where # Nadas Sais rhe ¢ A Tet an Or Ae Mohn ay ~~ wt ee es os We ¥ Pet\ an! PAPAIN Rattan + tone Fah SINT in tn hang Patra APM SIN Me Cai Fn at " 7 . ft ” mage . 1 gin eingae hel Kenaling to Pat SS mS he PRethnRah s te —~ - ee Ne ite Reet ae a Maw Rae tn TAB Cha Reth wg A Mew Hetun Te 7, . ath tt Nie Toda PAR ddA Belo A nieve ets mn! tet etn - a - Pl he Peat Ms Ma ane = no at i p eee ere * BAAN NDA ms a Shae % rey he ay as THRE eo fF AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M.D. LL. D. Prof. Chem., Min., &c. in Yale Coll.; Cor. Mem. Soc. Arts, Man. and Com.; and For. Mem. Geol. Soc., London; Mer Roy. Min. Soc., Dresden; Nat. Hist Soc., Halle; Imp. Agvic. Soc., Moscow; Hon. Mem. Lin. Soc., Paris; Nat. Hist. Soc. Belfast, Ire.; Phil. and Lit. Soc. Bristol, Eng.; Mem. of various Lit. and Scien. Soc. in America. VOL. XXVI.—ebAs 1834. NEW HAVEN: Published and Sold by HEZEKIAH HOWE & Co, and A. H. MALTBY. Balivmore, BE. J. COALE & Co.—Philadeiphia, J. S. LITTELL and CAREY & HART.—Wew York, G.& C.& H. CARVILL.— Boston, HILLIARD, GRAY, LITTLE & WILKINS. PRINTED BY HEZEKIAH HOWE & CO. “20 guia INSTIT GO aS 4 SS > WZ ie et Slas p Ls : Hd i WA PE Bail a Putt ie CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXxXVI. =O -—— NUMBER I. Page. Art. I. Ascent of Mount Etna, February, 1832; by SipnEy L. Jounson, of the U. States squadron in the Medi- terranean, - - - - 2 g u 1 II. Considerations upon the temperature of the terrestrial Globe; by M. Parrort, of St. Petersburg, “ 10 III. An Enquiry into the Cause of the Voltaic Currents produced by the action of magnets and electro- dynamic cylinders upon coils and revolving plates ; by Prof. Joun P. Emmet, M.D. - = - 23 IV. Motion of a system of Bodies; by Prof. THEopoRE STRONG, - - - - 44 V. On the Navigation of Cape Horn; by M. F. Maury, Passed Midshipman U. S. Navy, - - 54. VI. Plan of an instrument fur finding the true Lunar Dis- tance; invented by M. F. Maury, Passed Midship- man U.S. Navy, - - - - 63 VII. On the color of the air and of deep waters, and on some other analogous fugitive colors; by Count XavieR De Maistre, - - - 65 VIII. The voice and its modifications, (more particularly Ventriloquism,) briefly considered; by Roser TOLEFREE, jt. - - - - 76 IX. Meteorological Journal, kept at Marietta, Ohio, for the year 1833; by S. P. Hitpreru, - - 84 X. Abstract of Meteorological Observations, made at Matanzas, (Cuba,) lat. 23° 2’ N., lon. 81° 36’ W., from Aug. 1, 1832, to July 31, 18383; by A.Mattory, 89 XI. Physical Discovery—(Retrospective.)—The Magnetic Needle made to indicate the true north, and rendered more steady, by a newly invented magnetic process, 90 XIE. On the Prairies of Alabama; by W. W. McGuire, 93 XIII. Circulation in Vegetables; by Prof. E. Emmons, 99 XIV. Notice of a Galvanometer; by Dr. Joun Locks, 103 XV. A Parasite Tree; by Gro. W. Lone, Lieut. 4th Regt. U.S. Artillery, - - - 106 XVI. Caricography ; Uy Prof. C. Dosen tains 107 booeel ed elia IV CONTENTS. Page. XVII.’ Internal Improvements of the State of Pennsylvania ; No. II.; by Epwarp Mitter, Civil Engineer, XVIII. Notice of some new Electrical Instruments; invented by Cuartes G. Pace, - - - - - XIX. Communications; by Davip Tuomas. 1. Some ac- count of the Chrysomela vitivora, (with an engray- ing.) 2. Remarks on the specific character of Cory- dalis formosa and Corydalis canadensis, - - XX. Notice of a Double Fish; by Svz. Cuurcuitt, XXI. On the sexual characters of the Naiades; by JarEp P. Kirtianp, M. D. - - - XXII. On the Sea and Land Rates of Chronometers; by Parkinson & Fropsuam, = - - - XXII. Necrology of Count Chaptal; translated and communi- cated by Dr. Lewis Feuchtwanger, - XXIV. On the Elements of the Solar System; by E. iL Bur- RITT, A. M. - - 5 - XXV. Observations on the Meteors of November13th, 1833; by Prof. OtusTep, - - - - MISCELLANIES—FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC. British and American Journals of Science, - - CHEMISTRY, &C. 1. Rapid sketch of the present state of Electricity, - 2. Electro-magnetic experiments, - - 3. 4. On the ioment bodies of J. J. Berzelius. ‘separkell in the © freezing of water by ether, - = AGRICULTURE, DOMESTIC ECONOMY, &C. 1. On a new theory of the action of manures, and of their em- ployment; by M. de la Giraudieu, = - - 2. New observations upon the action of the sulphate of lime, 3. Memoir upon valuable kinds of fruit trees, and their prop- agation from seed, —- - - - 4, Easy method of giving greater strength and firmness to thread, network, cordage and coarse cloth, - 5. Use of diablotins, or crackers of fulminating powder, 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Cheap mode by which farmers and others may manufacture charcoal.—A tried recipe for burns.— To remove a hard coating or crust from glass and porcelain vessels.—Scotch method of preserving eggs.—Preservation of skins, - - 108 110 113 116 117 121 127 129 132 174 175 177 178 183 186 187 188 CONTENTS. ‘ ™M Page. 11. 12. 13. 14. Action of heat upon razors.—-Substitute for India ink.—To destroy caterpillars—American Gypsies, 189 15. Bituminous coal, - = 2 Mi ih 190 16. 17. Miscellaneous facts.—India rubber carpets, - 191 18. Stereotype Metallographic Printing, - 2 192 19. Materials for paper, - - - - 193 OTHER NOTICES. 1. Notice of a work, entitled Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice, and the Physiology of Digestion, 193 2. The Cyclopedia of Practical Medicine and Surgery, a Digest of Medical Literature, - = z : 202 3. Obituary of Gen. Martin Field, - = - 204. 4. The Rotating Armatures, - - - E 205 5. Remarks on steam as a conductor of electricity, 2 206 6. Sulphuric acid, - - - - 4 207 7. 8. Observations on the time of the appearance of the Spring birds in Williamstown, (Mass.) in the years 1831], 1832 and 1833.—Recent Scientific Publications in the United States, = = - 208 9. Cabinet of the late Dr. William Meade, - i 209 10. 11. 12. Ewbank’s Tinned Lead-pipes.—American Mohete or Domestic Callender.—Price of Platinum—Test Paper, - - - - - 210 13. 14. Baker’s Bread.—Loss of memory from the use of gin, 211 15. Outlines of Geology, &c., by Dr. J. L. Comstock, - 212 16. 17. Prof. Hitcheock’s Report on the Gevlogy, Mineralo- gy, Botany and Zoology of Massachusetts.—Sec- ond American edition of Bakewell’s Geology, 213 18. Magnetism, -— - - - - - - - - 214 19. 20. Mr. C. U. Shepard’s private School of Mineralogy and other branches of Natural History.—Ligneous stems of American Coal-Fields desired, SU ati 215 21. 22. Crystalline Lenses of American Animals desired.—Man- tell’s Geology of the South East of England, 216 23. Septaria of extraordinary size and beauty, - - 217 24. 25. 26. Fossil jaws of the tapir—Chalk and chalk fossils in granite.—Obituary of Rev. L. D. Schweinitz, - 218 vi CONTENTS. NUMBER II. Page. Art. I. Geology of the Country between Baltimore and the Ohio River, with a section; by Prof. Witxiam E. A. At- KIN, - - - - - - - - 219 II. On Porcelain and Earthenware, - - - - 233 III. Researches respecting the radical of Benzoic Acid; by | Wouter and Liezsie, - - - - - 261 IV. Supplement to a letter to the Hon. W. J. Duane, on se- curities against fire, &c., - - - - - 286 V. On the Parallelogram of Forces; by Prof. THroporE STRONG, - - - - - - - - 304 VI. Prof. Joun P. Emmet, on Thermo-Electricity and Elec- tro-Magnetism, - - - - - - 311 VII. Botanical Communications; by H. B. Croom, Esq., 313 VIII. Investigations respecting the Meteors of Nov. 13th, 1833.—Remarks upon Prof. Olmsted’s theory res- pecting the cause; by ALEXANDER C. Twinine, Civil Engineer and late Tutor in Yale eee - - 320 IX. Communications by Dr. Harz, - - - 3902 X. Analysis of Shells; by Prof. Witt1am B. RoeeErs, 361 XI. Description of some new Shells, belonging to the coast of New England; by Col. Jos. G. Toren, - 366 XII. Dr. T. Epmonpson’s Modification of Ampére’s Rotating Galvanic Element, - - - - - - 370 XIII. A Method of obtaining Iridium and Osmium from the Platinum residue; by F. Wouter. Translated by J. C. Boor, - - - - - - - 371 XIV. Caricography; by Prof. C. Dewey, - - - 376 XV. Communications by Dr. Joun Locxg, of Cincinnati, 378 MISCELLANIES.—FOREIGN AND DOMESTC. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. A new ore of Antimony—A new Tenantite—Vana- diate of lead—Plumbacalcite—Pelokonite, - = 386 6, 7, 8, 9. Wolchouskoit—W orthite—Pyrargillite-—Amphodel- lite, = > - 2 ; - - - - 387 10. Ozokerite, a new combustible mineral, - - - 388 11, 12. Platinum in France—Carrageen or Trish Moss, - 389 13, 14. Oil of Copaiva as a test for the purity of the sulphuric ether—Discharge of the stain of indelible ink, by corro- sive sublimate, - - - - - - 392 15. Dissection of the eye of the Halibut, - . - - 393 CONTENTS. Vii Page. 16. Discovery of a Muscle in the Eye of Fishes, - - 394 17. Abstract of Meteorological Observations, made at Middle- town, Monmouth, Co., N. J., - - - - 395 18. Recent Scientific Publications in the United States, - 397 19. Meteorological Journal for the month of May, 1834, - 398 20. Influence of Electricity on Capillary Attraction, - - 399 21. Safety of Lead Pipes, protected by Tin, - - - 400 22, 23, 24. New Comet—British Association for the advancement of Science—Obituary, - - - - : - 402 ERRATA. Page 32, 1. 5 fr. bot., after rotation, add, If we suppese.—p. 223, 1. 11 fr. top, for probably, read popularly ; 1. 14 fr. top, for was, read runs.—p. 226, 1 17 fr. top, for moving, read running.—p. 227, |. 4 fr. bot., for Laudisburg, read Landisburg.— p- 228, 1. 6 fr. top, for Laudisburg, read Landisburg.—p. 236, 1. 28 fr. top, for ses- tertium, read sestertia.—p. 239, |. 23 tr. top, for to, read at.—p. 261, 1. 13 fr. bot., for Whéler, read Wohler.—p. 293, 1. 15 fr. top, for Masses, read Mosses. The plate which accompanies the article on the meteors of Nov. 13th, on account of inaccuracies in the engraving, does not correspond as exactly as it should do with the results given in the paper. It is however, perfect, for the, purposes of illus- tration. Vou. 25.—Pagé 129, 1. 28, for Edinburgh, read high latitudes. OTL. 4 ¢ mdteton's Litho grapiy , Dos THE WAIRWILCIK VASIE. Fendtetoun's Lithograyhy, Boston. ih Ly Ted he Habba Widest Pa Nee antitig Fond ons Ste Ny THE BARIBIEIRINI on PORTLANID VASE . Fendleton's Lithography, Boston, eccrine atch ee A tathe ins i TERRA COTTA VASE, FOUND IN POMPEL. Pendleton's wthag. Y Boston THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. Art. I.—Ascent of Mount Etna, February, 1832; by Stoney L. Jounson, late tutor in Yale College, and teacher in the U. States squadron, in the Mediterranean. A wish to ascend Mt. Etna, was at first, the chief motive of our visit to Catania, but before departure, our hopes of reaching the summit: were somewhat diminished. Since the snow fell, several parties had attempted it, but all without success. We often gazed upon it from our ships in the harbor of Syracuse, where it presented the singular appearance of a perfect cone of snow of astounding size, to whose dazzling whiteness the vertex tipped with black and tufted with a graceful plume of smoke, afforded the only relief. From the more commanding heights of Epipole, we could trace the sides lower down; the skirts of the snow were dappled with the naked patches of dark rock, then disappeared and the broad green base presented a cheerful contrast to the cold and glittering summit. On our approach and entrance to Catania, the mountain was en- tirely veiled from view by clouds and the ratn descended in torrents. Had this weather continued a little longer than it did, we might have departed without ocular proof of the existence of elevated ground in that vicinity. But after two or three days, a delightful change in- spired us with strong hopes of accomplishing our desires, and we determined upon an immediate attempt. Our arrangements were made for riding up as far as Nicolosi, on the 22d. of February. Abbate, our landlord had provided every necessary refreshment ; and with a due supply of extra clothing, we mounted and were in motion by 4 P.M. Our party consisted of four, and was guided to the resting place for the night by our humor- ous and obliging host. A few steps brought us from the hotel in the Corso, to the Strada Emea: these are the two finest streets of Ca- tania, the former stretching from the sea, to the west quite through Vou. XXVI.—No. 1. 1 2 Ascent of Jt. Etna, February, 1832. the city ; the latter cutting it at right angles and running towards the mountain from which it is named. As we turned the corner into this street, it seemed to extend nearly the whole of the route which we were to take, that is, to a distance of thirty miles and with a contin- uous ascent, to the elevation of 10,000 feet. Its line of direction cuts the mountain high up, but unfortunately a little to the south of its apex. A slight deviation westerly would have presented the whole rise of Etna, from its commencement midway through Etna Street, up to the smoky crest of the crater, and terminated a long vista of palaces with the sublimest object in the world. Sallying from the city by a cottage delightfully situated at the ex- tremity of the street, we followed, fhe the first six miles, the new and excellent carriage road, leading to Messina. We passed through a toll-gate, and it struck me as the first | had seen out of my own coun- try. Two or three villages skirted the first part of the way with houses, and these with the fields and vineyards evinced a more thri- ving and happy population than we had noticed elsewhere in Sicily. Shortly after leaving the city, Abbate told us, we were passing over the port of Ulysses. It had been completely filled up by lava at an unknown period; that of Catania, on the other hand, owes its for- mation to the eruption of 1669. We dismounted and went a short distance from the road, to see an extinct crater. It must be a very ancient one; it presented the appearance of an irregular bowl, not more than two rods in diameter at the brim and witha small jagged orifice at the bottom : stones were dropped into this, and the sounds indicated frequent collision with the sides of the cavity, and but a trifling perpendicular descent. About 6 o’clock, we reached Nicolosi, after an up-hill ride of twelve miles. ‘The elevation, by the observations of Schow and Gemmellaro, is 2128 Paris feet, or about 2360 English feet. The evening air was rather keener than usual, but the fig, the orange, and the pomegranate, were evidences of a general security from frost. On the left of the village, towered to the height of 1000 feet, the scorched and menacing Monti Rossi, or Red Mounts. ‘The course of the lava of 1669, can be distinctly seen, through the whole dis- tance of twelve miles, from these two mountains, which it reared as landmarks of its source, to the mole of Catania, where it drove back the sea and forever bids it defiance. Its dark track, contrasting with the smiling beauty and luxuriance every where close upon its sides, brings fearfully to the imagination the horror and helpless dismay of Ascent of Mr. Etna, February, 1832. 3 the inhabitants, when beholding so tremendous a deluge of fire ad- vancing upon their fair possessions, burying every trace of cultivated fields, of houses, churches and spires, climbing the walls of their city and finally marching over its ruins to invade the sea itself. The sea yields to this novel attack of her enemy under her own fluid form, and volumes of flames and clouds of vapor arise from this new war of elements. Who can figure to himself the sounds and sights and other terrific accompaniments of such an event; the constant deto- nations of the lava, drowned from time to time, by the louder thunder of the mountain, the lurid canopy of clouds glowing with the fires below, and the most vivid lightnings of heaven, paled by the intenser glare of earth? Surely, the ignorant peasantry of Etna, may be for- given the superstition which ascribes calamities so dreadful, to the im- mediate agency of the most powerful and terrible beings. We almost stumbled upon Nicolosi before we saw it. The hou- ses of the village are low, as if crouching to avoid some impending danger, and it was easy to confound their tiled roofs, with the ground which had been burnt to a similar color in the hotter furnace of the volcano. They are built thus low from fear of earthquakes. Ab- bate soon guided us into the courtyard of one of these humble ten- ements. Passing through the kitchen we found one large room fur- nished with just enough beds for our party, and such beds too as we could leave without regret, at any hour however early. Mr. Mario Gemmellaro occupied the house adjoining, and we repaired to him for the purpose of getting the keys of the English house and of pur- chasing some of his charts and views of Etna. He was.a bluff, hearty man, whose broad face and florid complex- ion were the more striking, from their contrast with the pallid features of most of his countrymen. For many years he has been a fear- less observer of the terrific phenomena of Etna, and has made them the subject of several published pamphlets. We sat awhile, and con- versation turning upon the numerous eruptions from the sides of the mountain, he said he had incontestable evidence, that they do not proceed directly from the center of the earth or of the volcanic force by separate tubes, but that the Java arises in the grand central and original funnel, and that by the pressure of the immense column of fluid, a passage is forced in between the conical caps, of which the mountain by repeated eruptions has been gradually formed. By this passage the lava flows down underneath the crust, until it makes or finds openings through it, and by these, discharges itself into the air. 4 Ascent of Mt. Etna, February, 1832. One proof was derived from observation of the times and distances of the successive explosions from the sides of Etna during an erup- tion. ‘Those nearer the top precede those farther down, by a space of time proportioned to the distances of the discharges from the summit. He argued to the same conclusion from the heights of the jets. ‘The lower down they are, the greater the force of projec- tion, according to the laws of gravity respecting a fluid descending an inclined plane. ‘Taking some of the charts and pamphlets we bid adieu to Sign. Gemmellaro. . We found our room cold and our beds hard, but soon forgot every thing in sleep. Owing to some cause I awoke during the night and heard a sound like a faint but deep murmur, as if from the struggling elements beneath. Whether real or imaginary, it unfortunately suffi- ced to dispel slumber, and to excite in my mind a feverish and ill- timed activity. Every image that memory had preserved of the old mythology, was passed in distinct review. The giants groaning and heaving under their uncomfortable loads, and the din of Vulcan and his huge one-eyed smiths, seemed no more fabulous than this vast smoking furnace, and the now audible roar of its fires: well might the Trojans tremble as they neared even the shore. Fancy then followed Empedocles into the crater, down which he had leapt. that men might believe him a god translated to heaven; but his brazen sandal, either vomited up by the mountain, or tossed out by some malicious Cyclops in scorn of its human workmanship, re- vealed the fate of the philosopher to mankind and changed their worship into laughter. The phantoms of antiquity finally vanished before the images of real life; I saw priestly processions alternating with motley troops of masquers, and mummery and antics absorbing by turns the pleasure-loving populace of Sicily : now they were on their knees in silent adoration of the passing host, now throwing their 7 caps in air, and shouting on one leg, as if convulsed with delight at some inconceivable oddity of a harlequin out-monkeying Jacko. The rumbling of the mountain itself seemed drowued by the sound of the song and the dance, from the thousand villages which hang on the skirts of Mongibello.* At length I sprang from my bed impatient of the ceaseless train of associations, which at any other time I should have enjoyed but now —_—_ * Among the Sicilians, the popular name for Etna. Ascent of Mt. Etna, February, 1832. 5 dreaded, as it bid fair to deprive me of that sleep which was so ne- cessary a preparative to the labors of the ensuing day. The damp stone floor and keen mountain air which entered our room without much obstruction, soon composed me and I enjoyed an hour more of repose. Between two and three o’clock, the faithful Abbate aroused us with the news that every thing was favorable, that the night was clear and calm, and that a bright moon weuld aid us in riding over the broken lava. In midwinter it is all important to regard the state of the weather in ascending Etna. A high wind drifting clouds of snow renders the attempt always futile, and often dangerous. Hav- ing partaken of an excellent cup of hot coffee and bundled ourselves well with coats and cloaks, caps and moccasins, we mounted, and by half past three, our mules were moving slowly to the hearty thwacks upon their hides from the muleteers’ cudgels. Two guides accompanied us to enable any of the party to return, if necessary, without frustrating the rest. By the light of the moon we could see that our road was over dark scoria, or fragments of lava. On entering the Bosco or wooded region, small patches of snow be- gan to appear, which rapidly increased in number and extent until they formed one continuous sheet. Our mules were soon flounder- ing in it, and at 6 o’clock we were forced to dismount. ‘The ther- mometer stood at 28°. A half an hour’s walk on the crust of the snow brought us to the “casa della neve.” ‘The smoke was issuing in volumes through the door aud numerous apertures in the roof. A peasant from Nicolosi, had kindled a fire before our arrival. We stopped buta few moments outside the “casa della neve” for the smoke precluded our entering it and we did not wish to break- fast, so throwing off our cloaks with a roll of bread in our pockets and more substantial fare in the knapsacks of our guides, we advan- ced, and sallying from the Bosco, saw the sun, then apparently about half an hour high. The thermometer at the ‘casa della neve” was at 27° but it rose from the effect of the sun as we ascended to above BOO dlls | Between nine and ten o’clock, Dr. H., was obliged to return with one of our guides: with the other we proceeded until we reached a stone pile of a pyramidical form distant one hour and a quarter from the English house, which the guide now descried for the first time. The ascent was here peculiarly laborious. A hard and slip- pery crust on the snow, together with the acclivity of the mountain, obliged us to turn our feet outward and stamp firmly with the inner 6 Ascent of Mt. Etna, February, 1832. edge of the soles of our boots, in order to make some footing ; this was excessively painful, particularly to the ancle joints: in some pla- ces on the other hand the snow was soft, and lifting the foot from its deep bed to take another step was the most trying part of the labor; it was a pain caused by this which had exhausted the Doctor. We halted to rest our limbs and to enjoy the prospect which was increa- sing in grandeur with every step. Several times, we threw ourselves at full length on the snow and felt in all its luxury, that exquisite sensation of pleasure which attends the rapid recovery of the body from the fatigue of intense exertion. We rose above the level of Mt. Agnola, which we left to the right, and at ten minutes before noon reached the English house (‘Casa degli Inglesi”) which was so buried in snow that we could not enter it, although we had obtained the keys for that purpose from Sign. Gemmellaro. Travelers usu- ally ride up to this place, and sleep and take refreshment before mounting the cone, which occupies but an hour from the English house. We were already worn out by six hours of most exhausting exertion: as there was no time to lose, we proceeded to make our first repast as well as we could, by taking our seats in the sun, under the lee of the building and tearing to pieces with our fingers a cold roast chicken. Ihad no appetite, ate very little and took no drink except snow melted in my mouth. We here saw ourselves far above points, which, when we issued from the Bosco, appeared but little below the summit. The side of the mountain is covered with conical protuberances, whose hollow tops prove them to be the craters or vents of some previous erup- tions. ‘The snow was broken, in some few places, by black jutting rocks of lava. Our guides pointed out several wolf tracks and one of ahare. At a quarter past twelve, we started to ascend the cone, between which and the English house, was a space nearly level ; on the other side of it, the snow which we had seen sprinkled with ash- es sometime before, now became dirty, soon black, and after ascen- ding the cone a little way, was succeeded by loose stones and cin- ders; from these a hot, sulphureous, suffocating vapor was steaming, our feet soon felt the change, and from being very cold became very warm. ‘The ascent was steep and peculiarly difficult from the loose stones and cinders yielding under the feet: the vapor moreover was so dense that we could see buta short distance. Lieut. S. falling behind about three yards, we lost sight of him entirely, and knowing him to be much exhausted, we were afraid he had halted some way below ; on Ascent of Mt. Etna, February, 1832. 7 calling to him however he proved to be very near. The wind was from the N. E. and by moving a little in that direction we were partially relieved from the fumes ; we were infinitely more relieved soon after by seeing the desired point, but a short distance above us ; another struggle and we were on the summit of Mt. Etna, at half past 1 o’clock,on the 23d. of February. My fatigue vanished, I felt a glow of satisfaction from the simple attainment of my object, before I had time to look around for any other reward. The crater first attracted my attention; we stood on a point to the north and east of it in the best situation to view it, as the wind was northerly and carried away from us the clouds of vapor. Its form is very much altered within a few years by the ejection of scorie and other matter and the highest point of the mountain, where we then stood occupies the center of the old crater. Volumes of steam, smoke and ashes, were constantly pouring forth from the chasm, the eye sought in vain to fathom its depth, and the last sound of the fragments of lava thrown down indicated that they were still in motion towards their former bed of fire. There was no flame visible, but the vapor and the ground on which we stood were very hot, although the air was so cold that the thermometer held in it breast high, sunk toa little below 22° Fah. It wasa pocket instrument and the capacity of the tube only 120°. We directed the guide to hold it ina cavity in the ashes and scorie made by our feet in standing there and barely sufficient to screen it from the air. ‘The heat made him drop it, and on withdrawing it very soon, the tube was full and the ball burst. The vapor was strongly impregnated with sulphur, and fine crystals of the same coated the fragments of lava and other volcanic substances where we stood. ‘The whole surface of the cone consisted of these loose and crumbling materials, and gases seemed to issue from every part as if the whole were porous. We picked up several specimens for our guide to bring down. But our eyes were wandering from these more immediate ob- servations to the magnificent panorama which the isolated situation of the peak renders peculiarly grand and entire. On every side, except in the direction of Italy, the view was bounded by sea and sky, and the former seemed to rise to meet the latter, so as to make the concave of waters correspond in some degree to the vault of ether above. ‘The base of Etna floated in the lower hemisphere, but its apex soared far into the regions of the upper, and on it one 8 Ascent of Mt. Etna, February, 1832. might almost fancy the heavens nearer than the earth, and wish to start from such vantage ground, on his flight to another world. Si- cily was reduced to a map which we could study far beneath us. Almost under our feet, lay Catania and the villages which sprinkled the mountain’s base. Farther off to the south, Augusta and Magne- sia jutted out into the sea, and beyond were distinctly seen Ortygia and Plemmyrium, and the black specks in the beautiful round basin of Sy- racuse, we knew to be the shipsof our squadron. ‘The eye wander- ed on to Cape Passaro, and following the course of Eneas fleet by the Geloan fields and Agrigentum, rested on the blue sea beyond Lilybeum and Mt. Eryx. A prominent hillindicated the site of Paler- mo, and the castellated rocks embosoming the beautiful vale of Enna, were conspicuous near the center of the island, and are now known by the name of Castro Giovanni. From there to the fountain Cy- ane it looked like a short distance, and must have seemed so to Pro- serpine, as the last flower fell from her bosom and she sunk from so bright a world to the dark realms of her uncourteous lover. The mountains of Sicily are high and many of them were covered with snow; yet seen from Etna, they dwindle into hillocks, and with their intervening vallies give the country the appearance of gentle un- dulations and picturesque beauty, rather than the grandeur which char- acterizes most of its scenery from below. ‘Two rivers wind slug- gishly through the low meadows around the base of Mongibello, and it rises as if from the sea, prominent and well defined in its whole magnitude, and therefore more conspicuous and imposing than moun- tains of much greater elevation. ‘To the north lay a lake, which with the village near it, our guide named Randazzo. We looked in vain for the Lipari islands, the only place in which our view was inter- cepted by clouds. Messina lies behind and at the base of an am- phitheatre of hills, among which Mt. Chalcidice is between three and four thousand feet high, so that from Etna, Sicily appears, as tradition represents it to have been, joined on to Italy, and the snow-capped mountains of Calabria, seemed near and distinct enough to acknowl- edge the sway of the monarch of Trinacria, at least to tremble at the fearful demonstrations of his power. | Unfortunately we had left behind, our ship telescope, and the small one which was politely loaned us by Signor Gemmeliaro, would hard- ly compensate for longer stay in the freezing air and burning cinders of the “ Sommo Cratere.” Our guide had animated us in our toil- some ascent, by speeches, high sounding enough for a Hannibal or a Ascent of Mt. Etna, February, 1832. 9 Napoleon charging nature’s battlements at the head of armies; but whether it was owing to our fatigue or to the aérial height at which they were delivered, they did not seem sufficiently misplaced to ex- cite our laughter. On the summit he gave us the whole again, with an improvement of the subject. After a flourish on his own “ invin- cible courage” and “* consummate skill,” wound off with some most flattering compliments to our fortitude and resolution, he informed us that a gentleman had once rewarded a similar exhibition of these heroic qualities, by the unreserved donation of all his wet clothes. Such an act of generosity on our part would have sent us to Catania a la High- lander. : A few minutes before two, we began our descent. ‘The philoso- pher’s tower was pointed out on the left of the English house ; tradi- dition says that it was built by Empedocles, and thence received its present name. Ata quarter past two, P. M. we were at the English house. An immense, rich looking cloud of a whitish color lay, far below us, floating like a canopy over Catania and its plain: it seemed to have gathered while we were busy in our observations on the era- ter or more distant objects, or rather to have become developed in the atmosphere almost instantaneously. Stopping a few minutes to enjoy this novel and magnificent sight, we refreshed ourselves with a swallow of wine, and descended to the “ Casa della neve,” in less than an hour over what had cost us six of the most painful exertion in the ascent. | A motion so rapid and yet so easy, I never achieved on my own legs before, for so great a distance; we rather bounded than ran down, as the stone of Sisyphus xédovde »vAivdero. The snow had become so softened by the sun that we sunk at every step, but only enough in most cases to enable us to check and regulate the speed,which gravity created. If our feet were plunged too deeply, head and shoulders were equally so, with a jerk which threatened to snap the knee joints, and we stuck like a raspberry vine planted at both ends. A slip was less dangerous as it did not stop our momentum all at once, nor until we had first ploughed a handsome furrow in the. snow. Notwith- standing these mishaps, nothing could be more exhilarating than the leaps by which we descended to the common level of mankind. We found the Doctor, philosophically consoling himself for the unseen wonders of the crater, over a bright fire in the snow house, which was kept blazing and crackling by the trees of the bosco. Our Vou. XXVI.—No. 1. 2 10 Temperature of the Terrestrial Globe. horses being found farther on, we lost no time in regaining our inn at Nicolosi. Here although fatigue and hunger counselled us to stop, yet we chose rather to bear them two or three hours longer, than to try again the miserable pallets of the night before. We therefore with as little delay as possible, resumed our route to Catania, and ar- rived there at 9 o’clock. Our fatigue was almost insupportable, but Abbate led us on at a merciléss pace. For though not sharing the toils, he felt his full quota of the glory of heading an expedition which had overcome the rigors of a midwinter ascent ‘fino alla cima dell’ Etna.” ‘The streets resounded with the crack of his whip and the tramping of our steeds over the pavements, and the fire from their hoofs marked the progress of our little cavalcade to the Corona D’oro; where we alighted at nine o’clock, with a sensation of pleasure sound- ly paid for, by eighteen hours of toil. ‘Though we had eaten nothing during the day but a spare breakfast, yet repose was demanded more imperiously than food; a generous supper awaited our return, but swallowing only some warm broth, en passant, we left every thing to throw ourselves into that sweet oblivion, which could alone restore us. Art. I1.—Considerations upon the temperature of the terrestroal Globe ; by M. Parrot :—read the 5th of May, 1830, at the Acad- emy of Sciences of St. Petersburg.— Memoirs of this Academy. Translated by Prof. J. Griscom, for this Journal. Ir it is useful to make discoveries in natural science, it is not less so, to correct as many as possible of the errors which arise in this do- main of human knowledge, and which are sustained by the authority or the assent of respectable savans. ‘The history of science displays to us, upon numbers of its pages, important errors which having been thus accredited, have produced new errors and retarded fresh discoveries. ‘The subject upon which I am about to treat, belongs to this class of intellectual phenomena. Aside from the mass of phy-, sical and geognostic knowledge, which has been accumulating for thirty years, we see the system of Leibnitz and of Buffon, upon the temperature of our globe, the system of central fire, revived, to the letter, from its ashes, gaining new partisans, and strengthening itself in appearance by a display of profound calculation, which the more ea- Temperature of the Terrestrial Globe. 11 sily imposes upon the majority of learned men, as they are founded upon a great number of experiments, which have no other fault than that of being badly comprehended. I have already descanted at large upon this subject, in the Bulle- tin Universel of M. de Ferussac. But as we nevertheless see men distinguished in physical science, still adhering to a system which has been once refuted, I have for more than forty years,* thought it would be right to offer an exact analysis of the facts upon which the attempts to reconstruct it are founded. ‘These facts consist of experiments made upon the temperature of the earth, at different depths and up- on different points of the continent. I shall therefore examine these facts in order to assign to them exactly the value which they hold in the problem of the temperature of the terrestrial globe. Afterwards I shall produce the experiments made at great depths, and upon dif- ferent points of the earth, in the ocean, and in lakes, to compare them with the terrestrial experiments. J shall then solve the apparent con- tradiction between the marine and terrestrial experiments.. Finally I shall consider the hypothesis of central fire as a geological system, in order to examine whether it is not in contradiction to the better known geognostical facts, and whether it is capable of throwing any light up- on the formation of the crust of our globe. This will furnish mate- rials for four chapters.” Such is the distribution of the great work of M. Parrot, upon a subject which merits the attention of natural philosophers, and upon which they are still far from being agreed. It is impossible for us to follow him in the developement of the first of the four great divisions of his memoir, in which he discusses the observations upon which has been established the belief of an increasing progression of the terres- trial temperature from the surface to the centre, and in which he en- deavors to demonstrate that these observations do not present the ac- cordance and regularity necessary to the base of a law, more espe- cially, he observes, if we consider that the depths to which we have penetrated, with the thermometer, have been only to seven hundred and two metres, and that the attempt is made to extend the result of these observations to the depth of twenty five or thirty leagues, that is * Those who would infer from these remarks, that I am unjust towards Buffon, are desired to read what I have said of his system in my Discourse upon Physics, tome vi, p. 681 and 684. No Frenchman even has ever spoken more honorably of this great savan. 12 Temperature of the Terrestrial Globe. to say, to a depth, two hundred and sixty or three hundred and twelve times greater. Neither shall we undertake to bring forward the dis- sertation contained in the fourth chapter, where he treats the prob- lem under a geological point of view. We shall satisfy ourselves with offering to our readers the second and third chapters, in which the author is occupied with the temperature of seas and lakes, and with the manner in which he reconciles the facts obtained, with those which relate to the places where the earth has been penetrated. _ “It has been proved above,” says M. Parrot, ‘that the observa- tions made upon the temperature of the earth, at different depths, are in no wise capable of founding the hypothesis of a central fire. But these proofs are merely negative. Nature furnishes others of a posi- tive character, in observations made upon the temperature of the sea at different depths. The experiments of Irwine, Forster, Peron, Horner, and Lenz, made at so many points of the ocean, attest that this temperature diminishes with the depth, entirely contrary to what the experiments on the continent furnish.* Those of M. Lenz, have doubtless attained to the greatest depths, and at the same time pro- duce the most exact results. As I have already exhibited them in the Bulletin Universel, and as this labor of M. Lenz, has appeared a short time since in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, of Peters- burg, I shall abstain from recapitulating them. ‘These results are principally :-— Ist. That the temperature diminishes as the depth increases. 2nd. That it diminishes at first rapidly, then very slowly. From the surface to 413 fathoms depth, this diminution exceeds 23° C. and from that to 915 fathoms, it does not diminish 1° C. * TI need not dissemble that two contrary experiments, have come to my knowl- edge. One is of M. Irwine, who in lat. 80° 31’ N. found in December, the tempe- rature of the surface of the sea - 2°.2 F. = — 16°.6 C. and at 60 fathoms depth + 3°.9 F. =— 15°.6 C. which makes an augmentation of temperature of a degree in 60 fathoms, or about 120 metres indepth. Thesecond is by M. Scoresby, in the 80th degree of N. lat. and 5° lon. from Greenwich, between Greenland and Spitz- bergen. He found that the temperature increases to 7° F. or 3°.9 C., at a depth of 758 fathoms or about 1516 metres. (I do not exactly know how much the fathom of the English seamen is; but it is, if 1 am not mistaken, nearly equal to two metres.) If we consider that one of these augmentations of heat only amounts to 1° C. for 126 metres, and the other for 388 metres, we might infer that these two anomalies may be explained by the severity of the climate and the season, and do not weigh against so many other experiments made in all other climates and in so many different lon- gitudes. t See Bib. Univ., 1831, tome 1, (xLv1r.) p. 275. Temperature of the Terrestrial Globe. 13 These experiments were made at different points of the ocean, from lat. N. 7° 20’ to 45° 35’ lat. S. and in an extent of lon. from 15° 17 to 196° 1’. If we compare analogous experiments made in deep lakes, by de Saussure the elder, and de la Béche in the Alpine lakes, by Georgi, Pallas and Gmelin in those of Siberia, by Schaw and Makenzie in western America, we shall find the same results, but upon a smaller scale; the temperatures of the bottom, have been constantly found lower than those of the surface. The experiments of M. de la Béche, in the lake of Geneva, at different depths,* prove besides, that as in the ocean, the temperatures diminish at first rapid- ly and afterwards slowly. If we unite all the experiments made in so many lakes, and in coun- tries so distant from each other, and if we compare them with the experiments no less numerous made in the sea, in so many latitudes and longitudes, we shall be justified in concluding that we have dis- covered a natural law, which is that, the temperature, in the great masses of water, diminishes from above downwards, at first rapidly, then very slowly. Now, is not this well established theorem, in direct contradiction to the hypothesis of an interior globe of matter, whose incandescent heat is the source of the mean heat of the earth at its surface? This is what we are about to examine. | Let C, be the centre of the earth, ac the level of the ocean, bd the mean level of the continents, ef the mean level of the bottom of the sea, gh the level of incandescent heat. It is certain that at the con- tiguous surfaces of land and water the temperature will be the same. Let us endeavor to find, in the hypothesis of a central incandescent globe, what this temperature would be. ‘The mean increase of heat has been admitted, in this hypothesis to be one degree C. for each depth of thirty meters, La Place has estimated the depth of the ocean to be at least six thousand fathoms. My geological system, founded on my theory of volcanoes, presents the same data as a min- * See Bib. Univ. tome xii. (1819,) p. 119. t If the temperature of the interior, arose from any warm medium situated at the exterior, and if the diminution towards the bottom, was solely the chemical progress of caloric in this exterior medium, the progression of diminution would be much more rapid, and M. Lenz and the other navigators, would have found perhaps even at 100 fathoms depth, the temperature of zero of our thermometer. This heat of the ocean and lakes, proceed from the action of the solar rays, which penetrate the water and thus produce heat as far as the lowest depths to which these rays penetrate ; thence the decrease of temperature slackens. 14 Temperature of the Terrestrial Globe. imum, we have then twelve thousand meters for the depth ac. Thus, in the interior of terra firma, we shall have at this depth a tempera- ture of 400° C. admitting that the heat augments from above down- wards at a degree for thirty meters depth. But, as we have just proved, observation gives us at this depth of the sea a temperature of about 0°. What becomes of the 400 degrees which should be found there? In order satisfactorily to answer this question in the hypothesis, it will be necessary here to quote certain principles of M. Fourier. The entire surface of the globe loses the tempera- ture, accruing from the incandescent interior, by radiation into the infinite space which surrounds it. This loss which when the whole globe was still in a state of fusion was very considerable, is at pres- ent, and has been for a long time insensible; we may then regard the actual temperature of the surface of the globe as constant, and the calculation goes back thirty thousand years* the time when this temperature was diminished one half.—The water of the ocean Is, as well as the body of the earth, a cooling medium, and carries off the interior heat by virtue of movements produced by the difference of specific gravity, more rapidly than this indefinite space, which occa- sions the temperature at the bottom of the ocean tobe so low. Let us examine these principles and the consequence to be deduced from them. We proceed to radiation, which can only be, asI believe, the chemical progression, of caloric in a material medium, as I conceive the space of our planetary system to be, since new observations upon the comet of Encke have proved that there exists a material sub- stance, although imponderable, which occasions a mechanical resist- ance to motion in it,—a substance which I have long since hypothet- ically admitted as a chemical medium (the radiation) of the light of the stars. Thus we admit with M. Fourier that the terrestrial globe is con- tinually parting with its heat and that this loss may equal the aug- mentation caused by the action of the sun and other luminaries, if the latter be considered as, of any amount.—Let us proceed to the | examination of the cooling of the inferior beds of the sea. The cooling of a liquid is produced in two ways, one of which is the chemical motion of caloric, the other, the circulation established * As M. Fourier bases his calculations upon the cooling of a homogeneous globe of iron, we may be assured after what has been said upon the heterogeneous nature of the beds in the crust of the earth, that this epoch extends back to at least three hundred thousand years. Temperature of the Terrestrial Globe. 15 by the difference of specific gravity, produced by the difference of temperature of the superposed strata. ‘The experiments of Count Rumford induced this excellent experimenter to conclude that all fluids are perfect non-conductors of heat. Mine have proved that air and water transmit heat, but with extreme slowness, analogous to that with which chemical substances spontaneously mingle with each other, by their physical attractions. This principle of cooling must then be considered as of very small efficiency, even when the tem- perature of the warm medium is continually renewed 5 and the nu- merical law of heat at different distances from the surface of this me- dium, would become near this surface a very divergent progression, whose difference at some distances would amount to nothing. Now maritime experiments present a series absolutely opposed to this. This element of the diminution of temperature, therefore does not explain the phenomenon of the diminution observed in the contrary direction. This marine phenomenon, must then, according to the hypothesis, be attributed to the second principle of refrigeration, and Mr. Four- ier admits it as such, attributing toit even the vast and rapid currents which pervade the whole mass of ocean. But these currents are observed only at the surface of deep seas, and not at great depths. The experiments of M. Lenz indicate no current from the depth of a few hundred to one thousand fathoms. His colossal pendulum, it is true did not always maintain a perpendicular direction. But as M. Lenz had only a few hours of calm,. the surface of the sea had not yet come toa state of perfect repose, and the vessel moved more or less rapidly in the direction of the waves. ‘Thus the chord of his bathometer was rarely found in a vertical position; but as this angle was always found in a plane with the vessel’s line of progress, and as the mean of all these observations (very much diversified by her rolling and pitching,) was only 9 degrees, there is no reason for admitting that these angles with the vertical were the product of cur- rents in the interior of the sea. In theory we must admit that at the bottom of the Ocean the up- per surface of the earth, and the inferior surface of the envelope of water with which it is covered are of the same temperature, that the temperature of the earth (in the hypothesis which we are examining), goes on increasing towards the interior and as this has been the case for ages, or thousands of ages, the temperature of these contiguous surfaces, as well as that of dry continents, may be regarded as ab- 16 Temperature of the Terrestrial Globe. solutely stationary. But if this be true, it is impossible that there should be found at the bottom of the ocean, beds of water lighter than the superior beds, and consequently currents could never be produced. If on the contrary the 400 degrees of temperature which would be found at the bottom of the sea, in case the surface at the bottom was covered with terra firma, are still freely discharged into the ocean, then, this heat, especially about the protuberances which are more or less elevated above the mean level of the bottom, would form, in- deed, currents which would mingle the inferior and superior temper- atures as M. Fourier admits. But then it is indubitable that the mean inferior temperatures are always a little higher than the superi- or, as takes place in a boiler full of water when heated from the bot- tom; experiment should shew us the same effect at the bottom of the sea, at least from the depth where the temperature approaches to Zero. Further, the theory of M. Fourier tends to prove that even the 400 degrees above cited can only give out very low degrees of heat in the ocean, because the 400 degrees have not, for ages exist- ed at the surface of the earth which supports the ocean but that it would be necessary to goto a much greater depth to find them. Now these low degrees of temperature carmmanteaed to the inferi- or beds of oceans, are not capable of producing any sensible cur- rents, still less those rapid currents which M. Fourier appears to admit. ‘Thus the internal heat of the earth admitted in the hypothe- sis, can in no wise cause the low temperature of the bottom of the waters. But the illustrious geometrician has recourse to the polar regions. Let us see if the solution of the enigma can be found there, and first what are the means, and what ought they to produce. At the lati- tude of 70° to 71° the mean temperature is equal to Zero, and it is from the water between that point and the poles, that we should ex- pect to find the desired refrigeration. We cannot suppose the mean temperature of this to be less than—5° C.; in as much as the poles are actually covered if not with earth, at least with ice of an enorm- ous thickness, which weakens the radiation of the heat of the water found below. Such are then the means whose effect is to cool the bot- tom of the sea to the temperature of Zero of the thermometer, what mean temperature should we admit the entire ocean to have, as the proper heat, given to it by the incandescent globe, if the refrigera- tion by the polar waters had not taken place? we have found this Temperature of the Terrestrial Globe. 17 temperature, in the latitude of Paris, =11°.7 C., and we shall not err much if we admit it for the whole ocean to be 12 degrees. Thus, in supposing that all the cold water which goes from the poles tow- ards the equator may be equal to all the rest of the mass of the ocean, the temperature of the bottom should be at +7°C. But this portion of the polar water is not perhaps ;,/,; of the rest of the ocean. Soundings that have been made along the whole coast of the North Sea which borders Siberia indicate only a very small depth. This water must, in order to get to the equator, proceed the distance of one thousand seven hundred and fifty leagues, with a prodigious slowness, and consequently lose a large share of its cold on the route. The cooling then in one year would hardly amount to 575; of a de- gree, and sixteen thousand eight hundred years would be required to absorb the 7 degrees in question. But during this lapse of time, the incandescent globe would have repaired this loss, and the more certainly as the limits whence the heat departs are found to be six thousand fathoms nearer the incandescent surface, and the trans- mission of heat would be the more rapid, as the water arriving at the poles would be the colder. ‘Thus, although we cannot deny that the water at the surface of the polar regions, being colder than that at the bottom of the great ocean, would sink and move along the bottom of the sea towards the equator, yet it is not less true that this water ean- not there produce much refrigeration, still less reduce, in the course of ages, the original temperature of the bottom of the sea to zero, and consequently cannot resolve the problem of the low temperature of the bottom of the ocean. M. Fourier has again recourse to the temperature of the highest point of water without my being able to conceive how this considera- tion can be favorable to the hypothesis which he has adopted. Let this temperature be equal to +3°.75 C., as a medium between the experiments of MM. Hallstrone and Muncke, which appear to be the latest and most exact. But M. Lenz has already found this temperature at four hundred and fifty fathoms depth; whence it would follow that the rest of the depth of the ocean (five thousand five hundred and fifty fathoms) would have a less density, and that, in consequence, the superior warmer beds would fall to the bottom and warm it, not cool it. But there is still another consideration, this maximum of density does not exist in sea water; which M. Fourier appears to have been ignorant of. ‘The temperature at which this maximum takes place, is, as I have shown in my Grundriss der Vou. XXVI.—No. 1. 3 18 Temperature of the Terrestrial Globe. theoretischen Physik, printed in 1811, properly the true point of con- gelation, that at which the water begins to congeal in infinitely deli- cate and invisible crystals and the augmentation of these crystals produ- ces the successive augmentation of volume which attains its maxi- mum at the precise congelation which furnishes the zero of our ther- mometers. But we have seen above, that congelation precipitates the greater part of the salt contained in salt water, by which its spe- cific gravity is diminished. An approximative calculation easily proves that these two opposite effects cannot compensate each other, and still less produce an augmentation of volume on the approach of perfect congelation, the augmentation of density by commencing con- gelation being inferior to the diminution by the removal of the salt. This theoretic proof has been confirmed by the very exact experi- ments of M. Erman the younger, which have proved that salt wa- ter increases in density up to the moment of complete congelation. Other partisans of central fire, again have recourse to the waters which flow from the polar regions by the melting of the ice, and which being heavier than the warmer water, descend towards the bottom, and passes to the tropical regions. After what has been said of the water of the polar seas, we shall not be disposed to allow much stress to this argument. We proceed to demonstrate that it is of no val- ue whatever, however specious and palpable it may appear. First, we only object that to think of cooling the whole ocean in this man- ner, would be like attempting to cool the Lake of Geneva with a cu- bic fathom of water of the temperature of melting ice.* Let us ex- amine the matter a little closer. Let us take for a basis the temperature of 30° C., for that of fics water of the sea under the equator and at the ewatnee The differ- ence of specific gravity between this water and the same water there where the temperature is =0, will be ;1,, if we admit according to MM. Dulong and Petit, a variation of density equal to ;3;; for 1° C. abstraction being made for the dilatation of the glass. On the con- trary the superior degree of saltness of the tropical water produces, according to M. Horner, a difference of ,1, in favor of this water over the water at the latitude of 60°; and we can without risking any sensible error, shew this difference to be ,1, between the tropical * An attempt was thus made some years ago, fo explain the general fall of the mean temperature of our whole atmosphere, by the melting of ice detached from the shores of Iceland. Temperature of the Terrestrial Globe. 19 and the polar water. Whence it follows that these two differences nearly compensate each other, and that to produce equilibrium, the sea ought to be, under the equator, a little lower than under the poles, and that if this difference of level establishes a current, it should take place at the surface, from the poles to the equator, and in the inte- rior in a contrary direction. Let us now see the effect of a thaw of the polar ice. We have two kinds of polar ice, that which is formed upon the continent, the continent being land covered with snow and ice, or simply ice and that which is formed by the sea itself. ‘The first are evidently only glaciers, like those which are formed in the alpine re- gions of every climate. They contain absolutely no salt, this is con- firmed by the observations of MM. Egédé, Sabie and Wrangle. The second are the waters of the sea frozen, and M. Wrangle in- forms us that between the 70° and 71° of N. Latitude this congela- tion does not exceed the depth of nirfe or ten feet. Thus these enor- mous masses of floating ice, which rise even four hundred and five hundred feet above the sea, and have at least eight to nine times more thickness under the sea, are glaciers of the former kind, formed up- on a base of frozen sea water, which cannot be twenty feet thick ; and this ‘base itself contains so little salt, that it was believed for a long time that it did not contain any.* Thus we may consider the polar ices and the water which runs from them as containing only a minimum of salt, perhaps less than the water of most rivers. As moreover it is detached from only a few sides of the icy platform in comparison with the mass of waters which melt every summer from the surface of these great platforms, and which contain no salt, we may without sensible error, consider the entire mass of the waters which flow each summer from the polar regions as a water without salt, and we can pronounce, without uncertainty, upon the direction of these waters. The sea water of these latitudes being like the water of the gla- ciers, at the temperature of 0, these two waters act, with regard to each other, as their specific gravity impels them, that is to say, the water from the glaciers will glide upon the surface of the sea towards the equator, without sinking at all; for although, during this move- * [have proved that salt water in freezing retains a part of its salt. See my Grundiss der theoretischen Physik, T. U1. and the 4nnalen der Paysik, T. LVIL. p 144, It follows from my experiments that the inferior parts of the ice of sea water must contain a little more salt than the superior. . 20 _ Temperature of the Terrestrial Globe. ment, chemical action may cause salt to be taken up by this soft wa- ter, and the winds produce a mechanical mixture with the inferior adjacent beds, still the specific gravity of the chemical and mechanic- al mixture will be always less than that of the inferior water. Far- ther let us follow in imagination the pure water of the glaciers with its temperature of O to the equator, where the highest temperature of the sea water is 30° C., the pure water will not sink; for the specific difference between one temperature and the other is +45 and the difference between the sea-water under the equator and pure water, both at the temperature 0, is ,1;. Thus it is in no case possible, that the water from the polar icebergs, can get to the bottom of the ocean, to lower its temperature. We conclude with certainty from all that has been said relative to the temperature of the sea, in its depths, that the bottom of the ocean is about the temperature of 0, of our thermometers, and that this tem- perature increases with the elevations above the bottom. We con- clude that this phenomenon is diametrically contrary to what ought to take place if there existed below the bottom of the ocean a source of heat, which communicated to the ocean its actual temperature and that the ocean proves in this respect, in relation both to cause and effect, the contrary of what observation points out on the continents. We have shown in the preceding chapters, so complete a differ- ence between the observations made in the interior of the continent, and in the depths of the sea in the range of temperature, that it may be called a contradiction. But there is no real contradiction in na- ture, and whenit is supposed that we have found one, it is our igno- rance which makes it so by attributing to one and the same cause, two phenomena whicl: the ocean offers us. The temperature of the sea diminishes from the surface towards the bottom, at first rapidly, then slowly, and finally during the great- ter part of the depth with extreme slowness; whence we conclude agreeably to the experiments of M. Lenz, that at the bottom of the ocean the temperature must be about the zero of our thermometers. We are further obliged to conclude from this, that temperatures are owing to the action of the solar rays, and that the proper tempera- ture of the globe at this depth cannot exceed that indicated by the zero of the thermometer. But asit has been demonstrated that the hypothesis of a globe ig- nited internally cannot resolve the marine problem, it is also certain that the temperatures on land which have been observed to increase Temperature of the Terrestrial Globe. 21 with the depth cannot be explained by the action of the solar rays. We are obliged to seek for another cause applicable to continents alone, and explanatory of these results. This cause is stated in my Physique de la Terre, printed in 1815, namely the volcanic action which took place at the time of the for- mation of the crust of the globe, and with a much greater energy than is now developed. ‘This ancient volcanic activity, is attested by the tearing and overturning of rocks, by the great number of an- cient volcanoes which are now extinct, and which are scattered over almost ail latitudes and longitudes, by volcanic productions in large and small masses, which are met with so frequently in places where volcanoes are not to be found, among the number of which may be mentioned basalt and its varieties ; which is so scattered that the cele- brated Werner was led to believe that basalts the last product of the general precipitation which formed continents that they had formerly entirely covered and were wanting only in places from which the breaking up and mechanical force of the revolutions had removed them. The great force of volcanic action is demonstrated not only by ancient volcanoes which are still active, but by new volcanoes which are still forming upon continents and islands, in proximity to the shores, but this force is manifested particularly by earthquakes which so often indicate new theatres of action. Volcanic action has then, ever since the formation of our globe, produced a very elevated temperature, capable of melting the rocks upon which it has exercised its immediate power in all parts of the present continents. One part of this temperature is spread in the interior of the globe in decreasing progression in the direction of the center, without our being able to know whether it has already reach- ed the center, in any sensible quantity. ‘The other part is spread to- wards the circumference, also in decreasing progression, and is dissi- pated more or less in the immensity of space. Volcanic operations are at present a remnant, a weak continuation of this great work which still produces unequally disseminated heat, the irregularity of which we might more clearly perceive if it did not take place at so great a depth. We may add to this that volcanic explosions frequently eject pyrites which have often formed beds upon layers of existing rocks and which have then been covered with new rocks. ‘These beds of pyrites, continually acted on by the water of the atmosphere 22 Temperature of the Terrestrial Globe. percolating through crevices of the rocks, become new sources of partial heat, which being found incomparably nearer the sur- face than the centers of volcanoes, may sensibly increase, in cer- tain places, the interior temperature at depths which have been reach- ed with the thermometer. ‘These are the waters which furnish us with mineral springs, warm if the water has only a short distance to flow before it comes to light, and if the action of the water upon the pyrites is energetic and the quantity of water small,—cold if the in- tensity of the action is weak, the course long and the quantity of flowing water considerable. I do not rank in this class the Geyser, the Ricum and other spouting fountains of Iceland, which I regard as immediate products of the volcanoes of that island. We must also reckon among the number of causes of continental heat, fossil coal, mineral coal of all kinds, the antique remains of an immense vegetation which had existed in the latter periods of the formation of the crust, inflammable substances which are not (even at a moderate temperature) indifferent to the oxygen, either of the atmosphere, or of the water which finds access to them, and whose action may increase even to a kind of volcanic activity, such as are offered us by the sacred fires of Bakou, and other analogous appear- ances along the shore of the Caspian and Dead Seas; to which we may add those parts of the earth where petroleum and bitumen are formed, as in France, Italy, Germany, Bohemia, China, and North America. I do not instance the heat produced by the great work of general precipitation, for the first idea of which we are indebted to M. de Humboldt, because this temperature, occurring over the whole surface of the globe, cannot serve to explain the local anomalies, which observation proves to exist. These considerations explain the great anomalies which are ob- served in mines relative to the progression of temperature in the in- terior of the earth. We may add to the principal causes now cited, the slow oxidation of metals in the metallic state, and the chemical changes which some oxides, and even rocks, may undergo, by air, water, and carbonic acid. From these it will necessarily result that the temperature of the exterior strata of continents should be a little higher than the corresponding beds of the ocean, even independently of the difference of action of the solar rays upon liquids and solids, and of the greater evaporation from the surface of the sea than from the surface of the earth, and that the difference of temperature should Foltaic Induction. 93 be much greater as we advance further into the interior. These considerations would explain to us (even if the exterior refrigeration during winter does not already do it) why M. Scoresby found a slight increase of temperature at increasing depths in the sea be- tween Greenland and Spitzbergen, the ground of these two masses of land, and indeed the bottom of the sea between them, being en- tirely volcanic. These same considerations discover to us the possibility of a dif- ference of proper heat between one place and another, at the depth where the thermometer is stationary upon the continents; thus the thermometric observations given in the tables at the commencement of our first chapter, show very palpable differences, at depths where all influence of climate ceases, and which can be attributed only to local circumstances. But as we know no other causes than those just expressed, and as these suflice to account for the phenomena, we think we have solved in all its points, the problem which consti- tutes the subject of this chapter.* Arr. IIf.—.An Enquiry into the Cause of the Voltaic Currents pro- duced by the action of magnets and electro-dynamie cylinders upon coils and revolving plates; by Joun P. Emmet, M. D., Prof. of Chemistry in the University of Virginia.—Jan. 1834. Every person, conversant with the history of electro-magnetism, knows how long it was before it became satisfactorily proved that magnetism constantly accompanies the voltaic current ; and, that af- ter Oersted furnished, by a highly important discovery, the most con- clusive evidence, it was nearly six years before he arrived at satis- * The partisans of the system of an incandescent globe would perhaps attempt to explain these irregularities of temperature by the difference of conducting power of the different rocks, and of their appendages. But it will be immediately perceived, first, that this explanation will not apply to observations in places near each other, as two pits in one and the same mine, and it will not agree with the results which M. Fourier has drawn from his calculations, relative to the extreme slowness with which heat advances at present from the depth of 30 leagues to the surface. In or- der to obtain, at the depth of some hundred metres, the remarkable differences of temperature, and the increase of temperature at the same level, it is necessary that the cause of heat should be incomparably nearer these points than would be the in- candescent globe; and it is on these accounts that we present the causes of heat that have just been enumerated. 24 Voltaic Induction. factory results upon the subject. The difficulty of investigation arose, chiefly, from the peculiar manner in which the magnetic forces exhibit themselves ; for, instead of acting in right lines, aeross or parallel to the current, as might have been anticipated from a knowl- edge of other forces, they invariably revolve in planes at right angles to the current, so as to act tangentially upon bodies placed within their influence. The opposite forces move against each other, and exhibit no tendency to interfere with each other’s movement as long as the voltaic circulation continues. It is well known, also, that this singular manifestation, so different from that of any other kind of at- traction and repulsion, soon became, in the hands of Ampére, the means of illustrating the construction and action of artificial magnets. The merit of discovery has, indeed, become almost obliterated by the brilliant results of subsequent research ; although it is apparent that most of them must be regarded as merely illustrations of Oer- sted’s first observations upon the five positions which a magnetized needle assumes, when placed near a voltaic current. ‘The position of equilibrium to which the needle, in all cases, tends, lies exactly in the plane of magnetic revolution, and which itself is at right angles to the voltaic current. All the peculiar movements of the needle result from a disposition to take this direction, and when once in it, the current has no influence or power to invert the needle. ‘Thus, when the needle lies north and south, the pos. current may move towards the east or towards the west, without changing its position. Hence both the magnetic forces revolve in the same plane, accurately, and at right angles to the current. Whether they are generated simul- taneously in every part of the circuit, or rapidly propelled from one of the voltaic elements towards the other, cannot be determined ; but there is some reason for believing that their distribution is unequal as to intensity, for very fine iron dust, as Mr. Watkins has shown, when sifted upon the circuit wire, arranges itself in distinct bands across it. Magnetic forces revolving so independently of each other, must be under the influence of a common central attraction, either existing in the voltaic current, or the matter through which it passes. It is prob- able, therefore, that the curve they describe is an ellipse, and not a circle. Incessant rotation, while the forces are free to move, is emi- nently characteristic of magnetism, and such must be its existence in magnetised steel, according to the theory of Ampere, founded upon the electro-dynamic cylinder. Whether we regard their develope- ment as depending upon a_ pre-existing voltaic current, or not, it is Voltaic Induction. 25 probable that they are in a perpetual state of rotation in the magnet, since they exhibit no tendency to neutralize each other, and yet pos- sess so strong an attraction towards the steel as never to depart from it. When a voltaic current passes through a helix, it may be repre- sented as moving in planes at right angles to the axis; and, as the magnetic forces are known to revolve at right angles to the current, by this arrangement, their planes of revolution pass through that axis. Hence their general direction will be towards the extremities of the helix, the north polar forces all revolving towards one extremity, and the south ones towards the other, both being viewed from the same line, as the axis. Fig. 1 represents the magnetic action of a helix. The positive voltaic current moves from S. to N., and the small arches, ns, around every part of this heliacal current, mark the re- volving magnetic forces; the cross representing the movement of the north pole, and the hook that of the south. It will be seen that sim- ilar poles have the same general direction, throughout the instru- ment, and that a south pole turns from the inside of the helix at the end S., while a north one passes out from the opposite end N. As these poles, in consequence of their issuing more directly from the interior of the extremity, obtain a preponderance of action, they rep- resent the magnetic power of the helix ; N. being its north end, and S. its south one. Along the sides of the helix, these poles have an equally direct action upon bodies in front of them, and hence they neutralize each other. When the extremities S. and N. are bent in- wards along the axis of the helix as far as the middle, the voltaic cur- rent which each thus conveys backwards, compensates nearly for the obliquity of the coil, and makes the resemblance with the magnet more complete. ‘The helix then becomes what Ampere has called the electro-dynamic cylinder and upon the action of which he has founded his hypothesis of magnetism. According to this philoso- pher’s views, every substance, even the earth, obtains magnetic prop- erties in consequence of the circulation of voltaic currents, passing Vou. XXVI.—No. 1. 4 26 Voltate Induction. through or around it; and it is obvious, that had he regarded the magnetism as independent of, or even prior, in its origin, to the oth- er, there would have been no occasion to consider voltaic currents as contributing to the distribution of the magnetic forces. It is the ob- ject of this communication to show, that the currents actually depend upon the magnetism; and if I shall succeed in doing so, it will be neces- sary to modify that portion of Ampere’s theory which involves the highly important philosophic error of substituting an effect for its cause. It is by no means intended to deny the existence of voltaic currents in the magnet; although I confess my great hesitation in admitting that a current, which Faraday* has so ingeniously attempted to show is the same as ordinary electricity, can perpetually revolve around the particles of so good a conductor as steel, without yielding some por- tion to the galvanometer. We can suppose the possibility of its regen- eration by each particle, but the very fact of a circulation seems to prove that it should admit of being led off, by good conductors, as always happens in other instances. All experiments instituted since Ampere’s theory was made known, but more particularly since the important discoveries of M. Faraday in relation to what he styles voltaic induction, show, abundantly, the confidence which philoso- phers feel as to the relation between magnetism and the voltaic cur- rents; nor do I remember an instance where the attempt has been made to account for the phenomena by considering these currents to result from revolving magnetic forces, themselves arising from the ordinary process of induction. Upon reading M. Faraday’s very able and interesting memoir,t the idea occurred to me that such a view might be taken; and subsequent reflection upon the subject has, I think, enabled me to explain all cases of voltaic induction by means of the magnetic forces alone. When common electricity or magnetism effects induction, it is al- ways upon surfaces placed nearly in opposition to the force; where- as the voltaic current, supposing it to act independently of its mag- netism, produces the same effect upon surfaces parallel to its own position, and the induced currents, so far from exhibiting a constant relation to the creative force, are sometimes in accordance with its motion, and at others, in opposition. On the other hand, it is al- ways true, that the rotating magnetic forces of these currents, at * London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine, September, 1832. t Annales de Chimie, &c. May and June, 1832. Voltaic Induction. i Q7 their origin at least, lie accurately within the line of magnetic in- duction. These circumstances, (independently of the consideration that a voltaic current, which theory supposes to have an atomic cir- culation, exclusively, cannot be supposed to operate beyond such — limits,) are sufficient, in my opinion, to prove that we should regard magnetic induction as the remote, and magnetic rotation as the im- mediate cause of the existence and direction of all such voltaic cur- rents. In order that these views may be perceived more clearly, I shall explain them by references to fig. 2. Let @ denote a particle taken from a magnet, around which circulates a voltaic current generated at a, and represented by the elliptical arrows; at right angles to this current revolve the magnetic forces in circles, R, R. From the inside of this current a north po- lar force revolves towards N, and hence that side of the particle, a, will act like the north pole of a magnet; whereas the other, since a south polar force revolves from the inside of the current towards S, will have the properties of a south pole, and the line S, N, will cor- respond with the magnetic axis of the particle. The action of one such particle must represent that of a magnet, which Ampere’s hy- pothesis supposes to consist of an assemblage of them, arranged sym- metrically ; therefore let us suppose voltaic induction to take place. The elliptical arrows c and d represent the only directions in which it can occur; one of them corresponds with the current of a, but the other is in opposition, and neither is in the plane of its action, since both are parallel to it. Therefore, admitting the possibility that the current of a can act beyond its own limits, the positions of c and d necessarily place them out of the directions towards which the posi- tive or negative fluids can possibly tend. But the planes of magnetic 28 _ Foltaic Induction. rotation r 7, rr’, of these induced voltaic currents, lie accurately within those of R R, which give the particle, a, its magnetic power 5 and hence, from position alone, they are capable of arising from mag- netic induction, and are more probable to act as a cause of the vol- taic circulation. I shall now proceed to show in what manner this may be accomplished. In doing so, I deem it unnecessary to discuss the question which may arise, whether copper and other unmagnetic metals are capable of receiving magnetism by induction. All these bod- ies, when acting as voltaic elements, not only generate, but trans- mit with ease both the magnetic forces; and we possess the best evidence, derived from the phenomena of thermo electricity, that circumstances connected with a mere change of temperature, and unaided, by any thing like chemical action, are fully sufficient for the developement. If, moreover, as I think will appear probable from the view which I propose to take, magnetic induction be the cause of unmagnetic metals rotating under the influence of strong magnets, we shall be disposed to admit the possibility of effecting the same op- eration upon other bodies than the metals, since Arago detected vol- taic currents under like circumstances, in revolving glass, resin and gaseous matter. One circumstance must be remembered, whatever value be attached to the conclusions of this enquiry. No magnetic rotation ever occurs, if the substance operated upon be a bad con- ductor of electricity ; and, accordingly, though magnetic induction should take place, we cannot expect a voltaic current to result when the peculiar cohesion or other physical condition of the matter, op- poses its circulation. Arago’s results, just noticed, have been ques- tioned by others; but their complete rejection would not affect the question under consideration. I shall proceed, therefore, upon the sapien, that all bodies. possess an unlimited amount of neutralized magnetic forces, capable of being liberated by the ordinary process Le induction; and that, when the substance furnishing them is a good conductor of electri- city, they not only revolve in circles around the component particles, but distribute themselves, laterally, so as to create a voltaic current. These magnetic circles become firmly established in a few bodies only, such as steel, loadstone, &c. ‘The cause of this perpetual ro- tation is not apparent, but however we may explain the phenomenon, the difficulty will certainly not be greater than that which arises from the supposition of a perpetual voltasc current around the same par- Voltaic Induction. 29 ticles. In unmagnetic matter, their developement is but temporary, and can be sustained only by a constant repetition of the inductive process. One of the most remarkable circumstances attending the genera- tion of voltaic currents, whether caused by an artificial magnet or a galvanic battery, is that motzon is absolutely necessary for the effect. The motion proceeding from the rotation is quite insufficient, and that connected with the lateral distribution of the magnetic circles, along the circuit wire, is calculated to generate counter currents. What fact could be brought forward more opposed to the supposition that the vol- taic fluid, considering it as common electricity, produces the effect by anduction ? No analogy sustains it, and the little probability attending it must disappear, if it can be shown that the result arises from mag- netic induction singly. Although the rotating magnetic poles of a magnet or battery, are not capable without the aid of motion, of generating voltaic currents in steel, they readily produce the mag- netic forces; and hence, it would follow that either the latter do not depend upon the same conditions as the former, and are, there- fore, capable of a separate existence, or that the voltaic currents thus generated without the motion of the steel, at once pass to the particles and confine themselves exclusively to their limits. The latter supposition is the less probable because there is not the slight- est evidence that voltaic currents can be produced under like cireum- stances, in other metals, for all of which motion is absolutely neces- sary, and when generated the circulation can be made to pass into the galvanometer. There is, obviously some great peculiarity, char- acteristic of iron and its magnetic compounds, which thus enables it to undergo the process of induction by the unaided revolutions of the magnetic forces, ina magnet placed close to it, and which cannot be accomplished with other metals unless they are moved during the ex- posure. Without wishing to offer any positive opinion of the cause, it may be suggested that perhaps the forces, proceeding from a mag- net, upon passing into the steel, suffer a deflection, as the rays of light do when they enter transparent media, and which enables them to act more powerfully upon one side of every particle composing a layer of metal, than upon the opposite one. The result might be, that free polar forces would be put in motion, at the points of all the particles most directly opposing this deflection. Thus, let N, fig. 3, represent the north pole of a magnet and ya, yx, &c. its polar forces acting in curves, like those of the electro- 30 Voltaic. Induction. dynamic cylinder, or in right lines diverging from the magnetic axis NS. Let S denote a piece of steel placed within their influence. Now it is evident that were they to pass uninterruptedly, i. e. by the Fig. 3. xv lines y x, they would act with equal intensity upon the opposite sides of the line of particles a,a, a,a, &c., through which they pass, and thus destroy each others influence. But if we suppose that, upon entering the surface c, d, of the steel, they suffer a deflection from the magnetic axis NS, their action would be thrown into the dotted lines, v, r, and this would bring them in contact with only one side of every particle. Induction, therefore would commence upon the un- der sides of all the particles, a, above the magnetic axis NS, and upon the upper surfaces of those below it; the north poles of all the superficial particles, here only represented, would be repelled and revolve from N, while corresponding south polar forces would, in consequence of attraction, revolve around the particles, towards N ; and as the latter are those that zssue from the surface c d, they would give to the steel, S a south polarity, the opposite of that pos- sessed by N. The duration of this rotation, after the magnet is with- drawn, most probably depends upon the molecular condition of the steel, since we find that caloric, which expands the particles, enables the forces to return toa state of neutrality.* * This mode of explaining magnetic induction, is offered as mere conjecture. It does not, indeed, account for the absence of a voltaic current; but is not opposed to the supposition that the circulation is confined to the particles, individually. e Voltaic Induction. : 31 The deflection may be supposed to be equally good in soft: iron, but that the coercive force is feeble, so that the rotation soon ceases ; whereas, in unmagnetic: metals, it is probable that there is neither deflection nor coercion, and that in consequence of this difference, they can receive magnetic induction only by an extraneous motion, either of the magnet or the metallic body, so as to imitate the deflec- tion. Upon this inequality of the inductive process at the opposite sides of every particle, rests my hypothesis ; I shall, therefore proceed to notice its application to unmagnetic metals, more particularly. That motion is necessary for voltaic induction is now demonstrated beyond a doubt. Ampere™* has satisfactorily shown that when one he- lix, connected with a voltaic battery (and therefore highly charged with magnetism in an active state of motion both around and along the circuit wire) is introduced within another helix, connected with the galvanom- eter, no currents are produced in the latter, while at rest; but, upon the slightest movement along the axis either to or from the galvanom- eter helix, they become at once apparent and continue during the motion. Upon entering the helix and upon leaving it, opposite cur- rents are produced ; a fact that cannot well be explained by refer- ence to the current of the battery, which never changed. M. Fara- day, as far as I understand his views, supposes that during the approach, the galvanometer helix gains what he calls electric tension, producing a current of one denomination, and that upon reversing the motion, this tension is either destroyed by re-action or reversed, so as to occasion a current of an opposite character. Observations from so sagacious an inquirer are not to be viewed negligently, but I hope to make it apparent that such opposite currents admit of expla- nation without the necessity of adopting so purely hypothetical a con- dition of matter. Considering the magnet and electro-dynamic cylinder to effect magnetic induction upon similar principles, [ shall confine my illustrations to the former. Let N, fig. 4, represent the north pole of a magnet and Nz, Na’, Nw” lines of action. Now if we imagine two particles of copper aa’ to be placed between them, but at rest, these forces must act with equal energy upon all the opposite surfaces, supposing no deflec- tion to take place ; and, as all of them operate from the same point N, no magnetic induction sufficient to occasion rotation, can ensue. * Annales de Chimie, &c. December, 1831. 32 Voltaic Induction. If, however, we make these particles move downwards, in front of the magnet, one surface of each, the under one, will enter upon the line of induction at the very instant when, the opposite one is depart- Fig. 4. ing from it. At the under sides, therefore, it is supposed that the process commences and continues during this kind of motion. From the under side of a, the force Ne’ will repel a north polar force to- wards v’ and from that of a’, a similar one will revolve towards 2”, each being accompanied by equal forces of an opposite character, moving in a contrary direction in consequence of its attraction to- wards N. ‘The arches sz and s/n’ represent the respective direct- ions of these poles, which are supposed to revolve in curves around the particles, in consequence of their mutual attraction for the mat- ter. When the motion is discontinued, so will also the induction cease, and the polar forces, after revolving for a time in proportion to the impulse already received and the corpuscular attraction, pass into the particles and neutralize each other. But when the mo- tion is continued in the same direction, fresh magnetic forces act in quick succession upon the same surface, so as not only to augment the force and amplitude of the rotation produced by preceding ones, but to lead to their extension laterally, by the rapid generation of similar circles. ‘The result is the circulation of a voltaic current, passing through the particles at right angles to the magnetic rotation. the same particles a, a’, to move upwards before the magnet, at their upper surfaces will commence the induction, for the reason already assigned ; and this, leading toa rotation the reverse of the former, will be accompanied by'a current, likewise of an opposite nature. It is Voltaic Induction. 33 also well known that when the metal in which the induction takes place, is made to move to and from the magnet, opposite voltaic currents, result; the cause of which, admitting the hypothesis, will be appa- rent. For it is obvious that the magnetic forces Nx, Na’, Nx” do not act in parallel lines, but diverge from the point N, of the mag- net; and whether we attribute this want of parallelism, to a repul- sion among themselves, to an attraction towards the opposite poles of the instrument, or, which is most probable, to the curvature that characterizes their action as they issue from the polar surface, and which is exhibited more intelligibly by the electro-dynamie cylinder, still it will follow that the particles, placed between them, must be more influenced by those forces intercepted than by those upon the opposite sides, and from which they arereceding. Accordingly, the outer forces Na, Ne” will effect induction during the motion towards the magnet and the inner ones duriag the retreat. The difference between the four movemeats will be apparent from an inspection of the figure. All particles in their motion downwards will have a simi- larity of magnetic rotation, which also will happen when they are moved upwards; but the direction in the last case will be the reverse of the former. When, however, we suppose the motion to be to or from the magnet, counter currents will arise on opposite sides of the magnetic axis SN, all the particles, above it, acquiring one kind of rotation, and all those below it, the opposite. Viewed in relation to single particles, the difference of induction, here supposed to result from motion, upon opposite sides, may ap- pear to be very inconsiderable ; but it must be remembered that the portions of matter, simultaneously influenced, are infinitely numerous and are exposed, almost in the same instant of time, to an infinity of forces acting in uniformity with each other. ‘The disproportion is, perhaps, not much greater, (for infinity limits both,) than that which exists between an atom and the universe. But it is freely admitted that all this reasoning should have no weight attached to it, unless fully supported by experiment; I shall, therefore, proceed to deter- mine the direction of the voltaic currents corresponding with these circles of magnetic rotation and show that the hypothetical deduction is in full accordance with their actual existence. This point being satisfactorily established, the conclusion urges itself irresistibly, that all voltaic currents, arising from the influence of a magnet or elec- tro-dynamic cylinder, are caused by the ordinary process of magnet- ic induction, remotely and immediately by the order of rotation. Vout. XXVI.—No. 1. 5 34 Voltaic Induction. If we place a metallic ring R R, fig. 4, near and parallel to the north polar surface N, and then suddenly withdraw it, the outer edge will undergo magnetic induction inasmuch as it intercepts the polar forces Nx Nx”, while the opposite or inner edge, is passing out of similar ones; hence north poles will be repelled from within the ring towards x, x”, as shown by the curved crosses n’”, n’’, at the points d and 6. Now itisan established fact in electro magnetism, that when- ever a north polar force revolves from right to left over the current, a positive current moves towards.the observer; the arrow on the ring at d, marks its advance. When, on the contrary, the north po- lar force revolves from right to left under the current, the latter if positive, moves from the observer. ‘This ts the case at the lower part of the ring, as denoted by the arrow. The effect of withdrawing the ring from the magnet, is therefore, to create a homogeneous cur- rent through the ring, the direction of which corresponds fully with the calculated results. If we now move the ring towards the mag- net, the inner edge will receive the magnetic induction and thus lead to the developement of a rotation and voltaic current the opposites of the former. When the same ring is moved before the magnet in any direction laterally, but still parallel to this position, fig. 4, there are opposite currents produced in each half of it; a fact in full accordance with the explanation given for a similar motion of the particles a a’, of the same figure. In this instance all the forces upon one side of the magnetic axis SN, will produce induction upon the inside of the ring, while those upon the opposite side of this axis, produce the same effect upon the outside ; the action being in every case exerted from the point N. : Theoretically considered, therefore, no voltaic currents should appear in the ring, when moved upwards, downwards, sidewise or in any direction perpendicular to the magnetic axis SN; but it is equally obvious that such a movement cannot be austiig without producing a preponderance of magnetic forces upon one side of the axis, and these prevailing, will occasion weak currents. Thus, if we move the ring downwards, the upper half circle, by getting more in front of the magnet, receives its induction from very powerful forces while the under portion is influenced by the more feeble ones. The current is found, by appeal to experiment, to be very feeble, and this makes the hypothetical indication the more probable. When we place the ring so that only its upper margin stands opposite to the $$ ————— Voltaic Induction. 35 polar surface, then, upon moving it upwards, the outer surface of that margin will receive induction and establish a positive current moving from the observer; but upon pulling it back again to its first position, it is the inner surface that generates the magnetic circles and the rotation, being obviously the reverse of the former, the pos- itive current will move towards the observer. All these results are fully confirmed by the currents actually formed. If, instead of a ring, we employ a flat coil, covered throughout its length with silk or other non-conductor of electricity, the cur- rent may be conducted either to the circumference or the centre, by simply subjecting the opposite sides to the same kind of motion before the magnet; but the inversion of the current is still only appa- rent and the result always conforms with the magnetic rotation, as in- dicated by theory. The mechanical construction of a flat coil is such, that, when we look at the winding upon one side, which turns from left to right, over, that, upon the other, becomes from right to left, the opposite of the former. Hence it happens that a cur- rent, always having the same direction, will pass to the centre of the coil, if one side be exposed to the magnet, and to the circumfe- rence, if we substitute the other. The current necessarily follows the curvature of the wire in consequence of its insulation. Thus, if we take a perpendicular wire conducting downwards the positive current, and bend it either to the right or left, we give a correspond- ing direction to the current, so that the rotating magnetic pole which revolves horizontally from right to left across the near side, may be made to turn over vertically, from above downwards or from below upwards. ‘The natural position of the transverse magnetic forces is: in planes parallel to each other, but, asthe curvature of a coil or he- lix necessarily destroys this condition, without any obvious diminu- tion of intensity, we may infer that these magnetic circles have but little action upon each other, laterally. Perhaps we could not have a better proof of the truth of the hy- pothesis offered in this communication, than that furnished by exam- ining the influence which a magnet exerts upon a flat coil, in its dif- ferent positions. ‘Thus, when the axis of motion is common to the magnet and coil, so that both may be made to revolve singly or con- jointly, the theory indicates that the magnetic circles, instead of distri- buting themselves laterally either to the centre or circumference, so as to form a continuous current, actually revolve in planes parallel to the coil, and consequently the voltaic currents must circulate transversely 36 V oltaic Induction. around the wires. I shall illustrate this by supposing the magnet to be stationary, and the coil to revolve, at its center, around the mag- netic axis. Let N, fig. 5, represent a vertical section Fig. 5. of the axis, at the north polar surface, and a, 6, c, a flat coil, revolving, vertically, at its centre, around the pole N, and having its di- rection indicated by the terminal arrow at c. Any particle, as a, included within two lines of polar action, will, in consequence of the supposed motion, receive induction from the force Nx’, and from the point of intercep- tion, a north pole will move around the par- ticle towards z, and a south one towards N. b But as the force Nz’ lies in the same plane as the coil, so will the induced magnetic circle n, s; and the voltaic currents, which result from this action, must of necessity move across the wire, at a. Hence it cannot be detected at other parts, asb and ¢ of thecoil. If we employ a copper plate, the result would be different, but only in consequence of an extension of this transverse current; for the plate forming a continuous conductor from circumference to centre, the positive and negative elements would distribute themselves in this di- rection, and even enter the wires of a galvanometer when they are placed upon the radius a, N. By the motion, as here represented, (fig. 5,) a positive current would issue from this side of a particle, at a, and descending over the near surface of the plate, proceed to- wards its centre. Reversing the motion, will obviously invert the di- rection of the current. For the full effect of induction under such circumstances, it is not necessary that there should be-a plate at all; for, if a magnet, sup- ported at its extremities by pieces of metal, be made to revolve upon its axis, these currents will be generated in the supports, and may be drawn off by wires placed in contact with either the magnet or the metallic fixtures. Nobili is, therefore mistaken, when he says that currents cannot be generated by a concentric rotation. The highly interesting researches of Faraday, published in the second part of his memoir,* place this question beyond a doubt; for he detected * Annales de Chimie, June, 1832. Voltaic Induction. 37 currents along the magnet, when the latter, without a plate or coil, was made to revolve upon its axis either in the open air or while immersed up to the middle in mercury. Although he does not give the particulars as to construction, | am inclined to suppose, that in the case where the magnet alone revolved on its axis, a metallic communication existed between the magnet and its fixed supports, also probably metallic. If such was his arrangement, there is no. doubt that one kind of current was generated in the north support, and the opposite in the south one, and that both these currents passed into the magnet to neutralize each other. It does not seem even necessary to suppose that the circuit became com- plete by the union of these forces at their opposite extremities out- side of the magnet, but it is probable that a metallic communication enabled them to do so. It is equally apparent, that when the mag- net was made to revolve in mercury, the currents originated in this metal as well as in the support at the other pole, and that the magnet became the line of communication for the opposite currents. Viewed in any other light than that furnished by the hypothesis proposed, I am inclined to believe that these peculiar cases of concentric rotation would appear paradoxical. The deduction seems to establish the rule, that when a flat coil or plate is made to revolve, centrally, upon any point around a magnetic pole, the tendency will be to form cur- rents, moving to or from the centre of motion, in the line of radius. It will be intelligible, from what has already been said, why cur- rents cannot be generated, by any kind of motion, when the same side of a flat coil or plate is exposed to the simultaneous action of op- posite magnetic poles, for counter currents must ensue in the same portion of metal. Directly the reverse of this will follow, however, if we expose opposite sides to the opposite forces. When a coil or plate is introduced edgewise between the poles of a horse-shoe magnet, it obtains this position, and must necessarily be exposed to forces, which, from their proximity, gain a power of action, by mu- tual induction, far superior to that of any others situated elsewhere. Accordingly this interpolar position is the most favorable for genera- ting voltaic currents. It has its disadvantages, however, for-only a portion of the coil can be operated upon atonce. If we exceed this, the motion being the same, counter currents will arise. When we introduce the coil between the poles, so that, its centre lies in the plane of the magnetic axis, about one half will be in action; and the removal of it, in the same plane, will produce an opposite current to 38 Voltaic Induction. the same extent. If, however, after having placed it as far as its centre, between the poles, we raise or lower it until it passes quite through, counter currents at first arise, because the magnetic forces on the upper side of the magnet, act upon one surface of the coil- wire, while those upon the lower side affect the opposite surface ; and a uniformity of rotation does not commence until one quarter of the coil is more influenced than the other. The maximum effect result- ing from this arrangement therefore, never exceeds that which can be produced by a uniformity of action upon one quarter of the coil. When, in addition to this interpolar position, a piece of soft iron is made to pass through the centre of the coil, but without touching it, the iron, by its approach to or contact with the magnet, acquires pow- erful but temporary polar forces, which become highly developed when we make it slide upwards or downwards from the magnet. ‘The latter motion adds so much to the promptitude of action, that we obtain as strong a current with only one quarter of the coil, when we make the armature slide quickly from the polar surface, as we do with one half, when the armature is pulled off. Shortly after having become acquainted with Nobili’s process for obtaining sparks from the horse-shoe magnet, and long before Pixii’s improvement, or even Faraday’s memoir reached me, I succeeded in obtaining brilliant scintillations, and most unpleasant shocks, by anew arrangement of the apparatus, and which I am here induced to notice: in consequence of a remarkable circumstance attending its action. An account of it was published in vol. xxiv. No. 1. of this Journal 5 but, for present purposes, a reference to the accompanying sketch (fig. 6) will be sufficient. ; Fig. 6. iN ; Ny The coil has the armature of soft iron passing through the centre, and connected at one end, a, with it. ‘The magnet is united to the Voltaic Induction. 39 other end, 6, so as to form a perfect metallic communication, through the coil, between the magnet and armature. From each of these portions of the instrument proceeds a conducting wire, c,d. The connections at a and 6 being preserved, if the armature be made to slide from the magnet, very brilliant sparks appear between the latter, at the last point of contact; and the wires, d, if taken into the mouth at the time of separation, will communicate very unpleasant shocks, or if brought close together, furnish a small but vivid spark. Yet the current actually passing through these wires, scarcely admits of detec- tion, even by the galvanic multiplier. As, however, the effect varies with the magnetic intensity, length of coil, &c., the observation will be best sustained by an appeal to experiment. The magnet, coil, ar- mature, and galvanic multiplier being the same in all cases, the fol- lowing results were obtained. 1. One half the coil, moved downwards between the poles, gave, alone, a declination of 12°. 2. One half the coil, moved downwards between the poles, with the armature, gave, alone, a declination of 70°. 3. One half the coil, moved downwards between the fale and arranged as in fig. 6, gave, alone, a declination of 5°. Here it will be seen that a current, equal to 70° when the arma- ture merely passes through the coil, becomes diminished to ;; by merely making the magnet form a part of the circuit, as shown in fig. 6. That the armature contributes nothing to this effect is shown by the fact, that an equal reduction takes place when the end of the coil, a, is separated from the armature and made to touch the mag- net, so that upon breaking off the contact of the armature, this end also becomes removed. ‘The result, therefore, clearly depends upon breaking off the circulation in the magnet and throwing it suddenly into the wires c, d.—It is easy to perceive why this arrangement should furnish a smaller current than even the coil alone; since, up to the period when the armature leaves the magnet, a close circuit exists and the wires c, d, cannot possibly receive any portion. After this separation the coil alone acts, but as its position is then necessarily lower down than when it is used alone, so the resultant current must be less. What then produces the shock, by this arrangement, when the wires c d are taken into the mouth, or the spark, when they are close to each other? ‘The galvanometer shows that there is scarcely any fluid circulating through them at the time. The result of my observation upon the three positions, establishes the fact, that the 40 Voltaic Induction. shock is not at all in proportion to the intensity of the current; for the second arrangement which affected the galvanometer to the ex- tent of 70°, gave scarcely any sensation to the tongue; whereas that in, fig. 6, hardly moved the needle of the galvanic multiplier and yet occasioned shocks as disagreeable as those produced by an active galvanic battery of fifty plates, four inches square. I do not think that the distinctions of intensity and quantity will solve the difficulty ; for, if the want of action upon the galvanometer and the power of giving shocks, be owing to the passage of a fluid, great in quantity but of weak intensity, then we should expect to find common elec- tricity in circulation, and this was my own opinion when J first noti- ced the phenomenon, but the gold leaf electrometer was not in the slightest degree affected by the arrangement of fig. 6. It is nothing unusual to have shocks following the sudden interruption and renew- al of common or voltaic electricity, but, in all such cases, the preex- isting forces are powerful and proportionate to the effect. Upon a late occasion, while performing the usual galvanic experiments upon an executed criminal, | had an excellent opportunity of proving this fact in relation to muscular action. The prostrate arm, by the first im- pulse, suddenly became elevated, but fell down as rapidly although still under the full influence of the uninterrupted current; yet, when, by quickly tapping the circuit wire against an extreme plate of the battery, a succession of impulses was created, the lifeless arm pre- served, vigorously, its upright posture. It is probable, therefore, that the nervous fluid, supposing it the same as the voltaic, occasions muscular action less by quantity or intensity than by the distinct rep- etition of its impulses, the rapidity of which must be inconceiva- bly great even during its ordinary action, but infinitely more so when it sustains those tremendous convulsive efforts which characterize Opisthotonos and other tetanic diseases. Another physiological con- clusion suggests itself, as more akin to our subject, and which might almost induce one to become a convert to the doctrine of animal magnetism. It has been fully proved by Dr. Davy and others, that the voltaic current, generated by those animals which possess the power of giving shocks, is constantly accompanied by the transverse magnetic forces. If, therefore, the nervous power which occasions ordinary muscular motion and the different operations of secretion, be considered the same as the voltaic, it would follow, that every nerve possess a tangential magnetic force; and, further, that, upon the supposition that an uniform current proceeds from the brain down Voltaic Induction. 41 through the spinal column, there should be a tendency to produce north and south poles upon opposite sides of the body. Let those, therefore, who indulge in such general speculations, seriously reflect in what a condition the drain must be, with its whirling magnets and electric conflicts ! I shall now proceed to the conclusion of this enquiry, by making an application of the hypothesis to those cases of rotation first announ- ced by M. Arago in 1824. The most important facts are as fol- lows—when a copper plate is made to revolve on its centre, under the influence of a powerful magnet placed over its marginal surface, or, indeed, in any other eccentric position, compared with the plate, the magnet receives four distinct impulses, two of which, are the re- sult of suddenly changing its position, so as to place it nearer the cir- cumference or the centre of the revolving plate. If, however, the magnet obeys the ‘afitenoe of the plate, alone, and has not its position otherwise altered, it receives the other two impulses—one tending to make it follow the plate in its revolutions, and the other to repel it perpendicularly. Any unmagnetic metal may be substituted for the copper with similar, although, generally, diminished effects; and as the action and reaction are equal to each other, all the movements may be obtained by giving the rotation to the magnet and the freedom of motion to the plate. In my illustra- tomes I shall auc the former and suppose the plate to revolve. Fig. 7. (ey Let D BE, fig. 7, represent a portion of the copper plate, revolv- ing horizontally at its centre C, and in the direction of the arrow at B. Let N represent the position of the magnet, suspended over the plate, and Nx Nw’ two of its north polar forces, projected upon the plate so as to cut it at the points a and 6; these letters also denoting two Vou. XXVI.—No. 1. 6 42 Voltaic Induction. particles composing the plate. In consequence of the rotation in the direction indicated by the figure, the induction of the particle a, will commence upon the surface cut by Na, and next to the line BC, whereas the same process will commence, for 6, upon its surface most remote from the line BC. As the magnetic forces of the mag- net, act in planes perpendicular to the revolving plate, so will the in- duced magnetic circles nn’; and the voltaic circuits resulting from this rotation, must necessarily coincide with the plane of revolution. Both the particles @ and 6, will have a north polar force repelled around them, from left to right, wnder, and must aceordingly be pen- etrated, at right angles to the rotation, by a positive current moving towards the centre C, of the plate. | Now experiment fully indicates the existence of such a current, as will be shown presently. These positive currents, issuing from the particles, are represented by the circular arrows upon each side of the magnet, and it is supposed, that being accompanied by a negative current, moving in an opposite direction, each one, instead of proceeding in straight lines to the cen- tre of the plate, turns outwards, as it advances, in order to meet its neg- ative current; and thus the two voltaic circles A, R are formed, upon either side of the magnet. As all the magnetic circles arise within the limits of the forces projected from the magnet upon the plate, it necessarily follows that the strongest currents will be found passing under the magnet, in lines more or less parallel to B C, or the radi- us which bisects these projections. The galvanometer abundantly proves this to be the case, and a few positions of the instrument, fully confirm the hypothetical direction, here given, to these cur- rents. ‘Thus, when one wire of the galvanometer is placed at C, and the other at @ or 6, under the magnet, the latter will be found to convey a negative current; but when the wire at C is removed to B, near the circumference, that one at 6 or a@ remaining stationary, the latter will convey a positive current; consequently, opposite currents must issue from beneath the magnet, a negative one moving towards B anda positive one towards C. When the same wires were placed, one on each side of the radius B C, I could obtain no evidence of a circulation, which circumstance seems to indicate, that, in these po- sitions, they rest upon two distinct systems of voltaic circulation, A and R; and this opinion is confirmed by the additional fact that cur- rents enter the galvanometer wires, when both are placed upon the same side of the line B C, even though they are removed from each other as far as the limits of the plate will permit. Were it not for Voltaic Induction. 43 these circumstances, I should be led to conclude, that the mass of positive and negative currents, generated under the magnet, proceed- ed directly towards the opposite points C B, and completed the cir- culation, along the same line, upon the opposite side of the plate. The supposition, that they form two distinct circles upon the upper surface of the plate, one on either side of the magnet, seems, howev- er, to be admitted both by Faraday and Nobili. I shall, accordingly adopt it, and proceed to illustrate the movements of the magnet. Ist. Rotation with the plate.—It will be seen, by reference to the 2nd fig. at the commencement of this enquiry, that the magnetic force which issues from the interzor of a voltaic circuit, gives to that side of the circle, its active polarity. This is a general rule; and if we examine the voltaic currents upon the revolving plate, (fig. 7.) we shall perceive that the one, generated by the particle a, has a north pole issuing from the interior, upwards. Hence this voltaic circle, de- noted by R, must tend to repel the magnet, whose north pole is down ;’ whereas the voltaic circle A, generated in the particle }, hav- ing a south pole issuing from its interior, must attract it. As both these circles act obliquely upon N, above them, their tendency will be to move the magnet horizontally, and in the direction of the re- volving plate. 2nd. Repulsion of the magnet perpendicularly from the plate.— In order to explain this fact, I do not consider it necessary to suppose, with Faraday, that the currents require a certain portion of time for generation ; but simply, that they exist for a short period after their creation, which, indeed, seems to follow as a matter of course. Pre- suming that such is the fact, it is obvious that, in consequence of the motion of the plate being necessarily much greater than that of the magnet, the circle of repulsion R, gets under the magnet and forces it directly upwards. 3rd. and 4th. Motion of the magnet towards the circumference and centre of the plate.—If, during the revolution of the plate, the mag- net be moved along the line C B towards B, the circle of repulsion R, by the motion of the plate, gets more or less between the magnet and the centre C, and hence repels it towards the circumference of the plate :—but, when the magnet is made to approach C, the same circle advances so as to pass between it and the circumference, and thus compels the magnet to incline towards the centre. __ All these movements will, it is hoped, be sufficiently intelligible, by a reference to the figure, and the hypothesis is equally applicable, 44 Motion of a System of Bodies. whether we invert the motion of the plate or make the magnet re- volve in opposite directions. When the magnet is suspended directly over the centre of the re- volving plate, (and which is called its concentric position,) it receives no impulse; because the voltaic currents thus generated, lie in planes passing through the magnetic axis of N, and those of the same de- nomination meet at the centre. ‘The counter currents that thus arise upon opposite sides of the magnetic pole, exactly neutralize each other. Art. IV.—Motion of a System of Bodies ; by Prof. THEoporr Strong. Continued from Vol. xxv, p. 289. Again, supposing 'T’, ‘I’, &c. to denote the same things as before, we have Qz - Py= (2 xQ== xP jr=Tr, for - X Q= the force Q when resolved at right angles to 7, and z : )- — Dgr— Epr — Fpq+,Cp d lo d 19 dz'2 + Bg+,Ar+ Sin( za = t a (r’); by taking the partial differential co-efficients of (r’) relative to p, g, r, we have by (J), dT dT ay laa ) =p’ +,C, S = +.B, iz =r'-+- A, (s’); by substitu- | aT ting from (s’) and (q’) in (26), they will be changed to d (5) + dt he ee te a( dT\ =| dT a(ae) ~r( aq) =SmRy-a2), a) +7() -P( Ge) =m dt i a 2 A ae (P’z-R’z’), d\ + +0( Gq mae =Sm(Q’z'— P’y'), (27) : also fdé: ee : dT substituting from (s’) in (25), they will be changed to d ((F) 4. vl) te) eee (lS) (vet) )mae a(« (Os >)+ +0(“) +e ae) =a (28). By : v'=ar+a'y +a"'z, y=be+b'y+6"z, 2’ =crteyte'z, da' (’);-".supposing a, 6, ¢, &c. tobe momentarily constant, we have —— Ga adz--a' adz+-a'dy+a''dz dy eo dy + + b"dz dz' _ eda + e'dy + edz dt CLS oa ide dt dx’ d dz (u’); hence, and by (g’), L==>, dp M= _ N=— de’ (v') ; substitu- Vou. XXVI.—No. 1. q 50 Motion of a System of Bodies. ‘d aes Ti , ting from (v’) in (n’) we have Sm . —= =| =p’ +,C=(by (s’),) dT ‘2'da' —x'dz! dT z'dy’ — y'dz' (Gp) Sule) =a B= | Zoi oh as dT +A=(); (w’), see Mec. Anal. Vol. 2. p. 364, &c. If the sys- tem is not affected by any forces except the mutual actions of the bodies which compose it, (whether the bodies are acted on by foices in the directions of straight lines drawn to the origin of the codér- dinates or not,) then, by what has been before shown, the second members of (23) will each=0,.°.by taking the integrals of their first d ih 2d: = dz dz — d' members we have a io = NG —— = id A eed _ or — (29), A’ B’C’ being the arbitrary constants ; but it is evident from the ady — yd. method of obtaining (25), that aay =a" (p'+,C)+6"(q7'+,B)+ dT dT dT an er(r'+A) =(by (w)) a (7) 40"(T)te"(5-),-0"(ae 8 ae ea zh) x0 dT b” i a +e ae in the same manner a i. + ( a +¢’ dT dT dT dT ( ) =B’,a a ney a) +e 7 =C’, (30); by adding the squares of (30), we have by nla) a e yl os ae oe eae C’?=const. (31). If we suppose the forces to be as before, and besides that a, 6, c, &c. are invariable, then we shall have p’,q’,r’, each=0; .'.Sm / ‘d ‘dd, fs ‘dz! ‘dz! un et eed =a, sn(* =) =B,-Sn(! : at) = \4 at dt dt /C, and ,A, ,B, ,C, will each be constant; and we have a’”,C-+6”,B +e” A=A’, aC +6" B+c A=B’, a,C+b,B+c,A=C;, (32), hence ,A?+,B2?+,C?=A?+B?+C”, (33); multiply (32) by a”, a’, a, respectively, add the products, and we have ,C=a/’A’+a’/B'+aC’, in like manner ,B=6/A’+0/B’/+8C’, ,A=c’’A/+c/B’+cCr (34). Now since the position of ae plane 2’, y/ is ue let it be so ae umed that .¢”%= V A’? +B? 4.6" TRO" Te ee / eee ee a Motion of a System of Bodies. 51 ,B, ,C are each=0: by substituting the values of ce’, c’ ¢ from (0) my: JV AP? +B? LC +O’?! 2A ailblbied C | VAT EBT LO?” sin. 6 sin. Vara Os (36). (35) agree with the formule given at p. 269, Vol. 1. Mec. Anal. for the determination of the invariable plane, and (36) are given for the same purpose, at p. 60, Vol. 1. Mec. Cel. and it is evident that they agree with (16). Again, suppose the system to be rigid, or that the bodies which compose it are invariably connected with each other; also that a’, y', 2’, are invariably connected with the system, so that they do-not vary with the time, and change their values only in passing from one body of the system to another. in (35), they become cos. §=—+——= sin. 6cos. = dx’ dy! dz! In this case 7 ==(0), aa ==()), Gp =O VA—0, B—0, C—O) and dp’ A, B, &c. are each constant, hence (26) will be changed tong tars a“ dN” +. a/dN” + adN’ dq/ NV b/dN’’+B' dN'+bdN" a= FE GAO. ar tt ay Roa dr’ e/dN+c'dN" + cdN’ ap Ted ~ P= rae roe aoe: It is evident by (p), that the axes of 2’, y’, 2’ can be found so as to satisfy the equations D=Sy/ 2’m=0, E=Sx! 2/m=0, F=Sx/ ym =0; then will the axes of «’.y’, 2’, be principal axes. Hence put D=0, E=0, F=0; then by (Ul), p'=Ap, q/=Bg, r’=Cr; hence Ad “dN + a'dN’+adN’ Bd (38), become = +(C —B)q = sal ante eed TOU TON b/dN” + bdN’ Cay dt uve Ce ae Bia tell HCE Since the position of the axis of « in the plane a, y, is arbitrary, we willl now suppose that it makes an infinitely small angle with the line of intersection of the planes a, y, and a’, y’, hence neglecting infinitely small quantities of the second, &c. orders, we have sin. ) =, cos. L=1.".substituting these values of sin. 1, cos. J, in (0), we have by neglecting quantities of the order J, a” = —sin. 6 sin. 9, a’=cos. 4 sin. », a=cos. 9, 6’ = —sin. 4 cos. 9, b'=cos. 4 cos. ¢,6= — sin. 9, c’=cos. 4, e’=sin. 6, c=0, (2’). 52 Motion of a System of Bodies. Multiply (39) by dt, substitute the values’of a”, a’, &c. from (zx’), and we have Adp+(C—B)qr dt= —(sin. 6 dN” — cos. 6 dN”) sin. etcos.¢ dN’, Bdg + (A—C) prdt= —(sin. 6 dN” -- cos. 6 dN”) cos. 9 —sin. 9 dN’, Cdr+(B—A) pqdt=cos. 6 dN’’+sin. 6 dN”, (40); which agree with (D) given at p. 74, Vol. I. of the Mecanique Celeste, for the motion of a solid about a fixed point; as they evi- dently ought to do: for the above formule are equally applicable, whetlier we consider the motion of a rigid system, or solid, about a fixed point. Again, 2’, y’, 2’, being principal axes, (r’) will be changed to T= Ap?+Bq?+Cr? dT dT dT ror i ee henco| a Tee Ge a) =Ba( =Cr; .*.in the case of (30) and (31), (that is when the system is not af- fected by any disturbing forces,) we shall have a’”Ap+b’Bg+-c’Cr =A’, a’Ap+b/Bq+e’Cr=B’, aAp+bBq+cCr=C’, (41), A’p? Ad, +B?%q?2+C?r? =AZ?2+B2+ Cz, (42); also (39) become —+ Bdq Cdr (C—B)qr=0, 7, +(A-C)pr=0, 7, +(B—A)pq=0, (43) 5 multiply (43) by p, q, 7, severally, add the products, take the integral, and we have Ap? + Bg? +Cr? =D/=const. (44), which agrees with the well known principle of the preservation of living forces, multiply (43), by Ap, Bg, Cr, then proceed as before, and we have A?p? + B2q?+C?r?=E’? =const. (45); this compared with (42) gives A?+B?24C”? aa i0/2., Hi) It is evident that the system may be considered as having a mo- mentary axis of rotation: to find the momentary axis we Tusa { : dx dy dz that relative to it, we shall have77=0, 7, =0, i= 8” Dy AGoa)s dar! dy! dz’ L=0, M=0, N=9, or by (f’),(and because aa) a 0,) we have qz’—ry’=0, rx! — pr! =0, py’ — qx’ =0, (46); which indi- cate that the momentary axis is a right line which passes through the origin of the cordinates. Let a,, 6,, ¢, respectively, denote the co- sines of the angles which the momentary axis makes with the axes of a! x’, y’, 2’ respectively, then by (19) ess — pp? Tas hh) yen Ly prey 2 x? y 2 q y" r =a, ———————— = ———S Ss b, pe ea TY pee qh ee Ne ee ee Op? ee pall =c, (47). Va py? pa Motion of a System of Bodies. 53 (? vee 3 By (w),(since a? Se are each=0,) if we suppose a’ =0, y’=0, J/ dx? +d 2 qe we shall have 2! o/ p” += a hid =the velocity of a \ point ae is on the axis of 2’, at the distance 2/ from the origin, also by (47), 5 = ca ae 1 —c,2 =the sine of the angle made by the axis 2 -b eee Tr saad aay bi of 2’ with the momentary Sa =the perpendicular IP iateeed a cht. ! from the extremity of z’ to the instantaneous axis; put w=the angu- Jar velocity around the instantaneous axis, and we have 2'V p? + q? el/ p+ Ta p? eq? ae paEEnS Oh Reina peta apnea hae). By (47) and (48), p=a,w, q=b,w, r=c,w, (49), where p, q, 7 are evidently the momentary rotations around the axes of wv’, y’, 2’ respectively ; hence it is evident that rotary velocities are compound- ed and resolved by the same rules as rectilineal velocities. Remarks.—It is evident that if the origin of the coOrdinates is at the centre of gravity of the system, all the formule which we have found will apply, whether the centre is at rest or in motion; for (19) which have the same forms as (18), are applicable whether the cen- tre is at rest or in motion; hence by proceeding with (19), as we have done with (18), we shall obtain the same results as before ; .*.by placing the origin at the center of gravity, all the above formule will apply when the system is free; and the motion of the centre will be found by (4). Again, it is supposed in (4’) that the bodies are so small, that 2’, y’, 2’ may be considered as having the same values for all the points of each, but should not this be the case, we must change m into dm, then find the value of A for each body, by taking the integral relative to its mass; then the sum of all the values thus found, will be the complete value of A; and in the same way we must find the com- plete values of B, &c.; but should the system be a continuous sol- id, we must find the values of A, B, &c. by integrating relative to its mass. 54 On the Navigation of Cape Horn. Art. V.—On the Navigation of Cape Horn; by M. F. Maury, Passed Midshipman, U.S. Navy. A variety of causes combine to render the navigation, from the Atlantic around Cape Horn to the Pacific, dangerous. From the time Sir Francis Drake was driven off Cape Horn, till the present day, the boldest navigators have approached it with cau- tion., They never venture in the latitude of it, until each has pre- pared his vessel for the rough weather to be expected in rounding it; for this, no precaution is omitted. Men of war strike part of their armament into the hold; get their anchors between decks; send up stump masts; bend the storm sails; and secure their spars with pre- venter rigging, as they get near the tempestuous regions. In the roughness of the passage, the crew is liable to much exposure. There the tempest, the sea, and the iceberg assume their most terrible character, each presenting dangers almost new in their kind and peculiar to the region. The ice, from its beds of a thousand years, is detached in islands like masses by the gale and the shock of the sea; it is swept to the north by the winds and currents, and carries in its silent course, all the dangers of the hidden rock, until it gradually melts away under the influence of more genial climates. The gales, frequently accompanied with hail and sleet, are pro- verbial among seamen for their unremitting severity, and the length of their duration. Occurrences of vessels “lying to” in gales of wind, for many days, off Cape Horn, are frequent. I have seen them arrive in Valparaiso and Callao, after having been detained eighty and even one hundred and twenty days in gales and head winds off the Cape. The case of a ship’s “lying to” there, in one contin- ued gale, for seventy days, is of recent occurrence. It is not unfre- quent that vessels even of war, put into the ports of Chili crippled in the rough weather at the South. ‘The most robust constitutions overcome by long exposure to it, succumb to its severity ; they may bear up against it for many days, but the hardiest crew, exhausted at last by incessant toil, are forced in despair to give up the ship, clogged with ice and snow, to the mercies of the contending cli- mates. : The waves run to a height, which, in other seas, they seldom at- tain. In the calm they cause no less damage than in the gale, by On the Navigation of Cape Horn. 55 distressing the ship with labor. In that succeeding a storm, vessels sometimes roll their masts away. To determine upon the best route for doubling Cape Horn, has been a desideratum of the first importance to South Sea navigators. Many opinions have been advanced on the subject, but down to the present time, no route has been proposed, nor directions given, which have received general approbation, or have met with the concurrence of those, whose al eae in Cape Horn navigation, gives value to their opinions. The routes, which have been most recommended, and which have been followed with most success, have resolved themselves into two—the “inshore” and the “southern.” ‘The former is peferable and more expeditious, when the winds are favorable for sailing west- wardly. The latter should be taken, when gales from the westward are encountered, while doubling the Cape. By standing to the south- ward in such cases, the track of the violent winds, that come sweep- ing around the extremity of the land, from the west and northwest will be crossed; sometimes it does not reach further to the south than 57° 30’ lat., it seldom extends beyond 63° south lat. The absence of regular periodical winds in the vicinity of the Cape, contributes to the embarrassment of opinion with regard to the most expeditious route for doubling it. No general directions can be given, which will invariably point out the best course for a vessel to steer, while passing the boisterous region. ‘This is prevented by the uncertainty of the winds, in regard both to their strength and the direction in which they may blow. But under the guidance of certain circumstances to be pointed out, the navigator may be greatly assisted in conducting his vessel in safe- ty through the tempestuous sea connecting the Pacific with the At- lantic. From peculiar circumstances connected with the western gales that blow around the Cape, there is reason to believe, that they do not extend far beyond it, with equal violence, and that they are strong- est in its vicinity. It is a phenomenon occurring not unfrequently under the observations of sailors, that the same gale does not always blow over extensive tracts ofthe ocean. Ships, a few leagues apart, are sailing sometimes at the same moment, with winds of unequal strength and even from different directions; of this a case which oc- curred in 1829 can be instanced; one vessel was dismasted in a gale, when another only a few leagues from her, was sailing in fine weath- 56 On the Navigation of Cape Horn. er with a moderate breeze from a different direction. This gale continued for several days nearly within the same limits. Winds from every point of the compass are met with off Cape Horn. They blow with great violence from every quarter. ‘The secondary causes which govern them seem to follow no laws, save those concealed in their own mysterious effeets. The fact that winds with westing, are more prevalent than those with eastsng, in them, is established from the circumstance, that the return is less dreaded and shorter, than the outward bound passage. ‘The ratio of winds with westing in them to those with easting is as three to one. During the month of our vernal equinox they appear to assume something of the character of periodicals, prevailing from the east- ward ; hence Marchis considered the most favorable season for pass- ing from the Atlantic around Cape Horn, into the Pacific. In No- vember they are more prevalent from the opposite direction. This is the most favorable month for returning from the Pacific. I have before me extracts from the logbooks of a number of ves- sels, that have doubled Cape Horn at different seasons of the year. Of those which have passed the Cape in March, all have had fine weather with eastwardly winds. One of them, in March, performed the passage from Bordeaux, around the Cape, to Callao, without having reefed a sail. The recent observations of sealers, engaged in taking skins, for several years, on the South Shetland Islands, go to establish the fact, that the winds there and along the icy continent to the southward, blow from the eastward. two thirds of the year, the reverse of what has long been known to be the case in the vicinity of Cape Horn. I am informed by some masters of vessels who have been in the habit of coming to the Pacific by the southern route that by going as far south as 63°, they have not only a smoother sea, but a climate less boisterous and rigid. The fact of this comparative mildness of climate is not attested sufficiently to be admitted asa truth. It is near the region of perpetual ice. ‘The eastwardly winds that prevail near the South Shetlands and along the icy continent, are eddies to the gales from the westward, sweeping over regions a little to the north. ‘They are confined to certain parallels by the same peculiar- ity of causes, by which they are put in motion. The icebergs common in the lat. 63° are serious objections to some, why the southern rout should never be attempted, but the probabili- ty of falling in with them, is less to be dreaded, than are the injuries On the Navigation of Cape Horn. 57 and delays incidental to the westerly gales, by attempting to ride them out in the vicinity of the Cape, where they are always most vi- olent. The range of these gales, is frequently passed, by standing two or three degrees to the southward of St. Jolin’s. The early navigators followed the “inshore” passage. ‘Those who came after them, in more modern times, steered more to the south, and were sometimes favored with fair winds and speedy passages. Those who were fortunate, approved of the plan, and in the pride of success, they recommended others to pursue the same route, arguing that although the distance was greater, yet the passage was shortened, by having favorable breezes and a smooth sea. In the present day, there are those who sail by both routes, and make short passages, showing that the preference should sometimes be given to the one, and at other times, and under other circumstances, to the other. Those who go the “inshore” passage, keep close in with the land. Whcen the wind is fair they go to the north of Diego Ramirez; nev- er to the south of it, further than ten or twelve leagues, if they can avoid it. Supposing this cleared, they continue on due west, upon the same parallel, as far as 85° of longitude; thence upon that me- ridian due north, to Jat. 40° S. whence they shape their course direct- ly for the port of destination. When the wind is favorable, they pass through the straits of Le Maire; but this should be done only when they are likely to be embayed, or when they are swept under the land so that they cannot pass to the east of Staten Land, without loss of time, and probably of a fair breeze. A vessel may enter the straits, with a favorable breeze, and under every appearance of good weather, and in coming through, be met. by a gale from the south east, which would place her on a lee shore, and in a very critical situation. ‘The possibility of taking this gale, is a good reason why vessels should go around St. Johns, in prefer- ence to passing through the straits of Le Maire, when they are free to choose either. ° If a gale from the westward, be encountered off Staten Land, they seek refuge from its violence, under the lee of the island, and ‘‘ heave” or “lay to” in smooth water, until the gale abates. If they be fur- ther to the westward, before they meet it, they “lay to” on either tack, preserving the latitude in which they may be at the time of ta- king it, as near as practicable. After the gale has passed over, they stand again to the westward. On nearing the Cape the second time, they run the same risk of meeting an adverse gale, that they did when Vou. XXVI.—No. 1. 8 58 On the Navigation of Cape Horn. it was first approached. Frequently they do not clear the Cape, un- ul the third or fourth attempt after having been set to the eastward by gales from the westward. | : During the north west gales, vessels have been driven several hun- dred miles to the south east. In 1819—20, an English brig was set in a north wester, from the vicinity of Hermit’s Island, down to the south Shetland’s, which had been discovered by a Dutchman, about two hundred years previously : during this lapse of time, their exist- ence had never been confirmed to the world, by a concurrent report from other navigators, and the reported discovery of the Dutchman, had sunk into disbelief, and finally into oblivion. The brig, after a tedious passage, arrived at Valparaiso, and her master, (one Smith,) reported the discovery he had made to Capt. Sherif, R. N. who was in the bay of Valparaiso, in command of one of his Majesty’s men of war. Capt. Sherif chartered the brig, sent officers on board, and despatched her, to ascertain the reality of the reported discovery, and, the position of the Islands. ‘They were found without any diffi- culty, and after sailing among them for a day or two, the brig put in- to a harbor, where were several American vessels, lying quietly at anchor, some of which had been in the habit for five years, of visiting that place. When the westerly gales, become so violent as to strip the can- vass from the yards, the ship is liable to much injury, if they blow for many days, which they frequently do. By persisting in the at- tempt to weather out the storm, and to secure the ‘‘ inshore” passage, vessels have been reduced almost to the last extremity before they succeeded. In waiting to catch a favorable moment for passing the land, some are even less fortunate. After riding out gale after gale, and being driven from the land as often as they made it, they are at last, forced in distress to put back into some port on the Atlantic side. They are seen coming into Rio Janeiro or the La Plata, their hulls so completely shattered, that they scarcely keep afloat, and the crew unable to manage them, being exhausted by long exposure to the freezing winds. The delay necessarily incurred by refitting, and from the difficulty of shipping another crew, amounts to several months. Probability favors the supposition, that these misfortunes would have been avoided by lying to, on the starboard tack, and forging to the southward, out of the strength of the gale, with the expectation of catching an easterly wind in the icy regions. On the Navigation of Cape Horn. 59 Those who follow the “ southern” route, take their departure from St John’s, (Staten Land,) and steer to the southward to lat. 63°, where they expect to find the wind from the eastward, which will carry then’as far as 85° or 87° of W. lon. They make this longi- tude, before they cross the parallel of 61°, whence, as those who go the other route, they steer directly north to lat. 40°. Independently of personal observation, other means of acquiring in- formation, relative to the navigation around Cape Horn, have been resorted to. Besides access to numerous log books and notes, in- formation has been obtained on the subject, from masters of vessels, who have been sailing to and from the west coast of South America, for many years. ‘The opinions of some, derived from an attentive observation, and strengthened by the experience of twenty voyages, have the highest claims to respect. The advice of these men urges the propriety of yielding to circumstances in doubling Cape Horn, and of being guided by the winds, in giving preference to either the “inshore” or the “* southern” passage. The former is to be pursued always, when the winds are favora- ble, keeping close into the land, never passing to the southward of Diego Ramirez, more than ten or twelve leagues. It is better to go to the northward of it, when it can be done without loss of time. The ‘‘ inshore” passage being nearer in point of distance, when the winds are ahead, if the sea be smooth enough to allow a vessel to beat to windward without losing by leeway; but when this can no longer be done in a breeze that is freshening, the route-should immediately be abandoned by standing to the south, until the wind shall be found to be more favorable for getting to the west, which frequently hap- pens by running a few leagues to the southward of Diego Ramirez. The westerly winds, for the most part, come ina sweep around the land, without stretching many degrees in breadth, towards the south. The longitude of 85° should be gained, without going to the north- ward of the parallel on which the land is cleared. The latitude of 40° S. as in the other route, is made on the meridian of 85°. This is always done to clear the gales and currents, which blow and set on shore in the vicinity of the Island of Mocha, and the outlet to the straits of Magellan. Vessels bound from the U. States around Cape Horn, are recom- mended to cross the line, between Jon. 23° and 26°, so that with the south east trades, they can fetch Cape Frio, which should always be done ; then to run the coast down on soundings and to pass between the Falklands and the Main. Go) | On the Navigation of Cape Horn If driven off the coast before reaching the Islands, it is better to beat up to it, to the northward, than to pass down south, to the east- ward of them, after the gale abates. ‘There are circumstances under which the outside passage would prove the more expeditious, but their presence cannot be known by description ; the situation of the vessel, the direction of the winds, the appearance of the weather, etc. are the guides for pointing out the proper time for the outside passage, and they frequently deceive seamen, who have never made a voyage around Cape Horn. The probability of meeting westerly gales to the south, after having passed to the east of the Islands, and the sufferings to which the ship’s company is liable in them, are sufficient reasons why pref- erence should be given to the passage between the Islands and the Main. ‘The coast and the soundings along it, are clear and regular. When the wind is fair, Cape St. John’s should be doubled close around, and all canvass crowded on the ship, to carry her to the west as fast as possible. The difficulty of the passage consists in getting from Staten Land to 85° west. If on clearing St. John’s, or making Hermit’s Island, a gale be met from the westward, the vessel, unless she could clear all danger by standing to the northward and westward, should be kept constant- ly on the starboard tack, until she either forges out of the range of the gale, or arrives in lat. 63°. With the easterly winds to the south, she can run to 85° west, whence she can steer north to 40° as previously directed. If it be necessary to go to 63° south, before the winds will allow the vessel to stand to the westward, she should make her westing to the southward of 60°; if she gets out of the strength of the gale, be- fore she reaches 63°, she can run up her westing on the parallel up- on which she may be, or as near it, as the breeze will allow. Itis al- ways advisable to be in lon. 85° before attempting to pass to the northward of Cape Horn. The U.S. S. Falmouth, and H. B. M. S. Volage, doubled Cape Horn in Oct. 1831; the latter had thirty eight the former twenty four days from the Cape to the lat. of Taleahuana. Both of them took a westerly gale off the pitch of the Cape. The Falmouth stood down on the starboard tack to 62° 5’ S. and found the winds more favorable. The Volage, persisting in the attempt to gain the “in- shore” passage, lay to on either tack, to preserve her relative position with regard to the lat. of the Cape, and was drifted off to the east- On the Navigation of Cape Horn. 61 ward. When this gale abated, she stood up to the Cape again, and took another, in which she was also driven to the eastward. In the third attempt she succeeded in doubling the Cape. She put into Talcahuana, to repair the damages which she had sustained while ri- ding out the gales from the westward. ‘The Falmouth arrived in Valparaiso in excellent order. In May 1829, the U. 8. S. Guerriere, sailed around Cape Horn into the Pacific ; she encountered a gale from the northward and westward, before she passed Diego Ramirez, she received it in the starboard tack, and forged to the southward: she got clear of it in lat. 58° 37’ near which parallel she stood to the west, she was twenty one days from the Cape to the latitude of Talcahuana. - The U.S. 5S. Brandywine, made the same passage in seven- teen days, she passed the Cape in December, 18263; she found the winds varying from N. W. to S. W.; she ran up the usual westing without crossing the parallel of 57° 30’. When the winds freshened so that she could not beat to windward, she lay to with her head to the south, giving the land a wider berth. The American whale ship Enterprise, and the English whaler Sussex, encountered a gale off the Cape, near the same time. The former, by forging to the southward cleared the gale in lat. 58° and in fifteen days after first crossing the parallel of the Cape, she was in the latitude of Talcahuana. ‘The Englishman had thirty six days to the same parallel; she lay to, close to the cape in order that when the gale should abate, she might hug the land around. Before she cleared the Cape, she was twice driven by gales ‘off to the east- ward. Short passages are made by hugging the land when the wind is fair or moderate from the westward, but seldom by waiting first to ride out a gale from that quarter. Many instances could be cited shewing the advantage of ‘steering to the southward under such cir- cumstances. But to prove what is here recommended is not perti- nent to the object in view, reasons must suffice. Common practice teaches that good passages are more frequently made by those ves- sels, which finding contrary gales off the Cape, stand boldly to the south, than by those, that lie to in them, keeping near the parallel of the Cape. The barometer has not been found to be of much practical utility off Cape Horn, how useful soever it may be in middle latitudes, by indicating the approach of hurricanes ; it is no index to the winds in the high latitudes to the south of Cape Horn. 62 On the Navigation of Cape Horn. He, who in the China seas, is warned by the barometer, of the approaching Typhoon, and can foretell the coming of a gale by the height of the mercury in it, finds that off Cape Horn, the same indi- cations are frequently followed by moderate breezes and even by calms. Here the mercury, below the mean height of lower latitudes, becomes very unsteady, falling and rising several inches in a few hours. During the strength of a gale, sometimes it is observed to rise, at other times it falls or remains in statu quo. Its mean height south of the latitude of Cape Horn is 29:03 in. As the Pacific coast of Tierra del Fuego and Patagonia is ap- proached with the wind from the westward, the mercury in the ba- rometer ascends. When the wind is strong, it rises above thirty in- ches, and close under the land with fresh westerly gales it frequent- ly stands above 30°50 in. From lat. 45°, embracing a region towards the south of twelve or thirteen degrees in breadth, the most prevalent winds are from the westward. Vessels entering this region from the south have a rise in the barometer, when the wind is on the land. The rise is generally observed to commence about the latitude of the Cape, continuing to increase as the land is neared; and when the winds are fresh, a greater accumulation of atmosphere is shown by a high- er range of the mercury. The result of my own barometrical observations compared with others to which I have had access, shews that within this region, the barometer stands higher when the winds are from the westward, than it does, ceteris paribus, between the same parallels in the At- lantic. ‘The difference is nearly as twenty nine to thirty, and increases as the land is approached. ‘This accumulation of atmosphere is cau- sed from the obstruction which the mountains of Patagonia, and the highlands cf ‘Tierra del Fuego affix to the winds in their passage across the continent towards the Atlantic: The air thus obstructed is compressed by that coming after it, and according to the force of the wind, and the distance from the land, the barometer indicates a greater or less superincumbent pressure. The disturbing cause which first destroyed the atmospheric equilibrium towards the East, contin- uing to act, the density of the obstructed air is increased by the in- creased tendency to restore the equilibrium from the west. The air thus forced, rushes around the southern extremity of the land, with an impetuosity that is known only to those, who experience the effects of its violence. ‘This current of air, as it sweeps around Instrument for finding the true Lunar Distance. 63 Cape Horn is confined to a channel, which is widened towards the south in proportion to the latitudinal breadth of the column, that is rushing to the east. Near the southern borders of this channel, the easterly winds commence, returning in eddies towards the west whence they are again carried eastwardly, in the current that rushes around Cape Horn. Art. VI.—Plan of an Instrument for finding the true Lunar Dis- tance ; invented by M. F. Maury, Passed Midshipman, U.S. Navy. GF HE, isa great circle of brass, standing upon three legs X y Z; it represents the horizon. AE, AF and BC, are arcs of great cir- cles; they also are of brass, and their planes pass through O, a com- mon centre. The periphery of GF HE, the middle curvature PQ, of AE, the concave circumference of BC, and the convex of A F, have equal radii centering in O. AE, describes half of a ee anere on the hinge at A, the axis of which, is that of the zenith and nadir, and of course passes through O. The extremity F, of the arc AF, is fixed in the plane of GF H E, and the extremity E, of A E, revolves in the plane of G F H E, and along its circumference, describing arcs of equal circles, from the centre O, until it stands in the plane of A F, the two then represent asemicircle. By means of the screw S, which presses E toG FH E, E is placed and,fixed at any distance from F. The hinge at A, is of brass turning against steel, which lessens friction. — AE and AF, are arcs of the azimuth circles, in which the sun or a star and the moon are at the time of taking a lunar observation. Each is 90° and graduated to every 10’ or 15’ on a slip of finer met- al, let in for that purpose. BC, is an arc of the geocentric circle, in the plane of which, the sun and moon appear, when the observation is taken ; it is graduated as the other arcs are, but from 20° to 120°. It is intended first to set off the apparent, and then to measure the ¢rue lunar distance. To assist in transferring the altitudes and distance with exactness, from the sextants with which they are taken, to the arcs of the instrument, each of them is provided with a vernier scale, a, b, c, having a tangent and a fixture screw respectively attached to them. ‘The extremity m, of BC, is hinged to zero of the vernier c; the axis of this hinge 64 Instrument for finding the true Lunar Distance. is moveable along AE, around the centre O; it is the line of inter- section of the plane of BC with that of AE. ‘The inner curvature of BC, moves in the plane of AE, and along its middle curvature PQ, as the vernier c, travels along AE, and the plane of the are BC, always passes through the common centre O. With the observed altitudes and distance of the two bodies, taken in the usual manner, for finding longitude from a lunar observation, the true distance is determined, by first marking off on the two ares Color of the Air and of Deep Waters. 65 AE, AF, the altitudes of the centre of the sun or astar, and the moon, corrected for dip and semi diameter, and their apparent dis- tance on BC. ‘The verniers a, 6, are fixed at the altitude and dis- tance, by means of the fixture screw—the two legs AE, AF, are opened until zero of the verniers a and 6 arein the same line with regard to the centre O; the screw S, is then turned, and the two legs AE, AF, are fixed at that opening—the two altitudes are then cor- rected for parallax and refraction-—(say the sun’s altitude has been set off on A E, the moon’s on A F,) move the vernier c to which m is hinged, down to the degrees, minutes and seconds, corresponding to the sun’s corrected altitude, and turn the fixture screw. Move a up to the moon’s altitude, corrected for parallax and refraction, and fix the vernier at it—then move the vernier 6 and turn the are BC on its hinge until zero of 6 stand in a line with zero on a, and the de- grees, minutes and seconds, upon which 6 stands, will be the true lu- nar distance from which the longitude is determined, as it is in all other methods. Arr. VII.—On the Color of the Air and of deep waters, and on some other Analogous Fugitive Colors; by Count Xavizrr De Maistre. Translated from the Bib. Univ. by Prof. J. Griscom. Tue blue color of the sky is accounted for, by supposing that the sun’s light reflected by the surface of the earth, is not entirely trans- mitted by the atmosphere and lost in space, but that the molecules of air reflect and disperse the blue ray. Why this ray is reflected in preference to the indigo and violet which are more refrangible and appear to be more easily reflected, is a circumstance not accounted for. The same blue reflexion is observed in deep sea water, and m lakes, and rivers, when they are limpid. The same singular phenomenon is also witnessed in various sub- stances of different natures which have no apparent analogy ; thus opaline substances are blue by reflexion: the noble opal, (indepen- dently of the partial rays which give so high a value to this stone and which are attributed to natural fissures*) reflects a general blue color * This was the opinion of the celebrated Haity- Vou. XXVI.—No. 1. 9 66 Color of the Air and of Deep Woters. which is also observed in some other siliceous stones, and which is still more obvious in opaline glass. A weak solution of soap, is slightly blue; the jelly of ichthyocolla is more so, and an infu- sion of the bark of the large chesnut tree, (maronnier) which is per- fectly opaline, still more. Newton speaks of a wood which he calls ne- phritic, the infusion of which is opaline. In the Sicilian’ sea, at the mouth of the Giaretta, (the ancient Simethus) specimens of amber are found, which are in great request on account of their highly opa- line properties. A blue reflexion is also observed in certain bodies which are opake- white when reduced to plates thin enough to transmit light. & | SL Let * 8 a, &c. (fig. 5.) represent the plane of the ecliptic, with On the Meteors of 13th November, 1833. , 966 the twelve signs, AEB the earth’s orbit, S the sun, and E the earth. On the morning of Nov. 13th, the place of the sun was in 211° of Scorpio, and that of the comet in 232° of Leo, (as observed at New Haven) being distant from the sun within 2}° of three signs or 90 de- grees. ‘The line of direction, therefore, as seen from the earth, was very nearly a tangent to the earth’s orbit, and consequently coincided nearly with the line of direction in which the earth itself was moving. In other words, the earth was moving almost directly towards the comet. ‘Therefore, S’ being the place of the sun among the signs, E’ that of the earth, and C’ that of the comet, join EC’, and the comet’s place will be in the line EC’,* and, as was before shown, very near to KE. Let it be at C. Now the comet remained apparently at rest, and of course near the line EC’ for at least two hours. ‘This it could not have done, unless it had been moving in nearly the same direction as the earth, and with nearly the same angular velocity around the sun. For had it been at rest, the earth, moving at the rate of 19 miles per second, would have overtaken it in less than two minutes; or, had it been moving in the opposite direction, the meeting would have occurred in still less time ; or had not the angular velocities of the two bodies been nearly equal, they could not have remained so long stationary with respect to each other. Hence we conclude, (1.) that the body was pursuing its way along with the earth around the sun. Taking it for granted that the orbit of the body is elliptical, like the orbits of all the other bodies of the system, we infer that, at the time of observation, it must have been either at its perihelion, or its aphel- ion, otherwise its angular velocity could not have corresponded so nearly to that of the earth. ‘The regular return of the phenomenon, at short periods, indicates that the aphelion, and not the perihelion, is near the orbit of the earth. . Another reason will be stated hereafter, which, it is supposed, confirms this conclusion. As the body was very near the earth at the time of observation, it must have been at its aphelion ; and being seen then, only 71° from the ecliptic, the plane of its orbit must be inclined at a small angle to the plane of the eclip- tic, so that the body itself, if seen at all, will be seen within the zo- diac.- From all these considerations we conclude, (2.) that the body revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit, but little inclined to the * 74° northward of the plane of the ecliptic, as observed at New Haven. 166 On the Meteors of 13th November, 1833. plane of the ecliptic, and having its aphelion near to the orbit of the earth. Let us inquire, next, what is the periodical time? Since the same phenomenon was exhibited at Mocha, on the morning of the 13th November, 1832, and on a much larger scale than that, in various parts of the world, on the morning of the 12th November, 1799, we cannot suppose such a coincidence in the time of the year to have been purely accidental, but must conclude that the periodical time of the comet, and that of the earth, bear to each other a ratio which can be expressed in whole numbers ; so that after a certain number of revolutions of the two bodies, corresponding to the terms that ex- press their ratio, they will come together again. ‘They could not come together, as they did, on two successive years, unless the peri- odical time of the comet was nearly an aliquot part of that of the earth, such as one half, one third, &c. Now, if the time be any ali- quot part of a year, it must be one half, so that the comet would per- form two revolutions, while the earth performs one ; for, were its pe- riod only one third of a year, the line of the apsides would not be long enough to reach the earth. This will be obvious from the following estimate. Let D represent the axis major of the earth, and d that of the comet’s orbit, their times being as 3to 1. Then, by Kepler’s Pay, weeks ih? 4 yD) ds: Taking D=190,000,000 miles, d=91,343,000 for the whole ma- jor axis, which is not equal to the distance from the sun to the earth. But, supposing the times as 2 to 1, we have 22 :12::D? : d%, whence d2=119,692,000 miles ; giving for the perihelion distance 24,692,000, and for the aphelion 95,000,000 miles. Hence we conclude, (3.) that the body has a period of near- ly six months, and its perthelion a little below the orbit of Mercury. The transverse axis and the foci being determined, the ellipse may be described. Therefore, join CS, and produce the line CS to D, making SD equal to the perihelion distance, and upon CD de- scribe the ellipse CFD, and it will represent the orbit of the comet. This is to be regarded only as a first approximation to the true periodic time. The distance from the sun, instead of being taken, as here, at the extremity of the body, ought to be reckoned from the center of gravity, if we knew where to fix that. Nor can we sup- pose that the periodical time is very uniform, since a light nebulous body like the one in question, crossing as it does the orbits of Venus and Mercury, and having its perihelion near the orbit of the latter, On the Meteors of 13th November, 1833. 167 would be subject to very great perturbations, sufficient to alter the di- mensions of its orbit at every revolution. It might, for example, by coming into near conjunction with Mercury, have its periodic time greatly shortened, and be compelled, for a long period, to revolve nearer to that planet than it does at present; and again by coming into a similar position with respect to the Earth, its orbit might be en- larged, and its periodic time increased, so that it might for a long pe- riod revolve nearer to the earth than before. I am not able at pres- ent to assign the amount of these disturbing forces, but it is easy to see that they exist, and must greatly influence the motions of the body. The reader will very naturally suppose that, if a comet had ap- proached so near to the earth, having the plane of its orbit in the zo- diac, it would have been visible, first on one side of the sun, and then on the other, like an inferior planet. ‘There are grounds for believ- ing that such is the fact, and that a body answering to the conditions of the supposed comet, has been seen, at intervals, ever since the 13th of November, and is still (March 31st) visible in the west after sunset. By inspecting figure 5, it will be seen, that at the time of the me- teoric shower, the body must have been westward of the sun, and if visible at all, must have been seen in the east before sunrise ; that in consequence of the greater velocity of the earth,* the comet would al- most immediately afterwards be in such a position with respect to the earth, as to appear very near the sun, and shortly would be seen to the eastward of that luminary, and set after him; and it would either move onwards before the sun, or backwards so as to disappear from the evening sky, according to the relative positions of the comet, the earth, andthe sun. It will be farther manifest, on a little reflection, that a nebulous body of considerable extent, when brought very near to the earth, would cover a large space in the heavens. If, for ex- ample, the body were a comet of an elongated figure, as is usual in those bodies, it might, in certain positions, cover an immense arc in the sky, extending from the meridian to the horizon, or even much farther. We will endeavor shortly to make this matter plain by a diagram. Let us now see if we have any evidence of a body like the * At the aphelion, the velocity of the body is determined as follows: (semi axis major) 2. (Per. dist.) ae Velocity in the cir. : Velocity in the ellipse. That is, 18.92 miles per second being the mean velocity of the earth, (59.846)é : (24.692) 4 :: 18.92 : 12.15. 168 On the Meteors of 13th November, 1833. one supposed, having been seen in various positions, corresponding to those which a comet, revolving after the manner inferred in the fore- going paragraphs, must have assumed. 1. Such a luminous appearance was exhibited on the morning of November 13th, being seen in the east before the dawn of day. Thus Mr. Palmer® says that ‘an auroral light, resembling day break, appeared constantly in the east from the time when his observations commenced,” [2 o’clock, A.M.] Mr. P. stated to the writer, that, this light was so bright, and so much resembled the morning dawn, that a member of his family got his pail to milk the cows, supposing it to be day break, but found it was only 4 o’clock. Mr. Darius Lapham (p. 378) says, that at Cincinnati, “an aurora or boreal light, was seen during the meteoric shower, a little north of east. The lower edge of this bank of light appeared to be several degrees above the horizon.” Various other observers speak of seeing “an auroral light,” or ‘an aurora borealis,” but do not mention the points of compass. The greater number, however, of those who viewed the phenomenon, did not commence their observations till near day break; and others were too much occupied with the falling meteors, to notice such a light, although visible in the east. The writer quoted from in the Boston Centinel, (p. 367,) says, “there was a vapor in the atmos- phere, visible round the horizon, which in the south east assumed a very beautiful appearance during ten minutes, about half an hour be- fore sun rise.” ) 2. A peculiar light was seen eastward of the sun, visible in the west after sun set, as early as the first of December. I beg leave to repeat what was said on this subject in the former part of this article, p.398. ‘The writer of this article observed an appearance resembling zodiacal light, between the hours of 7 and 8, on the evenings of Dec. Ist and 3d. It consisted of an auroral ap- pearance in the west following twilight, being an apparent prolongation of the latter. It reached to a length of about 25 degrees, towards the head of Aquarius.” Also on page 410, ‘* The same appearance has been exhibited as late as Dec. 29th, in a form much more impo- sing than on either of the preceding occasions. It was observed im- mediately after twilight, being brighter than the zodiacal light, not len- * See the last No. of the Journal, p, 384. On the Meteors of 13th November, 1833. 169 ticular like that, and not extending along the Zodiac, but having its apex ina vertical circle, near Alpha Pegasi. Ridges of dark clouds, (cumulo stratus,) with intervals of clear sky, contributed to heighten the effect by contrast ; and higher than these, was a thin vapor that became visible as it crossed Jupiter, which was near the meridian, be- ing illuminated in a circular space around the planet. The vapor was so thin as hardly to diminish the light of Jupiter.” ‘The same ap- pearance continued to present itself for several evenings, although in a manner less striking, until the presence of the moon prevented its be- ing seen. After the moon light was withdrawn, it was seen again. ' [had the pleasure of pointing it out to several members of the Con- necticut Academy on the evening of their meeting, the 28th of Janu- ary. The following minutes are from my Note Book. Feb. 3d. “ The occidental aurora has been very conspicuous for the last two evenings, remaining until about 9 o’clock. Although it did not resemble the zodiacal light on the 29th of Dec., being then much more diffused over the southern and western sky, than is usual with that phenomenon, and extending much farther to the east, yet it has ever since appeared to extend along the zodiac, and to resemble that light in other respects. A faint Bale about the brighter stars has been noticed of late by many persons.” The return of the moon prevented observations in the west until near the close of the month, and it never occurred to me to look for it in the east before the morning dawn, having, at that time, no cor- rect ideas of the nature of its connexion with the meteors, nor of its importance to the theory of which it is now believed to afford a stri- king confirmation. Nor after the full moon, which occurred on Feb. 23d, did the light attract my attention again until the 8th of March, when I entered the following memorandum in my Journal. “ This evening, the sky having been thoroughly cleared by a copious show- er of rain, the luminous cone or lens, reached nearly to the Pleiades, through about 60 degrees of longitude, and was visible until nearly 9 o’clock.” The return of the New Moon on the 10th, interrupted my observations ; but on the 26th, a short interval was afforded me be- tween the end of twilight and the rising of the moon, during which the same light again presented itself. On the 27th, 29th and 30th, it has been observed by myself, and a number of my friends. The last evening (the 30th) it reached ina direct line from the sun between the Pleiades on the west, and Aldebaran on the east, having its apex a little to the west of the latter, and making an angle with the eclip- Vou. XXVI.—No. 1. a2 170 On the Meteors of 13th November, 1833. tic of 74 degrees, which is the inclination of the sun’s equator, as has been observed heretofore, respecting the zodiacal light. Gen. DeWitt observed the same at Albany, also, early in February, and describes it ‘ as extending towards, but not reaching Aldebaran.” Since this light was first observed by me on the Ist of December, it has advanced in the order of the signs through the constellations Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, Pisces, Aries and Taurus.* Let us now inquire whether its different positions will be such as the supposed comet would assume, as seen from the earth. The aphelion of the comet being in 21° of Taurus, we may esti- mate its true anomaly from that point at intervals of ten days during the whole period of its revolution, or 182! days, and we shall have the positions of the body in its orbit at each of these times. Compa- ring these with the corresponding positions of the earth, we shall de- termine the relative places of the comet and the sun. They will be as expressed in the following table. Corresponding posi- Date. Days from Aph. |Comet’s true Anom. tions of the Earth INove Saye 0 0 Deane, 10 5° 10/ 10° Dec. 335.) 20 10° 387 20° 14’ Sin ube 30 16° 14/ 30° 24/ 23, «te 40 2A 8! 40° 35/ Sae m Qe iy 50 33° 40/ 51o Ql 12, sone 60 AO OY FOTOS: De aeee ts 70 68° 12’ 71° 24’ Rebs Wi ay tee 105° 40/ 81° 33’ A eoite) Ye 90 WHOS} 27 91° 40’ Ee RN 921 OSs 2! 93° 42/ 23, ois 102 105° 40’ 103° 46’ March 5, .. . 112 O80 ni 113° 487 15... | 122 47° (O/ 123° 47’ Oia ells 132 33° 40’ 183° 42’ April 4, .. | 142 24°) 6! 143° 34’ Paes Vs 152 16° 14/ 153° 23/ ZEN NRT 162 10° 38/ 1639) 68; May Asiaing | 172 BO OY 172° 50’ TA eel, 182 0 182° 30! * The present appearance is almost precisely the same as that represented of the Zodiacal light in La Lande’s Astronomy, tome I. 338. t Calculated according to Ward’s elliptic formula. See Vince’s Astronomy, I. 109. On the Meteors of 13th November, 1833. 171 The relative positions of the earth, the comet and the sun, will, however, be more readily understood from the following diagram, constructed from the foregoing table. eee <2 "182 The circle represents the earth’s path, and the ellipse that of the comet. They set out together at the comet’s aphelion, and revolve in the same direction around the sun, until the comet has performed an entire revolution. It is manifest from the diagram, that immediately after the con- junction of November 13th, the comet would be projected, as seen from the earth, to the eastward of the sun, and would continue to be seen in this situation until about 70 days, or the latter part of January, when the line of projection passes to the western side of the sun, and continues there to near 112 days, or the 5th of March, when it re- turns to the eastward of the sun, and remains there until the circuit is completed, namely, the 14th of May. About the 29th Dec., it would be seen at the greatest possible distance from the sun. These results 172 On the Meteors of 13th November, 1833. agree with our observations, as far as they have gone, with the excep- tion of that of Jan. 28th to Feb. 3d. From the diagram we perceive that the comet would be to the westward of the sun, whereas we saw it after the evening twilight. This discrepancy indicates either that we have not yet learned the true periodical time, or that the comet has so great dimensions that, when on the side next to the earth, it may extend on both sides of the sun.’ This latter condition, indeed, may be fulfilled by a comet of a comparatively small size, as will be evi- dent on substituting for the mere point at 70, or at 80, a small figure of a comet with its tail opposite to the sun, and inclined as usual to- wards its path. From our theory we should farther anticipate, that the comet will disappear by or before the first of May, being too near the sun to be visible ; and that after the month of May, if seen at all, it will appear on the western side of the sun and rise before him, until the month of August, when it may possibly reappear for a little while in the eve- ning sky. Should future observations conspire with those already made, to establish such a period to this remarkable light, it will probably be regarded as a cometary body, and as the source of the meteors of Nov. 13th. - Bat it will be remarked, that the several arguments al- leged to prove the connexion of that phenomenon with a comet, are entirely independent of this light. From all the foregoing considerations, I feel authorized girly to conclude, That the Metcors of Nov. 13th, consisted of portions of the extreme parts of a nebulous body, which revolves around the sun in an orbit interior to that of the earth, but little inclined to the plane of the ecliptic, having its aphelion near to the earth’s path, and having a pe- riodic tume of 182 days, nearly. I have supposed that a nebulous body, revolving about the sun in an eccentric orbit, might properly be called a comet; but should any one think that the analogy is not strong enough to aiithorike us to rank it among bodies of that class, he can apply any other name which seems more appropriate. Changing the name will not affect the va- lidity of the theory. As the light spoken of in the preceding para- graphs, has many things in common with what is called the Zodzacal Tight, it may appear to some to have been proper to denominate it thus; but would not such an identity imply that the Zodiacal Light itself, is owing toa nebulous body, bearing to the solar system the re- lations which have just been developed? Such is my present belief, On the Meteors of the 13th November, 1833. 173 but not having had leisure to examine all the facts recorded of that phenomenon, I would not venture to assert, positively, that this is the true explanation of that mystery. ‘The explanation of the cause of the meteors of November 13th, may include that of the Zodiacal light, although it is not responsible for it. In March, the appearance becomes identified with that of the Zodiacal Light; but in Nov. and Dec. the Zodiacal Light was identified with that; and it may prove to be a fact that both appearances are dependent on the same cause. Having now, as we suppose, arrived at a knowledge of the cause of the “ Meteoric Shower,” we may, as in other cases, go back and apply our theory to the correction of inferences made from indepen- dent sources of evidence. In fact, all the conclusions drawn in the former part of this article, as far as to the last head of inquiry, were wholly independent of the theory now developed, and without refer- ence to any hypothesis whatever. Although I had early received the impression, that a nebulous body, or comet, had some connexion with the meteors, and intimated such an idea to the Connecticut Acad- emy, at their session on the 24th Dec., yet I had formed no consist- ent views of the nature of this connexion, until nearly the whole of the preceding article was in print. Having come to the conclusion that the material of which the meteors were composed, was analogous to that which forms the tails of comets, I began to reflect on the connex- ion which such a body might have with the phenomenon observed, and was led successively to the several conclusions now submitted, nearly in the order in which they are here presented. Nothing buta strong conviction of their truth, would induce me to offer them to the public in so imperfect a state. ‘The candid reader will appre- ciate the difficulty of maturing points of such intricacy, and establish- ing them by refined and elaborate calculations, while the press is waiting. On comparing the theory with the propositions previously made out, the agreement appears to be, generally, good. Probably the ori- gin of the meteors, was farther from the earth than the distance as- signed in the second proposition ; but it was necessary to form some estimate of the distance as a starting point, and that result was the best I was able to obtain from data so imperfect and discordant. But should the origin appear to have been at a much greater distance than was there assigned, the subsequent conclusions, built upon the supposition that the meteors fell towards the earth from a great dis- tance, will be true for a stronger reason. 174 Miscellanies. I cannot conclude without expressing my deep sense of obligation to various scientific gentlemen, who have been so good as to commu- nicate to me their observations. I am particularly indebted for many valuable suggestions, to Gen. DeWitt of Albany, and to Alexander C. Twining, Esq., of West Point. Indeed, on comparing notes with Mr. Twining, I learn, that we have pursued nearly the same track of investigation, and arrived at some results very similar to each other ; and [ am happy to share with so able a coadjutor, the responsibility of bringing them before the public. MISCELLANIES. FOREIGN. AND DOMESTIC. British and American Journals, of Science.—The diminution of the number of periodical works devoted exclusively to science in Great Britain, has, within a few years, been quite remarkable. One highly respectable quarterly journal, published in London, at the fountain head of science, has ceased to exist. ‘Two of the monthly journals of the metropolis, which, during several years, maintained a friendly rivalship, at length coalesced, and they have since been join- ed by an Edinburgh quarterly journal, forming a monthly trio in uno, not larger than either of the original journals. The only quarterly at present in Great Britain, is Prof. Jameson’s Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, which has attained its twenty eighth or thirtieth number. This is a work of about the same number of pages as the American Journal. Many of the changes alluded to, have taken place since the commencement of our labors, and it cannot but be gratify- ing to us, to find so many of the pages of our Journal transferred to those of the only remaining quarterly, which promulgates science among British readers. The last two numbers which have come to hand, contain each twenty pages taken from one Vol. (23d) of our Journal. These extracts are not confined to original articles, but extend largely to the matter selected by us from the continental jour- nals, and newly translated for our pages. While we are pleased with this tribute to the taste and judgment of our selections and transla- tions, it may perhaps be no more than right to say, that when such materials are copied from one journal to another, the source from which they are derived, ought, we think, to be acknowledged. Miscellanies. So Among other reasons, may be mentioned the fact, that when the British Journals arrive in this country, many of their most valuable articles are selected and published in the daily papers, and we have been for years in the way of seeing extracts thus published here, as interesting foreign matter, which might have been, had the editors known it, given to their readers months before from the pages of the American Journal. Articles, filling whole columns, have been thus unconsciously furnished their readers by our worthy friends of the National Gazette, and other daily prints. CHEMISTRY, Nc. Extracted and translated by Prof. J. Griscom. 1. Rapid sketch of the present state of Exnctriciry.—Professor A. De La Rive has published, in four successive numbers of the Bibliotheque Universelle, for the year past, an able historical view of the principal discoveries made in electricity within the last few years. His memoir concludes with the following Résumé. In terminating this historical sketch which we have endeavored to render as complete as possible, it will not perhaps be deemed amiss if we present, in a few words, the state in which it leaves the science of electricity. ist. ‘Two different principles are acknowledged to exist in elec- tricity ; the laws of action to which these principles give rise have been determined, both when they are isolated and at rest, and when they are in motion in order to unite. But the nature of them has not yet been determined : nothing has yet been done but to advance hypotheses which are still unsatisfactory,—such especially as that which regards them as very subtle fluids, endowed with certain dis- tinct properties. It is probable that they are rather, both of them, different modifications of the ethereal matter which fills the universe, and whose vibrations constitute light; modifications, the nature of which cannot be known until the most intimate properties of electri- city have been more thoroughly studied and ascertained. 2d. It has been successfully determined that magnetism is only the result of natural electric currents. But what is the disposition of. these currents in magnetised bodies? What is the cause which gives rise to them, and what is the reason that a very small number of bo- dies only is susceptible of the magnetic virtue? ‘These are questions which cannot yet be answered. 176 MMiscellanies. 3d. All the sources of electricity are probably at present known ; but with respect to the laws which, in each case govern its develop- ment, we are still very far from having discovered them. 4th. The influence which bodies may exert over electricity, either when placed in its track, or interposed between it and the points to- wards which its exterior action is directed, has been within a short _time past, studied with great care. Many curious phenomena, in re- lation to this influence have been discovered ; some laws even have been settled ; but the number of anomalies and unexplained effects is still very considerable. It is probable that in the investigation of this class of facts, means may be found of arriving at some notions with respect to the nature of electricity, and the relations which con- nect this agent with ponderable matter. 5th. The effects which electricity produces on bodies are now well known ; the laws to which they are subjected, are in general well determined ; but their connection with the cause which produces them rests only on hypotheses, which can boast but very little solidi- ty, and which have lately been very much shaken. It is by an en- quiry into this connexion by a study in detail of those effects, that we are to find the means of arriving at a more just idea of the nature of electricity, and of the cause of the effects to which it evidently gives rise, as well as which are perhaps erroneously ascribed to it, and which, such as chemical phenomena, have probably no other re- lation to it but that of being occasioned by the operation of the same agent. 6th. Finally, after having, from its very origin, framed and de- molished theories to account for the action of the Voltaic pile, phi- losophers are not yet united on that subject, and although at the pre- sent time, the chemical theory of this admirable apparatus may per- haps be most in vogue, it still requires the support of further obser- vation to be generally adopted, and definitively substituted for the electromotive theory of Volta, the unsatisfactory nature of which is now fairly demonstrated. This brief recapitulation is sufficient to show that notwithstanding the importance of the discoveries with which electricity has been en- riched, that which remains to be done in this part of physical science, is perhaps more considerable than all that has hitherto been done, since almost all its laws and all its principles are still to be discov- ered. MMiscellanies. 177 2. Electro-magnetic experiments.—Professor Moun, under date of Utrecht, April 23, 1833, describes in the Bib. Univ. the result of various experiments to ascertain how far he could diminish the gal- vanic surfaces, and yet retain a considerable amount of magnetic pow- er. His horse shoe was cylindrical, and when straight, measured twenty four inches (English) in length ; diameter, two inches. It weighed with its spirals twenty nine pounds. ‘The iron was surround- ed with an envelope of silk, and around this were rolled two spirals (stnistrorsum) of soft iron of the diameter of ~; of an inch. These spirals were not covered either with silk or aa roller substance. The ends of these iron wires were soldered together, and communicated by other wires with the simple galvanometric apparatus, consisting always of a single element. The other extremities of these wires were also soldered to the zinc and copper plates of the voltaic ele- ment; for his experience, (he observes,) and that of many others, has taught him that a contact as intimate as possible between the spi- rals and the zinc and copper of the battery, can alone secure com- plete success. A little copper trough containing a plate of zinc of the surface (on one side) of seven eighths of a square inch, gave the horse shoe, (which had previously no sensible force,) a magnetic power which sustained twelve pounds. In a second experiment the tron sustained thirty nine pounds, and in a third forty eight pounds. Care was taken to prove that the horse shoe, prior to each experiment, had no sensible magnetic force. Prof. M. then took a piece of the smallest of the copper coin, and a piece of zinc of the same diameter, viz. about Z of an inch. The horse shoe, with this, supported 6? ounces. He then used two of these half cents, (as they are called in Holland,) united them by a copper wire, and placed between them a disc of zinc of the same diameter, and plunged the apparatus in a little wooden trough. ‘The horse shoe then supported 14? ounces. With a two cent piece of copper, (7 of an inch,) 2 lb. 5% oz. were sustained. With a twenty franc gold piece, it supported 13? ounces. With a silver piece of half a franc value, 2 inch in diameter, the weight sustained was 13 Ibs. 32 oz. With a zinc plate of 43 inches square, between two plates of copper in a wooden trough, 80 Ibs. were supported. With a plate of zine of 104 inches square in a trough of copper, 224 lbs. The acid menstruum was very strong. Vou. XXVI.—No. 1. 23 178 Miscellanies. 3. On the Isomeric bodies of J. J. Berzetrus.—The number of known bodies, which show different properties, notwithstanding their equal qualitative and quantitative composition, has increased of late very considerably. By the name of isomeric bodies, we signify such substances as possess by equal quantitative (per cent.) composition, also equal atomical weight; but Berzelius has, quite recently made more distinctions on the same, and defines them by the name of asomeric, metameric and polymeric bodies :-— 1. Isomerism ; bodies possessing equal procentic (quantitative) composition, and equal atomical weight, or bodies composed of equal absolute and relative number of atoms, as for instance the two oxides of tin, both the phosphoric acids, &c. 2. Metamerism, (properly a modified isomerism,) where the same number of equal simple atoms are unequally distributed among com- pound atoms of the first order ; for instance, sulphate of tin (Sn S) and di-sulphate of tin (Sn S) possess an equal, absolute and relative number of the same elements, they are however to be considered (should the latter salt be really in existence, which is not hitherto known,) as different bodies, which may however unite by transposing their constituents. The cyanuric and hydrocyanic acids exhibit another instance of metamerism. 3. Polymerism ; bodies having equal quantitative composition, but ~ unequal atomical weight, or where bodies have an equal relative but unequal absolute number of atoms; for instance, the relative atomi- cal number of carbon and hydrogen in the olefiant gas and ethereal oil is quite alike, for the number of atoms of hydrogen is in both twice as much as that of the atoms of carbon; but one atom of the gas contains but one atom of carbon and two atoms of hydrogen, (CH?) whereas one atom of the oil contains four atoms carbon and eight atoms hydrogen (C?H*). It is very desirable that a general term should be given for designating these three classes, and it is the more necessary on account of many substances not yet having a de- termined atomical weight, and we should be at a loss to classify many bodies, which show equal properties and equal composition.— Trans- lated by Dr. Lewis Feuchtwanger. 4. Sparks in the freezing of water by ether.—Pontus, professor of chemistry at Cahors, has observed, that if the freezing of water is performed in a small glass bottle, terminating in a thin neck of 1—2 cent. length, around which some cotton, moistened with ether is wrap- JViscellanies. 179 ped, and if the atmospheric air be removed from it by the well known method, clear visible sparks may by day light be discovered disengag- ing themselves from the neck, just a few moments before the freez- ing takes place. ‘This phenomenon appears to be a steady and a sure guide for indicating, whether the freezing will soon take place or not at all.— Translated by Dr. Lewis Feuchtwanger, from the Central Blatt, July, 1833. AGRICULTURE, DOMESTIC ECONOMY, &e. Translated by Prof. J. Griscom. 1. Observations by M. Boutigny D’ Evreux, on a new theory of the action of manures and of their employment; by M. de la Giraudieu.—M. de la Giraudieu, President of the Agricultural So- ciety of Loir-et-Cher, concludes from his own experiments that the weight of the produce of land is in proportion to the weight of manure with which it is enriched ; and that soil, of whatever nature it may be, has only a mechanical agency in vegetation, and is no otherwise important than as a support to plants. The first of these conclusions deserves notice, and agriculturists are indebted to M. de la G., for a communication of the curious and important fact, of a direct ratio between the manure and. the pro- duce. ‘To assert, in fact, that the amount of produce is in propor- tion to the manure, is as much as to say, increase the number of your cattle that you may increase your manure, and thus double or treble your harvest. Better advice cannot be given, and no one has a better right to give it, than the President of the Agricultural Society of Loir-et-Cher. Since it is suggested by the result of ac- tual experiment. Experientia index. Bat I am far from uniting in opinion with M. de la G., with re- spect to the action of soils, independently of manure, and of the manner in which manure operates. This author pretends, that calcareous, argillaceous, ferruginous or sandy soils act only as supports, like sponge, pounded glass, &c., this, I think, is erroneous and that no one can call in question the action exerted by the soil on vegetation. Who does not know that a soil composed in equal parts of siliceous sand, clay and carbonate of lime possesses great fertility, when well watered, although it may be completely destitute of vegetable remains? But how’can this phe- nomenon be explained ? Admitting that the clay retains water, a portion of which however evaporates, an electric current is established ;—admitting also, which 180 Miscellanies. is unquestionable, that the carbonate of lime yields carbonic acid to the vegetable, and that the lime absorbs a fresh portion from the air which establishes a new electric current, under which there is no vegetation or perhaps life, possible. Sand acts by dividing the other ingredients, by multiplying the points of contact, and increasing the number of atomic piles. Some experiments, which I intend to repeat and publish, with all the needful developements, justify me now in concluding, first, that. manures exert only an electro-chemical action on vegetation, second, that the best are those which are the most speedily decomposed, be- cause they establish the most numerous and powerful electric currents. These views may at first appear paradoxical; but if examined without prejudice or pre-conceived opinions, it will be seen that they are not inadmissible. Every body has observed the influence on vegetation of a warm, moist and stormy atmosphere, or in other words, of one charged with, electricity. It is sufficient, for this purpose, to walk ina garden, du- ring such a spell of weather, and to return the next day. One hard- ly knows it again. No one doubts the energetic activity of animal manure; now it is that kind which gives rise to the greatest number of new combina- tions, and consequently to the developement of the most active and numerous electric currents. ! We know also that oxygin is necessary, and even indispensable to vegetation and especially to germination. Oxygen acts here in the same manner, in combining with carbon, or one of the various ele- ments of the vegetable or grain and in establishing an electric cur- rent which ceases when the vegetable has passed through all the changes of its existence. Does not oxygen act in this case as it does in fermentation? It can neither be affirmed nor denied perhaps at present. With respect to the absorption of manure by vegetables, it is suffi- cient to notice the experiment of De Saussure, to refute the opinion, He found that a sunflower had absorbed only the twentieth of its weight of manure. The action of plaster on meadows is yet butlittle known. I have reason for believing that it may be advantageously replaced by cal- careous marl, pulverized and simply dried in the sun, or heated in an oven, after the batch has been withdrawn. If this opinion be cor- rect, it will open an immense source of profit to the farmer. Jour. des Connais. Usuelles. JMiscellanies. 181 This article and the next, were translated by a lady and communicated by Mr. C. U. Shepard. 2. New observations upon the action of sulphate of lime.-—The sulphate of lime (plaster of Paris, or gypsum) is employed with great success in agriculture. It is especially in the culture of sainfoin, as well as in other artifi- cial meadows, that its good effects have been proved. ‘The sainfoin has even such an affinity with the lime, that the presence of the he- dysarum onobrychis is almost always the indication of a calcareous soil, as the colts-foot (tussilago farfara) is of the blue clay, the aren- aria rubra of a thin gravel, and the wild sorrel (oxalis acetosella) of the presence of zron. ‘These are some of the botanical indications which answer very well in the analysis of soils for agriculturists in general. It does not appear nevertheless even to the present time, that plaster has been of great assistance in horticulture. But chemists are not agreed as to the manner in which the sulphate of lime acts upon vegetation. In employing it, it is scattered with the hand upon the crops when the leaves are in their full developement towards the end of April, or the commencement of May, at a moist, cloudy time but not rainy ; and those who perform the operation think in general, that they administer a stimulant, while some suppose that it is useful in: obtaining for the leaves a favorable moisture; but the clover and the sainfoin naturally contain in their stalks a considerable quantity of gypsum, and when the soil appears tired of producing these plants, it is commonly thought that the soil becomes exhausted of its gypsum, and that it is no longer in a state to furnish to them the necessary ingredient. ‘This observation leads to the presumption al- so, that the sulphate of lime enters, by a dose more or less ccnsider- able, into the composition of these plants. In this uncertainty, too much publicity cannot be given to any experiments which are likely to settle the question; and this consideration engaged M. Bec- querel, member of the Institute, to communicate to the Academy of Sciences (in the session of the 7th of Nov., 1831) some observations made by M. Peschier, Apothecary of Geneva, upon the influence which the sulphate of lime exercises in vegetation. M. Peschier had disposed two equal vases filled with silicious sand slightly moist, and in each of which he had sown water cresses; one of the vases had been watered with pure water, and the other, with water containing sulphate of lime in solution. Afterwards he reduced to ashes, the cresses of the two vases, which had vegetated during the same time, 182 JMiscellanies. and under the same atmospheric influences, and he found that in one hundred grains of the ashes of the cresses, watered by pure water, there were twelve grains of sulphate of potash, and twenty grains of carbonate of potash; while that in one hundred grains of the ashes of the cresses, watered by the water of sulphate of lime there were eighteen grains of sulphate of potash, and thirty grains of carbonate of lime. M. Peschier afterwards submitted the remainder of the cresses, already watered by the water of sulphate of lime, to the con- tinued action of an electric current during many days, after which he found that the ashes of these cresses included twenty six per cent of sulphate of potash. M. Peschier made similar experiments upon lucerne or Spanish trefoil, and he observes “ the sulphate of lime ought to be made use of ina state of solution, and not ina solid state ;” he concludes from it that the sulphate of lime does not, in times of drought, act by communicating to the plant its water of crys- tallization; water, which it will re-absorb in a time of moisture, but that its principal action is considerably to augment the proportion of the sulphate and of the carbonate of potash, in the organization of veg- etables. But here a question arises. Some earths are found in veg- etables, as is proved incontestably ; but do these earths make a part of their proper nourishment. Physiologists appear not to agree upon this subject. The experiments of Saussure tend to prove the con- trary. This observer has analized the ashes of two trees of the pinus abies (spruce) the one growing upon a granitic, the other upon a calcareous soil, In one hundred parts of the first he found thirty parts of silex, and fifteen of alumine, and forty eight of carbonate of lime. In one hundred parts of the second he found thirty parts of alumine, and six- ty three of carbonate of lime. It seems thence to result, that the silex was not necessary to the development of these trees, and that’ in the first experiment its presence was purely adventitious, and resulted from the qualities of the soil in which the tree had grown. Experiments carefully made will probably give a similar result for other trees, and we would so- licit, for the sake of agriculturalists who need accurate information, whether it be correct to say that unassimilated inorganic mineral sub- stances can strictly be said to enter into the organization of a living system like that of vegetables. It is obvious from the experiment of M. Peschier, that he introduced, at will, into the cresses, by means of water, containing sulphate of lime in solution, one third more of Miscellanies. 183 sulphate of potash, and of carbonate of lime than he ever had found in it, in its natural state, and that the action of an electric current augmented the quantity of sulphate of potash one third more still, but in concluding from this, that the sulphate of lime ought to be employ- ed dissolved and not in a solid state, he appears not to have had in view merely, the introduction of the material into the plant—where it is not altogether certain that it contributes to its organic develope- ment. This procedure, it seems, in the mean time withdraws the ag- riculturalists from a practice, whose advantages are established, with- out sufficiently considering that the farmer enters into the same views in not using the plaster in a solid state, except in weather which is not rainy, but cloudy and moist, which causes the slow and gradual dissolution of it, to the benefit of all the parts of the vegetable, with- out excepting the roots. All this appears to merit attention. It 1s ampossible to discover too much ardor in observing, or too much cau- tion in forming conclusions. S. B. Ann. de ’Institut royal horticole de Fromont. 3. Memoir upon valuable kinds of fruit trees, and their propaga- tion from seed.—In pursuing my researches upon the French Flora and Pomona, I have been led to make a new observation, and one which is contrary to all the received opinions of the last two thou- sand years, relative to the seeds of valuable fruits, such as pears, ap- ples, plums, &c. M. Sageret, our associate, sowed about fifteen years since in his garden, in the street Folie Mericourt, a very great number of seeds of the best fruits. ‘The young trees proceeding from their seeds, were put into a nursery. Four years after, he quitted his garden, and went to live in Montreuil street, No. 141, where he at present resides. His young fruit trees were taken up, and trans- planted to his new garden, in Montreuil street, some of them having been twice transplanted. After two or three years, many pears, plums, &c., proceeding from these seeds, yielded fruit, and many among them good fruit: without being perfectly similar to the spe- cies from which they came, they often have some qualities which ap- proximate to them. Having always heard it said that the best fruits propagated by their seeds degenerate, and that almost always acid and unpalatable fruits are the consequence, I wished to know the ori- gin, or rather the experiments, which constitute the foundation of this opinion; I have read in consequence, and consulted a great number of works, and especially those of the most celebrated authors; but I 184 MMiscellanies. have not found any thing positive, or satisfactory. One fact like that which we offer, in the nursery of M. Sageret, is not able to over- throw, at once, a theory founded upon such a weight of opinion, but it seems to merit the attention of nurserymen the more, as this theo- ry has been prejudicial to the perfection of our fruits; because, once admitted, we cease to make experiments, and to wait the result du- ring fifteen years. I think then that the Royal and Central Agricul- tural Society ought to promote some experiments upon the produce of the seeds of our best fruits, by proposing a prize, which will be awarded in fifteen years, and which shall have for its object to know whether it is true, that the grains of the best fruits sown in a proper soil, yielding young trees, placed at first ina nursery, afterwards transplanted into good land, produce in a majority of cases, acid and degenerate fruits, as all ancient agriculturalists have supposed. I believe that transplantation is necessary, in order to ameliorate the fruits of trees proceeding from the seeds, seeing that all vegetables select in the earth, the moisture proper to their particular nature, and that they exhaust the earth in a few years, whence proceeds the theory of rotations. When a tree is planted, or a seed sown in any land whatever, we have not the means for knowing the elements with which they are nourished. It is a stranger that is established in the midst of a country, where the native inhabitants are capable of living for many years, without exhausting the soil; and although the trees, drawing their nourishment from greater depths than the annual plants, are Jess difficult than these, it is useful to change them, and to offer them an abundant and various nourishment. It is objected perhaps, against the utility of transplanting, in order to ameliorate the species, that some of our good pears have been found wild in the forests where they have never undergone any trans- plantation ; but five or six kinds of pears or of apples have come from the forests, from some thousands of seeds, of good fruits, scattered during many ages, either by birds or hunters, proving only that these grains have fallen into a vein of earth so favorable to their particular nature that they have not had need of a tender culture, or of trans- plantation. In proposing a prize for ascertaining if the ancients have deceived themselves upon the products of the seeds of good fruits, my opinion was at first founded upon conjecture, which was changed into a pobability, since Mr. Knight the President of the Society of Horticulture of London has announced that having sown some seeds of good pears he has already obtained twelve varieties of new pears Wbsoetanies: 185 of which some are of a quality superior to those which France and Belgium have heretofore furnished to England and that he is still ex- pecting a greater number from many trees which sprang from the seeds. The experiments which I desire will have less for their ob- ject to obtain new varieties, than to afford positive ideas upon the production of fruit trees, upon the difference in the kinds of our fruits, and upon the connexions of the cultivated species with the wild spe- cies. This subject merits so much the more the attention and in- terests of physiologists, and of agriculturalists, inasmuch, as to the present time we have nothing satisfactory, or founded upon observa- tion. They contribute, at the same time, to multiplying good fruits, which are the ornaments of the tables of the rich, and which offer each day to the poor, enjoyments within their reach, and in a season of want, an invaluable resource. The Royal and Central Society of Agriculture, having adopted the proposition of M. Jaume Saint-Hilaire, Mirbel Sageret, Soulange Bodin, and Vilmorin. In its session of the 15th of March, 1832, it approved of the fol- lowing prospectus, which was presented, in the name of this commit- tee, by the author of this memoir. Premium to be awarded in 1848.—To the best memoir founded upon experiments, which tend to prove, whether it is true, as the an- cient agriculturalists believed, that the seeds and the stones of our good fruits, being sown, and yielding young trees, placed at first in a nursery, and afterwards transplanted into good earth, produce in general, only wild and acid fruits, or whether it happens under these circumstances, on the contrary, that the majority are fine fruits resem- bling those of the trees, which furnished their seeds, or other va- rieties. The first prize, the sum of one thousand francs. The second prize, a medal of gold with the impression “ Olivier de Serves.” The third prize, a medal of silver, idem. The competitors will make known in their memoirs— 1. If the fruit from which the seeds have been sown, proceeded, in the case of the pear, from a tree grafted upon the same, or on the quince; as to the apple, whether upon the same, or upon the paradis; as to'the peach, whether upon the prune, or the almond, or even up- on a tree, which never before had been ingrafted. Vout. XXVI.—No. 1. 24 186 Miscellanies. 2. They ought to select, in making the experiments, those fruits which are the most esteemed, and those whose distinctive charac- ters are the best known, such as the Doyenne, the Crassane, the win- ter and summer Bon Chretien, the Beurre, the Virgouleuse, &c. in pears; the Cavilles, the Reinettes, the Api, the Fenouillet, in apples; the Reine Claude, the Mirabelle, &c.; in plums, &c. The number of the individuals of each species subjected to experiment ought to be at least fifty. 3. In 1834, they will be required to prove, the state and number of the trees proceeding from their seeds, by the commissioners of the Royai, and Central Society of Agriculture ; or by the correspon- dents of this Society, and the members of the Societies of Agricul- ture of the cities of the departments, in the case where the experi- ments are made at a distance of more than six leagues from Paris. 4. In the interval of the years 1836 and 1839 the same formality must be observed for proving the number of the trees taken from the nursery and transplanted, in indicating also as exactly as possible, the nature of the earth into which they have been transplanted, and the particular care given to their culture. 5. Before the end of the month of December 1847, the competi- tors must send their memoirs, containing a description of the trees and the fruits which they have produced, and as far as that will be possible will present these fruitsto the Society, conforming themselves, besides, to the general condition of the meeting. 6. In anticipation of the year 1848, and to sustain the zeal of the competitors, there will be awarded in 1834, a first prize, consisting in a medal of gold bearing the impression “ Olivier de Serves,” and for the second prize, a grand medal of silver, to those who will offer to the commissaries of the Royal and Central Agricultural Society or to those of the cities of the departments, the finest and the largest plants from their seeds. 7. In 1839, it will award anew, two medals, the one of gold, the other of silver, as in 1834, to the competitors who will present to the judgment of the commissaries of the Society, their experiment and its products, in the most satisfactory state.—.4nn. de U'Instit. royal hor- ticole de Fromont. Translated by Prof. J. Griscom. 4. Easy method of giving greater strength and firmness to thread, network, cordage and coarse cloth.—The lixivium of oak bark has Miscellanies. 187 been employed for scarcely any other purpose than that of the tan- ner, and yet it is applicable to a great variety of uses. If thread, cords, nets, coarse linen, &c. be steeped in it, they acquire great- er firmness and durability. Fishermen have long resorted to this. Nothing is more apt to spoil than skins, and yet this preserves them. It is the same with hempen and linen cloth. They contain much gummy and resinous matter, which with tannin, forms an envelope and thus adds to their durability. Linen ought not to steep more than eight or ten days in this solution: it acquires a very brown color. When this color fades the operation may be repeated. The best method of preserving nets and cordage is the follow- ing ;—disolve two pounds of Flemish glue in fifteen gallons of wa- ter,—dip the nets, &c. into this solution and then steep them ina strong solution of oak or chesnut bark,—the tannin combines with the gelatin, and forms, between the fibres of the hemp, a solid net work which adds great strength to the cords. Any bark which con- tains tannin may be employed in making a decoction; so bones, par- ings of skin, remains of fish, &c. and generally all substances con- taining gelatine may be used in making a gelatinous solution. Fish- ermen who often throw away on the shore gelatinous fish, may use them for this purpose.—Jour. des Connais, Usuelles. 5. Use of diablotins, or crackers of fulminating powder.—Trav- ellers in Germany use these crackers for the purpose of being awa- kened by the detonation when any one attempts to enter the room without permission. ‘They are fastened across the crack of the door as if to seal it. These explosive papers are made by taking strips of half an inch to an inch wide and of a convenient length. By means of a little gum water or paste, a small quantity of coarsely pounded glass is attached to one end, on one side of each strip about one fourth of aninch. A little fulminating powder is spread over the glass and the moistened end of the paper, and it is dried in the air: two of these strips are then laid with their covered surfaces nearly in contact and so that their uncovered ends may project different ways. A narrow strip of paper or parchment is then wrapt round the coated ends and fastened to one of them, but not binding them so tightly as to prevent their being drawn, by taking hold of the projecting ends, one over the other. ‘The friction occasions their detonation. 188 MMiscellanies. The quantity of fulminating powder must be proportioned to the effect intended.—Idem. 6. Cheap mode by which farmers and others may manufacture charcoal.—Provide a hollow cylindrical cast-iron back log for the fire place, not so long but that it may become heated throughout its length. One end may be permanently closed and the other covered with a cap. - Drill small holes in it from one end to the other, about a line in diameter. Frill this back log with blocks of wood or chips, and put onthe cap. When heated, the inflammable air and tar that issue from the holes will aid the fire. In defect of a cast iron log, a joint of stove pipe may answer temporarily.—Idem. 7. Al tried recipe for burns.—Keep on hand a saturated solution of alum (four ounces in a quart of hot water) dip a cotton cloth in this solution and lay it immediately on the burn. As soon as it shall have become hot or dry, replace it by an other, and thus continue the compress as often as it dries, which it will, at first, do very rapid- ly. The pain immediately ceases and in twenty four hours under this treatment the wound will be healed, especially if the solution be applied before the blisters are formed. ‘The astringent and drying quality of the alum completely prevents them. The deepest burns, those caused by boiling water, drops of melted metal, phosphorus, gunpowder, fulminating powder, &c. have all been cured by this specific.—Idem. 8. To remove a hard coating or crust from glass and porcelain vessels.—It often happens that glass vessels, used as pots for flowers and other purposes, receive an unsightly deposit or crust, hard to be removed by scouring or rubbing. ‘The best method to take it off, is to wash it with a little dilute muriatic acid. This acts upon it and loosens it very speedily.—JIdem. 9. Scotch method of preserving eggs.—Dip them, during one or two minutes in boiling water. The white of the egg then forms a kind of membrane, which envelopes the interior and defends it from the air. This method is preferable to the varnish proposed by Reau- mur. 10. Preservation of skins.—J. Stegard, tanner at Tyman, in Hun- gary, completely preserves raw hides from putrefaction, and restores Miscellanies. 189 those that are tainted, by applying to them, with a brush, a layer of pyroligneous acid. They absorb it very speedily, and it occasions no injury nor diminution of their value—Rceewil Industrielle. 11. Action of heat upon razors.—It has been asked, why, in time of frost, a razor, unless it be warmed, will not cut without irritating the skin? It is because, when it freezes, the edge of arazor, exam- ined by a microscope, is like a SAW, and, as soon as warmed, becomes smooth.—Idem. 12. Substitute for India ink.—Boil in water, some parchment or pieces of fine gloves, until it is reduced to a paste. Apply to its surface while still warm, a porcelain dish which has been held over a smoking lamp: the lamp black which adheres to it, will become detached and mingle with the paste or glue. Re- peat the operation until the composition has acquired the requisite color. It is not necessary to grind it. It flows as freely from the pencil as India ink, and has the same transparency. 13. To destroy caterpillars.—To 15 gallons of water, add 14]bs. of common soap, the sane quantity of flowers of sulphur, and 2lbs. of mushroons (the poisonous kind). Put the whole over a moderate fire and keep it stirring. Caterpillars, grubs, &c. watered with this liquor, immediately perish. This recipe is said to come from Germany, where it has extraor- dinary success. _Degre aii? Notices by Dr. Alexander Jones, of Mobile, bine cee ddr essed. to the Eiitor.) 14. American Gypsies.—l see Pr of. eceeane hes erciaieddtion the “ Revue Encyclopedique’ an article on “ Gypsies” for your Jour-~~ nal, in which he remarks that there are no “Gypsies” in America or that, ‘‘ they have never appeared in America.” In this, the writer is mistaken. There is a colony of “Gypsies” on Biloxi Bay in Lou- isiana, who were brought over and colonized by the French at a very early period of the first settlement of that state. They are French “ Gypsies” and speak the French language, they call themselves “ Egyptians,” or “Gypsies.” ‘The French eall them indifferently, “ Koyptians” or “ Bohemiens.” What is remarkable, since their colonization in this country, they have lost the distinctive character of their idle and wandering habits. \ \ 190 Miscellanies. They are no longer strolling vagrants; but have, in the lapse of time, become in all respects, like the other French settlers found in Lou- isiana. They appear equally polite, hospitable and intelligent. They also possess all the industry and enjoy all the ordinary comforts of settled life, that belong to the French inhabitants generally. The only striking difference between them, is seen in their com- plexion and in the color of their hair, which is much darker in the “Gypsies,” than in the French population. Their hair is also coarser and straighter, than that of the French. Their intellectual vigor, appears to be as great, as that of any people. A young man of this colony, received a collegiate educa- tion at Georgetown, D. C., and is residing in New Orleans; and there are probably few men to be found in the United States of his age, whose knowledge, and learning are more profound and varied than his. He is also a good and ready writer. The most of the foregoing facts were derived from an eminent and learned lawyer of Mobile, who speaks the French language fluently, and has travelled among, and conversed familiarly with these “Gypsies.” 15. Bituminous Coal.—This state, is very rich in bituminous coal, of a most excellent quality. It is in every respect, equal, if not superior to the best English coal. Iam using some of it in my little laboratory. It is very heavy, and burns with a good flame and gives out much heat. It also yields the carburetted hydrogen gas, in immense quantity. ‘The vein, or formation of this coal, is very extensive. It is first seen in the bed of the Black Warrior Riy- er, near Tuscaloosa, and next appears on the surface of the ground, to the north east, and east of that town, and pursues that course till it crosses the Alabama and Coossa Rivers at their falls, or just above them. It passes on probably, for some distance into Georgia, and not improbably in its south western or west direction into Mississippi. Its principal width is found in Shelby and Bibd Counties, where it is forty miles wide; it occupies the whole ground just under the surface, and is covered by superficial patches of hard or soft slate stone, or shale, other minerals being rarely found near it. Black- smiths in its neighborhood, dig it up, and work it in their furnaces. It is also used in an iron foundery in Shelby County. The land is smartly broken. The growth consist principally of chesnut, oak and pine, and being more or less poor, it has never, Miscellanies. 191 much of it, passed yet out of the hands of the General Government, and can therefore be bought by any one, who mmiebes to own it, at $1.25 cents an acre. In the winter season, this coal is brought down thets river to Mobile from Tuscaloosa, in flat bottomed boats, and sold at the same price as the Liverpool coal, or at from $1 to $1.50 cts. a barrel. The strata of this rich and extensive coal bed, have an inclination of a few degrees, to the south south east. I presume you will ere long, receive a correct geological account of this extensive and interesting coal formation, from some gentle- man of the Alabama University at iaica ance which is a very fa- vorable point for observing it. The facts which I have communicated, were Uaitsaed from an eminent lawyer of this place who had visited the region and from a laboring man, who had worked the coal in a blacksmith’s shop which he owned in that region. He informed me, that having work- ed at the coal mines in Virginia, near Richmond, he considered this coal deposit the richest and as containing the best coal he had ever seen. 16. Miscellaneous facts.—The diluvial region in the lower part of this state, contains numerous quarries of ferruginous sand stone, often including pebbles of pure quartz of various sizes. In many places, this sand stone is used for building; I have a specimen, obtained from a quarry within a few miles of Mobile. At Blakely, opposite to this place, are found some very interesting petrifactions, of different kinds of wood, among which, are specimens of petrified live oak. The region of country just around Mobile, is very rich in botani- cal productions ; many insects, are inhabitants of the swamps. This is a fine field, for the student of natural history, and as yet scarcely — explored or cultivated at all. 17. India Rubber Carpets—Having some India Rubber varnish left, which was prepared for another purpose, the thought occurred to me, of trying it as a covering to a carpet, after the following man- ner.—A piece of canvass was stretched and covered with a thin coat of glue, (corn meal size will probably answer best,) over this was laid a sheet or two of common brown paper, or news paper, and another 192 JMiscellanies. coat of glue added, over which was laid a pattern of house papering, with rich figures. After the body of the carpet was thus prepared, a very thin touch of glue was carried over the face of the paper to prevent the India Rubber varnish from tarnishing the beautiful col- ors of the paper. After this was dried, one or two coats, (as may be desired,) of India Rubber varnish were applied, which, when dried formed a surface as smooth as polished glass, through which the va- riegated colors of the paper appeared with undiminished, if not with . Increased lustre. This carpet is quite durable, and is impenetrable to water, or grease of any description. When soiled, it may be wash- ed, like a smooth piece of marble, or wood. If gold or silver leaf forms the last coat, instead of papering, and the varnish is then appli- ed, nothing can exceed the splendid: richness of the carpet, which gives the floor the appearance of bemg burnished with gold, or silver. A neat carpet on this plan, will cost (when made of good papering,) about 374 cts.a yard. When covered with gold, or silver leaf, the cost will be about $1,00 or $1,50 cents a yard. { 18. Stereotype Metalagraphic Printing.—I offer this name, as I have nothing better to designate it by. It means simply the transfer- ring of printed letters, from the pages of a book, or news paper to the polished surfaces of metallic plates, especially of soft iron. My ex- periments are not yet completed, yet I feel satisfied that the result is entirely a practicable one, if carefully conducted with proper instru- ments. The best plan on which to conduct the experiment is as follows :— Take two plates of very soft iron, of moderate dimensions, give one face of each a very true and fine polish, so that when applied by these faces, they shall uniformly fit and adhere together. Moisten two slips of printed news paper, or parts of a leaf from a book of the size of the plates, apply one to the polished face of each plate, and interpose between them a fold or two of silk paper, and then clamp the plates together. Give them a gentle heat over the fire, then place them in a vice, and apply a strong screw power. On separating them and gently removing the paper, the letters will be seen, distinctly formed on the faces of the two plates. Now as printer’s ink, is formed of lamp black and oil, upon which acid acts very little, the faces of the plates may be slightly touched over with diluted sulphuric or nitric acid, which if skilfully applied, acts on the iron and leaves the letters Miscellanies. 193 raised. When the printer’s ink contains some bees wax, the experi- ment is more complete. ‘These plates once formed, may be convert- ed into steel, on the plan of Mr. Perkins; after which they would probably print from 10,000 to 20,000 copies without being materi- ally defaced. An expert mechanic, with proper machinery, could in a day or two, form a sufficient number of plates to print off 20,000 copies (500 pages) of an octavo volume. Other metals, as copper, brass and type metal with slight variations, can all have letters transferred to them in the same manner, and can be used as printing plates; but none of these will have the durability of iron. 19. Materials for paper.—By a series of experiments I have ascertained that paper, of an excellent quality, can be prepared not only from the husks of Indian corn, but also from a pulp made from various kinds of wood and bark, particularly from the bark of several kinds of poplar, and from the wood of birch and some other trees.—In conducting my experiments, my plan has been, first to se- lect the vegetable matter, then, if it required whitening, to bleach it in chlorine gas, and afterwards to reduce it to a fine pulp, by pound- ing, and filing in water. When properly prepared, I would place a small portion of the pulp, between polished steel plates, slightly warm- ed, and strongly compress them by screw power; the degree of con- sistency and polish, assumed by the pulp, under such compression, would indicate the quality of paper capable of being prepared from the vegetable matter used. I trust, that the time will soon arrive, when rags, will not be considered as indispensable in the manufac- ture of paper, and will be, when economy or convenience requires it, superseded by different kinds of vegetable substances, which are so cheaply, bountifully and universally furnished by nature. OTHER NOTICES. 1. Notice of a work entitled Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice, and the Physiology of Digestion. By Wriiu.1am Beaumont, M. D., Surgeon in the U. S. Army. Plattsburgh, 1833, pp. 280.—This work of Dr. Beaumont, which has been for some time announced, is, to say the least of it, equal in interest to any one upon the same subject, that has ever been presented to the public. The opportunity afforded to Dr. Beaumont, to institute ex- periments upon the important and. interesting subject of digestion, was Vout. XXVI.—No. 1. 25 194 Miscellanies. a rare one; and we congratulate the public, and especially the med- ical profession, that it fell into the hands of one who appreciated its value, and who possessed the requisite intelligence, perseverance, and candor, to make the investigation which it afforded, and to state the results of such investigation, in a plain, simple, intelligible manner, without bias from preconceived opinions, or fanciful hypotheses. The case which gave rise to these experiments will be understood, from’a brief summary of a particular account given of it, in the in- troduction to the book. In the year 1822, Alexis St. Martin, then in the employment of the American Fur Company, while at Michillimackinac, where Dr. B. _ was stationed, was wounded in the side by the accidental discharge of a musket loaded with buck shot. ‘The contents of the gun struck him upon the left side, and passed in an oblique direction forward and inward, literally blowing off integuments and muscles of the size of a man’s hand, fracturing and carrying away the anterior half of the sixth rib, fracturing the fifth, lacerating the lower portion of the left lung, and the diaphragm, and perforating the stomach. The pro- gress of the case, after so extensive a wound, involving parts of so much importance, was, of course, slow. The soft parts in the vicinity sloughed away : the ribs and their cartilages were successively at- tacked and destroyed by inflammation, and removed by the sur- geon; and it was not until June, 1823, a year from the time of the accident, that recovery, so far as it took place, was completed. At that time, the parts were in the following state: the injured parts were all sound, and firmly cicatrized, with the exception of the aper- ture in the side and stomach. The perforation was about two and a half inches in circumference; and the food and drinks constantly exuded, unless prevented by a tent, compress and bandage. At the point where the lacerated edges of the muscular coat of the stomach and the intercostal muscles met and united with the cutis vera, the cuticle and the mucous membrane of the stomach approached each other very nearly. They did not unite, like those of the lips, nose, &c., but left an intermediate marginal space, of appreciable breadth, between them, completely surrounding the aperture. ‘This space is about a line wide; and the cutis and nervous papille being unprotect- ed, are as sensible and irritable as a blistered surface abraded of the cuticle. The only change which has since taken place, is the gradual falling down from the upper margin of the orifice, of a fold of the coats of the stomach, fitting itself to the aperture, and forming a valve, Miscellanies. 195 which effectually retains the contents of the stomach, even when completely filled. From that time to the present, St. Martin has enjoyed as good health, and as much vigor, as men in general; has performed, with little or no inconvenience, the duties of a laboring man ; married and become the father of a family of children, and has subsisted upon the common food of men in his situation, except when a particular diet has been prescribed, for the purpose of experiment. There are several plates which are intended to represent the state of the parts, under different circumstances. As these are too im- perfect to render any assistance, we are glad that a mere verbal de- scription will render the account sufficiently intelligible. From this account it will be seen, that the cavity of the stomach is open to the view ; that the state of its surface, and of the secretions from it, can be readily examined ; that foreign bodies can be intro- duced and removed at pleasure, and that the changes which have been wrought upon them, at any time after they have been introdu- ced, can be ascertained. For several years, since his recovery, St. Martin has been retained in the service of Dr. Beaumont, at the expense of much time, pa- tience and money, for the sake of examining into the functions of an organ, closed to most persons, but thus thrown open to him. This task he has performed in a manner highly creditable to his industry and intelligence ; and the manner in which he has related his obser- vations and experiments, is such as to carry to every mind a convic- tion, if not of their absolute truth, certainly of the absence of all in- tentional error. It is not our intention to give a detailed account of all the experi- ments and opinions which are contained in this book. Such a state- ment belongs appropriately to professional works. There are how- ever many principles and facts in it, of such general importance and application, as to render them interesting to every scientific inquirer. Some of them we propose to lay before our readers, in as condensed a form as is consistent with their intelligibility. Nearly one half of the book is occupied with preliminary observa- tions, arranged under the following heads: 1st, Of Aliment. 2d, Of Hunger and Thirst. 3d, Of Satisfaction and Satiety. 4th, Of Mastication, Insalivation and Deglution. 5th, Of Digestion by the Gastric Juice. 6th, Of the appearance of the Villous Coat, and of the Motions of the Stomach. ‘7th, Of Chylification, and of the Uses 196 MMiscellanies. of the Bile and Pancreatic Juice. ‘The remainder consists of four series of experiments upon various points connected with the appear- ance, temperature, motions, and secretions of the stomach, and with the changes which aliment undergoes when submitted to its action, amounting in the whole to almost two hundred and fifty, each of which occupied in its performance several hours, and many of them several days. The course which we shall adopt, is to state in the form of distinct propositions, without much regard to the order in which they are found in the work itself, a few of the most important principles which it con- tains, and to accompany them with the facts by which they are sup- ported. 1st. There is a distinct fluid poured into the stomach, possessing peculiar and important properties: this fluid, Dr. Beaumont, follow- ing Spallanzani, calls the Gastric Juice. The proofs of the existence of this fluid are complete. Dr. Beaumont has obtained it, almost in a state of purity, in many hun- _ dred instances, by exciting the action of the vessels of the stomach, when empty, and after fasting. His account of the manner of doing it, isthis. ‘‘ The usual method of extracting the gastric juice, is by pla- cing the subject on his right side, depressing the valve within the aperture, introducing a gum elastic tube, of the size of a large quill, five or six inches into the stomach, and then turning him upon the left side, until the orifice becomes dependent. Jn health, and when free from food, the stomach is usually entirely empty, and contract- ed upon itself. On introducing the tube, the fluid soon begins to flow, first in drops, then in an interrupted, and sometimes in a short con- tinuous stream. Moving the tube about, increases the discharge. The quantity of fluid ordinarily obtained is from four drachms, to one and a half or twoounces. Its extraction is generally attended by that peculiar sensation at the pit of the stomach, termed sinking, with some degree of faintness.” P. 21. The fluid thus obtained he describes as being, “a clear, transpa- rent fluid, inodorous, a little saltish, and very perceptibly acid. Its taste, when applied to the tongue, is similar to that of thin mucilagi- nous water, slightly acidulated with muriatic acid. It is readily diffu- sible in water, wine or spirits, and effervesces slightly with carbona- ted alkalies.” P. 85. No exact chemical analysis of this fluid has been effected. ‘The experiments upon it by Professors Dunglison, Emmett and Silliman, Miscellanies. 197 as stated at p. 78 and 80, warrant the conclusion that it contains, in addition to animal matter soluble in cold, but insoluble in hot water, together with the Phosphates and Muriates of Potassa, Soda, Mag- nesta and Lime, a considerable amount of free murvatec acid, some acetic and a trace of sulphuric acid. It is hoped that a more perfect analysis may be obtained fe Professor Berzelius, to whom a quantity of it, was sent the last summer. The principal properties of this fluid are: it is insusceptible of putrefractive fermentation : it prevents the putrefaction of animal and vegetable substances: it coagulates animal and albuminous fluids and is a perfect solvent of most animal and vegetable substances. 2. The gastric juice is secreted into the stomach only when some foreign body, especially alimentary matters, are brought into contact with its mucous coat. ‘The author’s account of this process as well as of the appearance of the villous coat of the stomach is perfectly satisfactory and highly interesting. “The inner coat of the stomach, in its natural and healthy state, is of a light, or pale pink color, varying in its hues, according to its full or empty state. It is of a soft, or velvet-like appearance, and is constantly covered with a very thin, transparent, viscid mucus, lining the whole interior of the organ. “Immediately beneath the mucous coat, and apparently incor- porated with the villous membrane, appear small, spheroidal, or oval shaped, glandular bodies, from which the mucous fluid appears to be secreted. ** By applying aliment, or other irritants, to the internal coat of the stomach, and observing the effect through a magnifying glass, innu- merable minute lucid points, and very fine nervous or vascular papil- le, can be seen arising from the villous membrane, and protruding through the mucous coat, from which distills a pure, limpid, color- less, slightly viscid fluid. This fluid, thus excited, is invariably dis- tinctly acid. ‘The mucus of the stomach is less fluid, more viscid or albuminous, semi-opaque, sometimes a little saltish, and does not pos- sess the slightest character of acidity. On applying the tongue to the mucous coat of the stomach, in its empty, unirritated state, no acid taste can be perceived. When food, or other irritants, have been applied to the villous membrane, and the gastric papille exci- ted, the acid taste is immediately perceptible. ‘These papille, I am convinced, from observation, form a part of what is called by authors, 198 Miscellanies. the villi of the stomach. Other vessels, perhaps absorbing as well as secretory, compose the remainder. That some portion of the — villi form the excretory ducts of the vessels, or glands, I have not the least doubt, from innumerable, ocular examinations of the pro- cess of secretion of gastric juice. ‘The invariable effect of applying aliment to the internal, but exposed part of the gastric membrane, when in a healthy condition, has been the exudation of the solvent fluid, from the above mentioned papille.—Though the apertures of these vessels could not be seen, even with the assistance of the best microscopes that could be obtained; yet the points from which the fluid issued were clearly indicated by the gradual appearance of innu- merable, very fine, lucid specks, rising through the transparent mu- cous coat, and seeming to burst, and discharge themselves upon the very points of the papille, diffusing a limpid, thin fluid over the whole interior gastric surface. ‘This appearance is conspicuous only during alimentation, or chymification. ‘These lucid points, I have no doubt, are the termination of the excretory ducts of the gastric vessels or glands, though the closeset and most accurate observation may never be able to discern their distinct apertures. *‘ The fluid, so discharged, is absorbed by the aliment in contact, or collects in small drops, and trickles down the sides of the stom- ach, to the more depending parts, and there mingles with the food, or whatever else may be contained in the gastric cavity. “The gastric juice never appears to be accumulated in the cavity of the stomach while fasting ; and is seldom, if ever, discharged from its proper secerning vessels, except when excited by the natural stimulus of aliment, mechanical irritation of tubes, or other exci- tants.” This account of the phenomena attending the flow of the gastric fluid into the stomach, explains the fallacious nature of the experi- ments of Montegre, who could vomit at will, and who after analyzing the fluid so obtained, declared that it was not acid, not slow to putri- fy, not a solvent, and so much like saliva, that he regards it as saliva swallowed. ‘The fluid which he thus obtained, was probably nothing more than saliva, mingled with the ordinary mucous secretion, of the inner coat of the esophagus and stomach. Received in this light, all the deductions which he drew from his experiments, and which have been considered by some physiologists as so strongly opposed to the chemical nature of the changes which take place in the stom- ach, loose their whole weight. The substance which he obtained was JMiscellanies. 199 not the gastric fluid, and all his experiments and reasonings are in- applicable to that as an agent in digestion. As this fuid is poured out so readily and in such considerable quantities, Dr. Beaumont infers, that it has been already separated from the blood, and is retained in the minute secreting vessels; and in accordance with this opinion, he considers the sensation of hunger to be occasioned “‘ by a distention of the gastric vessels, or that apparatus, whether vascular or glandular, which secretes the gastric juice ; and it is believed to be the effect of repletion by this fluid.” This opin- ion he defends at some length, and with much ingenuity, and places it upon as fair a ground of probability as any other explanation of this sensation which has been advanced. 3. The principal, if not the sole effect of the gastric juice, is the conversion of alimentary matters into chyme, by a chemical agency. Dr. Beaumont agrees with most preceding physiologists in the ac- count which he gives of the chyme. “The resulting compound of digestion in the stomach, or chyme, has been described as ‘*a homogeneous, pultaceous, greyish substance, of a sweetish, insipid taste, slightly acid,” &c. In its homogeneous appearance, it is invariable; but not in its-color; that partakes very slightly of the color of the food eaten. It is always of a lightish or greyish color; varying in its shades and appearance, from that of cream, toa greyish, or dark colored gruel. It is, also, more consis- tent at one time than at another; modified, in this respect, by the kind of diet used. This circumstance, however, does not affect its homogeneous character. A rich and consistent quantity is all alike, and of the same quality. A poorer and thinner portion is equally uniform in its appearance. Chyme from butter, fat meats, oil, &c. resembles rich cream. ‘That from farinaceous and vegetable diet, has more the appearance of gruel. It is invariably distinctly acid.” -The manner in which chyme is formed, has been examined by Dr. B. with a great deal of care, and his experiments upon this sub- ject are the most numerous and important which he has related. It is well known, that however nearly, different observers have agreed as to the appearance of the contents of the stomach at different periods after the reception of food, their explanation of the causes of these appearances has been widely diverse. The majority of physiologists, since the days of Spallanzani, have agreed with that distinguished and most accurate experimentalist, in considering these changes as produced by chemical action, and the chyme as the solu- tion of aliment in the gastric juice. 200 JMiscellanies. Indeed his experiments were so varied and numerous, having been performed upon such a variety of animals, as well as upon man; and were attended with such uniform results, as to be scarcely capable of evasion. There are also the experiments of Dr. Stevens, performed at Edinburgh in 1777, which appear to have been strangely overlooked by many inquirers upon this subject, entirely confirming those of Spalanzani, in regard to the solution of aliment in the gastric juice both within and out of the stomach. Notwithstanding the weight of these facts, there were phy siologists who denied entirely the pecu- liar agency of the gastric juice in the production of chyme; and more who denied that this agency, if it existed at all, was exerted in accordance with chemical laws. All question upon this subject we consider as entirely settled by the experiments of Dr. Beau- mont. ‘These have been so numerous and varied, as to leave no room for doubt or cavil. If our limits permitted, we should be glad to insert the most striking of his experiments upon this branch of the subject. As it is, we are restrained to a brief statement of the man- ner in which they were performed, with their results. Alimentary matters, of a great variety of kinds, were suspended in the stomach, both uncovered and inclosed in such a manner as only to admit a fluid to come in contact with them. ‘They were uni- formly found, when the stomach was healthy, to be in a short time partially, and in a longer, entirely dissolved, and removed from what- ever contained them, and a portion of chyme was formed. Alimentary matters, of the same kinds, were placed in the Gas- tric juice out of the stomach, and the same result followed with the same uniformity. Alimentary matters of the same kinds, were placed, at the same time, in the stomach, and in the gastric juice out of the stomach, and were examined,at regular periods. ‘The changes which took place in each of them were precisely the same. Alimentary matters, partially digested in the stomach, were with- drawn from it and placed in an additional quantity of gastric juice, and the changes were found to be the same in this, as in the portion left in the stomach. Experiments of this kind were made, not upon one or two substan- — ces only, but upon nearly all the common articles of food. In all the result was the same. : To bring about artificial digestion, it was only necessary that the aliment and the gastric juice should be kept at the natural temperature Miscellantes. 201 of the stomach, which was found, upon repeated trials, to be 100° Farenheit. The only difference between natural and artificial diges- tion was a difference in the time of its accomplishment, the latter re- quiring from twice to three times the length of the former. This is satisfactorily explained, by the difficulty of maintaining the articles at the exact natural temperature and by the impossibility of imita- ting perfectly the motions of the stomach. No similar change took place when food was exposed, under the same circumstances, to the action of the saliva. 4. To the formation of chyme it is only necessary that animal or vegetable substances, be exposed to the action of healthy gas- tric juice, at the ordinary temperature of the body. Mastication, insalivation and deglutition, although they facilitate and render it more speedy, are not essential to the process. The vital action of the stomach, which by many has been believed to be directly operative in the conversion of food into chyme, is shewn to be so only in an indirect manner. Its vital powers are exerted in two ways: first, in furnishing the gastric juice, and secondly in the conversion of fluid alimentary substances into solid, either by their coagulation,* if they are susceptible of this change, as is the case with milk; or by the absorption of their fluid parts if they are not, as when animal broths are introduced into the stomach. We have enumerated but a few of the facts and: principles which are either established or elucidated by the experiments of Dr. Beau- mont. There are especially many facts, of general interest in rela- tion to the different digestibility of different articles commonly used for food, which must be passed over for want of space. The follow- ing instances will serve to show how great the difference is in point of time, between some of the more common articles. The ordi- nary time occupied in the complete digestion of a full meal, of a mixture of the common articles of food, is from three to three and a half hours. When the stomach is diseased, or disturbed by narcotics; when the mind is agitated by anger or any other strong emotion; or when the food is in large masses, a longer time is required ; and a shorter, when the food has been minutely divided and mingled with saliva, or when the temperature of the stomach, in common with the rest of the body, has been elevated by moderate exercise. Of the * This is more probably the effect of the gastric juice than of the stomach itself. Vor. XXVI.—No. 1. 26 202 Miscellanies. common articles of food from the vegetable kingdom, rice, when boiled, requires one hour for its conversion into chyme; barley two hours; green corn and beans three hours, forty five minutes: sweet apples one hour and thirty minutes: potatoes, boiled, three hours and thirty minutes: cabbage, boiled, four bowrs and thirty minutes. Of the articles of animal food, beef roasted or broiled, is digested in three hours: do. fried, four hours; veal, broiled, four hours: fowls four hours: Pork, roasted, five hours fifteen minutes: oysters, raw, two hours fifty five minutes: eggs, soft boiled, three hours: turkey, roasted, two hours, thirty minutes. Venison, broiled, one hour thirty five minutes. Without entering into additional particulars and omitting many things of great interest, we commend the work to all.who feel an interest in such subjects, as one which contains more facts, plainy and honestly stated, upon the subject of digestion in the human stom- ach, than can any where else be found. 2. The Cyclopedia of Practical Medicine and Surgery, a Di- gest of Medical Literature. Edited by Isaac Hays, M.D. To be’ completed in 40 parts, Svo. Philadelphia, Carey, Lea & Blanchard.— Works of this description have been executed on the continent of Europe, with great success, and have been highly instrumental in advancing the causes of medical improvement. | Several works of this kind have, within a few years past, emanated from the British press. Cooper’s Dictionary of Surgery has been of essential ser- vice in promoting the knowledge of that branch of the Medical pro- fession. Dr. Copland has also been, for several years, engaged in compil- ing a Dictionary of Practical Medicine, upon a similar plan with res- pect to medicine; and, as he expresses himself, ‘ to go with, 3 “be a suitable companion for ‘* Cooper’s Dictionary of ae Whether Dr. Copland’s intention was generally known to the Medi- cal profession in Great Britain, we know not; nor is it material to know. The British Cyclopedia of Practical Medicine was announ- ced as preparing for publication, either before or simultaneously with, Dr. Copland’s work.. Some doubts seemed to be entertained in the minds of the medical public, whether both works could succeed. These doubts however have been removed on the appearance of the first numbers of the different productions. The Cyclopedia of Practi- cal Medicine is a collection of Essays on the most important medi- Miscellanies. 203 cal diseases; and though a very valuable work, emanating from the pens of eminent men in the profession, whose pursuits had led ‘them to cultivate particular branches of it ; yet it does not answer the pur- poses of a Medical Dictionary. Dr. Copland’s work answers the latter purpose better; but it does not profess to treat of surgical diseases. An American edition of Dr. Copland’s work is now in the course of publication at Boston, (Mass.) and proves very acceptable to the medical profession. Under all these circumstances it might seem a work of superero- gation to publish an American Medical Cyclopedia. When we take into consideration, however, that Dr. Hays’s Cyclopedia contains Surgery, and also answers the purpose of a Medical Dictionary, we are led to think that in these respects it may prove advantageous, and in some respects more so than the British works above named. There is another consideration in favor of the American Cyclope- dia, arising from a fact known to the medical profession in the United States. ‘The diseases of our country are somewhat different in their nature and treatment, from those of similar classes in Great Britain. Dr. Hays has availed himself of the assistance of some of the most eminent medical gentlemen in various parts of the U.S. The medical student and practitioner may therefore expect to have a more accurate description of the nature and treatment of diseases as they occur in our own country. Dr. H. has also the advantage of con- sulting those works of a similar character that have been published or are now publishing in Europe. More attention has been paid by Dr. H. to the auxiliary branches of Anatomy, Physiology, Chemistry, Materia Medica and Botany, than was consistent with the design of the editors of the British works. of a similar kind. A copious Bibliography is attached to the different articles in Dr. Hays’ work, which will facilitate the more extensive researches of the medical student and practitioner. We congratulate the members of the medical profession in our country, on the appearance of the work. So far as it has proceeded, we believe the execution of the work has answered the expectations of the medical profession. Dr. H. has given evidence of his great industry and good judgment, in the compilation of the several articles, and we wish him success in his undertaking. 204 Miscellanies. 3. Obituary of Gen. Martin Finrtp.—Gen. Field died at his residence in Newfane, (Vt.) in October last, at the age of 60. The early part of his life was assiduously devoted to the profession of law, in which, for many years, he was highly distinguished. On account of an incurable deafness, he, several years since, declined the active duties of his profession, and as a resource to an energetic mind, and a solace in hours that might have been tedious for want of some in- teresting object of pursuit, he turned his attention to scientific inves- tigations. When he was educated, the natural sciences were scarce- ly studied in the schools, and much Jess extensively than now in the colleges of this country ; he was therefore obliged to commence with the elements. Meeting with the American Journal of Science, a new stimulus was given to his efforts, and a proper direction to his researches. He obtained the best scientific works, and sought the acquaintance of those who were pursuing the same path, or who had already made attainments in science. Commencing with mineralogy, he, for a time, was zealously engaged in collecting a choice and beau- tiful cabinet ; but he found, that in order to become a skillful mine- ralogist, there was a kindred science to be grasped, and one without which he could not penetrate beyond the surface of the mineral king- dom; he saw that it was beautiful and curious, and felt a desire to know those mysterious laws of combination by which, from a few el- ements, the wonderful variety of material things is produced. ‘This desire led him to the study of chemistry. He purchased chemical books and apparatus, and for a time, directed his inquiries to the ele- ments of matter, and the laws by which they are governed. A mineralogist and chemist has attained two important requisites to enable him to become a geologist. Gen. Field was not satisfied with examining nature in his cabinet, and with reading the observa- tions of others. He was, in science, what may be termed a working man. Few points of interest were there among the romantic scene- ry around him, that were not familiar to him; and many a rugged precipice, deep glen, and lofty summit of the Green Mountains, nev- er before trod by human footstep, can bear witness to his persevering research into the nature and arrangement of the rocky strata, of which they are formed. In such expeditions, curious living reptiles and insects presented themselves, and fossil remains of beings that once had life, were found imbedded in the rocks*; he believed that * In other regions than the green mountains, which are primary rocks.—£d. JMiscellanies. 205 nature could not be less systematic and less interesting in her arrange- ment of living things, than in the inanimate creation ; and he was thus led to the study of Zoology. He was also a practical Botanist, and found health and contentment in the cultivation of plants. His mi- nute observations of philosophical facts have been, in various ways, manifested in the pages of the American Journal of Science, a work in which he ever delighted, and to which he felt himself indebted for much of that love of science, and those acquirements which enabled him to endure, with cheerfulness, a misfortune by which he was in a measure cut off from the social enjoyments of life. It is a great thing for a man who has been active in business, to withdraw from those scenes in which his mind was stimulated to constant effort, to see the place he has filled occupied by others, and to feel that the world can move on without him; but this condition is incident to human na- ture. Fortunate then are those who, at such a period, can, like him who is the subject of this sketch, find in the contemplation of the works of God, a resource against ennui, and a security against bitter and un- availing regrets. Avs EL Tau We are indebted for the above notice, to the pen of a lady, well known and much respected in this country. Gen. Field we knew only as a correspondent, but he was a much valued one, and a steady friend to this Journal. We sincerely condole with his friends and his country.—Eb. 4. The Rotating Armatures, by T’. Edmondson, Jr., Baltimore. This instrument is intended to produce N” the rotation of a set of Nz armatures, by causing ry a current of galvanism \a to pass, at certain times, , through anelectro-mag- | net, placed near the cir- cle described by their revolution. Thearma- tures are attraeted by the induced magnetism as they approach the SS faces of the electro-magnet, and by the arrangement of the instru- ment, the current of galvanism is suspended, and of course the indu- ; : ns us ‘ : N N 206 Miscellanies. ced magnetism withheld, as the armatures recede from the electro- magnet. The armatures are nicely fixed upon an axis, and made to descend’ parallel to the faces of the magnet, and as they are at- tracted and suffered to pass, the momentum which at the time of pas- sage is only left, brings the others into action. aaaa are the armatures—O the electro-magnet, placed at an an- gle towards them and wrapped with a single coil of coated copper wire—d d/ two small brass stars placed on each side of the armatures, and soldered to the axis. ‘The points of the stars are made to de- scend into quicksilver troughs, placed underneath them, and to come into contact with the mercury at the time the armatures approach the electro-magnet, and to revolve out of the quicksilver as they recede from the electro-magnet ; it is only at the time of their contact, that the current of galvano-magnetism, proceeding from p, where the positive pole of a galvanic element is placed, can pass through the coil to d’ and along the axis by the iutervention of the small stars, to m where the corresponding negative wire of the element is placed. ‘The in- strument will revolve for several hours. 5. Remarks on Steam, as a Conductor of Electricity. Frederick, Md. Jan. 138, 1834. Pror. S1uuman—Sir—Upon reading an article in the April No. of your Journal for 1832 with the caption ‘ Steamboats protected from the effects of Lightning” it appeared to me that the writer had subjected himself to unnecessary trouble and expense, to assure him- self of a fact whose existence he might have predicted with abso- lute certainty. And in what manner? By asking the question, why is it, that an electrical machine cannot be charged in a moist atmos- phere? Clearly, because the moist atmosphere, being an excellent conductor of Electricity, dissipates or conducts it away as fast as the machine generates it. Now, the only difference between a moist at- mosphere and steam, Is, that the vapor in the latter case is connect- ed witha larger proportion of caloric. And therefore, methinks there is nothing novel in steam being a conductor of electricity. The writer goes on to say, “ It is therefore pretty well proved that “ the steam generated in a steamboat completely protects at from the effects of lightning.” So far from “ the steam generated in a steamboat.” protecting it from the effects of lightning, it may be proved, we think, from the writer’s arguments that it has an opposite tendency. What does he say. These are his words. ‘‘ ‘The electricity of the clouds MMiscellanies. 207 that would otherwise, in many instances, strike the steamboats loaded with so much iron; on coming in contact with the moist and heated column of steam, which ascends above the boats, immediately diffu- ses itself through the column of steam, and passes to the water with- out communicating any shock, or, in other words, the ascending steam performs the office of a Franklin rod.” And again, “The stream being in such a case a much better conductor than the tron of the boat, the Electricity will always take the steam tn preference to striking any part of the boat, and this it will do in so diffused a manner as never to be perceived or felt.” It is to be inferred from the foregoing, that the safety valve of a Low-Pressure boat is to remain open during a thunder storm, so that the steam may rise above the boat and “ perform the office of a Franklin rod.” It is clear then, that by furnishing this ‘ Franklin rod” the electri- city is not only invited but actually introduced into the steam in the boiler. Facilis descensus Averni, &c., the consequence of which is that a large quantity of caloric is evolved, which enters into the steam. ‘The sudden expansion produced by this heat, may be so great that the boiler cannot resist it and an explosion is unavoidable. This sudden expansion, coupled with the additional quantity of steam which may be produced by the electric heat transmitted through the steam to the water, is we think, amply sufficient to cause an explo- sion. From these remarks, it appears, that steam so far from pro- tecting steamboats from the effects of lightning, has rather a tenden- cy to produce them. Probably one cause of their exemption from accidents of this nature, in addition to that assigned by the Editor in his “ Remarks,” is their want of masts. Their chimnies, may pos- sibly not be sufficiently elevated to determine a cloud charged with electricity. With respect &c. Geo. ScHLEy. 6. Sulphuric Acid.—The Editor or any of his numerous scien- tific correspondents will much oblige an “ Inquirer” if they will give the reasons for, and point out the sources of failure in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. Every chemist practically engaged, is aware, that although the same chamber and the same quantity of sulphur and nitre is used, yet the product of acid is extremely fluctuating. The books are unsatisfactory on this point. Gray in his “ Operative Chemist” says, ‘as the cause of this circumstance (viz. the acid not being condensed) was not known, it was attributed to the chambers, -which were said to be sick and would not work.” 208 Miscellanies. 7. Observations on the time of the appearance of the Spring Birds, in Williams- town, (Mass.) in the years 1831, 1832 & 1833; by E. Emmons. 1831. 1832. 1833. ( Sometimes a few appear in Feb., and Saxicola sialis, Bon. 10-12 - 19 - J even in Jan., in sheltered places. Turdus migratorius, L. 12-14-18- ) The blue bird uniformly precedes l the robin. Sturnus Ludovicianus,L. 113 -12-18 - Appear quite numerous in Septem- Falco velox, Wils. | 23- 20- 2 ber, associating with F. Sparverius S and Columbarius. Caprimulgus Virginia- 20'S 1 99 _ 99 - 94. § Generally heard several days ear- nus, Briss. Silica q lier, just at evening. Muscicapa fusca, Gm. 23 - 20 - 20 - Icterus pheeniceus, Daud | 23 - 21 -20- Appeared in February, in 1830. Bombycilla Carolinien- ; 207 ; Ina flock. Did not remain. Weath- sis, Briss. - er still cold, and considerable snow. Columba migratoria, L 94 - 22 - ; Irregular in the time of their appear- ae L ance and Pa se ee i : Often heard a few days earlier in Seen anak, oun f 1l- 2- 4- ; the air, over marshy places, at imme 10- -12- € twilight. Turdus Wilsoni, Bon. jm | 10-11 -12-- Charadrius vociferus, L. &,< 13 - 12 - Hirundo rufa, Gm. Sing dog) = 1g) Sor etnias Sees ear te, flying. high H ¢ inthe air, but do not remain. if oy 4 cee Ten days later than the H. rufa; fo a L ; first i bared in 1825. Muscicapatyrannus,Briss., ( 1- 2- 4- pipes Pelasgius, [ange tect emm. Sylvia anrocapilla, Bon. 7- 6- 9- = Remaining often till late in Germa- Turdus felivox, Vieill. S{ 8- 6- 7- < ny, subsisting on the seed of vari- = ous plants. | Fringilla tristis, L. | 10- 11-10- (At this period the songsters of the Tanagra rubra, L. | 10 - 12 - 12 - woods and fields have all arrived, 4 : Icterus agripennis, Bon. 12-10- 9-) busily engaged in preparing their *« Baltimore, Bon. (12-10-11- nests and rearing their young. WILLIAMstTown, Aug. 1, 1833. 8. Recent Scientific Publications in the United States—Manu- al on the cultivation of the Sugar Cane, and the fabrication and re- finement of Sugar. Prepared under the direction of the Hon. Sec- retary of the Treasury, in compliance with a resolution of the House of Representatives of Jan. 25, 1830. City of Washington. Print- ed by F. P. Blair, 8vo. pp. 122 with 4 plates. Outlines of Geology: intended as a popular treatise on the most interesting parts of the science, together with an examiation of the question, whether the days of creation were indefinite periods. De- signed for the use of schools and general readers. By J. L. Com- stock, M. D. Hartford, D. F. Robinson & Co. 12mo. pp. xii, and 336. A manual of the Ornithology of the United States and of Cana- da. By Thomas Nuttall, A.M. F.L.S.—Part 2. The Water Birds. Boston, Hilliard, Gray & Co. 12mo. Miscellanies. 209 The Conchologist, with 17 plates. By John Warren, Boston, Russell, Odiorne & Co. 4to. pp. 204. Republications.—General View of the Geology of Scripture, in which the unerring truth of the Inspired Narrative of the early events in the world is exhibited, and distinctly proved, by the corroborative testimony of physical facts, on every part of the earth’ssurface. By George Fairholme, Esq. Philadelphia: Key & Biddle, 12mo. pp. 281. (First republished in the Christian Library, Vol. 2.) Alphabet of Botany for the use of beginners. By James Rennie. Revised and corrected for the use of American Schools, by Ara- bella Clark, principal of the Female Department, Mechanics’ School, New York, 18mo. pp. 130. 1833. A Treatise on Astronomy. By Sir John F. W. Herschel, Kant. Guelp. F.R.S.L. and E. &c. Philadelphia, Carey, Lea and Blan- chard, 1834, 12mo. pp. 296. 9. Cabinet of the late Dr. William Meade.—This collection is offered for sale by Mrs. Catherine Meade of Newburgh, in the State of New York, at which place, Dr. Meade resided, during the later years of his life. We have not seen this collection, but we have the best reason for believing that it is both valuable and interesting. We have already stated (Vol. 25 pa. 216 of this Jour.) that Dr. Meade was, for twenty five years, an active collector of minerals; that he visited and explored many of the most interesting mineral deposits in the northern states, and that he was in the habit of exchanging speci- mens with eminent mineralogists abroad. We are informed that his collection contains twelve hundred, well selected and fine foreign specimens; and about two thousand, be- longing to four hundred varieties, of the best American minerals, of alarge size. ‘There is also a very beautiful small collection of fossils and slate impressions. We are authorized to say, that the collection will be sold omthe most reasonable terms either entire or in divisions. It would doubt- less be an important object for one of our junior colleges. A few hundred dollars, judicious'y expended in forming the nu- cleus of a collection, will, with zeal and energy, soon produce an im- portant effect in diffusing the knowledge of mineralogy ; and a col- lection thus begun will grow beyond even the most sanguine hopes. We would therefore invite the attention of mineralogists and of schools and colleges to this collection and we presume that they will not find its value overrated. Vou. XXVI.—No. 1. QT 210 JMiscellanies. We are requested also to mention, that the patent right for the Congress powders and the recipe for preparing the magnesian ape- rient are for sale. Application for the purchase of them or of the cabinet can be made to Mr. Charles Conolly, at Cornelius Dubois Esq. of New York. 10. Ewbank’s Tinned Lead-pipes.—Mr. Thomas Ewbank of New York, has invented a method of tinning lead pipes “after they have been drawn to the proper size.” This is ingeniously accomplished by drawing the lead tubes (properly prepared with rosin on their surfaces) through a bath of melted tin, kept at such a temperature as to avoid the fusion of the lead. . We have seen some of these tubes and their appearance promises a perfect protection to the lead. Should this, after sufficient trial, prove to be the fact, the discovery will ne of great importantce, espe- cially for aqueducts. ; We have just seen a oocian of a lead tube of two inches in di- ameter, which, having been laid down in alow meadow in Springfield Mass. where there are the remains of an ancient hemlock swamp, was, in the course of a few months, corroded through and through, and for this reason great expenses are incurred in taking up and replacing the spoiled tubes. We presume that the tinned tubes will not be liable to this accident. 11. American Mangle or Domestic Callender.—This instrument, invented and patented by Mr. I. Doolitile of Bennington, Vt., we have seen used and we have conversed also with those who have employed it, and find that its use saves a great portion of the labor and all the fuel usually employed in the process of ironing table and bed linen, towels, &c. besides being much more expeditions and giv- ing the articles a better lustre and whiter appearance. It is regarded as a valuable auxiliary and by some is reckoned among the indispen- sable utensils of the laundry. We can confidently recommend it as a valuable acquisition to the conveniences of the family. 12. Price of Platinum—Test Paper. Extract of a letter from Dr. Erastus F. Cooke, to the Editor, dated Wethersfield July 22, 1833. Dear Sir—In your reply to a letter of mine, (sometime since, in- quiring the price of platina,) you expressed a wish to know something of the result of my enquiry. I have to state, that I procured some friends to write to London and to Paris in relation to the subject, and I now send you the result. ‘ We have just received an answer from MMiscellanies. 211 Paris, in relation to the platina alembic. Our partner says, that the alembic with the snout and syphon, of the most approved model, such as are made for the London market, to contain about 25 gal- lons, will weigh 600 oz. and that we should be able to deliver it here for $6 per ounce, or about $3600 for the machine.” The letter from London says—‘ A platina retort, with flange for concentrating sulphuric acid, holding 30 gallons, imperial measure, will weigh about 450 oz. at 24s per. oz. =£540.. A platina syphon suitable for ditto, will weigh about 45 oz. at 26s=£58 10s, made in the best manner.” ‘This letter was from R. & E. Kepp, 41 and 42 Chandos street, London. The first letter was from the Messrs Carnes, of N. York. I take the liberty of sending you a piece of test paper, made from the purple Cabbage. I use it in all my manufacturing operations, where such a test is necessary, and find it a good one. ‘The paper ought to be unsized. I do not recollect that I have ever seen Cab- bage paper mentioned in any work on tests. The infusion I know, is in common use. 13. Baker’s Bread.—To the Editor.—Sir—You will oblige one of your readers, in answering through the Journal of Science, the fol- lowing question :—Does Baker’s bread contain any alchohol ? The last No. of the Edinburgh Review, page 107, speaks of a pat- ent taken out in England “ for distilling from the quartern loaf, by collecting the spirit which evaporates during baking.” Yours re- spectfully. : An inquirer. Reply.—Our readers are probably aware, that the generation of alcohol in the fermentation of dough, has been denied by the French chemists. Having never repeated the experiments, I can say noth- ing on my own authority. As regards any scruples that may possibly be entertained by our correspondent or others, as to eating bread, it is obvious, that if there be alcohol in dough, it will not remain in the bread when baked, it will be expelled by the heat of the oven, and upon this fact is founded the arrangement for deriving profit from the alcohol supposed to ex- ist in the dough. Baked bread evidently contains no alcohol. 14. Loss of memory from the use of gin. Extract of a letter to the Editor, from a man of science, who had been a severe suf- ferer from asthma. My health is better than it has been, since my asthmatic affection commenced, in 1824. Ihave been enabled to dispense with my 212 JMiscellanies. hops and Holland gin preparations (tincture of hops) for about one year. J imagined that the gin part injured my memory; although my physicians would not assent to it. Since [ am in a measure in- dependent of its use, | am sure my memory is restored. Alcohol has its uses; but still, I verily believe, that none but ArmsTrone’s ‘‘ath- letic fools” (where want of brain is compensated by having brawny limbs) can use it in the stomach with impunity. I had never swal- lowed a thimble-full, until I was forty-eight years old. I neither drank cider, nor wine, nor beer. While I used only a very little, as a tinc- ture of hops, my mind seemed clouded, and I could not remember as well. Wine never aids me in the asthma; therefore I have tried the effects of old Holland gin only. It relieves, temporarily, by pro- moting expectoration. J assure you, that after a trial of several years, I have scarcely any confidence in any preparation of alcohol. 15. Outlines of Geology, &c., by Dr. J. L. Comstock.—Dr. Com- stock is advantageously known to the public, by the compilation, with additional elucidations of his own, of several treatises on different branches of science, for the use of schools. His last production is that whose title is stated above. In this - work, Dr. C. gives sufficient proof, that he has industriously and care- fully examined the principal modern treatises on geology; and his abstract, which abounds in interesting and important facts, will serve a valuable purpose to those who have not time and opportunity to ex- amine the original works, and still less, the numerous original memoirs and reports which have supplied the materials. Dr. Comstock’s “Outlines” are perspicuously written, and are illustrated by copies of diagrams and figures from the various works that were consulted. A fuller description of the rocks would perhaps have been desira- ble, but this deficiency is, to a degree, compensated, by the facts ci- ted, to support the general views contained in the work. As to the days, Dr. Comstock, (in common with the high authorities whom he has cited) has left the question embarrassed with all the geological difficulties. If we pay any regard to the Mosaic history, the remains of both organic kingdoms, must be disposed of, under the days, and it is impossible that they should be, upon the present limited view of time. All attempts which we have hitherto seen to solve this difficul- ty, without more time than the common interpretation allows, (not more than the history, fairly considered, permits) are in our view, utterly nugatory ; the tile of the last chapter of Rasselas, would well describe them all. . Miscellanies. 213 We object to the imputation of contradicting the Mosaic history, when christian, geologists endeavor to prove that there is a sense in which philology and geology may be harmonized, and the facts and the record stand together in mutual consistency. Geology contradicts nothing in the sacred history ;—all that it requires is an extension of time ; whereas the modern astronomy is in exact opposition to the literal sense of the language of the bible; still no one now dreams of any real inconsistency between them. 16. Prof. Hitchcock’s Report on the Geology, Mineralogy, Bot- any and Zoology of Massachusetts: 1833.——We have no more time or space, than to make a passing remark upon this great work ; the most elaborate and complete in its kind which this country has _ produced. The Geology is divided under the heads Economical, Topograph- ical and Scientific; and a fourth part contains a catalogue of ani- mals and plants. ‘There is also a descriptive list of the specimens of rocks and minerals collected forthe government. ‘The work is illus- trated by numerous wood cuts, and a distinct atlas of plates: it fills 700 pages, and evinces, throughout, great zeal and industry, with sound scientific views, and much sagacity and discrimination. We have already had frequent occasion to consult this work, and always with much satisfaction, and with increasing respect for its meritorious author. Laboriously occupied as we know him to be with academic- al duties, we are surprised that he has been able to accomplish this arduous work in so short a time. We are gratified to learn that the government of Massachusetts have already ordered a second edition to be printed ; this will afford opportunity for literary corrections, but we are sorry to learn that the respected author is not empowered to make any additional research- es, and we much fear from what we learn of the entire cost* of this survey, that only a very small remuneration can have fallen to the share of the man who has accomplished a labor truly Herculean, in- volving a heavy responsibility ; a work which reflects great honor upon the State, and upon the enlightened and patriotic chief magis- trate,} whose energy and perseverance carried the measure through. 17. Second American Edition of Bakewell’s Geology.—-This work, reprinted by H. Howe from the fourth London edition, is much improved by the author’s revision. He has added several new * Not however, from the author. t Gov. Lincoln. 214 Miscellanies. chapters on important subjects, and has posted up the science to the date of his preface, April, 1833. The favorable opinion which, many years ago we formed and ex- pressed respecting this work, is now, at last, fully confirmed by that of the British scientific public ; namely, that Mr. Bakewell’s Geology is admitted to be the best elementary work for instruction on that subject in the English language, and perhaps in any language. We understand from direct and unquestionable sources, that this is now admitted in the Universities of England and Scotland, as well as by eminent®* geologists in various parts of the United Kingdom. After investigating geological subjects through many volumes of the various existing treatises, we have usually returned to Mr. Bakewell for a final judgment, and have been often forcibly struck with his judicious summary of geological facts and opinions, and with the rare combina- tion of copiousness, condensation and persplcutty, which his work presents. 18. Magnetism.—Dr. Locke, has within the last week, invented and constructed a very delicate Thermo-electrical battery, intended to show the electricity produced by animal heat. It is of the size of three sixpences laid upon each other, that is, three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and one tenth of an inch thick. ‘This battery, being attached to his galvanometer, and the end of the finger applied to the top of it, the animal heat thus communicated to it, caused a current of electricity, which turned the magnetic needle 90°. Independently of this little battery, the two following experi- ments, have been made by the galvanometer. One fourth of a grain of metallic antimony being interposed between two copper wires, and the warmth of the finger applied, the needle was deflect- ed 22°. One of the copper wires being laid upon the other, without the interposition of any other metal, and the warmth applied as above the needle was deflected 6°. ‘The same results were obtained by substituting the warmth of the breath instead of that of the hand. It may be proper to note that the temperature of the room in which - these experiments were made, was 65° Fahrenheit. It has thus been actually shown that the production and expenditure of animal heat, are, constantly, attended by electrical and magneti- cal currents.— Cincinnati Paper. * It has been used since 1815, in connexion with the geological lectures in Yale College, and two editions of the work, each with an appendix, have been published under the revision of the Professor in that department. Miscellanies. 215 19. Mr. C. U. Shepard’s private school of Mineralogy and other Branches of Natural History.—In our last No. (Vol. 25 pa. 431) we mentioned this important private undertaking. We are happy to add, that several gentlemen, accidentally associated, from remote states and a still more remote foreign country, are now availing them- selves of the important advantages which Mr. Shepard is able to afford them. We refer to our previous notice of this subject, as ci- ted above ; and with pleasure add, that the experiment is in very successful progress, and that not a doubt can be entertained of the entire success of this school, provided a sufficient number of pupils should attend, to afford a fair compensation to the highly qualified gentleman whom (with no other interest than that of a kindly feeling towards science and towards this its meritorious devotee,) we are proud to recommend, to the. American public as entirely worthy of that confidence which he would be as slow to ask as he will be prompt to deserve. It is our earnest wish that this high advantage may be added to the other means of scientific instruction enjoyed in our country. We have the satisfaction to add that, since our last No. a small fund, contributed by the society of the Alumni of Yale Col- lege, has been made, in part, available to afford without charge to the pupils a course of lectures on conchology which in the cabinet of Yale College, Mr. Shepard, is now engaged in delivering, with the fine illustrations afforded by his beautiful collection of shells. This course will be followed by one on Botany, by Mr. Shepard, for which, as there is no fund to support it, a small fee is paid. A public course of Mineralogy succeeded by an extended one on Geolo- gy is given, every spring and summer, in the Cabinet of Yale Col- lege; and this, for the present, completes the list of courses of instruc- tion here in Natural History. We hope however to see Zoology added at a future day. There are full courses on all the branches of the- oretical, and experimental science ; as well as in medicine, law and di- vinity, in addition to the instruction by recitations and drilling in the class-rooms. 20. Ligneous Stems of American Coal-fields desiredicWe take the liberty of inviting the attention of our scientific friends and cor- respondents to the interesting researches, now going on, in the hands of H. T. M. Witham, Esq. of Edinburgh, and also of Lartington, Yorkshire. Of that gentleman’s discoveries we gave a notice in this Journal, Vol. 25, pa. 108; he is still prosecuting them with ardor 216 Miscellanies. and success, and as we understand from him, that he is very desi- rous of receiving specimens or sections of the coal plants of this con- tinent, whether from the bituminous or anthracite beds; we take the liberty of soliciting aid for him in this research which is so important to geological science ; and if specimens are transmitted to us it shall be our care to forward them with expedition. arly in our editorial labors we made a similar request in behalf of Mr. Alex. Brongniart, and it was not without success in promoting the very interesting dis- coveries of his son, Mr. Adolphus Brongniart, respecting the Flora of the ancient world and especially of the coal formations, upon which he has thrown such important light. 21. Crystalline Lenses of American Animals Desired.—On this subject we have to prefer a request similar to the one stated above. We learn from Sir David Brewster that he has been engaged, for many years, in an examination of the crystalline lenses of animals and has just published in the Philosophical Transactions the first of a se- ries of papers on the subject. As there are many fishes in America, which cannot be obtained in Europe, their crystalline lenses and es- pecially those of the cuttle fish as well as those of any animals pe- culiar to this continent would be particularly acceptable to Sir D. B. whose brilliant researches in optics have shed lustre on his name and on this branch of science. | It is necessary, only, to throw the lenses, for a few seconds, into boiling water; they are then taken out and dried and wrapped in pa- per upon which should be written the name of the animal to which they belonged. We respectfully invite the aid of naturalists and es- pecially of ichthyologists upon this subject. It is among the rewards of scientific zeal and labor that the friends of science and liberal knowl- edge are thus led to cherish a kindly feeling towards their co-workers in distant countries, which is as favorable to their personal happiness, as it is to the prosperity of the common cause. 22. Mantell’s Geology of the South East of England.—This fine work contains a synopsis of all Mr. Mantell’s Discoveries in the very peculiar and highly interesting district in which he resides. He has given to the scientific world, in an elegant octavo, the principal things contained in both his former quartos, with the addition of many new facts, the most interesting of which is the discovery of a new fossil Saurian of enormous size, called by him the Hylceosaurus. Jt was Miscellanies. 217 our intention to give, in the present number, something like an analy- sis of this work; but, in substituting a meagre paragraph, we only yield to necessity, which has absolutely withheld the leisure requisite for our purpose ; duties which could neither be postponed nor avoid- ed, have entirely forestalled the future, and engrossed the passing hour. We have elsewhere remarked, that Mr. Mantell’s various pub- lications on local geology entitle him to rank with Cuvier and Brong- niart, whose grand work on the environs of Paris, led the way in this species of research. Mr. Mantell’s late work presents the re- sults of a course of detailed and exact induction, involving an exten- sive and precise knowledge of several collateral sciences, and espe- cially of comparative anatomy, conchology, botany and zoology. Mr. Mantell, aided by the talent, taste and zeal of Mrs. Mantell, has rendered Lewes and its environs more famous for its geological, than it was before for its historical antiquities. Mr. Mantell has re- cently removed his residence to Brighton, upon the sea shore, seven miles from Lewes. He has refitted his admirable museum,* and enlarged its accommo- dations, and we trust, that in his arduous professiont he will, at Brigh- ton, meet the rewards to which he is so well entitled from his country- men. Few persons, even in this country, need to be informed that Brighton is, in the summer, a grand focus of the fashion, rank and wealth of England, and moreover, during a part of the year a favor- ite Royal Residence. If Mr. Mantell’s museum should bring him, in its present situation, many new calls, we trust they may prove advan- tageous to his well earned fame, and to the interests of his amiable family. 23. Septaria of extraordinary size and beauty.—These curious combinations of different mineral substances, are usually seen in cabi- nets, only of a few inches in diameter. We owe to the kindness of Mr. Mantell two magnificent specimens of Septaria, (one of them for the cabinet of Yale College.) They are respectively 22 and 24 inches in diameter, forming circular polished tables of exquisite beauty. They are from the Lias, an argillaceous limestone, and their locality was near Lime-Regis on the channel coast of England. Their pre- vailing ground is smoke grey, but they are superbly variegated, by both broad and narrow veins of calcareous spar of a light straw color, * Described in Vol. xxiii. p. 162 of this Journal. ? That of a surgeon. Vout. XXVI.—No. 1. 28 218 Miscellanies. which, with the bordering edges of dark iron, and (apparently). sul- phate of barytes, winds its way, in the most delicate flexions, through the sober ground work of the lias, and forms a picture, not unlike that of the ramifications of a great Delta, whose bright waters inoscu- late and cross in many mazes, dividing the territory into innumerable islands. It is not easy for an observer to persuade himself that these tables are natural pictures; the first impression is, that they are a kind of mosaic work. 24. Fossil Jaws of the Tapir.—Extract of a letter from Gideon Mantell, Esq., late of Lewes, now of Brighton, England, to the Editor, dated Jan. 1834. “They have found two perfect lower jaws of the tapir at Darmstadt; strange to tell, it had two tusks at the anterior extremity of the lower jaws, and which point downwards. Wasever any thing so extraordinary: they must have been intended to enable the animal to grub up bulbous and tuberose roots from under the wattled fibrous roots of a forest!” 25. Chalk and chalk fossils in granite—Extract of a letter to the Editor from Prof. Leonhard, of the University of Heidelberg, Germany, dated 29th Jan. 1834. ‘“‘T have performed recently a geological tour in Bohemia and Saxony, and have observed a multitude of interesting facts; among other things at Meissen upon the Elbe, fragments of chalk full of petrifactions—imbedded in granite.” 26. Obitwary.—Died at Bethlehem, Pa., (the place of his birth,) early in Febru- ary last, the Rev. Lewis D. De Schweinitz, the secular head of the Moravian So- eiety, or Unitas Fratrum in America, aged about 52 years. Several of his early years were spent in the pursuit of study in Germany, during which period he de- voted considerable attention to the investigation of cryptegamous plants. After his return to this country, the confidence of his brethren gave him an ecclesiasti- cal charge in one of the Moravian settlements in North Carolina. While on that station, he employed a part of his time in studying and arranging the fungi of that . region. His various scientific publications are in great esteem among the learned, and justly entitle him to an eminent place among the botanists of his time. A list of his works, so far as we are acquainted with them, is given below. He was indefatigable in the discharge of duties, conscientious and consistent on the subject of religion, and persevering in every description of study. His loss will not be less regretted by those who had the advantage of knowing him as a friend and companion, than in his more public character, in which it will be long and deeply felt both by the Moravian Church and by the friends of science. Conspectus Fungorum in agro Niskiensi crescentium; socio J. B. ab Albertini, Lipsiz, 1805. 8vo. : Specimen Flore Americ Septentrionalis Cryptogamice, 8vo. Raleigh, N.C. 1821. Monography of the North American species of the Linnean genus Viola, Am. Jour. of Science, Vol. 5. p. 48-81. 1822. A Monograph of the N. A. species of Carex, Annals of the N.Y. Lye. Vol. 1. p- 283—373. 1825. Synopsis Fungorum in America Boreali media degentium. Trans. of Amer. Phil. Soc. for 1832.—Poulson’s Daily Adv. Feb. 15. The American Journal of Science and Arts. Tue annexed prospectus is presented to the friends of science, and their aid is respectfully solicited, in promoting its interests so far as they may be thought to be connected with this Journal. Since the 12th volume, its patronage, has been more than sufficient to pay the expenses, but to insure the stability and usefulness of the work requires renewed efforts, on the part of its editor. As even England had no Journal of Science till about the begin- ning of the present century, it is cheering to remember, that the first attempts in this country, made only a few years later, have been, thus far, sustained by the public. Suill, every periodical work must, occasionally, recruit its number of subseribers, or it will fall into jeopardy. The American Journal is not yet in immediate danger, but, its subscription is far too limited to do all the good of which it is capable ; and after a gradual decline, since 1829, it would be happy if it could be again increased as it was in that year. The simple expedient then adopted, was, for each subscriber to obtain one subscriber more, and in this manner the subscription was soon doubled. In this country, such a work, involving peculiar difficulties, can neither be got up, nor sustained, without great effort and perseverance. Avoiding local, personal, party and sectarian interests and preju- dices, it thus entirely foregoes the support afforded by popular feel- ing, and therefore relies, as it has a full right to do, solely upon the intelligent, the patriotic, the philanthropic, and the interested. It ts worse than useless, to resort to indiscriminate solicitations. Subscriptions, obtained in that manner, will not continue long, and will produce only a delusive expectation of support, and a certain in- crease of expense. Such persons therefore, and such only, should be addressed, as, from their considerate and correct estimation of the value of useful knowledge, or from their interests and taste, will probably become permanent patrons. PROSPECTUS. In 1810, 11 and 12, the late Dr. Bruce, of New York, published his Journal of Mineralogy and Geology in one volume of four num- bers. 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Names may be lodged with any of the agents, or sent to the Editor or publishers, _ and the work may be obtained through all booksellers, Al compensation of one third will be allowed to all persons obtain- ing subscribers who pay the first year’s subscription in advance ; and agents and booksellers can, if they choose, retain upon their own books, the names which they may procure; due notice being given to the Editor. For single subscribers, the mail is, decidedly, the best mode of con- veyance: the postage is about that of a twice weekly newspaper, that is from $1.10 to $1.32 per annum. ae , Corydalis formosa. SS Lhomas del. Chrysomela vitivora. 1, natural size 2, magnified. SIWBarbher sc. ko Af) vezrsta, D. ] Vol. XXV1L. 7.107 GC: | Baldwinia,D. ail. x iN . ‘ Ay psa < N ie bee a 8s fa & rt ae : xs S RS 8 &. ay ee Primitive Strata ' Rocks fied te S F R “i RNS 5 : 5 5) mS % Ss & a? S Sa aS SS fe) Os) SS Se ss RG ° SS S S N Fa S&S 1 2 Re ees aS aaa Nt) Wr \ NS SN ; A telinal or central regun. strata mm great disorder @ Brownsville, 72. Uniontown, fz. Lower seemdary strata, or coal measures, neatly horizontal m BALTIMORE and the OHIO RIVER. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. Arr. 1.—Some notices of the Geology* of the Country between Balti- more and the Ohio River, with a section illustrating the superpo- sition of the rocks ; by Dr. Winuiam E. A. Arxin, Prof. of Nat. Phil. and Chem. in Mt. St. Mary’s College, Md. Tue geology of the Appalachian chain has always appeared suffi- ciently enigmatical to me to merit minute investigation. ‘The struc- ture of its eastern ridges seems inexplicable, without reference to the operation of a cause, that must have been most intensely exerted along a line far to the west of any point, that I had an opportunity of exa- mining previous to the last season. ‘The following observations are the results of that examination, an examination much more cursory and hurried, than I could have wished, but yet one which has furnish- ed some general results, that in the absence of more minute informa- tion may prove interesting. Moreover, it is hoped they will have a tendency to remove the darkness that has hitherto encompassed the subject, by stimulating others to note down their observations, to compare my remarks with the places referred to, and to verify or disprove my assertions. When proceeding westward from Balti- more, the scientific traveler is struck with the apparent confusion and disorder of the rocks in sight. Immense masses of granite and gneiss, with primitive and transition schists, are intermingled in every * Mt. St. Mary’s College, Emmitsburg, Md., Feb. 5, 1834, Pror. SILLIMAN.—Sir—With a wish to contribute my mite towards an eluci- dation of American Geology, I herewith send you some notices of the character and superposition of the rocks between Baltimore and the Ohio river, along the route of the national road. The accompanying section is intended to render my views more intelligible than could be done by bare description. Most respectfully, your humble and obed’t serv’t. W.E. A. AIKIN. Vou. XXVI.—No. 2. 29 Lllhe mills Grantee & yess Rallimore Sideling Mill Hancock, Ma. i Gerad tate VAN A > rege “nay Pa, —| ee —_—" ' é : A Anticlinal or central region. strata tn great disorder Lower secondary strata continued ? Lower secondary strata, or c5oal mereuret, nearly hertaontal illustrating the superposition of the ROCKS between BALTIMORE and the ono RIVER, eo * re © 220 Geology of the Country between possible manner. It is no easy task to reduce this confusion to sys- tematic arrangement, and there seems abundant room for diversity of ' opinion, with but little danger of any one proving bis opponents in the -wrong or himself in the right. It is indeed difficult to convey a cor- rect idea of the primitive strata along this part of our section. Slaty and crystalline granite appear to predominate, mixed with slates and a rock approaching hornblende rock in external character. The granite may be well seen in the neighborhood of Ellicott’s mills, where there are extensive quarries that furnish vast quantities for the Baltimore market. Succeeding the primitive rocks, next appear transition slates and sandstones, exhibiting the usual Protean varie- ties of the transition graywacke formation. I use this last term in the general sense adopted by Humboldt, who designates by it* “ ev- ery conglomerate, sandstone and fragmentary or arenaceous rock of transition formation that is anterior to the red sandstone and coal for- mation,” with this addition, that I would also include within the same definition all those transition slates that we find interstratified with the above conglomerates and sandstones, and which must have been of nearly contemporaneous origin. This would include the argillite in all its varieties, the old red sandstone, the millstone grit and the gray- wacke, and graywacke slate of Prof. Eaton, as members of the same formation. There would at first sight seem but little analogy be- tween the soft roof slate of commerce, and the harsh quartzose con- glomerate that is quarried for millstones. But the wide difference between these disappears when we find, first, this conglomerate chang- ing its character and passing gradually into finer sandstone, next, the sandstone becoming more slaty and alternating with beds of genuine argillite. Prof. Eaton has observed that Europeans do not under- stand their graywackes, and I might safely add that no one can well understand the graywackes of this country without visiting the moun- tains of Pennsylvania and Virginia. ‘This formation, which is colored brown on the section, commences on the west of the primitive rocks, that are colored red, and continues uninterruptedly to the Monocacy, including the elevated ground known as Parr’s ridge. ‘Throughout this whole distance, its peculiar variable characters are strikingly ex- hibited. The slaty varieties often appear somewhat talcose, often shining as if varnished, at one time friable and rapidly disintegrating, and again firm and compact. At one place quarries have been open- * Supenposition of Rocks, p. 201. Baltimore and the Ohio River. 921 ed and furnish a tolerable, coarse roofing slate. ‘The arenaceous va- rieties are often crossed with veins of quartz, and are occasionally colored with chlorite. All the varieties vary much in color, the most prominent are black, blue, green, chocolate color and red. And all the varieties of color and texture may be seen intermingled with each other for a distance of thirty miles. The glazed varieties are closely allied to what was once called par excellence, ‘ primitive argillite.” The talcose glazing of this parti-colored rock is noticed by Prof. Eaton,* who quotes Dr. Higgins for an ingenious explanation of the different colors. Being most probably caused, says Dr. H., by the combination of magnesia with iron in different degrees of oxidation which gives blue, purple, and red compounds, the green being pro- duced by chlorite. This would suit our slates very well, for nearly all are more or less talcose, and frequently chloritic. ‘The author’s description of graywacke slate, in another part of the same volume, applies admirably to our entire graywacke formation. ‘This rock takes on the greatest variety of character of any rock in our district. It is coarse and harsh, soft and smooth, fissile and compact, brittle and strong, gray, blue, green and red. Notwithstanding these vari- eties, there is a peculiarity in the rock by which we recognise it af- ter seeing it once.”+ Succeeding the transition graywacke, we next - meet the genuine transition limestone of Frederick Co. Md. 5 it first appears on the right bank of the Monocacy, a few miles east of Fred- erick city. From thence it continues westward, underlays that city, and only disappears where the slate and conglomerate of the Catoc- tin ridge have been forced into view. Between the limestone of Frederick valley and the quartzose grit of the Catoctin ridge, lying below the former and above the latter, there is interposed a bed of calcareous breccia, the well known Potomac marble, which has fur- nished, though from another locality, the beautiful pillars of the cap- itol. I have not visited the quarry, (some twenty miles south of the section,) where these were procured, but have reason to believe that the formation is continuous from that point, to one a little west of Frederick city. That it continues still farther north is proved by its having been found by Prof. Ducatel, and Messrs. Tyson and Alex- ander, in the vicinity of Mechanics town, a distance perhaps of about fifteen miles in a right line. At this last place it exhibited the ap- pearance of terminating, so that probably it would be best considered as an accidental bed, formed from the ruins of some previous calca- * Canal Survey, p. 64. t Idem, p. 88. 222 Geology of the Country between reous deposit, and interposed between the limerock and graywacke- It is extremely interesting, as furnishing a beautiful ornamental mar- ble that will amply repay the labor of polishing. The Catoctin ridge next succeeds, and presents very evidently a closer approximation to the primitive series, than is to be met with at any other point west of the primitive region of Baltimore. Adjoining the Potomac marble, there occurs a talcoseish looking slate often traversed with siliceous veins and alternating with arenaceous strata. ‘The whole formation is colored with chlorite, sometimes very deeply. ‘That mineral is often found in disseminated masses ; epidote is also quite common, and a little farther north, genuine serpentine is found. We have here, as in all other parts of the world, searchers after gold and silver, to whom the copper and iron pyrites, abundant in these rocks, have proved no small source of disappointment. Should the talcose slate hereafter be found to exist extensively in this region, a well directed search for gold might be successful. Descending the Catoctin moun- tain, we enter Middletown valley, a comparatively narrow intervale, be- tween the last named mountains and the Blue ridge. Ihave colored the section to indicate the occurrence of limestone in this valley, upon the authority of others. There can be but little doubt that itis found there, although I have not seen it myself. West of Middletown we meet an- other deposit of graywacke, constituting the south mountains of Mary- land and Pennsylvania, known as the Blue ridge, where it crosses Vir- ginia. Leaving the quartzose rocks of this range, we enter the extensive valley in which Hagerstown is situated, and again find the limerock showing its bassetting edges. It here agrees perfectly with that: of Frederick valley, and continues until approaching the North moun- tains, which bound the valley of Hagerstown towards the west. ‘The underlying rock of this valley may be taken as a type of the whole transition lime formation of this region. It is generally a dark blue rock, of very uniform texture and appearance, occasionally traversed with veins of calcareous spar, and almost entirely destitute of organic remains. ‘The sparry variety is best seen in the vicinity of Frederick city, and there is hardly a quarry to be found in any direction within a few miles of that place, where these veins are not abundant. It is this variety that has been distinguished by the name of sparry lime- rock. A few miles east of Hagerstown, the exact spot I am not ac- quainted with, this stratum includes a bed of white and perfectly fine- grained limestone, which is quarried for white marble, and answers well for that purpose. ‘The only organic remains, that | have ever known found in this rock, are some beautiful specimens of pentacri- Baltimore and the Ohio River. 223 nites, found near Winchester, Va. It was in Virginia, also on the banks of Cedar creek, along the line of Frederick and Shenandoah counties, that I observed the only remains, that I have been able to discover in the graywacke formation of this region. ‘They were two or three va- rieties of bivalves, generally so mutilated as to render any attempt to determine the species, a very discouraging task. One elongated va- riety, bore a slight resemblance to the outline of a butterfly, sufficient- ly so, to entitle the locality to the name of “the butterfly rock,” by which it is known in the neighborhood. The fact is interesting, since it shows that there are other remains, besides those of the trilo- bite family, that are probably called petrified butterflies. At the foot of the North mountain, west of Hagerstown, we again meet the gray- wacke, which continues apparently uninterrupted as far as Hancock. Before arriving at that place, the road was for some distance along the left bank of the Potomac, where may be seen a fine exhibition of red and particolored slates, alternating with each other. A short distance west of Hancock, limestone again occurs, but is soon follow- ed by arenaceous and conglomerate strata, and these in their turn are succeeded by parti-colored slate and red sandstone. On the east face of Sideling Hill, a conglomerate appears—on the west side near the foot, slate alternating with sandstones. ‘This formation then contin- ues a great distance, but varying considerably in external characters. The sandstone often assumes the appearance of the calciferous sand- rock of Prof. Eaton, as that occurs in Rensselaer Co. N. Y., and evidently alternates with a soft argillaceous slate and a coarse con- glomerate. The next marked on the section is Town Hill, similar in structure to those previously passed. Between this and Polish mountain, marked Rugged mountain on the section, the strata exhibit some of those contortions and twistings, so often remarked in other places, and which will be more particularly noticed, when speaking of the direction and dip of the strata. This formation continues until reaching the eastern base of Mar- tin’s mountain, marked Evit’s mountain, on the section. Here the limestone again appears, and seemingly constitutes the mass of this mountain, showing itself towards the top and again near its western base. On the western declivity, near the top, there are some ap- pearances of a white sandstone. The limestone is then succeeded by alternating slaty and arenaceous strata, which continue until ar- riving within five or six miles of Cumberland. At that point, there is a very interesting exhibition of the manner in which the lime is in- terposed among the graywacke strata; we see slate supporting a 224 Geology of the Country between harsh sandstone, this supporting a strata of limerock, which is again covered by slate. This last deposit continues as we progress west- ward, until the whole transition series is covered up by the coal measures of the west. I was anxious to ascertain if possible, the place of meeting of the two great formations, the transition and se- condary ; but although this object was kept constantly in view, I was disappointed in determining the precise point, although satisfied my- self, it must occur within a very limited district. Somewhere be- tween Cumberland and Savage mountain, I am convinced a proper search would exhibit the latter, lying unconformably upon the former. It is probable that the coal strata, approach a little nearer Cumber- land than would appear by the section, as coal is said to be procured within a few miles of that place. | From Savage mountain, (which is colored to indicate the seconda- ry strata,) for the remaining distance, we see no more those diversi- fied slates and sandstones, that exhibit such an interesting appearance, east of this point. ‘The dark blue limestone is no longer seen with its bassetting edges projecting above the soil. The sandstones and ‘shales and limestones of the coal measures, are now alone visible. The most striking change along this part of the route, when compar- ed with the country previously passed, is the great difference in the position of the rocks, the almost horizontal situation of the strata. A little west of Savage mountain, on the top of a low hill, there occurs a slaty limerock, called there “ bastard limestone,” and said to be un- fit for burning. It agrees in external character with a similar rock found interposed among the coal strata around Pittsburg. West of the bastard limestone, the rocks in sight along the road, are red slate alternating with red and darker colored sandstones, and evidently abounding with coal, as the numerous pits along the road testify. On the top of Laurel Hill, there are immense masses of a coarse white sandstone, apparently in place, and west of this the dark sand- stones and slates and accompanying beds of coal, continue to the Mo- nongahela. Iam unable to give the exact order of superposition of these different strata, along the line of the section, and leave it for those who have leisure to make the necessary investigations over so large a surface. Probably this order will be found nearly the same over the whole secondary district, subject perhaps, to comparatively slight variation. While examining the coal deposits around Pittsburg, Thad an opportunity of examining minutely the accompanying strata, the nature and individual extent of these, will be more conveniently given in another place. From Savage mountain to the Ohio River, Baltimore and the Ohio River. 225 we have then undoubtedly the lower secondary coal measures, reposing at their eastern edges upon the more highly inclined transition series. I say undoubtedly, because the whole distance has not been examined by myself personally, my progress westward terminated at Browns- ville, on the Monongahela. To that place the rocks continue as I have already described, and beyond that I have ventured in accordance with analogy,. in accordance with all accounts received of that district, to represent the secondary strata, as continuous with those east of the Monongahela. These then constitute the formations visible along the route—Ist. the primitive series of the immediate vicinity of Bal- timore ; 2d. the transition slates, sandstones and conglomerates of the adjacent country, and 3d. the lower secondary rocks of the west. — We have next to consider the relation which the several strata bear to each other, their dip and direction. And in these respects, the district we are considering, is peculiarly interesting. It presents some seeming anomalies, when compared with other transition dis- tricts, in other parts of our country, but these may be mostly referred to the fact, that here we have deposits of a peculiarly variable charac- ter, on a much more extensive scalc, than can be found at almost any other place. It seemed highly desirable to me, to ascertain if possible, the range of mountains, that could be considered as the cen- tral or anticlinal ridge, if any such existed. With this view, I was watchful to note the dip and direction of the strata, at every point where these were visible, and when it happened that any considera- ble distance was passed over while these essential points remained obscure, this absence of positive information was also carefully noted. Upon the whole, it may safely be said, that there is hardly a tract of equal extent, where the dip and direction are as clear and satisfacto- ry, as along the route traversed. ‘The primitive rocks nearest Balti- more, exhibit pretty regularly a considerable dip towards the S. E., but this soon becomes confused, the strata are seen with a reversed inclination, (i. e. to the N. W.) at times also, they are seen nearly vertical, and again seemingly piled up unconformably on each other. frregular cracks too, traversing compact masses in different direc- tions, evince great disorder. ‘These appearances are most striking between Ellicott’s mills and the city, west of the mills the dip contin- ues more regularly S. E. until we lose sight of the primitive rocks altogether. ‘Throughout this whole region the inclination of the stra- ta is very great, being often vertical and seldom less than 45°. Af- ter entering the graywacke region, the degree of inclination is subject to greater variety, the direction of the dip also appears frequently, 226 Geology of the Country between and suddenly reversed, although the general tendency still continues to be towards the S. E. In the arenaceous varieties the planes of stratification are very distinet, and cannot well be misunderstood. In the slaty varieties, there would seem to be a little more difficulty. We are told by Bakewell, that “ slate invariably splits in a transverse direction to that of the beds, making with that direction, an angle of about 60°”; he excepts however from this rule, “ coarse graywacke ~ slate and soft slate or shale.” Now the greater part of the slate of the region of which I am speaking, is so soft that it might properly be called shale; whether this is sufficient to account for the fact, or whether the above transverse cleavage really exists and has been overlooked, the simple fact is, that Hothiee of the kind has been no- ticed. The rock in this respect agreeing with the proper argillaceous slate of Massachusetts, as described by Prof. Hitchcock in his late report. He observes* “excepting in the argillaceous slate connected with the graywacke, I have not been able to find in this rock planes of stratification, moving in a different direction from the lamine, a circumstance very common it is said in Europe. But in general, strata seams are discoverable, lying parallel to the slaty structure, as in mica slate. The slate indeed contains numerous seams not coin- cident with those of the strata, but there is rarely any continuous par- allelism among them.” Even in regard to the ‘argillaceous slate connected with the graywacke,” that is excepted from the above re- marks, it would appear that this peculiar structure is far from being uniform, indeed I should rather infer it was only an occasional occur rence, and looked upon when occurring, as an exception to a differ- ent rule. ‘The slaty structure of the slates, included under gray- wacke, does not always coincide with the stratified structure.” The next stratum west is the limestone of Frederick valley, and this ex- hibits a dip and direction similar to that of the graywacke, the two are not seen in actual contact along the line of the section, but from their close approach, the observer can have but little doubt that the former actually passes under the latter. 'This opinion was stoutly contested for a long time, as being opposed to analogy, but account- able or unaccountable, such is the fact. ‘The most convenient point to inspect the near approach of the limestone and slate, is near the viaduct of the Baltimore and Ohio rail road across the Monocacy 5 on the left bank is a high bluff of slate and on the right, a little farther up the stream, are the bassetting edges of true sparry limerock, the * Report on Geology, &c. of Massachusetts, pp. 289, 290. t Ib. 278. Baltimore and the Ohio River. pisly| dip and direction of the rocks on both sides of the stream, are suffi- ciently evident to convince me that the limestone does in reality pass under the slate. Perhaps, if this had been the only case of the kind, I might have hesitated still longer before drawing the above conclu- sion; at least I might have been tempted to distrust my eyes or close them, but farther examination saved me from the dilemma; the case proved afterwards of comparatively frequent occurrence, and 1 am now fully persuaded, that all the limerock between the Monocacy and Cumberland, exists in strata alternating with those of the gray- wacke formation, and that it is interstratified with the slates and sand- stones of that formation. ‘To one who has examined only the limestone vallies, this view may appear to underrate their importance and ex- tent. But in reality they are by no means as important as might be supposed, as will be evident by inspecting the section. I have there endeavored to give, as accurately as I could, the relative extent, lon- gitudinally, of each formation, and we can there see how the limerock, extensive as it may be, dwindles in importance, when compared with the still more extensive graywacke. ‘This view also renders more intelligible the dip of the limerock in Frederick and Ha- gerstown vallies, which otherwise would be rather inexplicable. In both it is towards the S. EK. while the strata of the mountain ridges, separating the two vallies, is also towards the S. E. and the nearest slate east of Frederick city and west of Hagerstown also inclines in the same direction. Similar alternations also occur at other points along the section, and will be noticed in their place. It has happen- ed that the actual contact of the limerock and overlying slate, has not been as plainly seen along the line of the section as at points a little on either side. A few rods east of Martinsburg, Va., the limerock on which that town is built, (and which is undoubtedly a continuous formation with that crossed by the section at Hagerstown,) may be seen, distinctly passing under the slate bordering the Opequon. Con- tinuing a little farther east, and soon after crossing the stream, the slate again gives place to the limerock, and although the second junc- tion of the two is not in sight along the road, there can be no doubt of their relative position. The dip of all the stratais S. E. Anoth- er spot that deserves mention, is a limestone quarry in Pennsylvania, along the road from Carlisle to Laudisburg. About a mile north of Waggoner’s Gap, where the road crosses the ridge that is there call- ed the Blue mountains, (called the North mountains, where our sec- tion crosses it, and quite distinct from the Blue ridge,) and close Vou. XXVI.—No. 2. 30 228 Geology of the Country between along the road, we find limestone quarried as a flux for some iron works close at hand. The mountain itself is a coarse quartzose grit, almost a conglomerate, overlaid with finer sandstone and lastly a soft slate or shale. The limerock near the furnace lies on the slate and is covered by similar slate that continues in sight along the road to- wards Laudisburg. The slate is very soft, rapidly disintegrates and as usual of various colors, grey, blue, green and red. In the vicinity of Harrisburg, Pa. the same order of superposition may be observed, although not within so small a compass. This view of the position of our limestone strata, agrees with observations made at other points on our continent, where similar deposits exist, and also with the views of many foreign geologists. By reference to the section prefixed to Prof. Eaton’s canal survey, I find between Williams College and the top of Peterboro’ mountain, the following alternations; limerock, ar- gillite, limerock, argillite, eale sandrock, limerock, graywacke.— Three distinct alternations of transition limerock, with what I consider different members of the transition graywacke formation, occur with- in a very short distance. ‘The author also observes, that ‘ the spar- ry limerock is found, geologically lower as well as higher, than the ar- gillite of Williamstown mountain range.”* Prof. Hitchcock in speak- ing of the same region, says that the Berkshire limestone, after being traced eastward through West Stockbridge, Mass. and Chatham, N. Y. “is probably interstratified with graywacke slate, in Rensse- laer and Columbia counties, N. Y.”+ Dr. Hayden of Baltimore,t noticed the same alternation a few miles south of Bedford, Pa. al- though he does not appear to have considered the superimposed sand- stone as being in place. It seems to me rather probable, that it was in place, as I have myself observed alternations of sandstone and limerock, along the road a few miles east of Bedford. Dr. H. al- so observes “the whole region, however may, I believe, be consider- ed as secondary.” But if my observations are correct, that imme- diate vicinity, cannot be considered as secondary, according to those observations. ‘Transition graywacke occurs directly east of Bed- ford, the town itself stands on a dark blue transition limestone, and the secondary country does not begin until several miles west of Bedford. Iam unable to say how many miles exactly, as a matter of opinion I would say, less than twenty. Bakewell remarks, that * transition limestone occurs in beds alternating with slate, graywacke, * Canal survey, p. 59. + Report on Geology, &c. of Massachusetts, p. 304. { See American Journal of Science, Vol. xix, p. 97. Baltimore and the Ohio River. 229 graywacke slate, and coarse gritstone.” Some of these beds are of considerable thickness, and form mountain masses. De La Beche, also speaks of patches of limestone, often continuous for considera- ble distances, intermingled with the arenaceous and slaty rocks of the graywacke series. Again he speaks of the limestones having a series of sandstones and slates, similar for the most part to those be- neath, accumulated above. ‘In some districts, such as the north of Devon, there has been a return of causes, favorable to the deposit of limestone, and two bands parallel to each other have been produced. In other districts, more limestones have been formed, while in some they are nearly absent; a state of things we should expect from va- riations produced by local circumstances, or similar general causes in operation over a considerable area.”* ‘These remarks may be very appositely applied to the transition district on our section. We there see a very extensive graywacke deposit, often interrupted by patches of limestone, occurring very irregularly and of very variable extent. Until we are able to ascertain what those general causes were that operated to produce such calcareous deposits, we must be content to remain ignorant of the reason of this irregularity. The term bed, appears too trivial to be applied to deposits so extensive, (longitudinally,) as our limerock, since the term is most usually be- stowed upon such as are very circumscribed. It seems preferable to consider the rock in question, as interstratified with the graywacke strata. As only one example of its extent, | have traced the lime- rock that crosses the Susquehannah, at Harrisburg, Pa., southwester- ly and southerly in the direction of the valley, through Carlisle and Chambersburgh, Pa., Hagerstown, Md., Martinsburg and Winchester, to Woodstock, Va. With the exception that I did not pass in a di- rect line from Hagerstown to Martinsburg, the identity of the rock as seen at those two places, is inferred from its perfect agreement in the direction and inclination of the strata and in its external characters. Thave no information how far this stratum extends N. E. of Harris- burg, Pa., probably to the Delaware River or beyond, perhaps it may even be connected with the blue cherty limerock of Orange Co. N. Y., described by Mr. Charles U. Shepard.+ He found that in- timately associated with an argillite, described as very similar to what exists in the same connexion in these parts and also connected with a white crystalline limerock. What agency the gneiss and sie- nite of Orange Co. might have had in converting the limestone to * Geological Manual, p. 437. t See Amer. Jour. of Science, Vol. xxi, p. 321. 230 Geology of the Country between marble, it would be difficult to say. ‘Their igneous origin seems to be universally admitted and at a time when it is so fashionable to re- fer all troublesome facts in geology to that mighty cause, I may be excused for conceiving the possibility of a blue limerock, becoming a white one, when exposed to its energetic agency. By reference to the section, it will be seen that the strata, which along the eastern part are represented as having a southeasterly dip, at Cumberland and for some distance this side, have a reversed dip. It would be solving an interesting question, to determine the precise line where this change of dip occurs. Any one, however, who ex- pects to find a well defined anticlinal line, continuous for any consid- erable distance, must necessarily be disappointed. ‘There is no such line to be found. ‘There is a district between Hancock and Cum- berland, where the strata are found more confusedly disposed, and where sudden changes in the dip of the rocks are frequent. East of this district, the dip is very regularly S. of E. West of it, the dip is equally uniform towards an opposite point, N. of W. Beneath this space then, we are authorised in concluding, the eruptive power that was instrumental in upheaving the Appalachian chain, was most energetically exerted; this may be considered as the true anticlinal region. I regret that no opportunity was afforded me of exploring this region in the direction of its length. Subsequently, however, I had an opportunity of crossing it at another point, a short distance north of the Cumberland road. I copy from notes taken at the time. ** About ten miles east of Bedford, and between that point and the Crossings, we may see slates and sandstones alternating and present- ing an extremely interesting, although somewhat confused appearance. Within the compass of a few miles, there occur strata of various col- ors, although mostly red and chocolate color, of every variety of tex- ture, and reposing in every possible degree of inclination, from verti- cal to horizontal, and often exhibiting complete semicircular curves. The appearances indicate that here was one point, where the eruptive power from beneath was principally exerted.” By referring to a map, it will be evident how well these two observations coincide in pointing to the same tract of country, and I have no doubt, if fur- ther investigation were made along this line, north and south of the points already visited, that similar appearances would be found. It remains for future observers to ascertain also the direction of this an- ticlinal region; it probably follows more or Jess faithfully, the general curve of the mountain chains as represented on the maps. ‘There are some indications, however, that render it probable that its course Baltimore and the Ohio River. 231 is in degree somewhat transverse, that as we go south “ the central region” approaches the eastern border of the mountainous district, and north of the Potomac, that it approaches more nearly the wes- tern border, thus crossing the general direction of the mountain ran- ges, ata very acute angle. In regard to the agent so efficient in throwing up mountain chains, although there is some little difference of opinion as to the mode by which it operated, the agent itself is now almost universally conceded to be igneous. An opinion that gains confirmation, if any is needed, from the occurrence of thermal waters along the central line of the Alleghany region. ‘The springs at Bath, Va. have a temperature of about 73° Far.; farther south, we find the warm springs at 96°; a little farther, the hot springs at 112°, and still farther the acidulous waters of the sweet springs, with a temperature similar to the water at Bath, or about 739%. Far- ther examination will, perhaps, discover other and warmer waters, along the same line. From the preceding remarks, the relation of the secondary rocks of the valley of the Ohio and its tributaries, may at once be inferred. I have represented them as reposing unconformably upon the edges of the transition strata, and I am persuaded that such is their real position, although I have lad no opportunity of seeing their actual contact. Their proximity and difference in inclination, proclaim that such is the case, and their junction could probably be discovered within a short distance west of Cumberland, Md. or Bedford, Pa. The prevailing dip of the secondary strata, is from N. W. to a litile S. of W., subject to some variations, although not greater than would reasonably be anticipated. ‘The position of the rocks, may be satis- factorily studied by tracing extensive coal beds, where these are found cropping out in the perpendicular banks of streams. By tra- cing the same bed for a few miles, a slight dip will often be found, where none was before suspected. The coal beds of this region are equally interesting in a scientific, as in an economical point of view. But for want of time, I shall be obliged to postpone for a future num- ber of this Journal, some remarks on the subject, that I had intended appending to this paper. For the same reason I must postpone the examination of many interesting deductions from the foregoing facts. I regret very much, that I have not had more leisure to examine the primitive and transition strata between Frederick city and Baltimore. The confusion and intricacy of the subject, added to my limited ob- * Encyclopedia Americana, Art. Virginia. 232 Geology of the Country, &c. servations, have restricted me to mere general views. Any omis- sions of mine, however, are of less consequence, since the region has been examined by Prof. Ducatel and his associates, who will un- doubtedly, in their forthcoming report to the legislature of this state, bestow upon it the attention it deserves. In conclusion, I cannot avoid reverting to the extremely interest- ing character of the line of country, to which the preceding remarks have been applied. To the practical man, it is recommended by its mineral treasures and its agricultural] resources. Its quarries of mar- ble, of granite, of freestone, of slate, of soapstone—its mines of cop- per, iron, manganese, chrome and lead, its inexhaustible beds of bi- tuminous coal, the recently discovered deposits of anthracite in the graywacke slate of Virginia, and the unrivalled fertility of its lime- stone vallies, offer tempting rewards to industry and enterprise. ‘To the geologist it is no less interesting, as offering to his research, one of the best fields on our continent, for obtaining a correct knowledge of our transition strata.’ Here every thing is seen upon an immense scale; deposits that would be appealed to as general strata, if seen in almost any other connexion, are here viewed only as subordinates ; formations considered as distinct, when examined on a more limited scale, are here seen alternating with and passing into each other, in such a manner as to leave no doubt of their identity. It were to be wished that the labor of exploring so fruitful a soil, had devolved upon some one better fitted for the task than the writer of these notes, but until other laborers are found, he will endeavor to collect and collate from time to time, some few of the many interesting facts connected with this interesting region. EXPLANATION OF THE SECTION.—The original section, was drawn on the scale of two miles to an inch, but when that came to be reduced within the present limits, it was found impracticable to preserve all the minutiz. Consequently there may be in the preceding remarks, occasionly an inappropriate reference. The coloring is also omitted, to prevent confusion, and the different formations distinguished—the limerock by dots, and the other formations by lines, that are intended to show the in- clination of the strata. The line between the primitive strata, and the adjoining graywacke is not defined, because I have not satisfied myself exactly where it should be placed—nor is it important for my purpose, thatit should be located. The section is supposed to run a little north of west, and a little south of east, generally at right angles to the direction of the strata, and the spectator is supposed to stand on the south side, looking towards the north. Itis intended to convey a pretty correct idea of the relative extent of each formation, viewed transversely; as the height of the different mountain chains, was not. known, their comparative elevation could only be approximated. Porcelain and Earthenware. 233 Art. Il.—On Porcelain and Earthenware. Tue art of pottery has been practised by mankind from the re- motest periods. The ingenuity of the savage has shapen vessels of earth for domestic uses, on the plains of ‘Tartary—in the rocky cav- erns of ancient Greece—and on the sultry banks of the Oronoco. In the progress of science and refinement, it has advanced from the sun-dried bricks in the tower of Babel, to the beautiful and splendid porcelains of Dresden and Sevres—is now an important object in one department of manufactures—and in the present state of society is a necessary of life. Its fabrication combines the skill of the chemist and the taste of the artist, with the dexterity of the mechanic, and many of the choicest specimens are entitled to a distinguished rank in the fine arts. The subject may be considered in four sections. I. A history of the origin and progress of the art; Il. The nature of the materials wrought into pottery ; III. An outline of the process employed; and IV. A description of the various kinds of ware. 1. A History of the Art. The most ancient specimens of this art, are the bricks found in the ruins of Babylon. That city built by Nimrod, 2,200 years B. C. is now a series of mounds, overspread by the dust of its own decompo- sition, and lying in huge masses of undistinguishable ruin. Long narrow rifts and channels between the hills, indicate the ranges of its once populous streets; and the great tower of Babel, the witness and the cause of the confusion of languages, stands highest among the hills: a monument and a record of the advances made in some of the arts, as well as of the ambition of the inhabitants in that early age of the world. ‘The city is given over to desolation—the Euphrates annually overflows all but its highest summits; but when the waters retire, the mounds are perforated in every direction for building ma- terials, and in the hope of finding hidden treasures.* Mr. Rich a late traveller describes the Birs Nemrood the largest of the mounds, as seven hundred and sixty two yards in circumference, and one hun- dred and ninety eight feet high. It is supposed to be the tower of Babel, and consists of three receding stories. ‘The interior of the * See Keith on the Prophecies. 234 Porcelain and Earthenware. mass is filled up with unburnt bricks, set in clay, with layers of reeds between every five or six courses. “The exterior wherever it re- mains entire, is faced with well burnt bricks set in bitumen. From the present appearance of the mound it is conjectured, that it was intended to consist of five storiles—the three lower solid, and the two above to have contained chambers. At the top of this pile, there is another solid elevation thirty seven feet high, of burnt bricks set in lime mortar. Many of the heaps and hills are connected by galleries and passages of brick work, laid in lime mortar of exceeding tough- ness. In some of the excavations have been found earthen vessels which are presumed to be the most ancient specimens wrought by the potters wheel.* . Bricks were made also by the Egyptians, and Herodotus states, that one of the pyramids was built of unburnt bricks made of clay and chopped straw, probably like those required by the taskmasters of the children of Israel, when they were subject to Egyptian bon- dage. Mr. Aikin remarks, that sunburnt bricks were rather artifi- cial stone than earthenware; and Pliny mentions that at Utica no bricks were allowed to be used until they had been dried five years. Many buildings of high antiquity were formed of brick—such were the palace of Croesus king of Lydia, of Mausolus of Halicarnassus, and of Attalus at Tralles. The walls of Athens, which look towards mount Hymettus are also of brick, and some of the ancient temples of that city. The Romans were skilful in their methods of making and burning bricks, and in all the remains of Roman walls, forts, and buildings in Great Britain, they are of an excellent quality, of a deep red color, very hard and well burnt. ‘Throughout the wide valley of the Gan- ges, bricks appear to have been used from the highest antiquity ; and in Nipaul, a hilly country north of Bengal, they are of such remark- ably compact texture, and their ornamented surfaces so elegant, as to be peculiarly fitted for the decorations of architecture. In China bricks are made of a blueish clay, ‘and after burning are of a semi- porcelainous texture. After the Romans left England, bricks were not used for architec- tural purposes before the middle of the 14th century ; and until late- ly they have been fabricated ina very rude manner.{ They are * Annals of Commerce. + See a paper on pottery in the Transactions for the Encouragement of Art, by A. Aikin, Esq. t Idem. § Idem. Porcelain and Earthenware. 935 now made of various kinds, and of superior quality in England, not only for home consumption, but largely for exportation. . It could not have been Jong after the discovery of the plastic qual- ity of clay; and that by drying or burning it became impervious to water; before the wants and ingenuity of man suggested the appli- cation of it to vessels for domestic and culinary uses. Earthenware being peculiarly adapted to keeping water pellucid and cool, jars and vases for holding it, soon became articles of first necessity, where it was not plentiful, as in Syria, and many of the middle and eastern parts of Asia. Allusions to earthen vessels—to the potter’s clay and the potter’s wheel, occur in the most ancient writers. ‘The plastic properties and consequent uses of clay are noticed in the book of Job, the most ancient book now extant; and the potter’s wheel is re- ferred to by Homer in his description of Achilles shield.* Earthen vessels were in use among the Hebrews when they received the law from Moses; and the prophets often refer to the power of the potter over that most ductile material the clay, as illustrating the relative position of man in the hands of him, who moulds our purposes at his will. The arts flourished soon after the deluge, to a surprising extent in Sidon the capital of Phenicia, a narrow country, between mount Lebanon and the most eastern coast of the Mediterranean sea. This city was nearly coeval with Babylon, being founded soon after the confusion of languages, more than 2000 years before Christ. It excelled in manufactures of fine linen, embroidery, ta- pestry, metals and glass; of the latter there were many varieties; such as colored, figured, turned by the lathe, painted, cut or carv- ed, and even mirrors; but no mention is made, at this date, of por- celain, unless the article named as painted glass was a species of that manufacture. To this people is ascribed the invention of boats—of navigation—of the application of astronomy to nautical purposes—of book-keeping—of writing—of arithmetic and of weights and measures. ‘They sent colonies to Greece, and Italy, and with their little boats of wicker work, covered with leather, they coasted the Mediterranean, and made various setilements in the south and west of Europe, and on the northern shores of Africa. At a very early period a colony of Phenicians settled on the west coast of Italy, and carried the perfection of their arts and manufactures to Etruria 3 * Moses wrote 1452 B.C. Homer in 907 B. C. Vou. XXVI.—WNo. 2, ol 236 Porcelain and Earthenware. but Pliny ascribes the introduction of those beautiful earthen vases in- to Etruria, of which admired specimens have come down to our own times, to two artists from the isle of Samos. The Samians were fa- mous 500 or 600 years before Christ, for their manufactures of gold and silver and for a fine earthenware resembling the modern porce- lain, which Herodotus states was in great demand at Rome, for the service of the table. Although the coarser kinds of earthenware were invented in the earliest periods, yet there are no records of a manufacture so elegant and complicated as porcelain, until near the christian era; unless the Samian vases claim that distinction.* The celebrated Murrhine cups or vases, which were introduced in- to Rome 14 years B. C., have divided the opinions of antiquaries. Propertius speaks of them as baked in Parthian furnaces. Martial alludes to them as filled with heated wine. Pliny thought them made of a fossil substance, and says ‘they were first brought by Pompey to Rome, in his great triamph over Asia and Pontus. Murrha comes from Parthia and Caramania, and unwrought specimens together with the cups, were dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus, and placed in his temple. ‘They were not translucent, but peculiarly splendid, from the great variety of hues reflected from them in spots and waves —changing from white to purple—sometimes edged with a tint of flame color, and interspersed with variabie irridescent rays.” If they were not a variety of oriental porcelain, they were probably made of the adularia,t which is found in Arabia, Persia, and Ceylon.{ They were in such esteem at Rome, in the first ages of the Christian era, that two of them were bought by one of the empe- rors at the price of 300 sestertium, more than £2000 sterling each. A cup capable of holding three sextarii, (43 pints,) was sold for sev- enty talents; and a dish for three hundred, a talent being equal to £.180 English.§ The author of the Periplus of the Erythrean sea, says they were made at Diospolts in Egypt. In the time of Herodotus, vessels of earthenware were very scarce and highly esteemed by the nations around. ‘Twice in every year” says he, ‘there is exported from different parts of Greece to Egypt, * The term porcelain, is of European origin. Whittaker derives it from the herb purslaine; the most ancient china brought to Europe, being the exact color of its purple flower. Mr. Aikin thinks it an Italian word, signifying an arched univalve shell, remarkable for its white, smooth texture and vitreous gloss. t In its finest specimens, sometimes used as a gem. t It was the opinion of Scaliger, that they were Chinese porcelain. § Aikin on Pottery. Trans. Soc. Arts, &c. Porcelain and Earthenware. 937 and from Phenicia in particular, wine secured in earthen jars, not one of which jars is ever after seen; for the principal magistrates collect all that are imported and send them to Memphis. ‘The Memphians fill them with water, and afterwards transport them. to the Syrian de- serts.” From Juvenal, who wrote in the Ist century of the Christian era, 500 years after Herodotus, it appears that earthenware was then made in great plenty in Egypt. I:mages covered. with a deep blue glaze have been found enclosed with mummies, in a number of Sarco- phagi, which is conclusive evidence, that the art had advanced to a very considerable degree of excellence nearly 2000 years ago; the blue being found on examination, to be a preparation of cobalt, the identical material employed by the potters of the present day. Gov. Pownall, describes certain vases and urns discovered on the Mexican coast ‘as curious exemplars of some of the first efforts of human in- genuity ;” and adds “that remains of ancient potteries are visible in various parts of South America, particularly on the river Amazon.” Mr. Parkes states, that ‘‘ urns of Earthenware have been found in the barrows of England, supposed to have been the workmanship of the ancient Britons,” and some have been imagined from their peculiar form to have been designed for Druidical rites. Pieces of a rude ware of Roman manufacture, have been drawn up by fishermen, in the mouth of the Thames, where 2000 years ago there was an island, which has disappeared with the changing sands of that coast. They were evidently designed for use in the religious ceremonies of the Romans. Vessels of earthenware have been discovered in the Tumuli of the valley of the Ohio and its tributaries.* Those for domestic use were found deep in the mound, where duty and affection had placed them for the comfort of the endeared relation or friend; while oth- ers with emblematical designs, probably connected with idolatrous worship, hallowed the grave of the unknown race, with whom they were enclosed ; and every sepulchre of a hero is made the temple of a god. The mystery and concealment observed by the Chinese, in regard to their manufactures, kept this art from the rest of the world, long after they had arrived at a great degree of perfection. Specimens of Chinaware and the lacquer called japannery, were found both in China and the Japan islands, of excellent quality, by the earliest Eu- * Archeologia Americana. 238 Porcelain and Earthenware. ropean travellers; and in addition to vessels of the most delicate and beautiful texture, which appeared to have been in use from time im- memorial, they make mention of temples encrusted with tiles of va- rious colors and curious workmanship; but it was not until the con- quest of China by Genghis Khan in 1212 that the art of glazing ear- thenware was made knowr to the rest of Asia. The empire of Genghis extended from China across the whole pastoral region of Asia, to the Caucasus, and in their progress they held both hostile and friendly intercourse with the Saracens. That splendid race were at this time not only warlike, but inquisitive, active and ingenious; and it appears probable that this art was transported by them from the confines of China to Spain and northern Africa. Many rooms in the Moorish palace of the Alhambra, are decorated with lacquered tiles, and the cupola and minarets. on the tomb of the Sultan Mahom- ed, at Sultanyah, in Persia, built at the same period, are covered with green lacquered tile, the great architrave being formed of blue of corresponding quality. In 1270 Marco Polo, a Venetian, visited the court, and was for sev- eral years in the service of Kublai Khan, the grand son of Ghenghis; during which time the merchants of Italy were travelling for com- mercial purposes in most countries between Syria and India. Ear- thenware covered with a vitreous glaze, was imported by them from the east, and Florence became a celebrated mart for this ware, which met a ready sale throughout Europe. ‘The maritime laws of Bar- celona, which bear date 1096, mention porcelain among imports from Egypt; but it was far from being common, or even generally known in Europe, in the 14th century. The sultan of Egypt, sent large vases of porcelain to Lorenzo de Medici in 1487, of Egyptian manufacture, and they are said to have derived their skill from the Corinthians, who had obtained the art from the east. The Persians also arrived at great perfection in the potter’s art at a period of re- mote antiquity ; and it is worthy of remark, that porcelain is not made in the Indies, but that all the countries of Asia, have been sup- plied from China, Pegu, Japan, and Persia. Porcelain was not common in Europe before the first ages of the Christian era. Rome was supplied from Samos. Vases and uten- sils of oriental or Egyptian manufacture, have been disinterred from Herculaneum and Pompeii; also wine jars and drinking cups of terra cotta, which is a fine reddish, unglazed ware. Statues of the gods, were made in Rome of terra cotta, until the introduction of marble statues from Greece by Lucullus and Pompey. Porcelain and Earthenware. 239 The Etruscans were probably the first, who brought this art to any degree of perfection in Europe. They were from Phenicia, and whether it originated with their ingenious ancestors or whether it was transplanted from China to Sidon and Tyre, and thence to the poet- ical and picturesque regions of Etruria, neither tradition nor history give any certain information. Pliny states that Praxiteles moulded images and figures in clay, which were the models, and the origin of statuary in marble and bronze. Raphael is said to have practised the art of painting on enamel in a high degree of perfection. He executed the arms of Leo X. which now adorn the vatican. Several pieces of this ware are known as Raphael china, and are in the cabinets of the curious. One splen- did dish in particular, found in Carinthia, twenty inches in diameter, bears an inscription, purporting that it was madein 1542. ‘The sub- jects are Pan and Apollo, Jupiter and Semele—Apollo surrounded with nymphs and satyrs, with entwined cupids on the rim.* The white enameled ware made in Europe is indebted for its present perfection to Bernard de Palissy, who was born at Guienne in France, 1490. He became eminent for industry, learning and talents—was a philosopher and naturalist, and so interested in the subject of enamels, that he devoted his fortune and almost the whole of his life to experiments on enameled pottery. Although he reach- ed at length, the degree of perfection to which he had aimed, and published many valuable works on various subjects, indicative of sin- gular genius, commanding the esteem and admiration of all classes— yet the fanatics of the League, persecuted him on account of his ad- herence to the protestant faith; and dragged him to the bastile at 90 years of age where he died. His reply to Henry III. of France, is an example of firmness which “ deserves commemoration.” ‘The king advised him to reconcile himself to the matter of religion, or he would be left in the hands of his enemies. “Sire,” said Palissy, “neither your majesty, nor your whole people, have the power to compel a simple potter, to bend his knee before the images which he fabricates.” The first porcelain from China, which was brought to London, came in a Portuguese prize ship from India, about 1593.¢ The in- troduction of this beautiful fabric, soon awakened a desire in the * One of the Duke of Brunswick’s palaces, in a small village a German mile from the capital, contains a large collection of Raphael china.— Vide Hanway’s Travels. t Annals of Commerce. 240 Porcelain and Earthenware. countries of Europe, to imitate it. ‘The chemists and mineralogists of Germany, engaged with great eagerness, in endeavoring to find appropriate materials, and in combining them in the most advanta- geous proportions. Accident at length disclosed the mysteries of this art, where the most strenuous efforts had failed of success. The Baron de Botticher, a German alchemist, was thrown into prison on suspicion of his having in possession the philosopher’s stone. Noth- ing daunted, he pursued his researches with inflexible perseverance, and on one occasion, he discovered that a crucible which he had sub- jected to the most intense heat, had become perfect porcelain, re- sembling in quality, the best oriental china. This discovery laid the foundation of the celebrated manufactory at Dresden, which soon became the first in Europe, and which rivals the best wares of the east. ‘The greatest secrecy is maintained respecting these works. They are established within the walls of the fortress of Meissen on the Elbe, three miles from Dresden. Seven hundred workmen are employed, who are all close prisoners, and subject to arrest, if they are found without the walls. There is no admittance to this strong- hold, without an especial order from the governor of Dresden.* About the same period, several manufactories for porcelain, were set up in Germany, and conducted with impenetrable secrecy. At this date also, a manufactory was established at Florence, where statues and groups were modelled from some of the finest antiques. The government of France instructed the Jesuit missionaries, who penetrated China, to inquire into the particular processes, and to collect specimens of the materials employed by the Chinese. The Father de Entrecolles had the address to obtain some of the substances, with many details concerning the art, which were sent to France. The celebrated Reaumur entered upon the most severe analyses of the various ingredients; and after great labor and many disappointments, he succeeded in imitating the porcelains of China in 1727. These chemical examinations were the origin of the royal manufactory at Sevres near Paris, and the kings of France, and Poland, munificently, patronized establishments for the improvement of this art, which were too expensive for private adventure. The European manufactories, which approach the nearest to the most perfect chinese porcelain, and in the style of painting, excel even the Chinese, are, the one at Dresden; the king of Prussia’s at * Wraxall’s Memoirs. Porcelain and Earthenware. 941 Berlin; and that which belongs to the king of France at Sevres. The second Frederick of Prussia conceived so high an opinion of the works at Dresden, that when he conquered Saxony, he took all the best workmen, and conveyed them to his own pottery at Berlin.* Five hundred men have constant employment at those works, which are carried on “for his Majesty’s private account, with success and good taste.”+ The Elector of Saxony “ valued himself” on the per- fection, to which the manufacture had been carried in his dominions. ‘There are porcelain figures, in his cabinet at Dresden,” says Mr. Hanway, ‘of wolves, leopards, bears, &c. as large as life, with a prodigious collection of birds, and a curious variety of fowers.” When he became king of Poland, he bartered a whole regiment of dragoons with the king of Prussia, for forty eight large vases of Chinese por- celain.f It is probable, that Holland received the art of making glazed earthenware from Italy. ‘The Venetians, Genoese, and Florentines, had commercial dealings with the cities of Antwerp and the low- countries. The potters of Holland, who made the best tobacco pipes, in due time, acquired the knowledge of glazed ware, and in the town of Delft, were fabricated the tiles, known as Dutch tiles, and the ta- ble service called Delft ware. The Dutch fell short of the Italian potters, in the style of ornamenting their products, which was partly owing to their imitation of oriental patterns of blue and white, which they imported in large quantities from China and Japan. It is not more than 200 years, since some Dutch potters went over to Eng- land, and established themselves in Lambeth ; and by degrees assem- bled a colony in that village, consisting of twenty manufactories, from which they supplied London, and other parts of the country with tiles, and glazed Delft ware, for table use. ‘They continued in a flourishing state for more than a century and a half, when the Staf- fordshire potters, by their improved wares, took possession of the market, and the Delft ware went almost out of use. The Staffordshire potteries comprehend a district of ten miles in extent, where it is believed that earthenware has been made, although of inferior quality, ever since the time of the Romans.§ ‘The great variety of clays upon this tract, rendering it unfit for the purposes of husbandry, together with an inexhaustible supply of coal, are evident- ly the reasons why this district was selected for this manufacture. * Wraxall’s Mem. t Parke’s Essay. { Hanway’s Travels. § Plott’s History of Staffordshire. 242 Porcelain and Earthenware. In 1690 when the ware was of the coarsest kind, two brothers from Holland by the name of Ellers, settled in Burslem, in the heart of the potteries, and improved and extended the works, which were then in operation. They prosecuted their enterprise with great suc- cess; but it was enveloped in such total mystery, that the jealousy and enmity of the inhabitants, compelled them to leave the country. With them the art would have been lost, had not a man by the name of Astbury, discovered it by a singular stratagem. He feigned him- self to be of weak intellect, and obtained employment in the works, where he submitted to the drudgery, and contumely heaped upon him for his supposed imbecility. He thus acquired a knowledge of all that was done in the manufactory, and made models of all the tools, unsuspected by his employers. It was the same man, who discov- ered the use of calcined flint, as an ingredient for porcelain. In trav- elling to London, he saw a hostler, reducing some burnt flint to an impalpable powder, as a remedy for the eye of a horse. It immedi- ately occurred to him, that this brilliant white powder, might form an excellent ingredient with the clay used by his craft, to improve the body and color of his ware. It succeeded beyond his hope, and originated the white Staffordshire ware. ‘Thus in science and art, the acute observer turns the merest accident into a resource for dis- coveries, and improvements. ‘Thus the fall of an apple, suggested the law of gravitation. But it was not until 1763 that the most important improvements were made in English pottery, by Mr. Josiah Wedgewood. The singular merits of the Burslem artist, and his beginning improve- ments, were almost lost sight of in the blaze of Mr. Wedgewood’s fame. Such were the advances made by his invention, skill, taste, liberality and enterprise, that he soon assembled around him the most celebrated artists and modellers. He engaged the early tal- ents of Flaxman, and the pencil of Webber, and his wares obtained the patronage of the royal family and the nobility, throughout the kingdom. His works became so extensive, and emulation and in- dustry were kindled to such a degree, that the district called the Potteries, consisting of some scattered villages, over an area six miles by ten, has become a dense population, resembling a single town, forming in the sterile clay vallies of Staffordshire, a new Etruria. Mr. Wedgewood was a scholar and philosopher, and his success shews the value of science to the arts. By chemical analyses and experiments, he ascertained the due proportions of his materials— Porcelain and Earthenware. 243 the appropriate degrees of heat—the colors, and the curious chemi- cal combinations, essential to their enduring the furnace, and incor- porating with the glaze of the ware. In the oxides of metals, he found an endless variety of hues; and for his forms and ornaments he took models of grace and beauty from the ancients. His imita- tion of the Barberini or Portland vase, one of the most admired remnants of antiquity, is sufficient alone, to insure him distinction, in the annals of the arts. This elegant vase, was discovered in the tomb of Alexander Severus, and is believed to be the work of Gre- cian genius. It is a semi-transparent urn, of a deep blue color, with brilliant opaque white ornaments upon it in bas relief, cut by the lap- idary in the same manner as the antique cameos on colored grounds.* Mr. Parkes states “ that several of the nobility and gentry, being de- sirous to possess a copy of this beautiful specimen of ancient art, en- gaged Mr. Wedgewood to attempt an imitation of it; and he actu- ally produced a vase of porcelain, which for elegance and beauty was considered fully equal to the original.” The height of the vase is ten inches, its diameter at the broadest part only six inches. It has two curiously wrought handles, one on each side. ‘The sculp- ture is in the greatest perfection ; the figures full of grace and expres- sion—every stroke and delineation, as fine, sharp, and perfect, as any drawn by a pencil. It cannot be too often repeated, that a knowledge of chemical sci- ence, is essential to success in this art. Mr. Chisholme, an associate of Mr. Wedgewood, and a superior chemist, devoted his whole life to this business. Mr. Wedgewood must be deemed a public bene- factor. The great improvements, which he made in Earthenware, and the low price at which he managed to have it afforded, almost displaced foreign china; while the poor dismissed their gourds and wooden trenchers, for the enameled pitcher, the neat plate and tea- cup, introducing into the cottage, taste, comfort, and cleanliness. He refused to obtain patents, saying “the world is wide enough for us all.” Such are the excellent qualities and ornaments of the Stal- fordshire ware, that it is now sought for, and employed in almost every part of the world; even in the interior of Africa, Clapperton found dishes of English manufacture. Not rnore than one sixth of the goods manufactured, are consumed in Great Britain—five sixths * It was long believed to be porcelain, but is ascertained to be glass.—Lardner and Parkes. Vou. XXVI.—No. 2. oo 244 Porcelain and Earthenware. are exported. Vessels are loaded with it for the East Indies, and the continent of America. | . In addition to Mr. Wedgewood’s improvements, his inventions command great admiration. Those of terra cotta, resemble porphy- ry, granite and Egyptian pebble; and his imitations of Jasper, by which cameos, and white figures in relief, are raised on a colored ground, are exquisitely beautiful. The Warwick vase, which is mentioned in this place, only as its design is a beautiful model for porcelain manufacturers, is also a mon- ument of Grecian art; the production of Lysippus, statuary to Alex- ander the Great. It was dug up in Adrians villa, at Tivoli, and was sent to England by Sir Wm. Hamilton, in 1774.. It is of sculptured marble, adorned with elegant figures in high relief: vine leaves, ten- drils, fruit and stems, forming the rim and handles. The first true porcelain made in England, was in 1768, by Mr. Cookworthy, who discovered mineral substances in Cornwall, similar to the porcelain earths of the east. The discoverer and his associ- ates, were successful in the quality of their products, but it was not as profitable as they had anticipated; and the manufactory declined upon the introduction of Mr. Wedgewood’s improved earthen ware, when porcelain came to be less in demand. Fine porcelain earths are found in Wales and a manufactory was established at Nungarrow, where the ware was made of very superi- or quality: but that was also given up, as prices could not be ob- tained for it, that would cover the cost. Nungarrow porcelain is now an admired rarity, much sought for by the curious. A vitreous, fragile kind of china, called soft porcelain had long been made at Bow and Chelsea, much esteemed for its beauty, but it was soft, and fusible at a low heat. ‘True porcelain of superior quality is made, however, in many parts of England. The manu- factories in Worcester, Shropshire, and Yorkshire, have produced very excellent specimens which for elegance of design, and goodness of workmanship are nearly equal to the best Dresden. A tablet in possession of Lord Wentworth, has been pronounced equal to some of the admired productions of Sevres. It is a copy of Vandyke’s representation of the Earl of Strafford, dictating his defence to his secretary. ‘The subject is one of deep interest, and in expression and coloring does justice to the masterly original. Choice wares are made at Berlin, at Vienna and in some of the smaller German states, also at Hammer in Bohemia. The Dresden / Porcelain and Earthenware. 945 china surpasses all other of European manufacture. ‘The value of porcelains stands in the following order. Ist. The Chinese, or incomparable king te-tching ; 2d. The Persian ; 3d. The Dresden scarcely inferior to the Chinese ; 4th. The China of Sevres, is perhaps even more splendid in its snowy whiteness and beautiful decorations, than the Chinese; but inferior in the solidity and infusibility of the ware. The Berlin, English, and German porcelains have attained a high degree of ex- cellence, some being superior in the enamel; others in colors, and others again in grace of form and quality. The potter’s art has not been unknown or wholly neglected in the United States. Bricks, and the common red-earthen, and stone wares, have been made in various parts of the country, sufficient for home consumption from an early period of its history. Within a few years, establishments for making porcelain have been attempted but probably owing to the high price of labor, the first efforts were not as successful as was hoped by those who engaged in the enterprize. There is an excellent establishment in full operation near Phila- delphia ; and another, one commenced six or seven years since at Jersey city near New York, is now used for the manufacture of the printed Staffordshire, and a superior fire proof stone ware. ‘The manufactory exhibits a highly interesting series of the various pro- cesses of the art, whose products merit approbation, and patronage. Il. Nature of the Materials. Having traced the history of this art from the remotest antiquity, a description will be attempted of the nature of the materials wrought énto pottery. The component parts, and the best methods of making bricks will not be considered here, as this essay is becoming longer than was the design of the writer; but may perhaps be the subject of a future communication. The art of pottery depends more for success upon the purity, and the appropriate combination of materials, with their adaptation to the precise degree of heat required, than upon the power of machinery, or the dexterity of the artizan. Without the most accurate knowl- edge of the former, and practice of the latter all the expense and la- bor would end in disappointment. It is so complicated, and so nice, and rests so much upon a knowledge of chemical affinities, and prin- 246 Porcelain and Earthenware. ciples, that it is cause of surprise that the Chinese could have brought it to perfection, without the aid of Science. ‘The agency of water on most of the operations of nature and art, being “a solvent for al- kalies, and most of the acids, and earths, and by its decomposition imparting oxygen to one principle, and hydrogen to another ;” if not well understood, will at times frustrate the expectations of the manufacturer. More important to the potter if possible is a “thorough knowledge of the properties of different kinds of clay. Macquer who examined more than eight hundred specimens, says that he did not find one entirely free from metallic matter.” It requires much prac- tice also, to be able to understand the nature of clays so as to em- ploy them to advantage. Alumine* when pure, is a white, opaque, tenacious earth, with an oily feeling and 7s the plastic material in all the varieties of clay. If beaten up with water it forms a ductile paste, easily moulded, smooth and compact in its texture, but if exposed to the heat of the furnace, it contracts greatly in its dimensions, be- comes rifty, exfoliates, and falls to pieces. But silex} for which it has a great affinity, when combined with it in certain proportions, obviates these defects: exposed to heat it becomes impenetrable, resists the percolation of fluids, and is incapable of decomposition from the action of the atmosphere. © Pure erystallized silex is trans- parent; alumine is also transparent in some of the precious gems, but both earths in their powdery state are opaque. ‘These earths either saperate or in combination, are the basis of most of the gems. Alumine is wholly insoluble in water—diminishes in volume and in- creases in hardness proportioned to the degree, and long continuance of the heat to which it is subjected. Flint is silex in a state nearly pure, is obtained in great abundance in chalk hills, and sometimes occurs in secondary limestone. It hasa glimmering lustre; its frag- ments are sharp edged, and its fracture conchoidal. ‘The best flints are translucent, of a dark grey color. Those which shew ferrugin- ous spots of yellow or brown should be rejected, as they would dis- color the ware. Silex is held largely in solution in certain hot min- eral waters, and in volcanic fountains, probably by the aid of soda, which is a solvent for it, as is well known in the manufacture of glass. Klaproth detected twenty five grains of silex in a thousand ounces of the mineral waters of Carlsbad in Bohemia 53§ and the Geysers, or hot springs, in Iceland, hold so much silex in solu- tion, that solid hollow basins are formed around the cavity of * Pure clay. t Rock crystal and white beach sand are examples. § Lardner’s Cyclopedia. Porcelain and Earthenware. 247 each, where the waters fall. Clays are found in a natural state of various degrees of purity; seldom if ever without some admixture of foreign matters. That is best which burns whitest, and is capa- ble of combining with the largest quantity of flint or sand without cracking ; that being the limit beyond which it cannot be advantage- ously united. The proportion of silex to alumine in Chinese porcelain is 74 per cent. of silex, to 16 of alumine; yet although the silex predominates, the argillaceous substance gives the character to the compound ; im- parts the cohesive and ductile properties, which make it capable of being turned and moulded into forms; and after being subjected to a red heat renders it indestructible by the action of the atmosphere. According to Vauquelin, European porcelains of good quality contain at least two thirds silex, and alumine from a fifth to a third. A very small amount of magnesia in the mixture, lessens the tendency which the other earths have to contract in baking. ‘Too large a quantity of magnesia however, is to be avoided, as it renders the composition too fusible. A small addition of lime, in place of magnesia produces corresponding effects. The best clay found in Europe is the felspar obtained from the de- composition of granite rocks.* It is sometimes found in lumps in the clefts of mountains, but may be obtained by pounding or grind- ing, and washing over, the white or grey granite; by which means the quartz and mica are separated, and the felspar obtained in a fine powder of extreme whiteness. ‘This is done by throwing the ground stones into a running stream, the quartz and mica subside, while the argillaceous parts run off in a thick cream upon the surface of the water. “ At the end of these rivulets are catch pools, where the waters are arrested, and time given them to deposite the pure clay, when the water is drawn off, and the solid matter is taken out in square blocks and dried for use.” This clay approximates in some degree to the kaolin of China. Pure silex is procured from calcined flint quenched in water while hot, which breaks them through their whole substance. They are * Pure argillaceous earth may be obtained, by dissolving alum in water, and then decomposing it with an alkali. Cornish clays are very smooth and ductile and ex- tremely white, and by Wedgewood’s analysis, contain sixty parts alumine, and twen- ty silex. He adds ‘the granite itself is sometimes used with the clay, on account of its binding quality, knitting the other materials more closely together by its fusi- bility.” Its fusibility is caused by the alkali contained in its felspar, while in its undecomposed state. + Parkes’ Essay. 248 Porcelain and Earthenware. then ground in water in a mill of very hard stones, and in this semi- fluid state, passed off in troughs, through a succession of sieves, each finer than the other, until divested of every coarse particle. Great care is to be used that the stones employed in the mills do not con- tain any calcareous substances.* A very hard siliceous stone call- ed chert has been employed in the English manufactories for this purpose. Porcelain clay with 100 or 200 per cent. of sand would make a perfectly opaque body, therefore it is essential to add some alkaline material as a flux, to give the ware its semitransparency. ‘The clays used for porcelain in China, probably contain this ingredient in their native state, which may account for the superior fineness, hardness and semitransparency of the Chinese wares. None of the Europe- an clays are identical with the Chinese. ‘The difficulty of adding correctly the fusible ingredient which is so critical in its adjustment ; too much rendering the ware vitreous and liable to crack, too little, forming an opaque substance, incapable of that semifusion essen- tial to the real porcelanous texture ; is sufficient cause why European porcelain is inferior to the Chinese. By some the superiority of the Chinese is imputed to the great degree of heat which is never reach- ed except in the furnaces of Persia and China; but the more prob- able cause is a difference in the materials. It is a curious fact which the manufacturer should not lose sight of, that alumine, silex and lime when separate cannot be melted in furna- ces, but when mixed in certain proportions are readily fused ; the one mineral acting as a flux upon the other. ‘The perfection of pdreclatt appears to be obtained when the proportions of the pure ingredients are such, as that the highest and longest heat of the furnace, reaches the point of fusing the silex, and thoroughly incorporating it with the alu- mine, without melting it, or diminishing its volume. Undecomposed felspar is sometimes added to the porcelain clay and flint, to produce the desired semi-transparency. Its fusible property is owing to the presence of about an eighth part of potash, which acting asa flux upon the silex, causes a semi-vitrification of the whole mass. Vau- quelin says that silex forms two thirds of most pottery—alumine from * Mr. Parkes states that a severe loss was sustained by some large manufactur- ers, in consequence of having been supplied with prepared flint, which had been ground on stones, containing carbonate of lime. The abrasion of the stones mixed an unknown quantity of lime with the flint. Porcelain and Earthenware. 249 one fifth to one third and lime from one five hundredth to one two thousandth part. Iron, from the minutest trace to twelve or fifteen per cent, is found in the more common wares, but not in the perfect- ly white porcelains. Another substance called hoache is used for a fragile, light, but very beautiful ware. It is employed for glazes, and, with some other ingredients, makes a splendid enamel. The two famous materials employed by the Chinese are kaolin and pe-tunt-se. Reaumur found by analysing them, that they were com- bined in the following proportions, kaolin consists of silex 74, alu- mine 16.5, lime 2, and water 7. Petuntse contains of silex 74, alu- mine 14.5, lime 5.9. The substitute in Europe for petuntse, is calcined flint: and de- composed felspar for kaolin, the lime or potash being adjusted by art; whereas in the Chinese the alkali is an ingredient in the native com- pound. The difficulty of adjusting large masses, where success de- pends on the accuracy of the nicest chemical tests, makes it obvious, that art can scarcely hope to equal that, which is done in the great laboratory of nature. Clays of tolerably good working quality are found in several parts of Europe, similar to, although not identical with those of China and Persia. Magnesian clays obtained from steatite, have been employed of late years in the composition of porcelain. A small amount of it with other clays limits the contraction of wares. ILI. Processes employed. Jn outline of the processes employed in the fabrication of porce- Jain forms the next part of the subject under consideration. The first operation is that of mixing the clay with pure water to the consistence of cream which is effected in vats, by long wooden instru- ments, which the men move backwards and forwards forcibly through the whole mass. It is is called blunging, and is an operation of great labor. ‘The flint is prepared in the same manner, but in a separate cistern. ‘The grosser parts soon subside, and the finer are drawn off and mixed by measure; the specific gravity of each previously as- certained; the standard being twenty four ounces the wine pint for the clay, and thirty two ounces the wine pint for the flint. When the clay and flint are mixed in suitable proportions, the whole mass, in a semi-fluid state, is passed through sieves made of the finest silk lawn, in order to detain any particles that had not been sufficiently 250 Porcelain and Earthenware. levigated, and to redute the whole to the utmost uniformity and smoothness, in which state it is called shp. It is next poured into a large vat or cistern, called a slip kiln built with flues under it, con- nected with a furnace large enough to produce an ebullition in the mixture, which is continued until so much of the water is evaporated as will bring the mass to the desired consistence. When the mate- rials have thus been consolidated into a paste, it is removed from the slip kiln, beaten with mallets and turned over with spades until it is as thoroughly tempered as it can be by this mode of operation. It should not be forgotten that this prepared clay is a mixture of all the ingredients for the body of the ware. After the beating comes the process of slapping, which is done by placing a large lump on a bench or table; when a workman cuts through its diameter with a brass wire, or a twine, and lifting one half with both hands as high as his head, brings it down with all his force upon the lump. He cross cuts and unites it again and again until all the air bubbles of which it was full are driven off. ‘This is an extremely laborious operation, but it is essential to expel all the atmospheric air, before it is exposed to heat, otherwise when it became expanded in the furnace, it would blister and ruin the goods. Mr. Wedgewood and others have employed machinery to effect the results produced by the severe labor of slapping and blunging, which by some is thought equally efficient. The prepared paste when brought to this state, it is much improv- ed by being kept a long time, the materials thus acquiring a union which they do not acquire by mere mechanical force. It is usual in China to keep the prepared clay fifteen or twenty years, before it is thought fit for use. ‘In some districts it is the custom for the father to prepare as much clay as will be sufficient for the son, throughout the whole period of his life.”* The French manufacturers of porcelain do not observe so much mystery about their operations as do those of Dresden, and many other European potters. Little is known of the Dresden works, except that they employ none but rain water that has been purified and make their fires only with white wood that has been seasoned. Such was the rivalry between the three royal establishments of Dresden, Ber- lin and Sevres, that for a long period each made a profound secret of every process and improvement. ‘The same spirit actuates many * Parkes’ Essay. Porcelain and Earthenware. 251 of the English manufacturers at the present day, in regard to glazes and enamels, and their proportions of clay and flint. M. Brong- niart, director of the Sevres works, with a liberality and patriotic feeling which merit the highest praise, published accurate statements of many details and processes, based upon scientific principles. It can scarcely be too often repeated that all earthy compounds when exposed to a red heat, act chemically upon one another; and as the precise nature of those actions is unknown, every manufacturer who would avoid disappointment and loss, should examine his materials with the severest chemical analyses.* It needs the most accurate observation, with a sound judgment, so to proportion the ingredi- ents for the body of the ware, that it will receive the glaze without crazing; and so to adapt the heat to both, as to reach the precise point of fuzing the glaze, and uniting it with the ware previously semi-vitri- fied, and liable to farther changes in the furnace.t When the paste has gone through all the preparatory processes _and has become thoroughly amalgamated by lying long in a mass, a result which time alone can give it, it is ready to be fashioned into any form designed by the artificer.[ This is performed in three ways, by throwing, pressing and casting.\ The first is done by that ancient machine the potter’s wheel, where circular vessels of al- most every form and size are made by a succession of lathes. For plates, saucers, tablets, &c. the workman has a mould fixed to the center of a circular board, or table, which revolves horizontally. Over the mould he places a covering of the clay, which by the aid of his hand, and occasionally a small instrument of metal or wood, is turned in a moment to the figure of the mould—is taken off and set on a shelf by an assistant workman—is replaced by another, which in its turn is worked off: and thus in a few hours a vast num- ber of pieces are prepared for the next step of the process. The moulds are made of plaster of Paris which has the property of ab- " The necessity of chemical analysis will appear, from comparing three native substances much inuse. The porcelain earth of Limoges, which is often used with- out any admixture, is composed of sixty two parts silex, ten alumine, twelve mag- nesia, seven sulphate of Barytes ; whereas the porcelain clay of Cornwall, is a com- pound of twenty per cent silex, and sixty per cent alumine. + Crazing is a technical word, signifying the cracking of the glaze, arising from a defective union of the glaze with the body of the ware. { Clay does not readily part with water, beyond a certain amount, therefore the mass does not dry by evaporation. The surface would dry if exposed to the sun. § New Edinburgh Encyclopedia. Vout. XXVI.—No. 2. 33 252 Porcelain and Earthenware. sorbing the water rapidly from the ware, and causes it to slip or “deliver” itself easily from the mould. In the course of three or four hours, they are sufficiently hardened to be taken from the moulds when they are set singly in a room shelved on all sides from the floor to the ceiling and heated by a stove. Common table plates and saucers, will in this way be ready in two hours to be removed from the moulds, which are again employed for a fresh parcel. When they are taken from this stove, the edges are pared if necessary with a knife, and the whole surface rubbed over gently with the band, or a piece of soft flannel when they are ready for the biscuit oven. Articles of oval or irregular forms are made by plaster moulds di- vided in halves for the convenience of taking out the ware, whenev- er it is dry enough to be removed, one half the figure being respec- tively on the two sides of the mould. ‘The clay is rolled into two flat pieces, of the thickness of the ware intended to be made, and after being pressed into the moulds, the two halves are brought together forming a perfect junction. ‘This is called pressing, and it is the manner in which handles, spouts, mouldings, &c. are made. They are adapted to the vessels for which they were intended by dipping them in “slip,” which is the prepared clay in a semi-fluid state, and when affixed to the ware, the point of union is as perfect as the most solid parts. Figures in relief of the finest workmanship, tables, vases, images, flowers and other curious works in porcelain are thus fashioned. In casting, the clay is poured in a pulpy state into moulds of plaster, which soon absorbs the fluid from that part contiguous to their sur- faces; the liquid part is then poured out, and that which remains stiffens so rapidly, that ina few minutes the mould may be removed, when the exterior of the cast is an exact copy of the mould, and its thickness in proportion to the time allowed for the operation. When the articles have been formed agreeably to the design of the artist, and dried in the stove room, they are placed with the great- est care in saggars and taken to the oven. Saggars are oval cases or boxes made of fire clay, and being flat at the bottom they fit ex- actly, one forming a cover for another, and being of the same diam- eter, the workmen place them in piles nearly to the top of the kiln, perfectly enclosing the ware from immediate contact with flame or smoke. ‘The kiln or oven is a conical building, with the receptacles on the outside for fuel, with flues opening into it capable of holding Porcelain and Earthenware. 253 twelve hundred dozen, or more pieces. ‘The bottom of each sag- gar is carefully covered with sand, and then sprinkled over with the powder of decomposed felspar, before receiving the pieces which are separated from each other by small triangular pieces of biscuit to prevent their adhering to the saggar or to each other, while in the kiln.* The heat is kept low at first, but gradually augmented until the kiln and its contents, attain the proper maximum. The operation of burning usually lasts two days and two nights, but the process varies in the different charges, and the workmen ascertain the state of the kiln, by examining “trial pieces,” which are placed so as to reveal the exact state, of the whole interior of the furnace. Small pieces of porcelain are often enclosed in one case or saggar, but large, or very choice pieces are separately enclosed : in no instance must one piece be in contact with another, and the greatest care is necessary to place them so that every part shall be subjected equally to the heat. After the saggars are placed in the furnace, the door by which they were carried in is walled up, and the heat raised gradually for thirty hours, when fuel is incessantly applied at small openings on the hearth by two men who relieve each other at intervals. ‘The wood employed is well seasoned and cut in slender pieces about a foot long, that the combustion may be effected with the greatest rapidity. When the firing is discontinued, and the smoke ceases, the chimney and all the apertures are closed; and the kiln with its contents are left to cool as gradually as possible, for thirty hours. This delay in withdrawing the pieces is deemed important, lest the sudden al- ternation of temperature should cause them to crack. The ware is now in the state called biscuit, and is ready for printing paint- ing and other ornaments, previous to receiving the covering of enam- elor glaze. If these were added before the conversion of the ware into biscuit, the shape and texture of the pieces would be injured by the water in the glaze; the colors would spread; printed pat- terns could not be transferred, or other ornaments applied, as the tenderness of the pieces would cause them to warp and crumble, and the truth of the original forms to be destroyed. Division of labor facilitates this part of the manufacture with the same profit as has been experienced in other departments of the arts. ‘The copper plate printer sits at one end of a room, which se * Biscuit is ware baked without glazing. 254 Porcelain and Earthenware has a counter or table affixed to the sides, like the writing bench in a country school, in front of which, sit a convenient number of workmen, each provided with a little boy, or girl, at hand, as a run- ner or assistant. ‘The printer moistens a bibulous paper with a brush and applies it to his copper plate which has the engraved pattern upon it designed for the ware in the hands of those sitting on the sides of the room. It is the work of a moment to run it through the press at his left hand, when he delivers it to one of the runners, who hands it to a child with scissors, when the print is cut from the superfluous paper and given tothe workman who places it on the piece of biscuit in the mode for which it was designed. ‘The next person on the bench, rubs it smartly with the brush end of a cylinder made of small cords, into the pores of the ware. ‘These manipu- lations are so methodically conducted that no time is lost, each mov- ing with the regularity of machinery. ‘The papers are easily remov- ed by being immersed in cold water, and gently rubbed off with a piece of flannel or a soft brush, leaving a perfect impression on the ware. When thus printed it is placed in an oven at a low heat in order to evaporate the oil or gum employed in the printing, prepara- tory to receiving the glaze. The glazes are a part of the potter’s art requiring a thorough knowledge of chemical science and a faithful application of that practi- cal skill which is acquired only by experience. A rule stated by Mr. Parkes, is, that a glaze should be capable of expanding and con- tracting by heat and cold in the same proportion as the ware to which it is applied. ‘To adapt a vitrifiable compound to one composed of both fusible and infusible materials, and which is liable to contract at every additional exposure to high heat, is a process of obvious difficulty. If too easily fused it will not unite with the ware, but will peal off and craze; if too infusible, and the heat is pushed to a greater degree than when the ware was in the state of biscuit, it will warp and become crooked, or perhaps fall into a shapeless mass. For the Staffordshire or printed ware a beautiful glaze is made of flint, white lead and borax. Flint, which remains unaltered in the focus of the most powerful heat, is easily vitrified when combined in the proportions of ten parts of lead to four of ground flint. When borax is employed the lead may be diminished. ‘The efficacy of borax in promoting the fusion of vitrifiable substances 1s unrivalled ; but it is expensive, and not often employed for common wares. Granite is sometimes substituted for flint in the proportion of eight Porcelain and Earthenware. 255 parts to ten of lead. ‘These ingredients are reduced to a fine pow- der, and mixed with as much water as will make them into a thick cream. ‘The mixture must be well stirred to keep them equally suspended in the water. ‘The pieces are then dipped in the fluid, and turned rapidly from side to side to equalize the glaze, when they are set on a board fora few minutes, and then are ready for the sag- gars. ‘The gloss oven completes the series, and after being subject- ed to a degree of heat sufficient to vitrify the glaze, and unite it to the body of the ware, the oven and its contents are again gradually cooled, the manufacture is completed, and the ware is ready for the market. It is a desideratum with manufacturers to find some glaze in which lead may be dispensed with on account of its noxious effects upon the health of the workmen, and the injury produced by the decom- position, of its oxides when exposed to the action of acids. ‘The glazing introduced in England by the Ellers, (of throwing salt into the apertures of the kiln, when the baking was nearly completed,) is still practised for some of the common kinds of ware. M. Brongniart, states that “real or hard porcelain, which is that of Saxony, has for its base a very white clay mixed with a siliceous, and calcareous flux, and for its glaze or covering, felspar fused with- out an atom of lead.”* Twenty seven parts of felspar, eighteen of borax, four of Lynn sand, three of nitre, three of soda, and three of China clay melted together, and when cold, with three parts more of calcined borax, ground to a fine powder, make a glaze which is successfully employ- ed in one of the English establishments, and has met the approbation of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts. Ground flints, ground flint glass and common salt form another glaze, while another and better still is of ground porcelain, flint and calcined gypsum. The variety of glazes, however, is almost endless, and they are adop- ted as they are found advantageous in practice, though still treasured up as secrets in most countries, except France. » As alkalies are so powerful in promoting the fusion of intractable bodies, it might be anticipated that they should supersede the use of lead ; but it is found in practice that when they are employed beyond a certain amount they do not expand in the same proportion as the * Brongniart’s Essay on Colors obtained from Metallic oxides, Philosophical Mag- azine. Vol. xiil. p. 346 et xiv. p. 17 et seq. 256 Porcelain ard Earthenware. bodies on which they are laid ; and the result is that they crack and peel off and not only is the ware defaced, but becomes permeable by fluids, is useless, and perhaps falls to pieces. Soft porcelain was made at Bow and Chelsea, in England, and at the Sevres works, before the disclosures of D’Entrecolles. * It has for its base” says M. Brongniart, “a vitreous frit rendered almost opaque, and susceptible of being worked with clay, and is glazed with an exceedingly diaphanous glass, into which there enters a great deal of lead.” It is very white and approaches the condition of enamel, which according to the same authority is “‘ glass made opaque by the oxide of tin and rendered fusible by the oxide of lead.” The vitreous frit alluded to above consists of one part pure clay, three parts of a compound of nitre, soda, alum and selenite, with a large proportion of sand and a little common salt. Another and better rule assigns nine parts prepared flint, nine parts fragments of porcelain ground to powder, four parts calcined gypsum, and one hundred parts porcelain clay. Arsenic was formerly used at Sevres, for some of the work, but the government has ordered a discontinuance of that branch of manufacture. Soft porcelain is very beautiful, and in the painting and brilliancy of colors the most: perfect specimens are scarcely inferior to the Saxon or Chinese; but it does not pos- sess the gem like solidity, fineness and translucency, with the almost velvet surface of the genuine pieces of those admired manufactures. Stone ware isa very perfect kind of pottery, approximating in density and infusibility, to the character of porcelain. When prop- erly made, it will strike fire from steel. Vessels containing sixty im- perial gallons are made of this ware, and are found very useful in the arts. Lustre ware is produced by giving the surface a metallic covering. This is effected after the vessels have been glazed and baked in the gloss oven, by mixing the oxide of a metal levigated to a fine pow- der with some one of the essential oils, and this mixture is then brushed over the surface. ‘They are then taken to the enamelling kiln, where “the heat dissipates the oxygen, and restores the metals, to their metallic state.” Platina produces a lustre resembling pol- ished steel. Gold lustre is of a dark greenish yellow color. Of Colors.—Those colors employed in painting on porcelain, which will endure the heat of the furnace, are obtained only from metallic oxides. M. Brongniart, describes these vitrifiable colors Porcelain and Earthenware. 257 as being unchangeable by heat, when prepared with such ingredients, as form a flux surround and thus give them protection and brilliancy.* Carmine, purple and violet, of the most delicate and beautiful shades are obtained from gold; they answer well on enamels, but will not endure the heat of the porcelain furnace. Asa fine rose color however, and all shades of red are obtained from oxide of iron prepared with nitric acid. This oxide is calcined and then fused with a flux composed of borax, sand and minium. Yellows are produced from the oxide of lead, white oxide of an- timony and sand. They may be deepened by red oxide of iron in small quantity. Blue is derived from oxide of cobalt. The harder and more in- fusible the porcelain, to which it is applied, and the greater the de- gree of heat, the more intense will be the color. Greens may be obtained from the green oxide of copper, and from mixing blue and yellow, but will not endure a high heat. “Pure chromate of lead gives a beautiful green of great intensity on porcelain.” Browns are obtained from oxide of iron; and Bustres and Russets from manganese, brown oxide of copper, oxide of iron and umber earth. Black is made by darkening blue, with oxides of manganese, and iron. Soda and potash are not used as fluxes, because being volatilizing in great heat they abandon the colors which will not then adhere to the porcelain. Brongniart prefers a flux of glass, lead, and borax; while Montamy advises one made of powdered glass, calcined borax, and refined nitre. With either of these fluxes, each color is ground in a mortar of glass, until perfectly comminuted, when they are fused in a crucible until the swelling ceases. ‘The greatest accuracy is re- quired in proportioning the relative quantities, that no more of the menstruum is employed, than is necessary to reach the point of vitri- fication. If too little were used the colors would be dull—if too much they would spread, and the fine touches of the artist would be lost. After being properly fused, and cooled, they are ground for use. When the artist employs the colors, he rubs them on a glass palette, with some liquid until they are of a suitable consistence to be applied with a hair pencil on the surface of the porcelain. Oil of * See Brongniart’s Essay on Colors. 258 Porcelain and Earthenware. lavender is preferred in some of the French manufactories as a ve- hicle ; at Sevres gum water is substituted for the volatile oil; oil of turpentine is generally used in England. By due combinations of the vitrifiable colors, every shade may be obtained; but to insure success, it requires on the part of the artist great judgment and skill in combining materials with reference to their chemical action on one another. Colors should be pounded quickly in a covered glass or agate mor- tar, and as much care used in rubbing them on the palette as for miniature painting: and the fluidity of the mixture should be kept exactly at the point where the finest strokes can be produced with facility. When the paintings are finished, the pieces are put in the enamel furnace at a low heat, just sufficient to vitrify the flux with which the colors are incorporated. If the execution proves imper- fect, they are retouched and burned in again and again, until they are satisfactory to the artist. Eight or ten hours firing are sufficient in the enamel kiln, to burn the colors into the glaze. From the fore- going details it appears that three degrees of heat are required in the different processes of firing porcelain. ‘The heat to which it is subjected in the state of biscuit, is raised to the highest point which the ware will bear: the next firing is to unite the glaze or enamel with the body of the ware and must be only sufficient to vitrify the covering, and so far soften the body, as to cause the union of the glaze with the surface pores of the ware; again, the comparatively low heat of the enamel kiln, must be raised only so high as to vitrify the flux in which the colors are embodied, and to soften the glaze so far, as to permit the colors to unite with it, as the glaze did with the body of the ware in the preceding furnace. Porcelain is gilded by the use of gold in leaves, and by reducing it to powder with a solution of aqua regia after which it is mixed with gum water and applied with a brush. ‘The fire causes the oxygen to fly off, and restores the gold to its metallic state. Japanners size moistened with oil of turpentine, is spread on parts designed for leaf gold, and when nearly dry, it is laid on with cotton wool. In both cases it is burnt into the glaze in the enamelling kiln. It is then burnished with agate or blood stone, and rubbed off with white lead and vinegar, which is the final process in the manufacture of por- celain. Porcelain and Earthenware. 259 IV. Varieties of ware. A short description of some of the different kends of ware will con- clude this imperfect account of a manufacture, so abundant in par- ticulars of scientific interest, that a volume would be insufficient for the details. The most ancient specimens which have come down to our own times are the Babylonian, the remains of which are the bricks, and some vessels of earthenware, found in the ruins of Babylon. The bricks are thirteen inches square by three thick, with curious inscrip- tions stamped upon their surface, in a character wholly unknown at the present day. ‘The vessels are a “fine red earthenware,” but of their form or design we have no information. The ancient Egyptian is an earthen substance similar to enamel, of a deep blue. The Persian porcelain is so perfect that the body of the ware is like a fine translucent enamel within and without; its grain is so compact and so well resists the fire, that for culinary uses it is equal to vessels of metal. ‘The best Persian is made at Schiraz, though at Yezd in Caramania, and at Ispahan, it is a subject of great inter- est and competition. The real porcelain of China is an artificial gem, and furnishes the most perfect examples of this beautiful art. There is a mystery about this fabric however, that has not yet been fathomed by Europe- ans. Both Reaumur and Wedgewood ascertained by chemical analy- sis, that there is an inherent difference between the Chinese, and European porcelains: for while many of the latter, particularly the English became perfectly vitrified, and the best Dresden began to bend—the real King-te-ching did not even soften, but remained unal- tered at the Hietiens possible degree of heat. Whether this infusi- bility which is the basis of its superiority, is caused by: different pro- portions of the constituent parts, or by some peculiarity in the ori- ginal condition of the native earths—or some difference in con- ducting the processes, is not known. It appears that when the com- bination is such, as that the vitrifiable constituent can be fused only by the greatest possible heat, and when the heat of the furnace reaches that point, the choicest porcelain is the result. The body of the Chinese ware is a compact and shining substance, the in- fusible ingredient being enveloped by the vitrified part, producing a smooth impenetrable, lustrous semi-transparent texture of great Vou. XXVI.—WNo. 2. 34 260 Porcelain and Earthenware. durability and beauty. ‘The surface of this elegant material is fin- ished with a glazing made of burat alum—silex—and an alkali ob- tained from calcined lime and fern ashes; or with hoache which is a very white magnescian earth combined with pure silex.* * At King-te-ching, a disirict in the province of Kingsi, there are 500 manufactories, which give employment to more than a million of artisans.” This will not seem incredible when it is considered, that such is the division of labor, that sixty hands are employed in com- pleting a single piece. Petuntse and Kaolin those celebrated materials for porcelain which are unrivalled and perhaps unequalled in other countries, are found in immense quarries of great depth, within twenty or thirty leauges of King-te-ching. Genuine Kaolin is totally infusible in the tremendous heat of the Chinese furnace, which easily melts the solid granite. The constituent parts of Kaolin are silex 52° alumine 42: oxide of iron 0°33. The quarries of Alencon and St. Yrieux in France approxi- mate nearly to the Kaolin of China.t The colors and decorations upon the best Chinese porcelain are very superb, but the paintings are inferior in design to the European. { The porcelain tower at Nanking is an astonishing monument of the durability of this unparalleled manufacture. Itis of an octagonal shape consisting of nine stories, three hundred feet high, and is cov- - ered over its whole surface with the choicest porcelain. ‘This beauti- ful edifice has withstood the elements, and the changes of seasons for four hundred years, without alteration or injury. The Dresden China approaches nearest to the oriental, and in some respects excels all other European porcelains, resisting the pow- er of heat with greater obstinacy than any other. In compactness of texture, and infusibility, it is second only to the Chinese. It is not equally white with the best French, but is very splendid in its gilding, and painting, especially in miniature heads, and battle scenes, and generally in the taste and elegance of its forms. The Sevres royal establishment near Paris, surpasses, perhaps, even the Chinese, in the snowy whiteness of the ware, with the * Steatite, or soapstone—see Lardner’s Cyclopediew. article earthenware, &e. Steatite is much used by the porcelain manufacturers at Worcester, &c. in England, see Parkes. t Lardner’s Cyclopediz. + The Chinese make inferior wares also, and by some it is said, the best is never suffered to go out of the Empire. Researches respecting the radical of Benzore Acid. 261 splendor of the gilding; while in brilliancy of colors, and elaborate drawings, it is inferior to none. In magnificence and taste, the in- ventions are unequalled. The vases, urns, tables, and other furniture, are among the most excellent works of art. Some of the paintings are exquisite: miniature heads, historical and classical representations, birds, animals, landscape, flowers, trees, and every picturesque object in art or nature, are executed in a style worthy of the best masters. Superb porcelain is made in England, inferior only to the French and Dresden, in the whiteness, and infusibility of the ware. When the complicated character of porcelain, with all its various materials, is considered; the critical adjustment of substances of op- posite qualities; the heat to which they are subjected; the varying colors, and the fluids in which they are prepared; the elegant de- signs—the splendor of the ornaments—the great labor, and the long series of processes which enter into the manufacture, it appears evi- dent that a perfect porcelain is a masterpiece of both science and art. Leaving the dust of the workshops, and following the granite rock from its storm-rifted pinnacle through all the transmatations of nature and art, until it becomes one of the most beautiful ornaments of the saloons of nobles and the palaces of kings; we see realized, the golden visions of the Saxon alchemist, who, it is said, rediscovered the art* while searching for the philosopher’s stone. Lithographic drawings of several celebrated vases are annexed. New-York, March, 1834. Arr. ll.—Researches respecting the radical of Benzoic Acid; by Wholer and Lnebig. From the third Vol, of the “ Annalen der Pharmacie,” of R. Brandes, Ph. L. Geiger and J. Liebig.—Translated by James C. Booth. Wuew in the dark province of organic nature, we succeed in find- ing a light point, appearing to be one of those inlets whereby we may attain to the examination and investigation of this province, then we have reason to congratulate ourselves, although conscious that the object before us is unexhausted. With such a view, let us exam- ine the following experiments ; which, as it regards their extent and connection, present a wide field for cultivation. The substance with which we commence our undertaking, “is the fluid oil of bitter almonds, distinguished from other similar bod- * Long before known in China and Japan. 262 Researches respecting the radical of Benzoic Acid. ies, by the property, first rightly investigated by Stange, of being con- verted in the air, by the absorption of oxygen, into an acid, into the benzoic acid, and which appeared to lay claim to the highest inter- est from the manner in which it arises from bodies apparently so different. Another peculiarity, which long since drew the attention of chemists and pharmaceutists to the oil, is its containing prussic acid, whose presence seems to bear fixed relations to the nature of the oil. Among the many researches to which these properties have given rise, we mention only the latest by Robiquet and Boutron-Charlard.* As one of the facts most worthy of remark, they observe in their es- say, that the fivid oil of bitter almonds, as a whole has its constituents in the almonds and appears to proceed from these constituents first by the action of water. For by the use of alcohol, it disappears altogether and can then in general be no more produced from the almonds; but in place of it they obtained a erystallizable body, formerly unknown to exist and which appeared to them to be the only cause of the peculiar bitter taste of the almonds, and one of the compound elements of the fluid bitter almond oil.+ _ We have been obliged to leave out of the limit of the present es- say, the consideration of the question, whether this oil exists ready formed in the almond, or is generated in the course of the produ- cing process from the fixed constituents,—and a closer examination of amygdalin and its connection with the supposed generation of the oil. The clearing up of this point must be made the subject of particular experiments. To fix firmly the station from which the inquiry took its rise, we make the general remark beforehand, that in consequence of our experiments, we believe that there is a body composed of three elements, always remaining the same in its behavior towards other agents, and which can be considered not alone as the radical of benzoic acid, but at the same time as the root perhaps with slight variations of a multitude of similar combinations. But here we * Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Vol. xliv. 352. t In the same essay, Messrs. Robiquet and Boutron-Charlard, express their con- viction of the preexistence of benzoic in hippuric acid; now the chief reason on which they rely is an evident error in the Annales de Chemie, V. 43. p. 197, thus instead of saying ‘‘ Si l’on cesse de chauffer au moment méme qu’on sent les vapeurs sulphureuses qu’on méle la masse noire avec de l’eau ei qu’on la fasse bouillir avec de la chaux, l’acide hydrochlorique en separe ensuite de acide benzoique,” it should read, ‘‘n’en separe point ensuite de l’acide benzoique.” The conclusion as drawn from the unrectified phrase, is in itself contradictory ; and this caused the correctness of the sentence to be questioned, which the German copy would have confirmed. Researches respecting the radical of Benzoic Acid. 263 venture to assert, that it would be improper to look for this in the camphorid, whose very existence appears to us questionable, al- though it is placed here by Dumas without a single demonstrative experiment. A series of phenomena intimately connected with each other was the only guide which presented itself to our view. Suffer us to say that to a certainty we believe a multitude of similar radicals will readily be discovered ky calculation and spontaneous changes in the analyses of organic substances, which chemists have undertaken ; but here we stop, for science is but little profited by the raising of expectations, as yet unsupported by facts. Bitter Almond Oil.—The crude oil, which served as the materi- al for our experiments possesses a faint yellow color, the well known peculiar odor and proved itself in all its reactions, and other relations to be a decidedly pure product. We are indebted for it to the kind- ness of Mr. Pelouze. Treated with alkali, acid, or a salt of iron, this oil contains a con- siderable quantity of prussic acid, and apart from the air, either by itself. or with potassa, readily changes into benzoic acid. We were soon convinced that the content of prussic acid bears no relation to the formation of benzoic acid, and endeavored therefore to obtain a pure oil, free from the benzoic and prussic acids and from water. This purpose was fully accomplished in the following manner. The crude oil was carefully mixed with hydrate of potassa and a solution of chloride of iron by strong agitation and then submitted to distillation. ‘The whole of the oil passed over with the water, and perfectly free from prussic acid. By means of a tube, it was separat- ed from the water, and redistilled in a dry apparatus over freshly burned, powdered chalk. j The oil obtained in this manner is pure, free from benzoic and prussic acids and water, perfectly colorless, very fluid, and has a strong refractive power ; its odor is but little different from that of the crude oil; its taste is burning aromatic. It is heavier than water, its sp. gr. being 1:043. Its boiling point is so high that we could not determine it with our thermometers, which extended not above 130° centigrade.* It is easily inflammable, burning with a bright sooty flame. * When temperature is mentioned in this essay, the degrees will be understood to refer to the centigrade thermometer.—J. B. 264 Researches respecting the radical of Benzoic Acid. Urged through a red hot glass tube, it remains undecomposed. In the air, in moist or dry oxygen, it is entirely converted in crystalli- zed benzoic acid. In the sun’s ray this change is remakably hasten- ed, beginning in the course of a few moments. The same change. takes place in the air by the presence of water and potassa, with the formation of benzoate of potassa. If these experiments be made in a glass tube closed with mercury, the rise of this metal proves the absorption of oxygen. Beside this conversion of the oil into benzoic acid, no third body is formed. The manner of its purification shews that it is not decomposed or changed by anhydrous alkali, but to the hydrated, its behavior is different. Heated with the hydrate of potassa, apart from the air, it forms benzoate of potassa and evolves pure hydrogen gas. If the oil be introduced into solution of hydrate of potassa in water, or into alcohol saturated with ammoniacal gas, it is immediately dissolved, and if the air be wholly excluded, a benzoate appears which when potassa is employed, is soon deposited in large shining lamellar erystals. By the addition of water which dissolves the salt, an oily body is separated, which is no longer the oil of bitter almonds. In the concentrated nitric and sulphuric acids, the pure bitter al- mond oil is soluble without change. By heating the latter solution, it first becomes a purple-red, and then black with the evolution of sulphurous acid. From the action of chlorine and bromine, new compounds arise which will be described in another part of this essay. The composition of this pure oil was ascertained in the usual way by ignition with the oxide of copper. ‘To expel the hygroscopic moisture from the oxide of copper, we have employed in our experi- ments a small air pump invented by Gay-Lussac. Since it has not been described by himself, we take the liberty of annexing a sketch of the same; for it may undoubtedly be viewed as one of the most im- portant improvements with which organic analysis has been enrich- ed, both as regards its convenience in use and the safety it ensures in hydrogen examinations. Fig. 1. is the pump alone of half the actual size; it is fur- nished with common bladder valves, and terminates beneath in a strong screw, to fasten it firmly for use. Fig. 2. shews the pump as connected with the ignition tube a, which is united by means of a well fitting cork with a long tube 6, Researches respecting the radical of Benzove Acid. 265 filled with chloride of calcium. , Fig. Q.isa glass tube about thir- ty inches in length fastened above to the pump by a short and broad piece of atube, and dipping below in mercury. It has no other LLY: [LLLILLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLELLLLL WHALE LLL LLL object than to prove by the rise of the mercury that all the con- nections of cork and caoutchouc are tightly closed, and it is removed as soon as the pump is put in operation. Indeed it may be dispensed (266 Researches respecting the radical of Benzoic Acid. with altogether, since the tightness may be judged of after a little prac- tice, by the force with which the air rushes in through the opened cock d, after exhaustion. To the table is screwed a strong wooden post e, Fig. 2. on which the pump is fastened by its screw. The moisture contained in the oxide of copper mixture is expelled at the same time with the air by exhausting the ignition tube, from which by degrees the last trace is removed, since the air dried by the chloride of calcium is often ad- mitted by repeated exhaustions and opening of the stop-cock. It is evident that the expulsion of moisture may be hastened, from substances from which we have to fear no loss by warmth, if the ignition tube be put into a tin tube filled with hot water.* This small air pump presents yet another advantage, of which we frequently availed ourselves in our experiments. The oil and other fluids submitted by us to analysis possess so high a boiling point, that the small bulb filled with them, was emptied of the portions of the liquid, not before this part of the tube had almost attained a red heat. It thence frequently happened, that the gas was suddenly evolved with such violence, as to throw some oxide of copper into the chloride of lime, and thereby the experiment became unavailing, at least for the determination of hydrogen. This is completely avoided by turning the open end of the small bulbs towards the closed end of the ignition tube, introducing the oxide of copper in Jayers and then exhausting. The small bubble of atmospheric air in the bulbs, now suffices to ex- pel all the contained moisture, particularly if the ignition tube be - brought to a more vertical position, and exhaustion be repeated. In order not to mention the accuracy of the result disadvantageously, it may be added that this manipulation with very fluid substances is throughout superflous. We return to the pure oil of bitter almonds. Ignited with these precautionary measures, it yielded, : I. 0.356 gramme*=1.109 carbonic acid,,and 0.200 water. EOS) OME == 0.982. «6 e 0.175 “ = = * This pump may be used with great convenience for drying substances which suffer drying only in a vacuum, at the common or a slightly raised temperature. In place of the ignition tube, a short tube is fastened on which is closed beneath, or a small glass globe, in which is placed the substance to be dried. + The gramme is always to be understood as the weight or series of weights em- ployed. , Researches respecting the radical of Benzoic Acid. 267 Which for 100 parts gives its composition as I I. Carbon, : 79.438 : =, 2603 Hydrogen, : 5.756 : : 5.734 Oxygen, . 14.808 i il4.663 These proportions calculated by volume give 14 atoms of carbon, . 1070.118 ; 79.56 ea hydrogen, . 74.877 * 5.56 Dai ce oxygen, . 200.000 : 14.88 1344.995 100.00. According to the composition of this body, the formation of ben- zoic acid by the mere reception of oxygen is wholly inexplicable, be- cause in this change no other products could be detected. Accord- ing to the analysis of benzoic acid by Berzelius, it contains 15 atoms of carbon, 12 of hydrogen and 3 of oxygen. This circumstance in- duced us to repeat the analysis of the crystallized acid, and of the ‘same united to a base. Analysis of Benzoic Acid.—We employed for this analysis not only the common benzoic acid obtained from resin, but also a portion prepared expressly for this purpose from the oil. In both cases, we assured ourselves of their purity. The acid was fused, weighed and introduced by pieces into the ignition tube ; this was then warmed to the fusion of the acid, and equally parted at half the length of the tube upon the sides. It was then filled with warm oxide of copper, again brought before the air-pump, and submitted to ignition, which with this very volatile substance could be but slowly conducted. i Carbon. Water. J. 0.523 gramme of acid yielded 1.308 ; 0.238 DESY OLS2 27“ ¥ ee 1.302 I. 0.305 * f mae 0.760 Solin OANe Oe According to these results then, the analyses gave for 100 parts, 1 I. IIL. Carbon, ‘ 69.155 : 68.970 : 68.902 Hydrogen, . 5.050 . Water was lost. 5.000 Oxygen, é 25.795 : : - : 26.098 These numbers give the atomic composition of the same, as 14 atoms carbon, ¢ 107.0118 a 69.25 12 “ hydrogen, . 7.4877 : 4.86 4 “ oxygen, ‘ 40.0000 : 25.89 154.4995 100.00 Vou. XXVI.—No. 2. 35 268 Researches respecting the radical of Benzoic Acid. The variation of the composition of benzoic acid, thus obtained, from that which Berzelius found by the analysis of the benzoate of lead, caused us at first to mistrust our own analysis. Upon nearer inspection however, we found it necessary to admit, that the cause of the difference between the two analyses should be sought in the com- position of the salt analyzed by Berzelius. We therefore undertook the analysis of the acid united to a base, and chose the benzoate of . silver because of the facility with which it is obtained pure and crys- tallized, and because the oxide of silver shews but little disposition to form compounds. Neutral nitrate of silver mixed with an alkaline benzoate in solu- tion, gave a thick white precipitate, which by warmth became crys- talline, and completely dissolved in a greater quantity of boiling wa- ter. By cooling the solution, oxide of silver was deposited in long shining crystals, which by drying under the air pump, neither lost their lustre, nor diminished in weight. By heating in a porcelain crucible, this salt melts, puffs up, and af- . ter the deposited charcoal is consumed, leaves very white metallic silver. In this manner we determined the atomic weight of the acid. I. 0.391 gramme of benzoate of silver left 0.184 of metallic silver. Il. 0.436 “ of the same gave 0.205. According to these numbers, the composition of the salt is, I. I. Oxid of silver, : 50.56 4 50.52 Benzoic acid, , 49.44 ; 49.48 And the atomic weight of the acid as the mean of both analyses, is 142.039. We now submitted the salt of silver to ignition with oxide of cop- per, and obtained from 0.600 grammes of the salt, 0.797 grammes of carbonic acid, and 0.122 of water. The composition of the acid, as deduced {rom these numbers, con- sists in 100 parts of Carbon, é ; : 74.378 Hydrogen, d j : 4.507 Oxygen, : : : 21.055 Calculating from the atomic weight already found, we obtain, 14: atomerearbon lh OS “LOTONTE PFA AS 10)" Chydiropens 7) 2 OLDaO TN 4.34 366) @xyeen, ‘ SOL000) Tanne Tees 143.2515 100.00 Researches respecting the radical of Benzoic Acid. 269 By comparing the analysis of the crystallized acid with that com- bined with the oxide of silver, it is at once evident that the difference between them is that the former contains one atom of water, which is wanting in the latter. The only difference then between the analysis of Berzelius and our own, lies in this content of water. For from the atomic weight found by Berzelius, as well as from the behavior of the oxide of lead, it follows that the oxide by union with benzoic acid, does not separate ihe water of the same, but that this water enters into the composition of the salt. On being heated, and especially in the crystallized state, when, as we have just seen, it contains one atom of water, it loses a portion of its acidity. In fact, if from the atomic weight of benzoic acid, as obtained by Berzelius from the oxide of lead, namely, i 152.1423 We take off one atom of water, ; ‘ 11.2479 We get for the atomic weight of the dry acid, 140.8944. If according to this corrected atomic weight, we calculate the car- ben and hydrogen of Berzelius’ analysis, we likewise obtain 14 atoms of carbon and 10 of hydrogen. These comparisons will suffice to remove every doubt respecting the composition of benzoic acid and the statement of Dumas, that this acid contains hydrogen and oxygen in the same proportion as water, is certainly an error, which he will undoubtedly correct. Returning from this digression to the consideration of the oil of bitter almonds, and its conversion into crystallized benzoic acid, we now find this phenomenon capable of an easy explanation. The acid is formed by simple oxydation, the oil absorbing in the air or in oxygen gas, 2 atoms of this element. The formation of benzoate of potassa from the oil, when the latter is heated with hydrate of potassa, depends upon the decomposition of the water in the hydrate, whereby the oil takes one atom of oxy- gen, while hydrogen escapes in the form of gas. We have farther mentioned that the oil with a solution of potassa in alcohol, forms likewise without the access of air a benzoate of potassa, and that then by the addition of water, an oily body sepa- rates from the alcohol possessed of different properties. As far as we have examined this new body, it admits of no doubt, that in case the constituents of alcohol do not enter into its composition, it origi- nates either form taking oxygen from the bitter almond oil, or from 270 Researches respecting the radical of Benzoic Acid. the decomposition of water. In the former case it would be com- posed according to the formula C'* H'? O, in the latter the formula C'4H!: O02, After the determining of this point, and a reviewing of the com- bining relations of bitter almond oil yet to be considered, we believe it naturally follows that this oil is in its pure state a hydrogen com- pound, wherein the radical of benzoic acid is combined with 2 atoms of hydrogen, instead of with oxygen as in the acid. ‘This radical as yet unobtained insulated, is composed of C'* H!* O?. We call it benzoyl, (the ending from tA» material, matter.) The. consequent name for the pure oil of bitter almonds is hydrobenzoyl (hydroguret of benzéy],) and for the benzoic acid, benzéylic acid, (benzoyl acid.) We will however use the common names benzoic acid and bitter al- mond oil, except in theoretical demonstrations. We will see how easily the remaining relations, to which we now come, will be per- ceived and comprehended. Chlorobenzoyl.—If through the bitter almond oil we conduct dry chlorine gas, the latter is absorbed with considerable heat, and hydro- chloric acid is evolved ; but besides this, no other product which war- rants the conclusion of a farther decomposition. As soon as the for- mation of hydrochloric acid begins to cease, the liquid becomes yel- low from the solution of chlorine, but the overcharge of this gas. is again expelled by boiling. Finally, if the liquid, be heated to boil- ing, in contact with chlorine, and the formation of hydrochloric acid is no longer perceived, we obtain a new compound, perfectly pure. This is the chlorobenzéyl, (chloride of benzoyl.) The chlorobenzéyl, is a transparent fluid of the sp. gr. 1.196. It possesses a peculiar odor in the highest degree penetrating 5 in par- ticular, strongly affecting the eyes, and reminding us of the pungent odor of horse-radish. Its boiling point is very high : it is inflammable, burning with a bright, green-edged, sooty flame. It sinks in water as anoil, without solution. After a considerable time, or sooner by boiling, it separates entirely into crystallized ben- zoic acid and hydro-chloric acid. It suffers the same change if kept in moist air for a length of time. If chlorine be conducted through a mixture of hydrobenzéyl and water, the oil disappears, and the water congeals into a crystalline mass of benzoic acid. The chloride of benzéyl may be distilled unchanged over anhy- drated baryta and lime. Researches respecting the radical of Benzoic Acid. 271 Warmed with alkalies and water, this chloroide forms at the same time a chloride of the metal and a benzoate of the alkali. © In all these decompositions beside the benzoic and hydro-chloric acids, no third body is formed, whence it clearly follows, that in this compound, chlorine and benzoyl must be in such proportion, that by the separation of water into its constituents, these last, exactly suffice to form on the one side hydrochloric, and on the other anhydrated benzoic acid,—the latter, at the moment of its formation, taking up one atom of water. Hydrobenzoy] (bitter almond oil) consists of, (14C-+10 H+20)+2H. By the action of chlorine, two atoms of hydrogen unite with two atoms of chlorine to form hydro-chloric acid, which is evolved. But the hydrogen gives place to two atoms of chlorine according to the following formula ; (14 C+10H+20)+2 Cl. With the constituents of water this body is decomposed in such a manner that two atoms of hydrogen unite with two atoms of chlorine to form hydrochloric acid, while the freed oxygen unites with ben- zoyl and forms benzoic acid. By analysis we proved the correctness of the composition. We dissolved it in dilute ammonia, super-saturated it with nitric-acid and precipitated by the nitrate of silver. 0.719. grm. Chlorobenzéyl gave 0.712 gm. chloride of silver. This gives for 100 pts. 24.423 of chlorine. Ignition with oxide of copper in the common way, where the fluid in small bulbs is placed in the ignition tube, proved altogether imprac- ticable and indeed upon the grounds already mentioned. All these experiments failed us, since every time, even by the most cautious heating, the content of the small bulb, or the fluid present in the oxide of copper, was at once converted into gas, and thereby ei- ther the oxide was converted into the chloride of calcium, or a part of the substance was carried away unignited. It was therefore necessary to introduce the weighed fluid by drops among the oxide of copper; by a slow progressive heating we suc- ceeded perfectly in terminating the ignition without difficulty. 0.534 gm. Chlorobenzoyl yielded 1.188. carbonic acid and 1.180 of water, which in 100 pts. gives, Carbon, ee i u 60.83 Hydrogen, - - - 3.74 Oxygen, - - - 11.01 Chlorine, - = = 24.42 272 Researches respecting the radical of Benzoie Acid. From these numbers we obtain by volume as the theoretical result, 14 atomsofCarbon, - - 107.018 - - 60.02 10 “© Hydrogen, - - 6.239 - - 3.51. ate A @sayeen, = - 20.000 - - 11.55 2 ‘6 Chlorine, - - 44.265 - - 24.92 177.522 100.00 By calculation the numbers yield a somewhat smaller quantity of carbon and hydrogen than was obtained by analysis. ‘The reason undoubtedly is that in preparing the chlorine compound, perhaps suinz Of the oil of bit. alm. escapes with the chlorine. In no case is the difference of such importance, that the conclusion to which we arrive respecting the composition of this body, can be considered false. With respect to the properties of chlorobenzéyl we have yet to re- mark that by warmth it dissolves Phosphorus and sulphur, which by cooling again separate in the crystalline form. With sulphuret of carbon, it may be mingled in every proportion, and, as it would seem, without suffering decomposition. With solid chloride of phosphorus, it becomes strongly heated, with the formation of liquid chloride of phosphorus and an oily, strongly ee body which we have not farther examined. The very remarkable behavior of chlorobenz6y] in dry ammoniacal gas, and its decomposition with alcohol, we will treat of in a separate part of this essay. If chlorobenzéyl be treated with metallic bromides, iodides, sul- phurets or cyanurets, such an exchange of constituents ensues, that a metallic chloride on the one hand, and a combination of ben- zoyl with bromine, iodine, sulphur or cyanogen on the other hand, are generated, which are composed similarly to the chlorobenzoyl. Bromobenzoyl.—This compound is formed directly by mixing bro- mine with hydrobenzoyl (bitter almond oil.) ‘The mixture becomes heated and throws forth thick vapors of hydrobromic acid. By heating still farther, this acid as well as the excess of bromine is expelled. The bromobenzéyl (bromide of benzoy]) is a large foliated, crystal- line mass of a brownish color, soft and at common temperature nearly semifluid. It melts by a gentle warmth into a brownish yel- low fluid. It possesses an analogous odor to the chloride, though much fainter and therefore aromatic. In the air it smokes faintly, Researches respecting the radical of Benzoic Mad. 273 but fumes strongly upon a slight elevation of temperature. It is com- bustible and burns with a bright and smoky flame. By water it is slowly decomposed. Warmed under the same, it becomes a brownish oil, and after long boiling separates into the hy- drobromic and crystallized benzoic acids. In alcohol and ether it is readily soluble without decomposition. By dilution it may be obtained from both im a crystalline form. Todobenzéyl._—This compound seems not to be formed by the di- rect union of its constituents. It may however readily be formed by warming iodide of potassa with chloride of benzoyl. It may be dis- tilled over as a brown fluid, which congeals to a brown crystalline mass. It then contains iodine dissolved. In its pure state it is a colorless, foliated, crystalline substance, easily fusible, but by this ope- ration is always decomposed with the formation of some iodine. In odor, behavior to water and alcohol, and in inflammability, it does not differ from the preceding compound. Sulphuret of benzoyl.—This may be obtained by distilling the chloride with sulphuret of lead. It passes over as a yellow oil, which congeals to a yellow, soft and crystalline mass. It possesses a disa- greeable odor resembling sulphur. It seems not to be decomposed by boiling with water. With a boiling solution of caustic potassa, it slowly forms benzoate of potassa and sulphuret of potassium. With alcohol it is not decomposed. It is inflammable and burns with a bright, sooty flame, evolving sulphurous acid. Cyanobenzoyl.—Hydrobenzéy] dissolves a certain quantity of cy- anogen and receives also its odor, but by warming this a may be again expelled without change. The true compound we obeaitied by aistilling chlorobenzoyl over cyanuret of mercury. ‘The compound passes over as a gold colored oil, and mercury remains behind. In its pure, fresh state, the cyanobenzéyl, (cyanuret of benzoyl) is a colorless fluid, but it rapidly changes to yellow. It possesses a pun- gent odor, strongly exciting tears, and at a distance resembles oil of cinnamon. Its taste is biting, sweetish, and afterward much like prussic acid. It is heavier than water, in which it sinks as an oil, and by which it is soon converted into benzoic and hydrocyanic acids. Ifa drop be suffered to spread upon water, it will be found completely chan- ged in a day by the sun’s light into benzoic acid crystals. By boil- ing with water, it is rapidly decomposed into the benzoic and prussic 274 Researches respecting the radical of Benzoic Acid. acids. It is readily inflammable, burning with a white, but very smoky flame. Benzamide.—By conducting dry ammonia over pure chloroben- zoy], the former is absorbed with much heat, and the liquid is con- verted into a white, solid mass, consisting of a mixture of muriate of ammonia and a new body which we call Benzamide. For in its be- havior and composition it bears a perfect analogy to oxamide. The perfect saturation of chlorobenz6y] with ammonia takes place: at first with such violence, that it is slowly and difficultly attained ; for the rising solid mass soon begins to protect the yet unsaturated portion from farther contact of the gas. It is therefore often neces- sary to take the mass out of the vessel, crush it and again continue the action of ammonia. It may be inferred from the formation of muriate of ammonia at the same time, that by the union of the two bodies, a decomposition of ammonia takes place; for, as we have before remarked, the chlo- rine in chlorobenzéy] is contained as chlorine and not as hydrochlo- ric acid. It is indeed imaginable that the exchange of elements happens when water is poured over the white mass to expel the muriate ‘of ammonia; but the behavior of cyanobenzGyl sufficiently proves, that this separation first occurs, the moment the ammonical gas comes in contact with the chlorobenzoyl. The cyanobenzoy! suffers an altogether analogous change i in am- monia to the chlorine compound ; it forms benzamide and cyanuret of ammonia, which latter rises in consequence of its fluidity, with the excess of ammonia, and sublimes in the form of brilliant erystals. To isolate benzamide, the muriate of ammonia formed is washed out of the white mass with cold water, and the remaining benzamide is dissolved in boiling water. By cooling, the solution deposites crys- tals. By neglecting perfectly to dry the ammonia over burnt lime or hydrate of potassa, a corresponding mass of benzoate of ammonia is formed, by the action of the moist gas upon the chlorobenzéyl, and the same proportion of the new body is lost. Also when the chlorobenzéyl has not been fully saturated with ammonia, then upon treating the mass with hot water, the formed benzamide, as is proved by its behavior to acids, is either wholly or in part decomposed according to the quantity of free chlorobenziyl. Researches respecting the radical of Benzoic Acid. 275 Lastly under certain circumstances, (of which we yet know but little, but it is probable chiefly when the chlorobenzéy! was not per- fectly free from chlorine), by saturation with ammonia an oily body may be observed, possessing an aromatic odor resembling bitter al-., monds, and by which the contained benzamide has the property, be- fore it is dissolved, to melt to an oil by warming with water, and again to separate from the solution in the form of drops of oil, which con- geal in a short time. Pure benzamide shews a remarkable phenomenon in its erystalli- zation. It deposites from a boiling hot solution by rapid cooling, pearly, leafy crystals very similar to chlorate of potassa. By long cooling and at a certain concentration, the whole liquid congeals to a white mass consisting of very fine, silky crystals resembling caffein. After one or more days and often after a few hours, large cavities may be observed in this mass, in the centre of which may be obsery- ed one single or several large well formed crystals, into which the silky fibre has been converted; and gradually this change of form spreads throughout the mass. The form of the crystals of benzamide is a right-rhombic prism, which by the enlarging of two opposite planes becomes tabular. They have a highly nacreous lustre, are transparent and exhibit upon water a fattiness, easily swimming on its surface. At 115° C. it melts to a water-like liquid, which congeals by cool- ing to a large-leaved crystalline mass, wherein are frequently found cavities with well formed crystals. Ata stronger heat it boils and distills over unchanged. Its vapor is similar in odor to bitter almond oil. It is easily inflammable and burns with a sooty flame. In cold water, the crystallized benzamide is so little soluble that the solution scarcely possesses taste. In alcohol on the contrary it is readily soluble. In boiling ether it is also dissolved, and from this solution in particular can be obtained in well defined erystals. Covered with caustic potassa at common temperature, the benza- mide evolves no ammonia. Nor does its solution mingled with a salt of iron at common temperature give a precipitate, as indeed it in gen- eral gives no reaction with a metallic salt. By boiling the benzamide with a concentrated solution of caustic potassa, ammonia is evolved in abundance anda benzoate of potassa remains. By heating to boiling the solution of benzamide mixed with a salt of iron, it beeomes cloudy and throws down-a benzoate of iron. Vou. XXVI.—No. 2. 36 276 Researches respecting the radical of Benzowe Acid. By dissolving benzamide in a strong acid with boiling, it disappears, and in its place benzoic acid in crystals separates from the cooled solution, while an ammoniacal salt has formed. By employing hot concentrated sulphuric acid, the formed benzoic acid sublimes. If boiled with pure water, even for a considerable length of time, this change into benzoic acid and ammonia does not take place. The analysis of benzamide is easily effected by ignition with oxide of copper. The relative proportion of nitrogen and carbon was as- certained by the ignition of the substance “in vacuo.” The ignition tube was provided at one end with a thirty inch tube, the one end dipping in mercury, and the other drawn out to a strong point, which by means of a caoutchouc tube could be connected with the small air-pump. The air was then exhausted, and as soon as the mercury had risen in the tube to the height of some twenty seven inches, the point at the other end of the ignition tube was closed by the blowpipe, and the ignition was commenced. From these experiments it followed that nitrogen and carbon were evolved in the proportion of one to fourteen. It yielded farther, Carbonie acid. Water. I. 0.400 grm. benzamide =1.012 . +0.208 IAP Ore RG t = 1.235 : +0.253 Calculated from these, benzamide contains in one hundred parts, I. Il. Carbon, f 69.954 : : 69.816 Hydrogen, : : 5.780 ; 5 5.790 Nitrogen, : “ 11.563 : 5 11.562 Oxygen, d ‘ 12.603 i P 12.832 By volume these numbers give as the theoreucal result, 14 atoms Carbon, ‘ 107.0118 : : 69.73 sa Ev dirogeny, |. 8.7360 : : 5.69 2 - Nitrogen, : 17.7036 i ; 11.53 2 eeu Oxvee4n, : 20.0000 : d 13.05 This composition clearly explains not merely the manner of the formation of benzamide, but also its behavior with acids and potassa, that is, its conversion into benzoic acid and ammonia. If 2 atoms of ammonia be added to the composition of chloride of benzoyl, we obtain the formula ; | 14C+10H+20+2Cl=chlorobenzoyl 12H -_4N ammonia 14C+4+22H+4+20+2Cl+44N. Researches respecting the radical af Benzove Acid. Qa Abstract from this 2 atoms muriate of ammonia, 14C-+22H+2042CI-+4N 8H +2C/+2N, we then obtain 14C+14H+20+ 2N, which is the true com- position of benzamide and by adding to this Jast 1 atom of water, the formula becomes, 14C-++16H+30+2N which expresses the true composition of neutral dry benzoate of ammonia. ‘This salt consists of 1 atom benzoic acid, =14C+10H+30 1 * ammonia = 6H ION 14C-+16H+30+42N. Benzamide exhibits some phenomena in its decomposition which deserve an ampler consideration than we have bestowed upon them. Heated with a larger quantity of dry caustic baryta, it partially fuses, appears to become a hydrate, evolves ammonia, and then distills over a colorless, oily body, deserving notice. It is lighter than water, in which it isinsoluble. It possesses an aromatic, sweetish taste not un- like that of fluid chloride of carbon (C2Cl*) and discovers itself par- ticularly by its almost sugar-sweet taste. This oil burns with a clear flame, and is changed neither by caustic alkali nor by acids; even potassium may be melted in it by gentle warmth without change. The same substance is evolved in considerable quantity and unac- companied by ammonia, when benzamide and potassium are melted together, in which case the latter without much violence appears to be almost wholly converted into cyanuret of potassium. If the vapor of benzamide be conducted through an ignited narrow glass tube, only a small portion is decomposed and that without de- positing a trace of carbon. The greatest part passes over unchan- ged, mingled with a small quantity of the sweet tasting oil before mentioned. ‘This is evidently a peculiar substance, which by its be- havior intimates an altogether simple composition and certainly de- serves much attention. | Clorobenzéyl and alcohol.—The chlorobenzéyl may be mingled with alcohol in every proportion. By observing the mixture, it will be remarked that it begins to grow warm in the course of a few min- utes and this warmth increases to such a degree, that the fluid enters into self-ebullition, throwing off at the same time thick vapors of hy- drochloric acid. If water be poured over it when the action is ended, then separates an oily body, colorless, sinking in water and possess- ing an aromatic, fruit-like odor. Washed with water and heated with 278 Researches respecting the radical of Benzove Acid. chloride of calcium, it is freed from water, alcohol and acid, with which it may be adulterated. . We could not long remain in doubt respecting the nature of this new product; it must be benzoic ether. For if the decomposition of chlorobenzéyl by alcohol be analogous to that by water, as is suggested by the formation of hydrochloric acid, then through the decomposi- tion of water in the alcohol, must benzoic acid on the one hand be formed and ether on the other; which two at the moment of their origin unite to form benzoic ether. On account of its unexpected appearance, we sought to assure ourselves by an analysis, particular- ly as this analysis would give us great control over the composition of benzoic acid. : We did not employ the fluid for analysis, until after careful wash- ing with water, the latter was entirely abstracted, by repeated diges- tion with muriate of lime, and by several distillations in a dried appa- ratus. It is to no purpose to distil it over chloride of calcium, be- cause its boiling point is so high, that water passes over at the same time. 0.622 gm. gave 1.632 carbonic acid and 0.375 water, which in 100 parts is equivalent to, Carbon, . , : é ; i 72.529 Hydrogen, - : ; : ‘ 6.690 Oxygen, . ‘ ; : : : 20.781 Or by volume, ; 18 atoms Carbon, . ‘ 137.5866 : : (24137 20). 4 Hfydrogeny) )).: 12.4796 ; é 6.56 4 Oxygen, ' Ay OGOOO) his ydinl id an BING These proportions exactly point out a compound of, : . Cc H O 1 atom dry benzoic acid, . é =14-—10-3 with one atom of ether, . é = 4—10-1 18—20—4 To assure ourselves of the perfect identity of benzoic ether thus formed, with that prepared after the common method, we produced the latter in abundance by the distillation of benzoic acid with a mix- ture of alcohol and hydrochloric acid. By comparing the two pro- perties of the two bodies obtained by such different methods, not the slightest difference was observable. Odor, taste, sp. gr. and be- havior to acid and alkali, were in both precisely the same. Researches respecting the radical of Benzoic Acid. 279 The analysis of benzoic ether, by Dumas, varies materially from ours in the hydrogen content. Let this serve to shew how difficult it is to become free from preconceived opinions in researches of a similar kind. Benzoin.—The body which we would denote by this name on ac- count of its relation to the suhstances treated of in this essay, has indeed been already examined by Stange, but scarcely farther than in its external properties. It is the same which is introduced into chemical works as bitter almond oil, camphor or camphoroid. Benzoin arises under certain circumstances from the oil of bitter almonds. We obtained it, for example, accidentally, as others have done before us, by the rectification of the oil with caustic potassa, where it remains swimming upon the potassa. We produced it how- ever in greater quantity by suffering the bitter almond oil, to stand several weeks with a concentrated solution of caustic potassa. Robi- quet and Charlard, have also noticed the same change in contact with alkali when free from the access of air. We can confirm this ob- servation. In our experiment the oil was almost wholly converted into solid benzoin, though only after several weeks. Lastly, we pro- duced it by saturating water with bitter almond oil and mingling the solution with some caustic potassa. In a few days the benzoin be- gins to deposite in needle-form crystals. In all these cases the benzoin possesses at first more or less a yel- low color, but is rendered perfectly pure and colorless by solution in hot alcohol, treatment with blood charcoal and: frequent crystallization. Benzoin forms clear, highly lustrous, prismatic crystals. It pos- sesses neither taste nor smell. At 120° it melts to a colorless li- quid, which again congeals to a large striated crystalline mass. At a stronger heat it boils and distils over unchanged. It is inflam- mable, and burns with a clear, sooty flame. It is insoluble in cold water, butif the latter be boiling, a small portion is dissolved, which again separates by cooling in capillary crystals. Itis taken up by hot aleobol in much larger quantity than by cold. It is decomposed neither by concentrated nitric acid, nor by a boiling solution of caustic potassa. With concentrated sulphuric acid on the contrary, it at first gives a violet blue solution soon be- coming brown and by warming it takes a deep green color, with the evolution of sulphuric acid and blackening of the whole mass. This body as we perceive, offers but little interest in its proper- ties ; but it is the more remarkable in its relation to hydrobenzéy], 280 Researches respecting the radical of Benzoic Acid. from the fact, as analysis proves, that it has a perfectly similar com- position, and is therefore an isometric modification of the same, as is apparently shewn by its unintelligible origin from the oil, through the equally inexplicable action of potassa, but from the access of air. 1.00 grm. of benzoin yielded by ignition, 2.660 grm. Carbonic’ acid and 0.512 of water. ‘This gives its composition in one hun- dred parts ; Carbon, ; A 79.079 Hydrogen, 5 5 : 5.688 Oxygen, ; 15.233 consequently the same fetieni) ieponion of the same elements as in hydrobenzoyl. It is indeed imaginable that the very different properties of ben- zoin and hydrobenzoyl arise from the manner of the hydrogen’s combination, which in the first may be united to one atom of ox- ygen as water. But, as this difference depends on such a very diffe- rent manner of the hydrogen’s combination, the idea, that the hydro- gen, can no longer as in the oil, be replaced by another body, as chlo- rine, seems to be refused by the behavior of benzoin to bromine. Thus if bromine be poured over it, it becomes heated and boiling and evolves hydrobromic acid in abundance. After this acid and the surplus of bromine are expelled by heat, the benzoin will be found changed to a brown viscous fluid, smelling like bromobenzéy], but unlike the latter it is soft. With boiling water it appears to be decomposed either not at all or exceedingly slowly. With caustic potassa, it is indeed decomposed by boiling, but even then with diffi- culty.. The alkaline solution mingled with hydrochloric acid depos- ites fine needle-form crystals, which do not appear to be benzoic acid, nor can they be unchanged benzoin, since they readily dis- solve in alkali. Could we consider the above mentioned bromoben- zoin, as an isometrical modification of the corresponding benzoyl compound, then were it imaginable that a new acid had formed by the above decomposition with alkali, which might be an isometric modification of benzoic acid. We in vain endeavored to reconvert benzoin into hydrobenzoyl. Fused with hydrate of potassa, it changes like the oil into benzoic acid, with the evolution of hydrogen. But again it differs from the oil, in its behavior with a solution of potassa in alcohol. It is dissolved in the alkaline solution with a purple color, and presently the whole congeals to a mass of fine, foliated crystals. With water these forma milky fluid, from which by cooling after it has been heated, thick flakes Researches respecting the radical of Benzoie Acid. 281 of needle-form crystals are deposited, which are unchanged ben- zoin. General Observations.—Reviewing and collecting together the relations described in the present essay, we find that they all group around one single compound, which does not change its nature and composition in all its combining relations with other bodies. This stability, this consequence of the phenomena, induced us to consider that body as a compound base and therefore to propose for it a pe- culiar name, i. e. benzoyl. The composition of this radical we have expressed by the formula 14 C+10H+20. In combination with one atom of oxygen, benz6yl forms dry ben- zoic acid, and in combination with one atom of oxygen, one of water, the crystallized acid. In combination with two atoms of hydrogen, it constitutes pure bitter almond oil. When this oil changes in the air into Benzoic acid, it takes up two atoms of oxygen, one of which with the radi- cal generates benzoic acid and the other with the two atoms of hy- drogen forms the water of the crystallized acid. Farther, thehydrogen of the oil or the oxygen of the acid may be replaced by chlorine, bromine, iodine, sulphur or cyanogen, and the bodies proceeding thence, comparable with the corresponding compounds of phosphorus, all form, by their decomposition with wa- ter, on the one side a hydracid, and on the other benzoic acid. The replacement, of two atoms of hydrogen in the bitter almond oil by an acidifying base, appears to us in all cases a strong argument for adopting the opinion, that this hydrogen is in a peculiar manner combined with the other elements; this peculiar method of combi- nation may be hinted at rather than pointed out by the idea of the rad- ical, which is borrowed from inorganic chemistry. Although both benzamide and benzoin were originally in connection with the radical, they are wholly without its sphere, and must be con- sidered as peculiar bodies, bearing no nearer relation to benzoyl, than the cuttings of bone to ammonia. Since we cannot compare the ternary base with cyanogen, be- cause the greater number of elements must occasion far more com- plicated decompositions, and because they have no prevailing resem- blance, we believe it not improbable, that there is more than one group of organic bodies, for example, the fluid oils, which may have this same radical as a compound basis. How far such a conjecture 282 Researches respecting the radical of Benzoic Acid. is correct may be ascertained by accurate analyses of other fluid oils in which the formation of benzoic acid, has been observed by mere oxidation in the air, or by action of nitric acid, particularly analyses of the oils of fennel-seed, anise-seed and cinnamon. If an inference be allowed from the behavior of chloro and cya- nobenzoyl, respecting the peculiar nature of the combination, which by the admission of water to the bitter almonds, causes the formation of prussic acid and hydrobenzéyl (crude oil of the bitter almonds), then it appears to us possible, without wishing to anticipate the exper- iment, that there is contained in the almonds a union of cyanogen with another body which is different from the hydrobenzéy] merely in the content of oxygen, so that by the admission of the constituents of water, hydrobenzdyl on the one side, and prussic acid on the other are formed; it farther seems to us probable, if amygdalin is a de- composition product of this combination with alcohol, that a similar exchange takes place as in the decomposition of chlorobenzéyl by al- cohol, with this only difference that the cyanogen or its constituents enters into the new combination, Benzoin in regard to its formation and physical properties posses- ses great similarity to the solid crystalline substances which are form- ed in other fluid oils; accurate analyses will unfold whether these (camphoroids) are the same in composition with the fluid oils from which they proceed, and whether the cause of their different states or their other varying properties lies in the manner in which their constituents are combined. Letter from Berzehius to Wohler and Liebig respecting Benzoyl and Benzotc acid. Accept my thanks for the very interesting communication of your united and important researches respecting the bitter almond oil. At your request Ihave examined my former experiments in re- gard to the composition of benzoic acid and find the result of your analysis wholly confirmed. I have also made as you desired an analysis of benzoate of silver, and from 100 parts of the salt previously dried, at 100° obtained by careful ignition, 46°83 gm. of metallic silver, which agrees as near- ly as could be expected with the theoretical result calculated by you (46°86.) You have remarked that my analysis of benzoate of lead, perfect- ly agrees with the same. A later analysis made with sulphuric acid | { | Researches respecting the radical of Benzow Acid. 283 and alcohol gave the same result and consequently confirmed the at- om of water of crystallization found in my first analysis. I herewith transmit the result of an analysis made in 1813 of sub- limed benzoic acid, which [ ignited in a tube with chlorate of potas- sa and chloride of potassium. After this method 0:335 gm. of the acid yielded 0°138 gm. water and 0-855 of carbonic acid, which gives in one hundred parts ; Carbon, - - - 68°85 Hydrogen, ~ - - 4:99 Oxygen, - - - 26°66 These numbers agree exactly with the composition of the hydra- tediacidn@ a2 /Ei42 Os. . In vain did I endeavor to separate water from the benzoic acid, by saturating the crystallized acid with a given quantity of oxide of lead, and therefore could not infer tne presence of water of crystalli- zation ; this analysis farther gave four atoms of oxygen, although I had previously found by analysis of the salt of lead that the acid in it saturated three times as much of the oxide as in the neutral benzoate, I was therefore induced since the results did not correspond, to re- ject this analysis of the crystallized acid. I next ignited given quantities of the neutral benzoate of lead, after endeavoring to free the same from water of crystallization by fusion. Each analysed quantity of the salt was produced by itself; I have always followed the same principle, because a fault in one single op- eration may become a constant fault in every analysis; I therefore fused each portion of the salt by itself and always obtained varying results; the cause of which difference I believed must be ascribed to to the volatilization of undecomposed benzoic acid. Upon now comparing the results of these analyses it is evident that different quantities of water still remained in the fused salt. In order to prevent the volatilizing of the acid I employed the salt of lead ; this is the analysis | have described. The result cal- culated from the corrected atomic weight and compared with your analysis is as follows ; Result of the former. Result of the correct analysis. Carbon, - - 15°'405 4 =. - Hydrogen, - - 4951 - = 4°356 Oxygen, - - 19644 - - 20°941 Vou. XXVI.—WNo. 2. 37 284 Researches respecting the radical of Benzoic Acid. The former analysis differs therefore from the theoretical compo- sition by 0°702 carbon and 0-595 hydrogen, which overplus just as much diminished the oxygen. The results consequent upon your examination of the bitter al- mond oil, are the most important which vegetable chemistry has thus far received, and promise to diffuse an unexpected light over this part of science. The circumstance that a body composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, combines with other bodies, particularly with such as form salts, after the manner of a simple body, proves that there are terna- ry composed atoms (of the first order) and the radical of benzoic acid is the first example proved with certainty, of a ternary body possessing the properties of an element. It is true indeed that we have before considered sulphuret of cyanogen (Schwefeleyan) as such, but you are aware that its combinations may be viewd as sul- phurets and the body itself seems to be a sulphuret of cyanogen. The facts proved by you give rise to such reflections, that we well may view them as the dawning of a new day in vegetable chemistry. I might for this reason propose to call the first discovered radical, com- posed of more than two elements, proin from gui dawn, in the sense dare ‘aewi ws égrégug Acts xxviit. 20.) or orthrin (from 6pSpig au- rora,) from which the names proze¢ acid, orthric acid, and chloroproin chlororthrin can be employed with more facility. In considera- tion however, that the long received name benzoic acid would there- by become changed, and that we are always accustomed to respect names in general use where they do net embrace a double idea, by deriving new names from them, as boron from borax, potassium from potash, &c., it therefore appears to me in every respect more prop- er to employ the word proposed by yourselves and to change the term benzoic, into benzoylic acid.* From the moment we know with certainty of the existance of ter- nary atoms of the first order, which combine after the manner of sim- ple bodies, it will greatly facilitate expression in the language of for- mulas, to denote each radical by a peculiar sign, through which the idea of the combination to be expressed, instantly and clearly strikes the reader. I will illustrate this by a few examples. ‘Thus if we put benzoyl C'+ H'* O?=Bz, then we have, * We at first chose the name benzoin, as it properly stands in Berzelius’ letter, and have since substituted the word benzoyl, that benzoin may be used for isometric hydrobenzoyl; by the ending in yl, we are the less reminded of strychnin, sali- ein, &.—W. & L. Researches respecting the radical of Benzoic Acid. 285 Bz=Benzéylic acid. BzH=Bitter almond oil. BzCl=Chlorobenzoyl. B’z or BzS=Sulphuret of benzoyl.* Bz+2NH?= Ammoniuret of benzoyl, (benzoyl ammonia.) Ifwe put Amid=NH?, we have Bz+NH2?=Benzamid or bitter benzoylamid. C+NH? =Oxamid. K + NH?=Potassiumamid, (Berzelius’ Chemistry, I. 794.) N+NH2=Sodium amid. If we further place oil of wine, which I propose to call etherin, C4H*=E, we find E+ 23£=Alcohol. E+ 3=Ether. E+ #-€7 =Muriatic ether. E+3¢ E=Niiric ether. E + Bz EE =Benzéylic ether. ES+ 3¢S=Sulphovinie acid according to Hennel and Serullas. E+2 3£S=Sulphovinic acid according to Wohler and Leibig. 2ES+ €=Sulphuric oil of wine. E+ A¥£= For. Mem. Geol. Soc., London; Mem. Roy. Min. Soc., Dresden; Nat. Hist. Soc., Halle; Imp. Agric. Soc., Moscow; Hon. Mem. Lin. Soc., Paris; Nat. Hist. Soc. Belfast, Ire.; Phil. and Lit. Soc. Bristol, Eng.; _ Mem. of various Lit. and Scien. Soc. in America. VOL. XXVI.—No. 2—JULY, 1834.” _ FOR APRIL, MAY, AND JUNE, 1834. NEW HAVEN: Published and Sold by HEZEKIAT HOWE & Co. and-A. H. MALTBY. Baltumore, E. J. COALE & Co.—Philadeiphia, J: S. LITTELL and CAREY & HART.—.WVew York, G. & C.& H°CARVALL.— Boston, HILLIARD, GRAY, LITTLE & WILKINS. - PRINTED BY HEZEKIAH HOWE & CO. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL, &c.—AGENTS. MAINE. eee i i ; A Hautowruu, Glazier, Masters & Co. ||BAtTrMorE, E oale 0. i Porruanp, Colman, Holden, & Co.||_ | DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. VERMONT. WasHineton, P. Thompson. ; Bratriesoro’, G. H. Peck. “ NORTH CAROLINA. ; MASSACHUSETTS. Cuapeu-Hinu, Prof. B. 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