol. The yellow was produced by kindling alcohol on salts
with bases of ammonia, soda, manganese, iron, mercury,
platina, gold, nickel, cobalt, and bismuth. A red flame was
obtained from salts with bases of lime, strontian, lithia or
magnesia. On the salts of copper, uranium, or alumine,
the flame is green. ‘The salts should all be soluble in alco-
hol. A green flame is also produced in burning the solution
of boracic acid and alcohol, or from weak hydrochloric
ether. The oxid of copper, according to M. Vogel, is re-
duced, by burning alcohol, into protoxide and metallic cop-
per, the green flame itself containing copper.—Ferrusac's
Bull. Nov. 1828.

45. Electricity of the Tourmaline—We have announced
that, according to M. Becqueret, the fragments of the tour-

Vou, XVI. No. 2.
Page 391, line 21 from top, for burning read becoming.

Tatelligence and Miscellanies. 391

maline are more electric by heat than the entire tourmaline,
and that when the latter is very long, it cannot acquire the
pyro-electric virtue. We were then ignorant that M. Brews-
ter had made analagous experiments under date of Aug. 2d,
1824. The following are the expressions of the Scotch phi-
losopher: ‘In examining the electricity of the tourmaline.
I have found that it is much more easily observed with a small
fragment broken from any part of the prism. The experi-
ment succeeds better when the fragment has its faces perpen-
dicular to the axis of the crystal. When such a fragment is
placed on a glass and heated to a boiling temperature, the
fragment adheres to the glass with so much force that on in-
veiting it, the fragment remains suspended during six or
eight hours. In this manner, pieces of considerable thick-
ness and surface are capable of supporting their own
weight. He adds further, that the dust of the tourmaline
adheres ina mass when heated on a glass, and stirred with a
dry substance.—Ferussac’s Bulletin, Nov. 1828.

46. New method of preserving Crystallized Salts; by M.
Deuchar.—Agreeably to the statement of the author, salts
may be prevented from efflorescing or burning liquid, by
charging the air of the vessel in which they are kept with the
vapor of the spirits of turpentine. It is sufficient for this
purpose to pour a very small quantity on the bottom of the
vessel.—Ibid.

47. Conversion of potatoe jlour into nutritious bread.—M.
Darcet proposes, in order to render the bread of potatoe flour
as palatable and nutritious as that of wheat, that some animal
substance should be added to the mixtures, and this he finds
may be gelatine, or caseous matter. In 1821 he proposed
to add gelatine to wheat flour for the purpose of making a
more nutritious biscuit for the use of the navy, and some of
these were prepared under his direction for the voyage of
circumnavigation now under the command of M. De Durville.
The wheat flour used by the bakers of Paris, contains about,

W ater, - - - - - 10
Gluten, - : : - - 10
Starch, - - - - - ae
Saccharine matter, - - - - - 4
Gummo-glutinous matters, 5 = = 3

392 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

Potatoes, .obtained in the market, contain per hundred

weight, Water, - - - - 72
Ligneous fibre, - Bi taht - 2
Starch, - - - - 26

100

To bring potatoes to a near equality with wheat flour, in
relation to bread, there must therefore be added to 100 parts
of potatoe flour, 4.63 of animal, and 1.53 of saccharine mat-
ter. In mixing these three substances, we should evidently
obtain a flour as nutritive, and as easy to be converted into
bread, as the flour of grain.

To prepare 100 kilogrammes of animalized potatoe flour,

take 264 kilogrammes of potatoes, worth - 4.95 francs.
Coal for dressing these potatoes by steam, .66
12 kilogrammes of gelatine, - - - 12.00

A kilogrammes of grape, or other sugar, - 2.00
Manual labor in cooking and mixing the
materials, - - - - 4,00
Add one tenth for all other expenses, - 2.36
25.97 or 26 fr.
This mixture rises like wheat flour, and makes good bread.
The cost of 100 kilog. of good wheat bread at Paris, is 60
franks, and it appears that the same quantity of animalized
potatoe bread can be made for less than one half that sum.
Weshall give in the next number of our Journal, a note
explanatory of the process employed by M. Darcet, in ex-
tracting gelatine from bones with facility and economy.
LT’ Industriel Fev. 1829.

48. Means of detecting the purity of chromate of potash.
Add to the sample to be tried, a great excess of tartaric acid.
The chromate is immediately decomposed, and the liquid
acquires, in the course of ten minutes, a deep amethystine
color, and then no longer forms a’ precipitate with nitrate of
barytes, or nitrate of silver, when the chromate of potash is
pure ; while these reagents will indicate the slightest traces
of sulphate or hydro-chlorate contained in the liquid. A ne-
cessary precaution is to have the solution of the chromate
sufficiently diluted not to precipitate tartrate of potash, which
it will do if not diluted with sixty parts of water at least ; and
the solution cannot be assayed until the amethystine hue is
wellestablished, otherwise the decomposition is not complete.
——Idem.

2

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 393

49. Decoloring action of Charcoal.—An elaborate me-
moir on this subject, by Mr. Bussy, which obtained the prize
proposed by the Society of Pharmacy, of Paris, contains the
following results :

1. That the decoloring property inherent in charcoal,
manifests itself only when the charcoal is in certain physical
conditions, among which, porosity and division hold the first
rank,

2. That the azote is devoid of effects ; that the foreign
substances which the charcoal contains exert no decoloring
action, with the exception of sulphuretted hydrogen, and the
sulphurets under some circumstances only: if the foreign mat-
ters appear to have an influence in the decoloration, it is oc-
casioned by the development of surface merely in conse-
quence of the mixture.

3. That no charcoal can discolor when it has been heated
so strongly as to become hard and brilliant; that all its varieties
on the contrary enjoy this property, when they are sufficient-
ly divided,—not by mechanical action, but by the interposi-
tion of some substance which opposes their aggregation.

4, That the superiority of animal charcoal, such as that
of blood, or gelatine, arises from its great porosity ; which
-may be considerably increased by the effect of matter with
which it is calcined, such as potash.

5. That potash is not limited in its effect of increasing
the porosity of the charcoal, by the abstraction of the for-
eign substances it may contain, but it acts on the char-
coal itself, in attenuating its molecules, and that by calcining
vegetable substances with potash, a decoloring charcoal may
be obtained ; add also by the calcination of vegetable, or an-
ima] matters, with phosphate of lime or clay.

6. That the decoloring force of different charcoals, ascer-
tained with respect to one substance, generally follows the
same order in all others ; but that the diflerence betweenthem
diminishes in proportion to the difficulty of decoloration in
the different liquids on which they are tried.

7. That charcoal acts upon coloring materials by combi-
ning with them without decomposing them, as alumine would
do, and that, in some cases the color can be made alternately
to appear and disappear.

8. The the following are the relative numerical forces of
the decoloring power of the charcoals employed, first, upon

Vor. XVI.—No. 2. 23

394 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

a test solution of indigo, and secondly, upon a test of dilu-

ted molasses. ; Indigo. Molasses.

Blood calcined with potash, . - 50 20
Blood calcined with chalk, - - 18 11
Blood calcined with phosphate of lime, 12 10
Gelatine calcined with potash, - - 36 15.5
Albumen calcined with potash, -— - 34 15.5
Fecula calcined with potash, - - 10.6 8.8
Charcoal of acetate of potash, -— - 5.6 4.4
Charcoal obtained by the decomposition of

sub-carbonate of soda by phosphorus, 12. 8.8
Lampblack calcined, - - = 3 pte ge he

do. calcined with potash, - - 15.2 10.6
Charcoal of bones treated with muratic

acid and potash. - - - 45. 20.
Charcoal of bonestreated with muriaticacid, 1.87 1.6
Vegetable or animal oil calcined with phos-

phate of lime, bi eal - - 2. 1.9
Charcoal of bones—crude, - - is di.

Idem.

50. Manufactory of diamonds.—Several accounts of the
crystallization of pure carbon by artificial means and the
consequent formation of diamonds possessing the hardness,
transparency and refractive power of that most valuable of
all the gems, have been published in the journals, and have
attracted public attention. But on the 24th of Nov. last
M. Thenard stated to the academy of sciences, that in con-
junction with Dumas and Cagniard de la Tour, he had care-
fully analysed these crystals, and had ascertained that they
were only silicates and not artificial diamond.—Ann. de
Chim. Nov. 1828.

51. Leeches.—In a journal entitled the Westphalian Indi-
cator, a physician states a case in which leeches that had
been employed on a person affected with syphilis, were af-
terwards used on a child and communicated to the infant
the same disease. Hence, when leeches are used a second
time, care should be taken with respect to the nature of the
disease of the person on whom they are at first employed.*—
Fer. Bul. Jan. 1828.

* Dr. Salle of Fontainbleu, proposes as a means of economising leeches, to
cut them in two while in the act of suction. The anima), notwithstanding this
operation continues to draw blood, and it can be made to fall at pleasure by put-
ting on the adhering part some salt or tobacco.

Intelligence and Miscellanies. | 395

52. Chloride of lime in psora.—M. Derheims proposes
the following solution as a cure for itch.
Chloride of lime, - - 3 ounces.
Distilled water, - - - 1 pint.
. Dissolve and filter, and use it asa lotion on the thighs,
legs and arms, two or three times a day. From six to ten
days treatment will be sufficient.—Jdem.

53. Iron furnaces in England and Scotland.—The num-
ber of high furnaces in 1740 was but fifty nine. This num-
ber has been increased as follows,

1740, 59 furnaces producing 17.000 tons.

io oe sod ae St 68.000 “
Wow ey Geis eh SS ee 129.0000 7"
1806, es “ 250.000 ‘‘
1820, 7 a 400.000 ‘
SZ Zea ys 690.000 “

Of the two hundred eighty four furnaces last mentioned,
ninety five are in Staffordshire, and ninety in South Wales.

54, New process for obtaining gallic acid, by M. Le
Roger.—Exhaust the soluble matter from the gall nut by
repeated decoctions: add to these concentrated decoctions
a solution of gelatine, which precipitates the tannin; filter ;
add very pure animal carbon—boil during eight or ten min-
utes; filter again, and then by evaporation and cooling,
crystals of gallic aeid will be obtained, of a silky texture,
and perfectly white. Gall nuts of the first quality furnish
by this method, the fourth of their weight of acid; whereas,
by the process of Braconnot, they yield only a fifth Mem.
de Phys. de Geneva. 23, p. 79.

55. Action of iodine on protochloride of mercury, by
Planche and Soubeiran.— When iodine and protochloride of
mercury are triturated together with water, decomposition
ensues, and there are formed deutochloride and ioduret of
mercury.—Jour. de Pharm. 1826.

56. Note on anew method of preparing the deutoxide of
barium, by M. Quesneville, fils—Having obtained, in a sim-
ple manner, the deutoxide of barium, I think it right to
make known the process, because being less expensive than
that which is followed, it will enable chemists to procure at

396 — Intelligence and Miscellanies.

a cheaper rate, the oxigenated water, the employment of
which will then become more common.

The method which I follow is this: I take nitrate of ba-
rytes, which I put into a porcelain retort, to which I lute a
Welter’s tube, and extend the latter under an inverted jar
of water. I then gradually heat the retort, and maintain it
at a red heat, as long as any nitrous acid and azotic gases
are disengaged, which indicates that a portion of nitrate of
barytes remains to be decomposed; but from the moment
that the oxygen gas passes perfectly pure, I remove the fire
and let the retort coo]. The product of this decomposition
is a deutoxide of barium, which possesses all its known prep-
erties, among which is that of slacking with water without
being heated, of disengaging oxygen, when boiled in that
fluid, and of being brought to the state of protoxide by a
strong heat. Its purity is easily proved by treating it with
sulphuric acid, for no disengagement of nitric acid ensues.
Pure nitric acid does not disengage deutoxide of azote. We
may thus obtain a deutoxide of barium, as well charged with
oxygen, and as pure, as that which is procured by the other
process. Its formation is, in fact, very natural; the protox-
ide of barium, finding itself in contact with a great quantity
of oxygen gas in the nascent state, combines with it and re-
tains it, if the heat be not too great, afterwards to disengage
it.— Annales de Chimie, g-c. Sept. 1827.

57. Precipitation of albumen by phosphoric acid.—Ber-
zelius and Engelhart have discovered that phosphoric acid,
prepared by dissolving phosphorus in nitric acid, evaporating
the solution in a platina vessel and heating it to redness,
would, when dissolved in water, precipitate both vegetable
and animal albumen very abundantly, but that the power of
the acid to cause this precipitation, diminished from day to
day, and was entirely lost in the course of afew days. The
same effects in all points ensued .with phosphoric acid ob-
tained by burning phosphorus in a bell glas, and dissolving
the acid thus formed in water. This change in the acid
took place as well in closed vessels of glass or platina as in
open vessels, nor was it accelerated by ebullition.

The power of precipitation was renewed by evaporation
and heating to redness, but was again lost in the course of a
day. ‘The cause of this phenomenon, (Berzelius observes,)
it was impossible to discover.—Jdem.

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 397

58. New fulminating powder.—Two parts of nitrate pot-
ash, two of the neutral carbonate of potash, one of sulphur
and six of marine salt, all finely powdered, produce a ful-
minating mixture of great energy, the explosive force of
which has the peculiar property of being continually directed
downward !—Ferrussac’s Bulletin, Aout 1828.

59. New compounds of silica and potash, by M. Fuchs.—
The best method of obtaining this combination is the fol-
lowing. Melt together 10 parts of carbonate of potash, 15
of pure quartz and 1 of carbon. The melted mass after
having been reduced to powder is subjected to the action of
4 or 5 parts of boiling water, which dissolves it slowly, but
almost entirely. ‘The solution is evaporated to the consis-
tency of 1.24 sp. gr. It then presents itself under the form
of a viscid, opaline liquid, which by further evaporation ei-
ther spontaneously or by heat, is converted into a solid vi-
treous transparent mass, fixed in the air, and perfectly simi-
lar to glass, except that it is less hard.

This substance has an alkaline reaction; it scarcely dis-
solves in cold water, but easily in boiling water. Exposed
for some weeks to the air, it attracts moisture, which grad-
ually penetrates it, without lessening much its aggregation.
The surface merely splits and is covered with powder. Al-
cohol precipitates the aqueous solution. Acids decompose
it in the same manner as the liquor of flints; many salts
form with it insoluble precipitates. This new silicate of
potash is composed of 62 parts of silica, 26 of potash and
12 of water. It may be employed as a covering of wood
and other objects, to preserve them from fire, or as a substi-
tute for lute in the laboratory.—Jdem.

60. Marine salt.—If a concentrated solution be exposed
to a temperature of 8° or 9° Reaumur, fine crystals may be
obtained, which are often an inch or more in length. Ina
cold atmosphere they effloresce,—but with heat they liquify
in their water of crystallization.—Jdem.

61. Delicate test of oxygen in a gaseous mxture.—
Fill a flask or bottle with a ground stopper with hot wa-
ter. Boil it by placing it on a plate of sheet iron and ap-
plying underneath a spirit lamp, and then add 5 per cent
of green vitriol recently prepared, and continue for an in-

398 Intelligence and Miscellanies.

stant the ebullition. Then add to the solution still warm,
ammonia till there is an excess. Stop the bottle and wait
until the precipitate is entirely formed. Then decant the li-
quid by means of a glass tube, wash the precipitate with wa-
ter previously boiled, and lastly, fill the bottle with warm
alcohol.

When this protoxide is used, a small spoonfull of it is to
be rapidly withdrawn, and put into a vessel filled with water,
deprived of its air by boiling. Into this vessel the gas to be
examined must be passed. If it contain one part of oxygen
in a thousand, its presence will be indicated by the ochreous
color assumed by the reagents.—_Idem.

62. Optical amusements.—Pierce a card with a small hole,
and holding it before a window or white wall, a pin being
held between the eye and the card will be seen on the other
side of the orifice inverted and enlarged. The reason of
this phenomenon as M. Lecat has observed, is, that the eye
sees only the image of the pin on the retina; and since the
light which is arrested by the head of the pin, comes from
the lower part of the window or wall, while that which is
stopped by the lower end of the pin comes from the upper
part, the image must necessarily appear inverted relatively
to the object.

The phenomena of the mirage may be completely imita-
ted, as Dr. Wollaston has shown, by directing one’s observa-
tion to a distant object along an iron bar heated to redness,
or through a saline or saccharine solution, covered with al-
cohol.

The following experiment, suggested by Dr. Brewster, ex-
plains’ very agreeably the formation of halos :

Put a few drops of a saturated solution of alum on a piece
of glass; it will rapidly crystallize in small octahedral plates,
searcely visible to the naked eye. When this is held between
the eye and the sun, or a lamp, the eye being nearer the
smooth surface of the glass, three beautiful halos of light will
appear, at different distances from the luminous body. The
interior halo, which is the whitest, is formed by the images
refracted by two of the surfaces of the crystals, but little in-
clined to each other. The second halo, whose colors are
finer, is formed by two faces more inclined ; and the third,
which is very large, and highly colored, is formed by two fa-
ces still more inclined. The same effects may be obtained

Intelligence and Miscellanies. 399

with other crystals, and each halo will be either double when
the refraction is considerable, or modified by various colors,
when the refraction is weak. The effects may be varied ina
curious manner, by crystallizing on the same piece of glass,
salts of a determinate color. By this means, halos white and
colored succeed each other.—Bulletin technilogique Aout,
—1828.

63. Corroswe Sublimate.—At the common temperature,
four parts of ether dissolve one part of corrosive sublimate ;
but by taking equal parts of camphor and sublimate, it re-
quires but three parts of ether for solution. By increasing
the proportion of the camphor, we have the following results:
4 parts of ether with 4 of camphor, dissolve 2 parts of sublimate.
4 co 66 66 8 66 66 4. 66 66
4 66 66 66 16 66 66 8 66 66
3 parts alcohol, common temperature, dissolve 1 part of sub-
limate ; in adding to the latter, only the half of its weight of
camphor, one and a half part of alcohol is sufficient for the
solution.—Fev. Bul. Mars. 1818.

64. On the Gossamer Spider, by Mr. Bowman.—Several
of these little insects were arrested in their flight, and placed
upon the brass gnomon of a sun-dial: in a short time they
prepared for their aerial voyage. Having crawled about to
reconnoitre, they at last turned their abdomens from the cur-
rent of air, and elevated them almost perpendicularly, sup-
porting themselves solely on the claws of their fore legs ; at
the same instant shooting out four or five, often six or eight,
extremely fine webs, several yards long, which waved in the
breeze, diverging from each other like a pencil of rays, and
strongly reflecting the sunbeams. After the insects had re-
mained stationary in this apparently unnatural position for
about half a minute, they sprung off from the stage with
considerable agility, and launched themselves into the air.
In a few seconds after, they were seen sailing .majestically
along, without any apparent effort ; their legs contracted
together, and lying perfectly quiet on their backs, suspended
from their silken parachutes, and presenting to the lover ofna-
ture a far more interesting spectacle than the balloon of the
philosopher. ‘“ One of these natural aéronauts I followed,”
says Mr. Bowman, “ which, sailing in the sunbeams, had two

400 Intelhgence and Miscellanies.

distinct and widely diverging fasciculi of webs ; and their
position in the air was such, that a line uniting them would
have been at right angles with the direction of the breeze.
—Magazine of Natural History.

65. OBITUARY OF. DR. JOHN GORHAM.

Continued life, and long life, are intensely desired by most
men, although with the inevitable condition, that we must
see our friends fall around us; and if we attain to old age,
only here and there one of our early associates will remain.
Happy indeed are we, if, by the time when our shadows be-
gins to lengthen towards the east, we do not find, that most
of the friends of our youth have gone before us, and left us
solitary mourners. These reflections, replete with interest,
as to the present and the future, have been painfully forced up-
on the writer, by the death of an eminent early associate and
friend, Dr. John Gorham, M. D. of Boston. Distinguished as a
physician, as an author, and as a professor of science ;—as
aman, lovely and beloved, even far beyond the limits of his
own endeared family ; a graceful and polished ornament, of
a community, conspicuous for intelligence and refinement ;
—we are grieved that such an individual should be stricken
from life, when, in distinguished usefulness and honor, he was
but just passing its meridian ; and we can only submit in si-
lence, where we cannot understand, and must not repine.—
I may perhaps be permitted to add, that among the succes-
sive periods of my earlier years, few are remembered with so
much satisfaction, as that passed at Edinburgh, in 1805 and
1806, in intimate domestic association with the lamented
Gorham, and his respected survivor.* The loss is severe
to the community of which he was a member; and to his
family and friends, irreparable. We look, with much inter-
est, for a printed notice of him, from the pen of the accom-
plished gentleman, who, on the funeral occasion, pronounc-
ed his merited eulogy.

* The Rev. Dr. Codman, now of Dorchester ; Dr. Gorham, Dr. Codman.
and the writer occupied the apartments of one house, and assembled at the
same table, and that, (according to the custom of Edinburgh.) exclusively theiv
own ; never were associates more harmonious.

INDEX TO VOL. XVI.
s a

A
Aerolite of Virginia, description of, 191
Affinity, influence of quantity of matter upon, 234
Albumen, precipitation of, by phosphoric acid, 396
Alcohol, 388
action of sulphuric acid upon, 267
colored flame of, 390
—— from succulent and farinaceous plants, 173
Algebraic solution, 271
Allinson S. on the atomic weight of mercury, 183
Alum soda, of Milo, 203
Alumine, its use with pigments, 173
Ammonia, effect of, in cases of poison, 182
Analysis of chrysolite in the Virginia aerolite, 196
of meteoric iron, 201
G- ce of Louisiana, 217
Antiparos, description of, 336
Argillite embracing anthracite, 299
Artificial diamonds, 394
Atmosphere, carbonic acid of, 214
Aurora borealis, speculations upon, 290
tb

Balsam copaiva, new preparation of, 40
- Barium, deutoxide of, new mode of preparing, 395
Beck, L. C. Dr. on iron in salt springs, 187
Bell, B. strictures by,on Mr. Du Commun’s hypothesis, 51
Bichromate of potash, 384
Birds of N. America, Audubon’s work upon, 355
Blasting of rocks, improvement in, 372
Blood, rapid circulation of, 388
Botany, uniform nomenclature in, 376
Brandes, Dr. on shooting stars, 20
Bronzite, locality of, 185
Cc
Cabinet of William Phillips, 379
Calendar of vegetation, 48
Canada, natural history in, 378
— new maps of, 381
Carbonic acid of the atmosphere, 214
Carpenter, G. W. on balsam copaiva, 40
*¢ chloride of lime, 177
“¢ peruvian bark, 28

Chalcedony, 375
Charcoal, decoloring action of, 393

Chemical instruments, new ones, 293

——— action, measurement of, 215

Chester county cabinet of Natural History, 374 _
Chloride of lime, 387

Chloride of lime, use of, 177

Chloride of lime in psora, 395

Chromate of potash, when pure, 392

Chrysolite in Virginia aerolite, 192

Church, Dr. on ammonia in cases of poison, 182
Citric acid in gooseberries, 385

Collections in natural history, 368

Vor. XVI.—No, 2. 24

402 INDEX.

Columbite, discovery of, in Massachusetts, 220
Comets, observations of, 94

Common salt crystals of, 377

Commun, J. Du, on his hypothesis of volcanos, 51
Conchology of the United States, 378

Congress of Savans, 386 '
Cooper’s rotative piston, 313

Corrosive sublimate, 399

Crystallized salts, how preserved, 394

Cyanic acid, 258

Cyanogen and sulphur, 385

— perchioride of, 257

D
Dearborn, H. A. S. Gen. on the North American lakes, 78
Diamonds, artificial, 394

Eaton, Prof. on the number five, 172

— on alcohol from farinaceous plants, 173
on argillite, 299

Education, 209

Hlectricity of the tourmaline, 390

Expeditions, polar, history of, 124

F
Fenn on the manufacture of glass, 112
Fibrous gypsum, 377
Field, M. Gen. meteorological remarks by, 288
Finch, J. on the boundaries of Empires, 99
Fish and Lizards in extraordinary circumstances, 41
Five, the favorite number in nature, 172
Fluxions, a discourse upon, 53
: solution of a problem in, 283
Fraunhofer, life of, 304
Fulminating powder, a new kind of, 397

Gallic acid, new mode of obtaining, 395

Galvanic protection, by different metals, 263
trough, new one, 215

Geography, physical, effects of, 99

Geology of the gold regionin North Carolina, t

Glass, ancient, from Milo, 331

ou the manufactory of, 112

Gold, medical uses of, 385

mines of North Carolina, 360

Goodrich, J. letters from, 345

Gorham, J. Dr. obituary of, 400

Gossamer spider, 399

Gout, use of Iodine in, 176

Griscom, Prof. translations by, 257

Hare, R. Prof. new chemical instruments by, 298
Hassler’s theodolite, 252
—F. R. plan for a survey of the coast of the United States by, 225
Hayes, A. A. on alumine with pigments, 173
—— on a scarlet pigment, 174
Hydriodic acid, mode of preparing, 583
High rock of Saratoga, 341
Hiidreth, S. P. meteorological observations by, 44
Hitchcock, Prof., discovery of tin in Massachusetts by, 188

INDEX. 403

I
ice, evaporation of, 390
Igneous action, effects of, 345
Ignis fatuus, remarks upon, 246
Iodine, action of on protochloride of mercury, 395
Yodine in ores of zinc, 389
in Saratoga water, 216, 242
use of in gout, 176
Tron furnaces in England, 395
Sron, meteoric, in Virginia aerolite, 200
— of Louisiana, 217
Tron in salt springs, 287

-

Keeney, J. C. onnovaculite in Georgia, 185
L

Lakes, of North America, on the level of, 78

Leaves, autumnal coloration of, 215

Leeches, 394

Liquids, how saturated with gas, 387

Lyceum of Nat. History of New Yor, broceyings of, 205, 354

Maclure, W. Mr. letters from, 351,
Magnetic needle, variations of, 60
Magnetism, influence of, 262
Mammoth, remains of, 382
Manganese sulphate of, two kinds of, 383
- Marine salt, 397
Materia medica, specimens in, 179
Medical compound, 389
Mercury, atomic weight of, 183
Meteoric iron, analysis of 217
Meteorological observations, 44
report for 1828, '70
— tables, 288
Mexico, facts concerning, 154
Minerals from the Sandwich Islands, 347
Mitchell, E. Prof. on affinity, 234
—_————— Gold region of North Carolina, 1
Mitchell, J. Rev. on ignis fatuus, 246
Motion, the natural state of matter,-151
Muse, J. E. Dr. on resuscitation, 250
on fish, &c. in extraordinary situations, 41.
N

Natural history in Canada, 378
Naval Life, Sketches of, 320
Nickel a test for potash, 387
Nitric acid and phosphorus, explosion from, 366
Nitrous oxide, mode of obtaining, 295
North Carolina, gold region of, 1
‘Northern lights, remarks upon, 290
Novaculite in Georgia, 185
O
Obituary of Dr. N. Smith, 211 of Dr. Gorham, 400
Ohio, facts concerning, 154 Oil stone from Ohio, 374
Oliver, B. L. Dr. on use of iodine in gout, 176
Olmsted, Prof. meteorological report by, for 1828, 70
Optical amusements, 398
Oxigen gas, used in a case of resuscitation from drowning, 250
test of, 397

404 INDEX.

Peruvian bark, experiments upon, 28
Pettengill’s stellarota, 363

Phillips, Wm. cabinet of, 379

Phosphoric acid, precipitation of albumen by, 396
Pigeons, mode of decoying, 373
Pigment for the pallet, 174

Platina, large masses of, 389

Pluranium, a new metal, 384

Polar expeditions, history of, 124

Potash, detected by nickel, 387
Proto-sulphuret of iron in Virginia aerolite, 207
Psora, use of chloride of lime in, 395

Pump by steam, 181

Q
Quantity of matter, effect of on affinity, 234
R

Renwick, Prof. translation from the Astronomical Journal of Hamburgh, 225
Repeating theodolite, 252 Report upon Audubon’s ornithology, 363
Resuscitation frem drowning, 250
Revere, J. Dr. on sheathing for ships, 180
Review of Sketches of Naval Life, 320 Rock formations in America, 254
Rodriguez, P. J. on the observations of comets, 94
Rotative Piston, 313 Ruthenium, a new metal, 384

s

Saratoga powders, 369
——_- iodine in the mineral waters of, 242
Shepard, Charles U. Mr. analysis of meteoric iron, 217
a discovery of columbite in Massachusetts by, 220

examination of Virginia aerolite, 191
— soda alum, 203
Ships, fastenings and sheathings for, 180
Shooting stars, 20 Silica and potash, new compounds of, 397
Sillimanite, zircon in, 207 Smith, Dr. obituary of, 211
Soda alum of Milo, 203 Sound, swiftness of, 390
Specific gravity, as used in mineralogy, 260 Spider, gossamer, 399
Stanniferous columbite in Massachusetts, 220 Steam pump, 181
Steel, J. H. Dr. on the Saratoga waters, 242
—_—_—_—_——_——— on the High Rock Spring, 341
Strong, Theodore, Prof. solution of a problem in fluxions by, 283
Sulphuric acid, action of on alcohol, 267
Swainson’s new zoological illustrations, 378

T

Telescopes, 301 Theodolite, Hassler’s repeating, 252
Tin in Massachusetts, 188 Travels, new book of, 168
Trumbull, Col. on the national pictures, 163 |

U
United States, plan for the survey of its coast, 225.

Vv

Vanuxem, L. Prof. on American rock formations, 254

Variation of the magnetic needle, 60 Vegetable chemistry, 376
Virginia aerolite, examination of, 191

Ww
Water, maximum density of, 265 Wilder’s algebraic solution, 271

Wollaston, Dr. obituary of, 216
scale of chemical equivalents, 371
Wright, on the theory of fluxions, 53

Z

Zach, Baron de, 209 Zinc containing iodine, 389

APPENDIX.

Reclamation, certificates and correspondence respecting the invention
of the temporary rudder, described in this Journal, Vol. XUL.
p- 371.

REMARKS,

Ir will be perceived, by the dates of the subsequent letters, that this cor-
respondence has been, some time, in my hands. I had hoped to bring about a
friendly understanding between the parties, without calling the public atten-
tion to the controversy : or, at most, to have given only the result in the Journal.
With this view, in my answer to Captain Rawson’s first letter, I enclosed an
open letter to Captain Marshall, requesting that the gentlemen would, in a
friendly meeting, discuss and settle their respective claims, and communicate
their decision for publication in the Journal. As they are both much abroad,
and as their being in port, at the same time, is quite accidental; I have, in the
hope of an accommodation between them, still delayed, (perhaps longer than
strict duty would permit:) but my apology is founded, upon my great reluc-
tance to admit personal controversy into a Journal of Science. Justice, however,
seems to forbid further delay, and that the subscribers to the Journal may not
have cause of complaint, I have caused the correspondence, (of which, and the
certificates, it seemed scarcely possible to give a satisfactory abridgement,) to be
printed separately, and appended to the Journal without forming a part of the
volume. B.S.

New Haven, June 18, 1829.

New York, October 14, 1828,
TO THE EDITOR,

Dear Sir—In looking over your Journal for January 1828, I was not a little
surprised at seeing a pian of a temporary rudder, communicated to you by
Captain Marshall, of the ship Britannia, as one of his invention: as the plan
was one of my own, and Captain Marshall made no mention in his communi-
cation of having borrowed it, you will oblige me by giving the following state-
ment an insertion in your Journal.

On the 26th of September, 1826, on my passage from Liverpool to New-
York, in Lat. 42 30, Long. 45 10, in the Ship George Clinton; in a violent
gale I lost my rudder, and after having made one on the plan of Purnell, which
did not answer in steering the ship, I then made one on the plan which Cap-
tain Marshall has communicated to you, which was the first of the kind, I be-
lieve, that was ever made. On my arrival in New York, Captain Marshall,
with many gentlemen, examined it, and I explained to him particularly the
plan of it. Twelve months after, when Captain Marshall arrived in New-
York after his disaster, I called on board the britannia to look at his rudder,
and observed to him, that it was on the same plan as mine, which he acknowl-

1

il APPENDIX.

edged. I hadno further conversation with him on the subject, and, probably,
should not have recurred to it again, but for his communication to you. En-
closed I send you the certificates of Captains Dickerson of the ship Roman,
and Gardener of the ship Spartan, and the first and second officers of the George
Clinton, which, I presume, will be sufficient to satisfy you of the correct-
ness of my statement. My absence from New York, (having left the very
day of the date of Captain Marshall’s communication to you,) has prevented
me from noticing it before this.
Yours respectfully,
Epwarp B. Rawson.

CERTIFICATES.

NO I.

i hereby certify, that I have examined a plate in the American Journal of
January, 1828, purporting to be the copy of a plan of a temporary Rudder
fitted to the ship Britannia, and that it is a fac simile of a Rudder invented by
Captain Edward B. Rawson, first fitted to the ship George Clinton, on a pas-
sage from Liverpool, in September, 1826, more than twelve months before the
Britannia lost her rudder, and some months before the Britannia was built.

ALEXANDER RIDDELL,
Acting first officer of the
George Clinton, at the time the
September 20, 1828. Rudder was first invented:

NO. Ii.

I hereby certify that on the arrival of the Britannia in New York, in No-
vember, 1827, I examiried a temporary Rudder, then fitted to said ship, and
found it the same in every respect, with a temporary Rudder invented by
Captain E. B. Rawson, and fitted to ship George Clinton, in September, 1826,
in Long. 45, Lat. 42 30, and I also certify that I assisted in hanging the last
mentioned Rudder to the George Clinton.

: James B. CoRNWELL;
Second officer,
New York, Oet. 2d, 1828. Ship George Clinton.

NO. Ill.

Captain Rawson.

Sir—Having seen a publication in the American Journal of Science and
Arts, of the plan and fixtures of a Rudder on board of the Ship Britannia, I
find the plan the same as I saw on board of the Ship George Clinton, you com-
manded, twelve months before the one fitted to the Britannia, with the excep~
tion of anextra guy. There was no other difference in the construction of
the two Rudders, as I examined them both, when they were fitted to both
ships. Yours very respectfully,

JEREMIAH J. DicKINson,

September 8d, 1829. Master of Ship Roman.

APPENDFX. ith

NO IV.

This is to certify, that on the 26th of October, 1828, I examined a temporary
Rudder made and fitted to the George Clinton, by Captain Rawson, on his re-
turn passage from Liverpool, that and the preceding month, and found it the
same in every respect as the one which Captain Marshall claims as of his own
invention, and which was made more than twelve months after the one made
by Captain Rawson. I also examined the Rudder fitted to the Britannia, when
she arrived in New York, in Nov. 1827, and the difference in construction
was so little, that they appeared to have been made by one and the same per-
son. Josrpnu L. GARDNER,

October 2d, 1828. Master of the Ship Spartan.

New York, December 14, 1828.
B. SILLIMAN, ESQ.

Dear Sir—Your letter respecting the temporary Rudder, of which by the
request of yourself and Captain B. Hall, (R. N.,) I gave you ‘some account
last fall, has been received, and if I have committed myself in any way in so
doing, it has been done without the slightest intention of arrogating to myself
the least credit as regards itsinvention. I have a perfect recollection that the
one in question varies very materially from the one I had a description of,
fitted by Captain Rawson, and I am sure that I admitted to Captain Hall and
others, and to Captain Rawson himself, who was at the time of my arrival on
the spot, all that part resembling his. Captain Rawson is not here at present,
and as I sail again in the course of a day or two, it is entirely uncertain when
Wwe may meet. I have no great disposition to contend with him on the sub-
ject; my only motive for giving a description of it, was purely to give publicity
to what I consider the best thing ever adopted for the purpose, and that others,
that might be placed in that unfortunate situation, may be benefited by it; and
whether invented by me or him, or both, is to me of very little consequence,
and not worth contending about. But why not come forward before? It is
certainly due to me that he should furnish you with a drawing and model of
the one he actually fitted, and then it may be seen wherein it varied. The
Rudder in question also bore some, and perhaps equal, resemblance to one that
I had had a description of, fitted by some person out of Boston, but I believe it
was admitted at the time, by all who saw it, to vary very much from any one
that was ever brought into notice before ; however, I shall leave this subject
fo your own good judgment, to dispose of as you may think proper.

Respectfully and sincerely,
Your obedient servant,
Cua’s H. MarsHALu.

P. S. I presume, could I have a personal interview with Captain Rawson
on the subject, it would be an advantageous one to both parties.

New York, February 23, 1829.

MR. BENJAMIN SILLIMAN.

Dear Sir—When your favor of November 9th reached New York, I was
absent on a voyage to Europe, and a friend whom I had requested to attend to
any communication from you, was soon after I left, also called away; your

iv APPENDIX.

letter would otherwise have been noticed before. The letter intended for
Captain Marshall, was handed him on his arrival here, yet I have not received
any communication from him on the subject to whichitreferred. He has now
been absent some time, and from the nature of our profession, it is uncertain
when we may meet, perhaps not for years. I can assure you, sir, that there
has not been any mistake in this business—Captain M. has laid claim to that
which belonged to another. I wish for no credit as the inventor of the Rudder
in question, and I would wish you to say nothing more in your Journal than
that Captain M. was not the inventor—my principal object at first in writing
you, was to inform you of this, that you should see how grossly you had been
deceived. I shall be happy to hear from you soon, as I shall leave this port
by 4th March. Please direct, care Sam’! Hicks and Sons.
Yours respectfully,
EK. B. Rawson.

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‘BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M. D. LL, De -

Professor of Chemisiry, Mineralogy, he. in Yale p aeae ‘ Coupaneadite Nahi bie of
‘the Society of Aris, Manutactures, and Commerce, | abd Foreign Member of
ete. the Geological Society, of London ; Member ot the Royal Mineralogical .

| Society ot Dresden; of the iinperial Agricultural Society of Mos- ~

cow ; Hoaorary Member of the Linnean Society of: Paris;
of the Natural History Society - of Beltast; and |
Member of various Literary and Scien- —
tific Societies in America,

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VOL. XVI.—No, 1.—APRIL, 1829.

_ FOR JANUARY, FEBRUARY, AND MARCH, 1829.

ce | _NEW HAVEN: ee ad

"Pahlistied and Sold ie Hagen Ae HOWE Ate A i. MALTBY.
. Philadelphia, BE. -LITTELL. —New York, G. & C. CARVILL. — i
Boston, HILLIARD, GRAY, ATTLE &. WILKINS.
eon, JOHN MILL » 40 Pall Mall.

PRINTED BY HEZEKIAM HOWE.

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i ys Society of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, and, Foreign - Member i r) fe
2 ie the Geblogical Society, of London; ‘Meinber of the. oyal Mineralogical Geers) tai
) | Sara “Society of Dresden; of the Lmperial Agricultural Society of ‘Mos-' a |
hehe ete Wy 3 “Hlonorary Member of the Linnean Society Mb Pars 02 LiF 3)
e , of thi - Natural ‘History . Society of Belfast; and Sas!
i fember of various gh Scien- Saas Bees) ane
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