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Bl beg seb ye sitet Pare Da eran ie rey eee ret De aC ee mrt Tae a ee Faldo ted cad at tee oi ' ba ee he fey ree NO Ne ee A ted lh kapha ae dtieiien : Piet hdd gd ted Pern eee irc ce ee he ole re yea hee Dah ee Sea SR RD ER tebe Peed tt Bese we . el eid BNF Bad ag tou L gbwenttiedks aren nated at ith i Cog tape eat daa fon det bay lel ae & kat aeob Foe god eek ties ore wea ee re Pe ae Ce tokio nw Ve pbe Bad wee he thal de t oe Rad ee debt eed eked Dobe on oth nek ole tnette ad rh eB BET Gorey Ob Me ae me ” Didiad efits % Ba fede Fee BE Ie Cakes nas boom dog kD ale hal ‘ Cade ai aap hie free Gc ere en Woe te " eer mek me ae ae hdededue ese nor tbe de teed pe ithe 9 alld, rae’ eer re a eae ‘ fr ae eee * ne daria git onesies - Lag pea ead ad doggy pia Ube oe Ret Epa Pek Oud ive de daibe bh aperte lds We aterte tes be sesh one he a x Wo bd pd fh tik ty ee be woh Been ea a te ee er ea Desh iae pedi dare bow ga oa ee Bop oh Hb Gaede fe Ashes p Labia: 4648 ™ ; fe Array ara a Re ee Fb eS hee ek Ga debe ate Evin Modell ot due tes 7 Sb bap Dhara Poh pat APART Ib ena SRC ier ri Bec UA wt ‘ Ravel were arin Hee ear ae Oe KL Py ee Papen erp i Wag et ar crt pec pbs erie keith Wari Wa Mec ee mC AL eae ee ee i oe be ona ‘ “ At sito Pere A et Oca ee Ce st penta eb ‘ ea Sea te Soe IPS OP Oh Poll EKG pt Gh. ews aeik S50 . ‘ Par ce anne Se Par mr ae a et PC . vey fi PY Te Pe es ae Ua ee LA Pir wre oa a ye 46% ih yee jedi y ad pee ee Se siacta debi au Po dota wc eett deh edt typ eye baie ees peered Parererenras ret ive a0 hie Be ary me ne ee Perrermerarar Sarr me Mee Me Pe OL leon eit Fork ea q a i) areas gee Re ren er ree Ae Ws OY POA CRU LC ole tet ft atts qi ha Sue oa rae ee ere ae RT Re eC Td ean hey WB Me Mo UL A ALL UN eo er iio ae PP Peet eda Ba bad ed td bape oe PAL a aD itAB herd cdatd th G8, weit babad lk G ant erties ah &.4. AGN Ee bet Bebe t old do hk oe pdt ae Pe eke ba Ak eet Bete Be bb Feta i Cn fae ; ee ety ie actin de AA aed HC date Rina ait a ad ab baile WD CE a a BR aha Veh EA A Ae CT Tt Rae ee We rer De vererven We ie OC Wee ee he eke ae dene dette Marian Wr arta an gree 0 eat ACM a eA Nis hte te he be tee. ede we ee ewe aM OO a de GT eee te a We. ibs dard & Qalerbel ofs SoboB- Uy hn @. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M. D. LL. D. Prof. Chem., Min., &c. in Yale Coll.; Cor. Mem. Suc. Arts, Man. and Com.; and For, Mem. Geol. Soc., London; Mem. Geol. Soc., Paris; Mera. Roy. Min. Soc., Dresden; Nat. Hist. Soc., Halle; Imp. Agric. Soc., Moscow; Hon. Mem. Lin. Soc., Paris; Nat. Hist. Soc. Belfast, Ire.; Phil. and Lit. Soc. Bristol, Eng: ; Hon. Mem. Roy. Sussex Inst. Brighton, Eng.; Lit. and Hist. Soc., Quebec; Mem. of various Lit. and Scien. Soc. in America. LATIN VOL. XXXIII.— JANUARY, 1838. NEW HAVEN: Sold by A. H. MALTBY and HERRICK & NOYES.—Philadelphia, CAREY & HART andJ. S. LITTELL.—.Wew York, G. & C. CARVILL & Co., Ne. 108 Broadway, and G. S. SILLIMAN, No. 45 William St.— Boston, C. C. LIT- TLE & Co.—London, JAMES S. HODSON, No. 112 Fleet St.—-Paris, CHARLES DUPERRON, Rue Mabillon. PRINTED BY B. L. HAMLEN. trae Cre: Ry a nee hemes ones DW Pe 7 y a aie cH miee CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXII. a NUMBER If. Arr. I. Examination of the Theory of a Resisting Medium, in which it is assumed that the Planets and Comets of our System are moved ; by R. W. Hasnins, - - II. Sketch of the Early History of Count Rumford, in which some of the mistakes of Cuvier, and others of his biographers, are corrected; by JoHN JoHNsTON, IIf. On the Drawing of Figures of Crystals; by James D. Dana, - - - - - - - - - IV. Meteorological Sketches, - a 2 ‘ es V. Description of an Alembic for distilling Amalgam of Gold, contrived by M. F. Maury, U.S. N. - - VI. Crystallographic Examination of Eremite; by Jamzs D. Dana, - - - - - - - ape ues VII. Address delivered at the Anniversary Meeting of the Geological Society of London, on the 17th of February, 1837; by Cuarues Lye, Jun. - = - 2 VII. Experiments in Electro-Magnetism ; PS. Dr. Cuartes G. Pacer, - - - - - = - IX. Remarks on the Rocks of New York; e Prof, C. peal X. Queries proposed by the Geologists of the new pes of the State of New York, . = XI. Notice of the Meteors of the 9th and 10th of anes 1837, and also of Nov. Ts and 13th, 1832; by Gro. C. SCHAEFFER, - - - - - - - XII. Questions relative to Mineral Veins, submitted to Prac- tical Miners; by Ropzert Were Fox, - - & XIII. Descriptions of two species of Trilobites, belonging to the genus Parapoxipses; by Mr. James Harn, Bs XIV. On the Aurora Borealis of July 1,1837, — - = oe XV. On Spontaneous Combustion; by Jamyus Measz, M. D. XVI. Notice of “A Report on the Geological Survey of the State of Connecticut; by Professor CuHarites Upuam Sueparp, M.D., &c. &c.”—with extracts and re- ‘marks, by the Eprror,_ - - - - - XVII. On the Shooting Stars of August 9th and 10th, 1837; and on the Probability of the ae Occurrence of a Meteoric Shower in August; by Epwarp C. Herrick, Page. 151 a CONTENTS. MISCELLANIES.—DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN. Bibliographical Notices. Page I. Boston Journal of Natural History, - - - - 180 2. Catalogue of the Library of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, - - - - - - - - 181 3. Lyell’s Geology, first American edition, - - - - 182 4. Darlington’s Flora Cestrica, - - - - - - 183 5, 6. Animal Magnetism—General Species and Iconography of Recent Shells, - - - - - - - - ly ; Scientific Intelligence. 1. Morse’s Electro-Magnetic Telegraph, - - - - 185 2. Notice of a Revolving Electro-Magnetic Instrument, by Dr. BenyamMiIn Rusu McConne.LL, - - - - - 188 3. Electro-Magnetic pbpoame and noe: ; by CuaRLes G. Pacer, M. D. - - - - - - 190 4, 5. Davenport’s Elgctro- Mienetic Noche Bane on Electro-Magnetism, - - - - - - - 193 6. British Association for the Promotion of Science, - - 194 7. Notice of the effect of Solar Heat in raising a Balloon, - 196 8. Extract of a letter from Mr. Charles Fox, ‘relative to the motion of the melted grease in a candle while burning,” 198 . Supplement to Dr. Mease’s paper on Spontaneous Combus- tion, - - - - - - - - - - 199 11, 12. Another case of the Spontaneous Combustion of Virginia Coal—Meteor—Improved mode of constructing Magnets, - - - - - - - - - 200 14. Bones of the Mammoth—Newly discovered Ichnolites, 201 15, 16, 17. Hot Springs of Arkansaw, &c.—Fire bricks and hearth stones for furnaces—Edwardsite, - - - 202 18, 19. Lethea Geognostica—Elemente der technischen Chemie, 204 20. ey of Lt. Mather, - - - 205 - 21, 22. New Silk Worm—New Voyage Goand the World, - 206 23. sae - = - - - - = - - 207 24. Geological Society, - - - - - - - 208 25. Prof. Afzelius, - - - - - = - 211 . Postscript—Notice of an Aurora, - - - - - 242 a a ee a a, ale Art. I. Il. III, IV. CONTENTS. Vv NUMBER II. Page. A Description of a Magnetic Electrical Machine, in- - vented by E. M. CrarkE, - - - - - 213 Description of E. M. Cuarxe’s Electrepeter, - - 224 Some observations in Holland, connected with the Prai- rie region, - - - - - - - - 226 Description of an Air Pump of a new construction, which acts either as an Air Pump, or a Condenser, or as both; enabling the operator to exhaust, to condense, transfer a Gas from one cavity to another, or to pass it through a Liquid; by R. Harz, M. D., &ce. &c. - - 237 . Process for Nitric Ether, or Sweet Spirits of Nitre, by means of an approved apa ; by R. Hare, M. D., &e. &e., - - - - - - - 241 . On the Cause of the Collonse of a Reservoir while ap- parently subjected within to a great Pressure from a Head of Water; by R. Hare, M. D., &c. &e., - 242 VII. Sundry Improvements in Apparatus, or age ape eo by R. Hare, M. D., &c. &e., - - - 244 VIII. Notice of Oriental Minerals; by Prof. F. Hair sh the Editor, - - - - - - - - 249 IX. Meteoric Iron, = : - - - - - 257 X. On Natural Magic, - - - - - - 258 XI. Meteorological Sketches, - - - - - 261 . Seventh Meeting of the British Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, - - - - - 265 . Remarks on the occurrence of the Aurora Borealis in Summer; with an abstract of Huxham’s Auroral Reg- ister from 1728 to 1748; by Epwarp C. Herrick. 297 . Some account of two visits to the Mountains in Essex County, New York, in the years 1836 and 1837; with a Sketch of the Northern sources of the Hudson; by W.C. REDFIELD, - - - 301 XV. Contributions to English pemcoe ; i Prof. J. W. GIBBs, - = - - - - - 324 XVI. Lectures and Remarks of Dr. Gives MANTELL, - 328 XVII. Influence of the Great Lakes on our Autumnal Sunsets ; by Witiis GayLorp, - - - - - 335 XVIII. Some Remarks on the Genus Paradoxides of Brong- niart, and on the necessity of preserving the Genus Vl CONTENTS. Page. Triarthrus, proposed in the Monograph of the Trilobites of North America; by Prof. Jacozn Gresn, M. D., 341 XIX. Remarks on the Barometer, with a table of Meteorologi- cal Observations, made on board of the U.S. Ship Peacock, from July 8th, to August 17th, 1837, during a passage from Peru to the United States, by way of Cape Horn, reported by W. S. W. RuscHENnBER- cER, M. D., - - - - - - - 345 XX. Further proof of an annual Meteoric Shower in August, with remarks on Shooting Stars in general; by Ep- warp C. HERRICK, - - - - - - 304 XXI. On a large and very sensible Thermoscopic Galvanome- ter; by Prof. Joun Locke, M. D., - - - 365 XXII. Observations on a Hurricane which passed over Stow, in Ohio, October 20th, 1837; by Prof. Ext1as Loomis, 368 XXIII. Rotary ie ge Ca or Astatic Galvanometer ; by Cuas. G. Paces, M. D., - - - = - - 376 MISCELLANIES.—DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN. 1. On the Meteoric Shower of November, 1837, - - 379 2. Extraordinary case of electrical excitement, with preliminary remarks by the Editor, —- - - - : 2 394 3. Impressions of feet in rocks, - - E “dae 398 4. New locality of Iolite, with other minerals associated, - 399 5. Caoutchouc, - = = 2 4 a e r, 400 6. On Meteoric Showers in August, - - - - = 401 7, 8. Brilliant Meteor seen in the day time—A Synopsis of the family of Naiades, - - - “ - : c 402 9. Temperature of Lake Ontario, - - = : 4 403 10. Encrinite, Tufa, &c, ~ - - = J = Z i 405 11. Description of a new Trilobite, - - - - 3 A406 12. Difference between the English porcelain and that of Ger- many and of the continent, - - - - : 407 13. Mathematical, philosophical, and chemical instruments, 408 ERRATA. P. 21, 1.3 fr. bot. for June 11, 1811, read June 18, 1811.—P. 23, 1. 2 fr. top, for those read these.—P. 27, 1. 4 fr. top, for successively, read successfully.—P. 29, 1. 18 fr. bot. for Humphrey, read Humphry.—P. 305, 1.2 fr. top, for the American elk, read Cervus Alces, L.. VoL. XXXII. P. 305, 1. 4 fr. top, for bevel read level; 1.3 fr. bot. after wre, add— The num- ber of divisions was then taken where the arms met.”—P. 346, 1. 21 fr. top, for Collitelus, read Callitelus. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. Arr. I.—Examination of the Theory of a Resisting Medium, in which it is assumed that the Planets and Comets of our System are moved; by R. W. Hasxus, of Buffalo, N. Y. In all ages, when astronomy has been cultivated, the opinion seems to have been entertained, in some one or more of its numer- ous forms and modifications, that the regions around us, beyond our atmosphere, and to an indefinite extent, are supplied with a rare, invisible medium, of unknown composition and character, m which all the bodies of our solar system, and perhaps the bodies of all other systems also, in executing the several motions assigned them, are necessitated to move. ‘To this substance the name of ether has usually been applied; and by this name we propose to designate it, while we examine into its history, the evidences of its existence, and its effects. ‘The period at which this celestial ether was intro- duced into the science of astronomy, no less than the race of people by whom it was effected, is probably beyond the reach of inquiry : we know only that in the most remote periods of the history of that science, we find it constituting a prominent part of the celestial mechanism. The Bramins, of India, whose astronomical tables, constructed more than three thousand years before the Christian era, are still preserved to us,(1) assumed its existence, and figura- tively supposed the stars to move themselves therein, in a manner (1) Bailly, Traite de ’Astronomie Indienne et Orientale: Prof. Playfair’s works, articles Astronomy of the Bramins, and Trigonometry of do.; Hutton’s - History of Algebra, and Rev. S. Vince’s complete System of Astronomy, Vol. 2, p. 252. Vou. XX XITI.—No. 1. 1 Q Examination of the Theory of a Resisting Medium. similar to the movement of fish in water.(2) The name by which it was known to them is akash; and Mr. Dow, in his dissertation | upon the religion of the Bramins, defines it to be ‘a celestial ele- ment, pure and impalpable, in which the planets move.” ‘This element,” he continues, ‘‘ according to Bedang, offers no resistance ; so that the planets have moved uninterruptedly therein, from their first impulsion which they received from the hand of Brama; and they will not be arrested until the moment when he shall seize them in the midst of their course.’”(3) The Chaldeans, also, held this opinion, and in the figurative language of the East were wont to represent the planets, including the sun, the earth and the moon, as vessels moving therein, and suited to such navigation.(4) Alhazen, an Arabian optician of the eleventh century, taught the existence of ether, which he designated ‘‘ the substance of heaven,” and he sup- posed it situated beyond, and differing in character from, our atmos- phere.(5) Tycho Brahe reinstated the ether of the ancients in all its rights. But though he regarded it as existent, he denied to it the power of causing refraction, which he attributed solely to the grosser vapours of our atmosphere. Whatever may be the difference in the natures of these two fluids, says he, the atmosphere so dimin- ishes in density upward, that at the point where it touches the ether it differs little from it.(6) Kepler, in following the crowd who had gone before him, revived this theory, in his day, and turned the substance in question to good account in framing some of the absurd theories which he put forth, along with his immortal: discoveries. In seeking the origin of comets, he supposed them native inhabit- ants of this ether, as fishes are of the waters of the earth; and that God created them to inhabit the immense spaces of the universe, as he did whales and other monsters to people the vast solitudes of the ocean. The sombre and bloody appearance which the sun sometimes exhibits he attributed to a coagulation of the ether; and when these appearances ceased, that result was produced by a col- lection of the grosser portions, which had disturbed its transparency, and their conversion into comets.(7) (2) Bailly, Histoire de Astronomie Ancienne, p. 115. (3) Bailly, Traite de ’ Astronomie Indienne et Orientale, p.206. The work of Mr. Dow we have not seen. (4) Bailly, Histoire de ’Astronomie Ancienne, p. 139. (5) Bailly, Histoire de l’Astronomie Moderne, tome 1, p. 238. (6) Ibid. tome 1, p. 404. (7) Ibid. tome 2, p. 124. Examination of the Theory of a Resisting Medium. 3 Through the long period of time embraced by these references, we see the existence of this fluid matter every where accredited ; yet so vague and indefinite do all ideas respecting it appear to have been, that rigid investigation of its character or necessity seems to have been quite neglected; and even its practical utility, so far as we know, was but very limitedly considered. But we are now to enter upon a new era, and that a very important one, in the history of this fluid; for we are to see it elevated from the subordinate sta- tion hitherto assigned it, to that of a primary agent in carrying out the great motions of the universe. This application was the off- spring of the genius of Descartes. The conception was a sublime one which dared to identify the law of the general. movement of the universe, with that of the movement of terrestrial bodies: and this is due to Descartes. His vortices are a bad explanation of gravity and of the system of the world, but they are mechanical. He discovered that the same mechanism moved bodies in the celes- tial spaces and at the surface of the earth; and if he was not able to seize this mechanism, we should not forget that this new and sublime thought was of his conception.(8) According to this phi- losopher “ matter, possessed only of the properties of extension, im- penetrability and inertia, was supposed to fill all space, and its parts, both great and small, to be endued with motion in an infinite variety of directions. From the combination of these, the rectilineal motion of the parts became impossible; the atoms or particles of matter were continually diverted from the lines in which they had begun to move; so that circular motion and centrifugal force originated from their action on one another. Thus matter came to be formed into a multitude of vortices, differing in extent, in velocity and den- sity; the more subtile parts constituting the real vortex, in which the denser bodies float, and by which they are pressed, though not equally, on all sides. Thus the universe consists of a multitude of vortices, which limit and circumscribe one another. ‘The earth and the planets are bodies carried round in the great vortex of the solar system; and by the pressure of the subtile matter, which cir- culates with great rapidity, and great centrifugal force, the denser bodies, which have less rapidity, and less centrifugal force, are forced down toward the sun, the centre of the vortex. In like (8) Bailly, Histoire de ?Astronomie Ancienne, Discours Preliminaire; and Playfair on Mathematical and Physical Science. 4 Examination of the Theory of a Resisting Medium. e . manner, each planet is itself the centre of a smaller vortex, by the subtile matter of which the phenomena of gravity are produced, just as with us at the surface of the earth.”(9) In this system of phi- losophy, if such it may be called, the agency of the ether, in causing and sustaining the planetary motions, is indispensable ; and when we consider how universal was the belief, by all learned and scientifick men, in this doctrine, for more than half a century, we find a ready excuse for the opinion of the less informed upon the subject. For more than thirty years after the publication of Newton’s discoveries, this absurd doctrine of vortices kept its ground in France, Germany, and in the universities of England and Scotland. It was finally driven out of the Cambridge University, in England, by a friend of Newton’s publishing, in 1718, an edition of their Cartesian text book, with notes, embracing the truths which Newton had disclosed. These gradually undermined the doctrine of Descartes, and finally caused its expulsion.(10) ‘This, however, was a work of time; and the absurdities in question were not generally, or even in any con- siderable degree, driven from the colleges and learned societies of Europe, before about the year 1720.(11) When the errours of Descartes were finally removed from the schools, and from the minds of philosophers, they gave place to the Copernican system of the universe, as rigidly demonstrated by New- ton, upon the basis of the laws'of Kepler. By this system, and these demonstrations, the celestial revolutions are shown to be carried on independently of all assistance from the ether; and the agency of that fluid was consequently no longer demanded. But, though thus discarded from all participation in planetary motion, a belief in (9) Playfair on Mathematical and Physical Science, part 1, Sec. 4, Art. 4. (10) Ibid. part 2, Sec. 4. (11) It is, then, no more than about one hundred and seventeen years since even the learned world became sane upon the grand outline, alone, of the celestial mechanism. Three of the colleges of our own country were founded prior to that date, namely, Harvard, in 1638; William and Mary, in 1693; and Yale, in 1700. At that early period of our history, and with the professors’ chairs, in these institutions, generally occupied by Eurepean scholars, we can hardly suppose wide deviations, in the doctrines taught, from the received opinions in Europe; and consequently, without any direct proof at hand, upon this point, we from ne- cessity infer that the New World has just claims to a portion of whatever of re- nown or reproach may rightfully attach to the inculcation of the Cartesian doc- trine of the universe, at so late a day; and that, for a period of eighty years, this was gravely taught and believed at one, and for shorter periods at two other of the colleges of our infant country. Examination of the Theory of a Resisting Medium. 5 the existence of this fluid was still retained by Newton, who sought to employ it ina new capacity. ‘ And now we might add some- thing concerning a certain most subtile spirit, which pervades and hes hid in all gross bodies; by the force and action of which spirit, the particles of bodies mutually attract one another at near distances, and cohere if contiguous; and electrick bodies operate to greater dis- tances, as well repelling as attracting the neighbouring corpuscles ; and light is emitted, reflected, refracted, inflected, and heats bod- ies.”(12) He furthermore supposed that this substance is spread through all the heavens; and when for lack of demonstration, un- certainty arose in his mind, he thus queried: ‘Is not this medium much rarer within the dense bodies of the sun, stars, planets and comets, than in the empty celestial spaces between them? And in passing from them to great distances, doth it not grow denser and denser perpetually, and thereby cause the gravity of those great bodies towards one another, and of their parts towards the bodies ; every body endeavouring to go from the denser parts’ of the medium towards the rarer?’’(13) In 1762 the Academy of Sciences, of Paris, proposed, for a prize, the question, ‘‘ Do the planets revolve in a medium of which the resistance produces a sensible effect upon their movements?” . For this prize M. Pabbé Bossut was the successful competitor. His cal- culations showed him that the effect of resistance, offered to the planets, would be to diminish the axis of their orbits, and conse- quently to shorten their periods of revolution. An acceleration in the movements of the moon had been observed, which was without explanation, and on applying his reasonings to the motions of this planet he satisfied himself that the observed acceleration was due to the resistance of ether, encountered by the moon, in traversing her orbit. The sum of that resistance he measured; and this theory being equally applicable to all the planets, he extended it to them all, and subjected each to the resisting influence of the ether.(14) The tails of comets were objects of early attention; and it was remarked, both by Fracastor and Apian, that the tail of the comet (12) Newton’s Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, vol. 2, p. 393. The copy of Newton to which all references in this article are made is the Eng- lish translation, by Andrew Motte, 12 mo. edition, in two vols. London, 1729. (13) Newton’s Opticks, third edition, London, 1721, p. 325. (14) Bailly, Histoire de l Astronomie Moderne, tome 3, p. 237; and Bossut, His- toire des Mathematiques, tome 2, p. 409. 6 Examination of the Theory of a Resisting Medium. of 1531, and those of two subsequent ones, were all directed op- posite to the sun.(15) Pingré subsequently supposed that these tails are formed of the most subtile portions of the comet’s atmosphere, greatly rarefied by the sun, and driven to the side opposite the sun, by the resistance of the ether; aided, perhaps, by the solar rays.(16) This direction of comets’ tails, as laid down by Fracastor and Apian, seems to have been very universally adopted. Newton says the tails of comets arise from their heads, and tend towards the parts opposite to the sun.(17) Bazlly adopts the same opinion, in strong language, namely, that the tails are always opposite the sun.(18) Delambre is equally unreserved. He says the tail of a comet is always opposite the sun, or in prolongation of the radius vector of the sun and the comet.(19) Laplace calls them trains of vapour, always situated on the other side of the heads of comets, rel- atively to the sun.(20) Vince says comets are surrounded by a dense atmosphere, and from the side opposite the sun they send forth a tail.(21) Bonnycastle denominates them fiery tails, which continually issue from that side of the comets which is farthest from the sun.(22) Brewster states that when a comet is near its peri- helion, it is accompanied with a tail or train of light, directly oppo- site the sun.(23) Morse avows that comets are usually attended with a long train of light, always opposite to the sun.(24) Prof. Farrar, of Harvard, describes the trains, and adds, their direction is always opposite to the:sun.(25) - The younger Herschel describes the nu- cleus, and adds that from the head, and in a direction opposite to that in which the sun is situated from the comet, appear to diverge two streams of light, constituting the tail.(26) Sustained by the high standing and great numerical force of these authorities, the po- sition here assumed has quite regularly found credence and a place (15) Delambre, Histoire de ’Astronomie du Moyen Age, p. 390 et 393. (16) Delambre, Histoire de ’Astronomie du Dix Huiti¢me Siécle, p. 680. The work of Pingré, namely, Comééographie, we have not seen. (17) Math. Prin. of Nat. Phil. (vide note 12,) vol. 2, p. 364. (18) Histoire de lAstronomie Moderne, tome 2, p. 549. (19) Astronomie Theorique et Practique, tome 3, p. 401. (20) Systeme du Monde, p. 128. (21) Complete System of Astronomy, vol. 1, p. 444. (22) An Introduction to Astronomy, p. 44. 4 (23) Edinburgh Encyclopedia. (24) American Universal Geography, vol. 1, p. 32. (25) Cambridge course of Natural Philosophy, fourth part, p. 306. (26) A treatise on Astronomy, first published in 1833; American edition, p. 284. Examination of the Theory of a Resisting Medium. 7 in the numerous works of subordinate authors; msomuch that. we have pretty uniformly recognized it in the elementary works upon astronomy that we have examined in the English language.(27) The cause assigned for this direction of comets’ trains, by Pingreé, namely, the resistance of the ether, appears not to have found much favour in the minds of his successors ; consequently we find, in gen- eral, the expression employed, namely, ‘‘impulston of the sun’s rays,” to denote both the agent and the manner of that agent’s ac- tion, in producing this result. Great additional impulse has, within a few years, been given to the theory of a resisting medium by the detailed and able paper of Prof. Encke, upon the observed decrease of the times of revolution of the comet which bears the name of that astronomer. This pa- per has been translated into English, and is more or less extensively quoted by almost every writer who has employed his pen upon ce- lestial motions, since the date of its appearance. ‘The author says: “‘If I may be permitted to express my opinion on a subject whieh, for twelve years, has incessantly occupied me, in treating which I have avoided no method, however circuitous, no kind of verification, in order to reach the truth, as far as it Jay in my power; I can- not consider it otherwise than completely established, that an ex- traordinary correction is necessary for Pons’ [Eincke’s] comet, and equally certain that the principal part of it consists in an increase of the mean motion proportionate to the time.”(28) Dr. Bowditch, by reference to the memoir of Encke, supposes the existence of a re- sisting medium highly probable, as there disclosed, in the motions of Encke’s comet, in its successive appearances between the years 1786, and 1829.(29) | Arago, of the Royal Observatory, at Paris, in an es- say, in 1832, fully recognizes this resisting medium, on the author- ity of Encke, and dwells at considerable length upon its effects.(30) M. Gautier assumes that, results obtained in 1828, from the move- ment of Encke’s comet, accord with those which Encke had previ- ously procured, and which induced him, (Encke,) in 1823 to sup- pose the existence of a medium or ethereal fluid, in space, of which the resistance, acting as a tangential force against the motion of the comet, would augment the power of the sun, and shorten the period (27) Some of the recent French works, of a similar character, constitute ex- ceptions to this rule. (28) Prof. Encke’s Memoir, as quoted in the American Almanack, 1834. (29) Mécanique Céleste, (Bowditch,) translator’s note, vol. 3, p. 678. (30) Tract on Comets, by Arago, translated into English, by Prof. Farrar, Bos- ton; 1832. 8 Examination of the Theory of a Resisting Medium. of revolution.(31) ‘The younger Herschel refers to Encke’s me- moir; admits its conclusions, if the premises shall be found valid, and adds: ‘accordingly, (no other mode of accounting for the phenomenon appearing,) this is the solution proposed by Encke, and generally received.”’(32) Mrs. Somerville, adverting, also, to Encke’s memoir, deems the existence of resisting ether rendered “all but certain, within a few years, by the motion of comets ;” and this insinuated negation she quite recalls some eight pages afterwards, by substituting the emphatick words, ‘ which puts the existence of ether beyond a doubt.” The same pen not only prophesies that by this resistance, comets will be finally precipitated upon the sun, but also that ‘‘ the same cause may affect the motions of the planets, and be ultimately the means of destroying the solar system.”(33) Upon this memoir of Encke, theological arguments have been founded, having for their object to prove the destruction of the so- lar system, through the agency of this ether; and so certain has that result been considered, upon this authority, that the most posi- tive forms of expression have been employed in pointing to such a consummation.(34) It is believed that we have assembled, above, the leading facts and arguments upon the affirmative of the position of a resisting medium to the planets, so far as to embrace all that is requisite and necessary for a clear understanding and subsequent impartial investigation of the question. ‘The method of division incident to this arrangement has been adopted in the belief that such arrangement would afford a view, more distinct than any other, of the entire question. We proceed, then, to subject the several positions and arguments to ex- amination, in the order of their occurrence. The evidences, if any, upon which the Bramins and the Chalde- ans founded their belief in the existence of this ether, not having come down to us, the reasons for their faith are placed: beyond im- vestigation: nor are we better circumstanced in relation to the opin- ions of Alhazen, Tycho Brahe, and some others who, while they supposed such ether to occupy the celestial regions, gave no de- monstration of the fact, nor made-application of it to any of the (31) Silliman’s Journal of Science, vol. 17, p. 389. (32) A Treatise on Astronomy, American ed. p. 291. (33) Mrs. Somerville on the connection of the Physical Sciences. (34) Astronomy and General Physicks, considered with reference to: Natural Theology (one of the Bridgewater treatises) by the Rev. W. Whewell, of Trinity College, Cambridge. — a Examination of the Theory of a Resisting Medium. 9 known purposes of the universe. The opinions of Kepler, upon this subject, may not have received less c.edence, in the day they were uttered, than did his discovery of the fundamental laws of the celestial movements ; but they were promptly consigned to oblivion by the subsequent revelation that comets, no less than planets, be- long to our solar system, and move in ellipses more or less elonga- ted, about the sun, obeying the same laws as the grosser planets. _ Of Descartes’ system, and of its fate, we have spoken. ‘That sys- tem was undermined by the discovery and application of the law of universal gravitation; and as this ether constituted all that was most essential to the Cartesian doctrine, the celestial motions were no sooner found to be carried on independently of its aid, than the whole theory was abandoned. Newton, himself, as we have seen, applied this substance, under the name of “a most subtile spirit,” to the production of certain results, in his Principles of Natural Phi- losophy, and again in his Opticks. The passages we have quoted. These positions appear to have had their origin in a desire so to ex- plain the doctrine of gravitation as to free it from the implied asser- tion that bodies act in places where they are not—a form of attack which the metaphysicians chose to employ against it. Yet this was but subjecting the question to new difficulties; as there is nothing like a satisfactory explanation of gravity in the existence of this elas- tick ether. ‘True, a fluid disposed as Newton has assumed, would urge bodies in the direction he supposed ; but what could maintain this fluid m the condition of its density varying according to the as- sumed law, is as inexplicable as the gravity it was meant to explain. The nature of such a fluid, if unrestrained, must be to equalize the density of all its parts, to the destruction of this hypothesis.(35) That Newton did not consider gravity inherent in matter is manifest from the passages under consideration; and he most fully states this, in words, in one of his letters to Dr. Bentley, as quoted by Prof. Playfair. Yet how he should have supposed he had escaped its ne- ~ cessity by his resort to the agency of this ether—since it is clearly for this purpose that he sought its aid—may well be deemed inexpli- cable. ‘If two particles of matter, at opposite extremities of the di- ameter of the earth, attract one another, this effect is just as little in- telligible, and the modus agendi is just as mysterious, on the sup- position that the whole globe of the earth is interposed, as on that of nothing, whatever, being interposed, or of a complete vacuum (35) Playfair on Math. and Phys. Science, pt. 2, sec. 4. Vout. XXXIII.—No. 1. 2 10 Examination of the Theory of a Resisting Medium. existing between them. It is not enough that each particle attracts that in contact with it; it must attract the particles that are distant, and the intervention of particles between them does not render this at all more intelligible.”(36) We may close this point of investi- gation, by arraying Newton against himself. Notwithstanding the force with which Newton supposed bodies to be urged by the une- qual density of the ether, in certain directions, yet, when treating of the tails of comets, his language is, “from whence, again, we have another argument proving the celestial spaces to be free and without resistance, since in them not only the solid bodies of the planets and comets, but also the extremely rare vapours of comets’ tails maintain their rapid motions with great freedom, and for an ex- ceeding long time,’’(37) 'To such and kindred anomalies have the greatest minds been occasionally subject, in all ages. We have seen that, in 1762, this theory of resistance had so far commanded attention that the French Academy offered, in that year, a prize for the best examination of it; and we have also seen upon what evidences this prize was awarded. ‘The results of the most careful modern observation, compared with those of a very ancient date, including some eclipses observed at Babylon, as early as 719, 720, and 721 years before the Christian era, show very clearly that the period of the moon’s revolution is shorter in modern than in those remote ages.(38) This acceleration, Dr. Halley, the English astronomer, in.1695, believed to exist, and declared his conviction that he could demonstrate the fact.(39) A more detailed and ex- tensive labour of comparison was subsequently performed by the Rev. Richard Dunthorne, who, in 1749, published its results, and veri- fied the truth of the suspicions of his predecessor.(40) It was the cause of this acceleration which the French Academy demanded, in 1762. M. Pabbé Bossut sought that cause in the resistance of ether; and believing he had discovered it there, he made such re- turns of his labours to the Academy, that the proffered prize was awarded him: nor was the errour into which he had fallen, discov- (36) Playfair on Math. and Phys. Science, pt. 2, Sec. 4. See, also, preface to Newton, by Roger Cotes. (37) Math. Prin. of Nat. Phil. (vide note 12,).vol. 2, p. 369. (38) Delambre, l’Astronomie au Dix-Huitiéme Siécle, p. 597, note de V’editeur. (39) Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, abridgment by Hutton, Shaw and Pearson, vol. 4,p.65. All references to the transactions of this Society, made in the course of this article, will be to the same edition here designated. ‘ . (40) Ibid. vol. 9, p. 669, and onward. Examination of the Theory of a Resisting Medium. — 11 ered for almost a quarter of a century afterwards. In 1786, how- ever, the true cause was revealed. In that year M. le Marquis de Laplace discovered both the cause and the law of this accelera- tion. He demonstrated that it is produced by the action of the sun upon the moon ; that it varies with the eccentricity of the terrestrial orbit, and consequently that such acceleration is a necessary result of the law of universal gravitation.(41) In a chapter founded upon the assumed possibility of a resisting ethereal fluid, Laplace says: ‘¢ Hence it follows, that the resistance of the ether can become sen- sible, in the moon’s mean motion only. Ancient and modern ob- servations evidently prove that the mean motions of the moon’s perigee and nodes are subject to very sensible secular inequalities. The secular motion of the perigee, deduced from the comparison of ancient and modern observations, is less by eight or nine sexa- gesimal minutes, than that which results from the comparison of the observations made in the last century. This phenomenon, of which no doubt can remain, must, therefore, depend upon some other cause than the resistance of ether. We have seen that it depends on the variation of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit; and, as the secular equations resulting from that variation satisfy, completely, all the ancient and modern observations, we may conclude that the acceleration, produced by the resistance of an ethereal fluid, on the moon’s mean motion, is yet insensible.”(42) Again: “ the accord- ance of theory with observation proves to us that if the mean move- ments of the moon are- varied by causes foreign to the law of uni- versal gravity, their influence is so small as not yet to have become sensible.’”’(43) The errour of Fracastor and Apian, in regard to the uniform di- rection of the tails of comets, has enjoyed an extent of credence not often secured to a false position. Although a direction nearly in prolongation of the radius vector of the sun and the comet is not unusual for these tails, yet observations very early furnished excep- tions enough to destroy the rule which has been so long adhered to in this particular. If, as Pingré supposed, the resistance of ether has any agency in producing these tails, we should always expect them to be situated behind the nucleus, relatively to the comet’s actual motion, without relation to the position of the sun: but this (41) Delambre, l’Astronomie au Dix-Huitiéme Siécle; p. 598. (42) Mecanique Celeste, (Bowditch,) vol. 3, p. 694. (43) Systeme du Monde, p. 229. 12 Examination of the Theory of a Resisting Medium. is not so. Indeed they form so many different angles, both in re- gard to the comet’s line of motion, and to the relative position of the sun, that no settled fact seems deducible from the circumstance of their direction. Flamsted, in his account of a comet which he observed at Greenwich, in May, 1677, is at the pains to state that its tail was not directed in a line opposite the sun, but deviated there- from at an angle of ten degrees.(44) Hevelius, of a comet he ob- served, in 1682, says, ‘‘sometimes its tail was directed pretty ex- actly in opposition to the sun, as August 30, in the morning; but often with a considerable deviation, as is usual in most comets.”(45) The great comet of 1744 had, at one time, no less than six distinct tails, spread out like a fan. ‘They were each about 4° broad; and the space between these several tails was as dark as the rest of the heavens. ‘There exist. other examples of the tails of comets which have separated into several branches.(46) Newton cites two com- ets, the tails of which deviated from a right line joining the sun and comet, one ten, and the other no less than twenty one degrees.(47) The comet which appeared in January, 1824, besides the usual tail, opposite the sun, had another directed from the nucleus of the comet towards the sun. ‘‘'The singular form of this comet,” says the nar- rator, ‘‘adds new difficulties to the problem by which it has been explained, in a manner quite satisfactory, that the impulsion of the sun’s rays is the principal cause of comets’ tails always taking a di- rection opposite to the sun.”’(48) Much that has been written upon the cause, nature and character of these peculiar appendages of com- ets, appears to have been based entirely upon assumed-data. Such authority is alike unsafe and detrimental. ‘The views of Arago are more sane, and therefore more valuable. ‘‘ Kepler supposed the formation of the tails of comets was the result of the impulsion of the solar rays, which detached from the head of the comet the lighter portions of that body, and removed them to a distance beyond it. To render this explanation admissible it is necessary to prove that the solar rays are endowed with an impulsive force; for the most (44) Philos. Trans. of the Royal Society, (vide note 39;) vol. 2, p. 394. (45) Ibid. p. 559. (46) Delambre, l’Astronomie au dix-Huitiéme Siecle, p. 680; et Delambre, Astronomie Théorique et Practique, tome 3, planche. Also, Arago, tract on Comets, Farrar’s translation. (47) Math. Prin. (vide note 12,) vol. 2, pp. 360 and 364. (48) Jambon, Nouveau cours démonstratif et elémentaire d’Astronomie, p. 330, et 331. Examination of the Theory of a Resisting Medium. 18 delicate experiments have hitherto failed to render such force per- ceptible. ‘This force shown and admitted, it will still remain to be demonstrated why the tail is not always situated opposite to the sun ; why there are sometimes several tails, making, one with another, so great angles ; why they form and again vanish, in so short periods of time; why some of them have a rapid rotary motion; and finally, why some comets, of which the envelope seems very light and deli- cate, exhibit no trace of this appendage. A crowd of other theories, more or less ingenious, have been proposed ; but they all equally fail to explain the phenomena.”’(49) The enormous length to which these tails have sometimes at- tained, has given rise to theories no less fanciful, nor yet more phi- losophical, respecting the consequences of such elongation. New- ton supposed that the extremely distant portions of these tails could never be recalled, by attraction, to the nucleus of the comet, but inust be scattered through the heavens, to be subsequently gathered to the different planets by attraction, and mingled with their atmos- pheres, to be there appropriated to supply the waste of matter spent upon vegetation, &c.(50) Laplace, the younger Herschel, and some others among the moderns, have assumed that portions of comets’ tails are, at each revolution, “ scattered in space,” and that, consequently, these bodies are continually wasting away. So in- definite a phrase seems not well calculated to convey any idea of facts; for we must suppose the matter of these tails, however elon- gated from the nucleus of the comets, will still obey the laws of gravitation to those bodies, unless brought within the stronger at- traction of some other body: and in either case no dissemination of matter would take place. But the diminution of comets from loss of matter, by any cause, seems not well sustained. It is true that Arago, in 1832, fully concurred in this view; and hence advised us that in the then approaching return of Halley’s comet we must not expect to behold so brilliant a body as the same had been at former periods of its return to the sun.(51) But this opinion of that as- tronomer he did not find supported by the actual appearance of Halley’s comet, in 1835; and this fact he has promptly announced. He has, also, collectively presented what has come down to us of the apparent size, length of tail, &c. of Halley’s comet at its various (49) Arago, Lecons d’Astronomie Professées 4 |’Observatoire Royal, p. 207—8. (50) Math. Prin. (vide note 12,) vol. 2, p. 371. (51) Tract on Comets. 14. Examination of the Theory of a Resisting Medium. former apparitions ; and contrasted this with the results of the care- ful and accurate observations upon the same body, made at various points, during its last appearance. At the close of these he adds: “‘TIf the reader will take the trouble to compare what I record of the comet of 1835 with the circumstances of its former apparitions, he certainly will not find in this collection of phenomena, the proof that Halley’s comet is gradually diminishing. I will even say that if, in a matter so delicate, observations made at very different periods of the year, will authorize any positive deduction, that which would most distinctly result from the two passages of 1759 and 1835, would be that the comet had increased in size during that interval. I ought to seize, with the more eagerness, this occasion to combat an errour extensively accredited, (a belief in the constant wasting away of com- ets,) because I believe | have somewhat contributed to its dissemina- tion.”(52) This review of the theory of the diminution of comets, otherwise foreign to our subject, seemed demanded by the assumption of some that matter thus lost from these bodies will remain diffused through the celestial regions, of course offering constant obstruction to the progressive motion of the planets and comets. How such matter is to be maintained in this state of diffusion, has not, so far as we know, been explained; nor is it easy for us to conceive how - the body resisted or encountered by it shall be prevented from ap- propriating it to itself, by adding it to its own mass.(53) Comets, from their great volumes, as compared with their masses, have justly been considered, of all celestial bodies, the most neces- sarily subject to the action of any resisting medium there may be in the regions in which they are moved. They are known to be sub- ject to great disturbances, in their orbits, by the attraction of the (52) Arago, Sur la derniére apparition de la cométe de Halley; Annuaire, pour Van 1836. (53) The following “ poetical license” occurs in the younger Herschel’s Treat- ise on Astronomy, a late work, now used in some of the schools of this country. It contrasts very strangely with the really sane and valuable portions of that work, and it would hardly be supposed possible that it is from the same pen with these. The author is treating of Zodiacal light, upon which he thus fancifully expresses himself. ‘It is manifestly in the nature of a thin, lenticularly-formed at- mosphere, surrounding the sun, and extending at least beyond the orbit of Mer- eury and even Venus, and may be conjectured to be no other than the denser parts of that medium, which, as we have reason to believe, resists the motion of comets; loaded, perhaps, with the actual materials of the tails of millions of those bodies, of which they have been stripped, in their successive perihelion passages, and which may be slowly subsiding into the sun”! Examination of the Theory of a Resisting Medium. 15 planets of the solar system; and revolving as they do in ellipses of great eccentricity, many of these bodies having their aphelions at such immense distances as are not readily appreciable, by any of our methods of computation, their motions are much less subject to rigorous demonstration than those of the planets.(54) Still so much confidence had Prof. Encke in the conclusions he had been able to draw, in the paper we have mentioned, that the movements of all these bodies which have been visible since its publication have been observed with increased care and assiduity ; while the most rigid investigations of their former movements have not been overlooked. According to Prof. Encke, the comet which bears his name, in its several revolutions, between 1786 and 1819, exhibited a mean de- crease in the times of those revolutions. Now, as resistance, from an ethereal medium, would have the effect, by diminishing the velo- city of the comet, to lessen its centrifugal force, and thus force it down nearer the sun, it follows that precisely the result which Encke observed, would be the effect of such resistance. ‘To the agency of ether, therefore, was this diminution ascribed, though not until after all other circumstances which were supposed to have had any agency in the result had been carefully considered. SBiela’s comet, or the comet of six years.and three quarters, was also observed with refer- ence to this action of resisting ether; as was, finally, the comet of Halley, whose last disappearance was in 1836. ‘These three are the only ones, of all that have been seen, whose recular, periodical return is known, at the present day. The acceleration in the mean motion of Encke’s comet if not due to the resistance of ether, is still unexplained. Biela’s comet, in its return, in 1832, was also retard- ed, ‘but it throws new perplexity upon the question of a resisting medium. Encke and Gauss find a diminution of nine tenths of a day (54) Too many authors of just renown, have overlooked perspicuity, and writ- ten vaguely, upon this point. Brewster, (Encyclopedia,) has not wholly escaped the charge of sacrificing philosophical accuracy to euphony, in the following: “ Traversing unseen the remote portion of its orbit, the comet wheels its ethereal course far beyond the limits of our system. What regions it there visits, or upon what destination it is sent, the limited powers of man are unable to discover. ~ Af- ter the lapse of years, we perceive it again returning to our system, and tracing a portion of the same orbit round the sun, which it had formerly described.” If it leave the sphere of our sun’s attraction must it not of necessity, gravitate to some other body, and be thus prevented from ever returning? Laplace, (Systeme du Monde,) has been more careful. ‘ Innumerable comets, after having approached | the sun, are elongated from it to such distances as to prove that its empire extends much beyond the known limits of our planetary system.” 16 Examination of the Theory of a Resisting Medium. in. the observed duration of its period, due to this resistance. Valz, from the computations of Damoiseau, finds this diminution to be eight tenths. Prof. Santini, frorm his own elements finds four tenths, while Encke’s formula and constant, for computing this acceleration, only accounts for a diminution of three hundredths of a day. ‘The mean of the three results would show that Biela’s comet experiences the resistance of a medium twenty-five times as powerful as that which is encountered by Encke’s comet.”(55) Halley’s comet re- mains to be noticed. We have seen that the two above were accelerated, though very unequally, the cause of which was sup- posed to be the resisting ether. . But .Halley’s comet, in its return to its perihelion, in 1835, was, from some cause, detained beyond its time for arriving at that point—a result directly opposite to that in the case of the other two bodies. <‘‘In traversing a resisting ether the comet of Halley would have arrived at its perihelion, in 1835, sooner than if moving in a void; now on the contrary, according to the calculations of M. Rosenberg, that body, by observation, was stx days behind its time, according to the results of calculations dis- connected from any allowance for the action of resisting ether. The difference, though much less, found by M. Pontecoulant, is of the same kind! Hitherto, then, the last appearance of Halley’s comet has added nothing to our knavlexe of the poy constitution of the celestial spaces.” (56) We have said the acceleration of these bodies is unaccounted for: so is the retardation; but we shall presently see whether other agents than ether may, within the bounds of probability, be supposed to give rise to these. Clairaut, in announcing to the French Acad- emy, in 1758, that the then expected return of Halley’s comet would be retarded six hundred and eighteen days beyond its previous pe- riod, by the combined action of Jupiter and Saturn, adds that, “a body which traverses regions so elongated from the sun, and which escapes, for so long periods, from our view, may be subject to forces totally unknown; such as the action of other comets, or even of planets, so distant from the sun as to have remained hitherto un- discovered.”’(57) Uranus was unknown until 1781, twenty three years after this announcement; and four other planets, belonging to our system, have been discovered within the present century—in all ——— (55) S.C. Walker, Preface to Herschel’s Astron, | (56) Arago, Annuaire, pour l’an 1836. (57) Laplace, Systeme du Monde, p. 214. Examination of the Theory of a Resisting Medium. 17 five since Clairaut penned his suggestion. ‘The masses of the sev- eral planets, upon which so much, depends in these investigations, appear more or less imperfectly known. Laplace gives the follow- ing table of them, that of the sun being taken for unity.(58) Mercury, : : : he ig BOESTIS Venus, . : : A 4 : a The Earth, . : ; : é asesee Mars sah. ; L R ‘ aa Jupiter, . ‘ : ; : : oo Saturn, . : : : : : a Uranus, : : : : : coh Pontecoulant, from the same unit, gives the several masses of the same planets thus: Mercury, : : , a ere TooSTO Venus, . ss A : a & aease The Earth, . : aires : Snes Warsi ere : é ‘ : Sendase Jupiter, - : : ; : TUEa TET Saturn, B ‘ é 4 : : aise Uranus, 3 . l : aa These values, says our author, appear to us the most exact which have hitherto been obtained of the planetary masses. It will be observed that these two tables agree only in the masses of Saturn and Uranus ; and of these Pontecoulant says it is very probable they need correcting, and that observations to determine that fact are in progress.(59) This was in 1834. Since that period this great geometrician has had cause to change his views in relation to some of these values. In calculating the perturbations of Halley’s comet, he has made use of the following values, namely :(60) Jupiter, . BV Ne s : 2 575,05 Saturn, . ‘ A , i if eed The Earth, . : : é 0) pedese These values, it will be seen, do not accord with those in either of the above tables. In the calculations here referred to, the action of Venus, Mercury and Mars was neglected as insensible. But 2 German geometrician, Rosenberg, on the contrary, has announced - (58) Laplace, Systéme du Monde, p. 210- (59) Théorie Analytique du Systéme du Monde, tome 3, p. 341, et suiv. (60) Connaissance des Tems, pour l’an 1838. Vou. XX XIII.—WNo. 1. 3 18 Examination of the Theory of a Resisting Medium. that the action of these three bodies, neglected as insensible by Pontecoulant, was sufficient to produce an acceleration of six days and one third in the return of Halley’s comet.(61) With all these uncertainties respecting the larger known planets of our system, we must not forget that the masses of the four new planets are in no degree known, beyond the fact that, compared with some of the older ones, they are very small. But still, small as they are, they are probably capable of exercising an influence, according to relative position, distance, &c. upon bodies as easily disturbed as comets ; and yet no sane attempt at a demonstration of the amount of such influence can be made, in the present state of our knowlege, for want of the necessary data. Brewster, in endeavoring to account for the lost comet of 1770, “supposed, what indeed the subsequent investigations of Laplace have rendered wholly improbable, namely, that one of these new planets had arrested that body in its course, and added it to its own mass.(62) We have seen that the mass of Uranus, as well as of other planets, is unsettled: the number of its satellites is equally so. Herschel enumerates six. Laplace says powerful telescopes are necessary to perceive the second and the fourth, and that the published observations of Herschel upon the other four are too few to determine the elements of their orbits, or even incontestibly to assure us of their existence.(63) The younger Herschel says, of these satellites, “two undoubtedly exist, and four more have been suspected.” (64) The immense periods of time consumed by some comets in per- forming their stated revolutions, are sufficient to convince us that the space beyond the orbit of the most distant planet now known to us, and within which moving bodies gravitate to our sun, is such that its extent could not easily be computed by any of our habitual methods. Whether planets still undiscovered by us are revolving there, in or- bits beyond that of Uranus, is wholly unknown to us, and this igno- rance of ours, while it continues, must involve in uncertainty the movements of all such comets as have their aphelions within the re- gions in question. ‘The changes in the form and bulk of these bo- dies, in calculations so minute as have been attempted, to establish this theory of resistance, deserve attention. - If, as appearances in- (61) Arago, Annuaire pour l’an 1836. (62) Edinburgh Encyclopedia, article Comets. (63) Systéme du Monde, p. 46. (64) Astronomy, p. 282. Examination of the Theory of a Resisting Medium. 19° dicate, portions of the small masses of these bodies are occasionally removed from the nucleus or its vicinity to form the tails, which are sometimes extended to enormous lengths, while at others these portions of matter are reassembled around the nucleus, in whole or in part, these changes, by shifting the centre of gravity of the com- etary body, must effect the action of foreign bodies thereon, and con- sequently influence the comet’s motions. One other source of un- certainty, and one too which it would seem must forever remain such, in the movements of comets, is their action upon each other. ‘To remove this source of errour no less would seem to be required than to identify every comet belonging to our solar system ; to know the mass of each, the elements of the orbit it describes, as well as the elements of all those which perturbations may cause it hereafter to assume; and to weigh all its disturbing forces with such accuracy as to be able to determine its place, relatively to the sun and to every other body, at any given point of time. May not these nu- merous and active causes very well account, not only for the ine- qualities we have observed in the motions of comets, but even for much greater and more numerous ones, without the aid of a resisting medium? Some of these taken singly would, indeed, produce only ~ slight results ; but when it is considered that ‘‘in the immense ellipse described by a comet, the imperfection of analysis obliges the ge- ometrician to folldw that body step by step, as it were, without once losing sight of it for a single.moment” throughout its revolutions, they may readily enough be supposed to cause greater deviations from calculated periods than ‘three one hundredths of a day,” or less than forty-four minutes in a term of six years and three quarters. Pontecoulant deems it impossible, in the present state of science, to determine within one or two days, the instant of the passage of a comet through its perihelion; so very uncertain are the elements which astronomy furnishes for calculating their perturbations.(65) Having thus submitted the leading positions and arguments favour- able to the theory of a resisting medium in the celestial regions, to detailed examination, the whole, according to the views we have taken, may be resolved into the following heads : Ist. That in periods of the most remote antiquity there prevailed a belief in the presence of ether in the celestial regions; but the proof, if any, upon which this belief was founded has not been pre- (65) Connaissance des Tems, pour l’an 1838, p. 119. 20 Examination of the Theory of a Resisting Medium. served to us; nor are we better circumstanced, in reality, with re- gard to the basis of the faith of Alhazen, Tycho Brahe, Kepler, &c., in regard to this subject: but this belief we must not forget, was not coupled, so far as we have seen, with the theory of re- sistance. 2d. That when the Cartesian thetie © arose, this ether, being an indispensable agent thereof, was every where believed in; not, in- deed, as a resisting medium, but as a propelling one, which carried the planets forward in their orbits: this faith came to the ground with the doctrine of which it formed a part. 3d. When the laws of universal gravitation had exposed the errours of the Cartesian system, we find Newton still vaguely imagining of and concerning this substance, but in language so indistinct as not always to be definable; at one time supposing it to be the cause of gravity, and at other times, by its unequal density, mechanically giving direction to the motions of the heavenly bodies: the errour of these views is apparent. Ath. The ingenious arguments of Bossut, which took the prize of the French Academy, in 1762, were supposed to have well shown the resisting agency of this ether, in the acceleration of the moon’s mean motion ; and no doubts of the truth of this arose, until Laplace demonstrated that such acceleration is wholly due to the law of uni- versal gravitation. 5th. That this ether has offered to the movements of comets a resistance which has rendered its agency appreciable. If the ob- jections that have been offered against this are valid, they are much more than sufficient to destroy even its plausibility. If the conclusions at which we have arrived, then, be correct, we have shown that the existence of this ethereal medium was for a long series of years believed in, without evidence known to us; that it has been, during another long series of years, even to the present day, accredited, also, upon different points of evidence, at different periods of time, but all which evidence has failed to sustain the fact of its existence; and that, therefore, to be hereafter adhered to, fresh evidences of its truth will be requisite to render it more than a mere hypothesis, or gratuitous assumption: not that its existence has been disproved; but only that confirmatory evidence of that existence no longer remains. _ The predictions, therefore, that have pointed at the destruction of the solar system, through the agency of a resisting ether, may very / Sketch of the Early History of Count Rumford. 21 well be discarded. Inequalities there certainly are, in the motions of the heavenly bodies; but all these are confined within narrow limits, and they constantly oscillate around a mean position. This ensures the stability and duration of the system. Many of them, in- deed, extend through vast periods of time, for their accomplishment ; but they are all the necessary consequences of the ascertained Jaws of gravity, and can never exceed their known limits. ‘They consti- tute, in the sublime language of Pontécoulant, “immense pendu- lums of eternity, which beat the ages as ours do the seconds !” Art. I].—Sketch of the Early History of Count Rumford, in which some of the mistakes of Cuvier, and others of his biographers, are corrected ; by Jonn JOHNSTON. Read before the Natural History Society of the Wesleyan University, June ; 30th, 1837. Tue name of Count Rumford is familiar with every one who is at all acquainted with the progress of science and the arts, during the last half century. It is not however generally known, that Cu- vier’s Historic Eulogy* of this distinguished individual, and the short memoirs of him in our Encyclopedias and other standard works, so far at least as ‘‘they relate to that part of his life which was spent in America, are very defective, and in many respects materially erro- neous.” + ‘My attention was first drawn to this subject by observing the dis- crepancies in these memoirs with regard to the time and place of his * Eloge Historique de Comte de Rumford lu dans le séance publique de L’In- stitute de France, le 9 Janvier, 1815. + Hon. Josiah Pierce, of Gorham, Me., who is a nephew of Count Rumford, and to whom I am indebted for most of the information contained in this paper. The entire confidence which is to be reposed in the statements of Mr. Pierce, will be seen from the following extract from a private letter of his, which he will pardon me for introducing. “My father says he was half brother to Benjamin Thompson,—afterwards Count Rumford,—having had the same mother, and was but three and a half years the Count’s junior. They lived together in childhood, and my father was in constant correspondence with him up to the time of Rumford’s death, in Au- gust, 1814. My grandmother lived in my father’s house for seven years previous to her death, which occurred June 11th, 1811. The Countess Rumford was often * a member of my father’s family, and from the lips of the mother, brother, and daughter, I have the facts I am possessed of with regard to Rumford’s early life.” 22 Sketch of the Early History of Count Rumford. birth, and the circumstances attending his departure from this coun- try for Europe at the commencement of the American revolution. Cuvier, in the paper referred to, says, * Benjamin Thompson, more commonly known by his German title of Count Rumford, was born in 1753, in the English colonies of North America, at a place then called Rumford, and at present Concord, in the state of New Hampshire.” Again he says, “in the night of the 18th of April, 1775, the royal troops marched from Bion and after having fought a first battle at Lexington, proceeded towards Concord ; but, being presently assailed by a furious multitude, were obliged to betake themselves to their garrison. Mrs. Thompson’s family was attached to the government by several important offices. Her husband, young as he was, had himself received from it some marks of con- fidence. His personal opinions, besides, led him to support the government. Thus it was natural that he should j join the ministerial party with all the fervor of his age, and freely participate in its chances. He therefore returned to Boston with the army, and in such haste, that he was obliged to leave his wife at Concord. Hav- ing afterwards to move from place to place he never saw her again, nor was it until after a period of twenty years, that he met [in Eu- rope] the daughter to whom she gave birth a few days after his de- parture.”* It is not at all surprising that Cuvier, who never was on this side of the Atlantic, should confound Concord, Massachusetts, with Con- cord, New Hampshire ; but it will perhaps be a little difficult to im- agine how he could mistake, as we shall presently see he did, on other points, concerning which he seems to express himself with such perfect confidence. In the Edinburgh Encyclopedia likewise, we are told his birth- place was at Concord, New Hampshire; but in Rees’ Cyclopedia it is said, ‘‘ he was born at the village of Rumford in New England, in the year 1752.” The Encyclopedia Americana, correctly as to place, but errone- ously as to time, says, he was born at Woburn, Mass. -» In the year 1752. In a short biographical notice of Count Rumford in the Philoso- phical Magazine, for 1801, his birth- -place is said to have been Rum- ford, Mass.t * American Journal of Science, &c. Vol. XIX, p. 28. + Philosophical Magazine, Vol. IX, p. 135. _ Sketch of the Early History of Count Rumford. 23 It has been my chief object in’ preparing this paper to correct some of those errors to which I have alluded, and in doing it, I will give a brief sketch of the early history of this distinguished person- age. His later history will be found in the works to which reference has already been made. Benjamin Thompson, better known by his German title of Count Rumford, was born at Woburn, Mass., sixteen miles from Boston, March 26th, 1753. His father and grandfather were farmers in moderate circumstances, and had long resided in Woburn. When he was about eight months old his father died, and in 1755, his mother married Mr. Josiah Pierce, grandfather of the gentleman whose name has already been introduced. A maternal uncle by the name of Joshua Simonds, who also resided in Woburn, was appointed young ‘Thompson’s guardian. He continued to live with his mother and father-in-law, from whom he appears to have received every necessary attention, and at the proper age was sent to the grammar school of his native town, then kept by Mr. John Fowle, a gentle- man of a liberal education and esteemed an excellent teacher. Here he acquired considerable knowledge of reading, writing, arith- metic, and the Latin language. Subsequently he attended school in Byfield, Mass., and in March, 1764, he removed to Medford to attend the school of a Mr. Hill, then a celebrated teacher. In this place he remained nearly two years, and it was while attending school here that he one day surprised his instructor,* by bringing him the calculations of an eclipse, which he had made without assist- ance, and which proved to be singularly accurate. _ Early in the year 1766, he left the school at Medford and went to live with a respectable druggist and apothecary of Salem, Mass., by the name of John Appleton, being then about thirteen years old. Here he was when the news of the repeal of the stamp act by the British parliament was received in this country, and produced such a sensation of joy throughout the colonies. Partaking largely of the same feeling himself, he undertook to prepare fireworks to be ex- hibited on the occasion; but in making a preparation of fulminating powder the composition accidentally took fire, and he was so badly burned and otherwise injured by the explosion, that his life was for * By some it is said his instructor in mathematics, to whom he brought his eal- culations of the eclipse, was the Rev. Mr. Bernard. I have no other information with reference to it than that found in the books referred to. 24 Sketch of the Early History of Count Rumford. some time despaired of. Having at length partially recovered, he was removed to his step-father’s in Woburn; but before he was able to return again to Salem, the non-importation agreement entered into by the Americans had destroyed Mr. Appleton’s business, and he was thus thrown out of employment. About this time, that is, when he was about fourteen years of age, he astonished his friends by producing a small piece of engraving which he had executed upon the brass cover of a pocket compass, with no other instrument than one of his own construction. The engraving, it is said, would not do discredit to a professed engraver at the present day, and is now in the possession of his relative in Maine. The next winter,—the winter of 1768-69,—we find young Thomp- son teaching school in Wilmington, Mass., it being, I think, his first attempt of the kind; and the following summer he spent in Woburn, attending to the study of anatomy and physiology. In the winter of 1769, he was employed as a clerk in Boston, in the store of Mr. Hopestill Capen, who kept in Union street; but the business not suiting his inclination, he remained there but a few months. Mr. Capen once told his mother, that ‘‘ he oftener found her son wnder the counter, with gimblets, knife, and saw, constructing some little machine, or looking over some book of science, than behind it, ar- ranging the cloths or waiting upon customers.” Here he was on the 5th of March, 1770, rendered memorable by the British massa- cre, as it has been called, and subsequently by the stirring eloquence of Dr. Warren in commemoration of the event. With other young men, whose feelings were powerfully excited by the atrocities of the British soldiery, he was with difficulty restrained from attacking them on the spot. I may remark here, that Thompson’s conduct on this occasion would not seem to favor the assertions of Cuvier and others, who affirm that, in the difficulties that led to the American Revolution, he was from the first, in principle and feeling, attached to the govern- ment party. But I shall have occasion to refer to this again. In the spring of 1770, he returned again to Woburn, and during the summer, in company with his early and constant friend, the late Col. L. Baldwin, of Maine, he walked daily to Cambridge, a dis- tance of nine miles, and back at night, to attend as a charity scholar the regular course of philosophical lectures in Harvard University. Speaking of these lectures at a late period of his life, he said he looked upon the few weeks he attended them, as the most delightful Sketch of the Early History of Count Rumford. 25 of his youthful life; they very much increased his stock of infor- mation and confirmed his taste for natural science. In the autumn of this year (1770) he was invited to instruct 2 school in Concord, New Hampshire, then called Rumford; and here he closed his career as a schoolmaster in a manner not a little interesting, as in this place the train of circumstances seems to have originated, that eventually tore him from America and gave him to Europe. I allude to his marriage, an event always so productive of happiness or misery, and sometimes of both, as appears to have been the case in the present instance. Mr. Thompson, soon after taking up his residence in Coneord, became acquainted with Mrs. Sarah Rolfe, widow of Col. Rolfe, a lady of wealth and respectability; and their acquaintance resulted im their marriage when he was but nineteen years of age. Mrs. Rolfe was some ten or twelve years older than himself, and for the bonor of her hand, Cuvier says he was indebted to his “ belle figure, et des manieres nobles et douces.” By the relatives of his wife, Thompson was introduced to Mr. Wentworth, then provincial governor of New Hampshire, who was much pleased with him, and bestowed upon him an unusual share of his attention. He soon gave him a major’s commission in the militia of the province, and thus placed him at once over many older offi- cers. This appointment must be admitted to have been exceed- ingly injudicious, but, as it was legal, it afforded no exeuse for the feeling of envy and jealousy which was excited against Thompson, and from which all his subsequent difficulties appear to have origin- ated previous to his leaving the. country. It was whispered that Major ‘Thompson was a tory; and such were the circumstances of the times, it is not surprising that many should give full credit to the rumor. We have the most satisfactory evidence, however, that up to this time at least, he was firmly attached to the cause of Ameri- can liberty. As this is a point of some importance, I may be per- mitted to give my reasons a little in detail. In the first place, Thompson had always professed strong attach- ment in principle and feeling to the popular cause, and his friends,* * In Capt. Parker’s company, which was paraded on the green in Lexington upon the approach of the British troops on the morning of the 19th of April, 1775, there were four of the name of Simonds, the maiden name of Thompson’s mother. In the afternoon of the same day, among the killed was Daniel Thompson of Woburn.—Everett’s Orations, pp. 523 and 524. Vol. XXXIII.—No. 1. 4 26 Sketch of the Early History of Count Rumford. who espoused the same cause, ever had the utmost confidence in him. II. His conduct had uniformly been in accordance with his pro- fessions. His conduct in Boston on the 5th of March, 1770, has already been referred to,—he was there found sword in hand, among the most eager to attack those whom he considered the enemies of his country. Also, when he learned that his intimacy with Gov. Wentworth was made the occasion of suspicions with regard to the character of his political principles, he at once broke off the inter- course, and even resigned his commission in the militia and retired to his relatives in Woburn. He was present at the battle of Lex- ington ; but whether he participated in the events of the day is to me unknown. When, after the battle of Lexington, the American forces began to collect about Boston, we find him among them earnestly seeking employment, and on the best terms with the Massachusetts whig officers. When the battle of Bunker Hill occurred, he was with the American army at Cambridge; and on the arrival of Wash- ington the 3d of the next month, to take charge as commander in chief, Thompson was favorably introduced to him by the officers, and would probably have obtained command of the American artil- lery had it not been for the opposition of some of the New Hamp- shire officers, who could not forget his former appointment over them by Gov. Wentworth. Jeremiah Gridley was finally appointed to the place. Ill. He was formally tried before a committee of investigation, upon the general charge of being inimical to the cause of his coun- try, and acquitted. Failing to obtain a place in the army he re- turned to Woburn, and such was the feeling of the populace at this time excited against him, that a mob once actually collected around the house in which he was and demanded him. ‘The mob appear to have failed in their immediate object; but the insult his high spirit could not endure, and he at once applied to the committee of vigi- lance for the appointment of a court of inquiry to investigate his case. He was therefore arrested at his own request, and notice extensively given in the public papers of Massachusetts and New Hampshire, of the time and place appointed for his trial, and all who knew any thing against him were invited to be present and testify. ‘The charge was the general one of being “unfriendly to American liberty.” When the day of trial arrived, the committee assembled at the place appointed,—the meeting-house of the first parish in Woburn,—and Sketch of the Early History of Count Rumford. 2a took their seats before an overflowing house. Thompson managed his own defense ; and though he could of course know but little pre- viously of the specific charges that would be brought against him, he successively repelled them all, showing that they were based upon vague rumor, or had their origin in envy and jealousy. The com- mittee gave this decision, but they still refused to give him a public acquittal which he demanded. ‘The reason given was that it would give offense to his opponents, as it would be in a sense condemning them. They even refused to give him a copy of their proceedings for publication. This, Thompson very properly thought to be ex- ceedingly illiberal and unjust treatment, and it is not surprising that his feelings were highly exasperated.* If further proof of Thompson’s political feelings previous to this time be wanting, we have the testimony of Col. Baldwin, at whose head quarters he remained while the American army was before Boston, who repeatedly said he knew his political views well, and that he was certain of his sincere attachment to the cause of his country. Another revolutionary officer of unimpeachable integrity, said to Thompson’s brother,—or rather half brother,—the late Hon. Josiah Pierce, of Baldwin, Me., some years after the close of the -war, that he knew! Major Thompson well while he was with the American army at Cambridge in 1775, and that “he was certain his feelings were any thing but hostile to the cause of American liberty.” He added further, that while the army was at Cambridge, on more * The following is an extract from the original report of the committee of vigi- lance and correspondence of the town of Woburn, before whom Thompson was tried in 1775, drawn up by one of their number, but which was not permitted to go before the public as Thompson demanded. After a statement of their author- ity and the prominent cireumstanees of the case, the committee say, “After a strict and impartial inquiry into Major Thompson’s character and behavior, we do not find that in any instance he has shown a disposition unfriendly to Amer- ican liberty, but that, on the contrary, his general conduct has evinced a contrary disposition, and we think he justly deserves the confidence, friendship, and pro- tection of the public.” In a postscript it is added, ‘‘ This may certify that when Major Thompson was examined before the committee of correspondence for the town of Woburn, (be- ing brought before them on suspicion of being inimical to American liberties,) the affair of the return of four deserters from Concord in New Hampshire, to Boston, in which said Thompson was supposed to be instrumental, and.also his conduct relative to the Concord donation,—sending a load of peas to Boston,— and an undue connection or correspondence with Gov. Wentworth, were matters which were laid to his charge against him, which were thoroughly examined anto, and in every particular the committee received full satisfaction from said Thompson.” 28 Sketch of the Early History of Count Rumford. than one occasion, Washington conferred with him upon important military affairs. After his acquittal by the committee at Woburn, Thompson not- withstanding was still accused of ‘“toryism” by the populace, and the mob again threatened him, till he at length formed the desperate resolution to quit forever his native country, and espouse the cause of her enemies! He had first, through the envy and jealousy of others, failed of promotion in the army, which appears to have been the highest object of his ambition, and to this had been added gross insult from the populace and injustice from public officers; and he unquestionably considered his personal safety in danger ; but, trying as were the circumstances, his decision can hardly be justified. This act, in the eyes of his countrymen at least, must ever remain as a blemish upon his otherwise illustrious character. As remarked by Cuvier, it was unquestionably an evil to fight against his country- men, but we should perhaps rather lament it as an evil, than impute to him blame. Having determined to leave the country, Thompson communi- cated his design to no one but his brother before mentioned, who, taking him in a common horse-cart, started from Woburn in the night, and proceeded with him directly to Rhode Island, where he left him, Thompson soon made his appearance at Newport, and was taken on board the British ship of war Scarborough, in which he sailed for England; and even his mother for months did not know where he was. The precise time of his departure from the country, I am not able to determine, but his biographers say he was sent to England im- mediately after the evacuation of Boston by the English troops, which occurred March 24th, 1776, to convey intelligence of that event. In 1781, he sailed again for New York, where he raised a regi- ment of dragoons, and was in consequence promoted to the rank of Colonel, and remained connected with the British army tll the close of the war, when he again went to Europe never to return. His subsequent brilliant course in the scientific world is well known. ' Though he had been persecuted from his native country, and been associated with those who for a time at least, were her enemies, yet he ever cherished an ardent affection for the land of his birth. In a letter to a relative written December, 1808, he says, ‘“ I néver can forget the place of my birth, nor the companions of my early years.” In another letter he remarks, ‘ you cannot conceive how much I have the happiness of my native country at heart.” Sketch of the Early History of Count Rumford. 29 Nor did the American government on its part show an entire dis- regard for him, when in the year 1800, an important place was offered him, which however his engagements in Europe would not permit him to accept. He ever took a lively interest in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences at Boston, “ and in 1796 he established two biennial prizes of the value of about sixty guineas each, for the most impor- tant discoveries in light and heat; the one to be adjudged by the Royal Society of London,* and the other by the American Acad- emy of Arts and Sciences.” Thompson was knighted by George III, immediately after his se- cond arrival in Europe, in 1784, and for several years was known by the title of Sir Benjamin Thompson. 'Ten or twelve years afterwards, being then resident in Munich, he was created Count of Rumford, in reference to the place of his marriage, by the Elector of Bavaria, and various honors bestowed upon him, and a life pension of £1200. After his return to Europe in 1784, most of his time was spent in the promotion of science and its application to the useful arts of life, in which, as is well known, he was eminently successful. Count Rumford was not a learned man but a very close observer, and possessed great mechanical skill, and all his investigations ap- pear to have been directed with a view to the discovery of practical truths, and directly benefitting mankind. Among the imperishable honors that will ever attach to his name, is that of having been the first to suggest the plan of the Royal Insti- tution of London, and of having selected young Humphrey Davy, then only twenty two years of age, to fill the chair of chemistry. This institution was founded in the year 1800, and in establishing it Count Rumford, in connection with other noble spirits in the sci- entific world, spent nearly a year and a half. Through it has been introduced to the world in the department of chemistry, in the short space of thirty five years, a Davy, a Brande, and a Faraday. But it would not be in accordance with my design to pursue the history of this distinguished individual further. The last ten years of his life were spent at Auteuil, a small village near Paris. ‘Though he had received many flattering marks of public favor, he had also * This medal was awarded by the Royal Society to Prof. Leslie, in 1804. Dr. Wells, in 1816. M. Malus, sf 1812. Dr. Brewster, ‘“ 1818. SirH. Davy, “ 1814. M. Fresnel, * 1826. Edinburgh Encyclopedia, Art. Society. Whether the American Academy has ever made any award or not I am not informed. 30 On the Drawing of Figures of Crystals. learned something of its fickleness, which appears to have produced some effect upon his mind in souring it against human nature. In 1802, he married the widow of the celebrated Lavoisier, but the union proved unhappy and they soon separated. After this event the most of his time was spent in retirement, till his death which occur- red August 21st, 1814. Count Rumford left an only daughter, who was born, not as Cu- vier affirms, at Concord, Mass., shortly after the battle of Lexing- ton, from which her father had retired with the British troops to Boston, but at Concord, New Hampshire, Oct. 10th, 1774. She is still living, and possesses the title of Countess of Rumford, and a liberal pension. Much of her life has been spent in Europe, but she came to this country the last season on a visit to her friends, and I believe is now with them. , Art. II[.—On the Drawing of Figures of Crystals ; by Jamzs D. Dana, A.M., Assistant in the department of Chemistry, Geology and Mineralogy in Yale College. 1. Tue modern and improved methods of projecting the crys- talline solids, have not, hitherto, been explained in any American publication ; it is therefore presumed that the following exposition of this subject will not be unacceptable to the scientific public. ‘The “Introduction to Crystallography” of H. J. Brooke,* is the only work in our language, which treats of crystallographic projection ; and this work though valuable at the time of its publication, and highly reputable to its accomplished author, is necessarily behind a science, which, since its publication, has been so rapid in its advan- ces. The principles embraced in the following pages, have been mostly drawn from the very complete and philosophical German treatise on crystallography by C. F. Naumann.t 2. The importance of accuracy in the delineations of crystals, is obvious. ‘The edges of a crystal, as exhibited in a correct figure, constitute a language readily interpreted by the crystallographer. He reads, in them, the relations of each plane to the axes of the solid and with the preliminary knowledge of a few interfacial angles, (fre- * A familiar Introduction to Crystallography, by Henry James Brooke, 508 pp. 8vo, London, 1823. ‘+ Lehrbuch der reinen und angewandten Krystrallographie, von Dr. Carl Friederich Naumann. Two vols. 8vo. Leipzig, 1832. On the Drawing of Figures of Crystals. al quently one is sufficient,) ascertains with perfect confidence, every other angle in the crystal. Consequently if these edges were in- correctly represented, the figure would be comparatively useless and unintelligible, and often would prove worse than useless, by leading to incorrect deductions. | Since these deductions depend on the parallelisms of edges, the following principle is of fundamental importance in the drawing of erystals; edges which are parallel in the crystal should be repre- sented in the figure as parallel. Figures projected with this prin- ciple in view, though with no attempt to attain mathematical accu- racy, will be valuable to the science. Yet a knowledge of mathe- matical crystallography, greatly facilitates the application of this prin- ciple. Crystals are often imperfect and the intersections of planes are indistinct, and consequently the exact limits of the planes and the direction of their mutual intersections cannot be observed. ‘They are also frequently so much distorted that some planes are oblitera- ted by the extension of others, and generally it is desirable to intro- duce in the figure, the plane or planes which may. have been thus ob- literated. These and other difficulties can only be surmounted by applying the principles of mathematical crystallography, which af- ford expressions for the planes indicating their exact situation.* 3. In the projection of crystals, the eye is supposed to be at an infinite distance, so that the rays of light fall from it on the crystal in parallel lines; otherwise the more distant parts of parallel edges should converge, as in the ordinary sketches of scenery. If parallel lines were drawn from the vertices of the solid angles of a crystal, to a board placed behind it, and the points thus formed on the board, were connected by straight lines, as in the crystal, a representation of the crystal would be formed, constructed according to the mode of projection employed in crystallography. The plane on which the crystal is projected, is termed the plane of projection. ‘This plane may be at right angles with the vertical axis, may pass through the _ vertical axis, or may intersect it at an oblique angle. ‘These differ- ent positions give rise, respectively, to the horizontal, vertical and * With but an imperfect knowledge of these principles, it becomes a simple pro- cess to project the axes of their relative dimensions and exact obliquity, and after this preparation, to lay off with accuracy, the situation and intersections of the various secondary planes. Indeed, the projection of the axes in each of the sys- tems of classification excepting perhaps the elinate, may be easily understood without any acquaintance with mathematical erystallography, and the subsequent construction of the secondary forms requires only a familiarity with the system of crystallographic notation. 82 On the Drawing of Figures of Crystals. oblique projections. ‘The rays of light may fall perpendicularly on the plane of projection, or may be obliquely inclined to it; in the former case the projection is termed orthographic, in the second clinographic. In the horizontal position of the plane of projection, the projection is always orthographic. In the other positions, it may be either orthographic or clinographic. It has been usual to give the plane of projection an oblique position, and to use the or- thographic mode of projection. It is however preferable to employ the vertical position and clinographic projection, and this method will be elucidated in the following remarks. PROJECTION OF THE PRIMARY FORMS. 4. The projection of the axes of a crystal, is the first step pre- liminary to the projection of the crystal itself. It will be more con- venient, to illustrate first the projection of the axes in the monometric primaries, which are equal and intersect at right angles. ‘The projec- tion of the axes in the other classes, may be obtained by varying the lengths of the projected monometric axes, and also, when oblique, their inclinations. ! 5. 1. Monometric system.*—When the eye is directly in front of a face of the cube, neither the sides nor top of the crystal are visible, nor the secondary planes that may be situated on the inter- mediate edges. On turning the crystal a few degrees from right to left, a side lateral plane is brought in view, and by elevating the eye slightly, the terminal plane becomes apparent. Half the planes on the crystal are now visible, and consequently this is a convenient * The systems of crystallization at present recognized, are seven in number. The Monometric includes the cube, regular octahedron and dodecahedron, the three crystallographic axes of which are of one kind, and intersect at right angles. The Dimetric system includes the right square prism and square octahedron, the axes of which are rectangular and of wo kinds, the vertical being unequal to the lateral. The Tyimetric system includes the right rectangular and rhombic prisms, and. the rectangular and rhombic octahedrons, the axes of which primaries are rect- angular, and wnequal, or of three kinds. The Monoclinate system includes the right rhomboidal prism and the oblique rhombic prism, in which, two of the intersections of the axes are rectangular and one oblique. ~ * The Diclinate system includes the oblique rectangular prism, in which one of the intersections of the axes is rectangular and two oblique. The Triclinate system includes the oblique rhomboidal prism, in which the three intersections of the axes are oblique. _ The Tetravonal system includes the rhombohedron and hexagonal prism, which contain four axes, viz. three horizontal and one vertical. On the Drawing of Figures of Crystals. 33 position for projecting it. In the following demonstration the an- gle of revolution is designated 3, and the angle of the elevation of the eye, «. Fig. 1. represents the nor- mal position of the horizontal axes, sup- posing the eye to be in the direction of the axis BB; BB is seen as a mere point, while CC appears of its actual length. On revolving the whole through ¢ c a number of degrees equal to BMB’ (0) the axes have the position exhibited in the dotted lines. The projection of the semiaxis MB is now lengthened to BoB MN, and that of the semiaxis MC is shortened to MH. Since the arcle HMC’=MB’N=5, MH= cos 0 and MN=sin 6; and if the ratio of the projected axes be as r$1, MH: MN::‘coso: sind::r:1; *,cosO=rsin0, and consequently, cot d=r. If the eye be elevated, the lines B/N, BM and C’H will be pro- jected respectively ie N, M and H, and the lengths of these pro- _ jections (which we may designate 6’N, 6M and c’H) will be directly proportional to the lengths of the lines B’N, BM and C'H. Now B’ N=cos6, and 6M, the projection of BM, = tan «; consequently, BM(=1) ; tane::cosd(B’N) : 6/N (the projection of B/N). Hence, b/ N= tan € coso. In the same manner we find c/H= tan sino. Fig. 1. By’ o. . l If the relation of b’N to MN(=the first projection=sin 0) equals a 1 - tan e cosd (b/N) =—sind ; | 1 consequently, tans cotd=—: and finally, since cotd=r, cote=rs. 6. The preceding demonstration affords the following simple method of projecting the monometric axes; r is supposed to be given equal to 3, and s equal to 2. 1. Draw two lines 4.4’, H’Hi (fig. 2.) intersecting one another _at right angles. Make MH=MH’=b. Divide HH’ into r parts, and through the points, N,N’, thus determined, draw perpendicu- Vou. XXXIT.—No. 1. D 34 On the Drawing of Figures of Crystals. ‘Jars to HH’. On the left hand ver- Fig. 2. tical, set off, below Hl’, a part H’R, faa | equal to oH EM: and from R draw RM, and extend the same to the vertical N’. B’B is the projec- ¢ tion of the front horizontal axis. s 2. Draw BS parallel with MH’, and connect S,M. From the point T in which SV intersects BN, draw TC parallel with MH. A line (CC’) drawn from C through M, and extended to the left vertical, is the projection of the side horizontal axis. 3. Lay off on the right vertical, a part HQ equal to MH, and make MA=MA’=MQ; AA’ is the vertical axis. Proof. 1. By construction, MN (the first projection of the semi- axis BM, N being in the line HH’) ; MA (the first projection of MC) :i1: 7, which is the ratio required in the preceding demonstration. Again, by construction, BN : NM::RH’: H’M::1:s, therefore 1 BN (the second projection of BM) =~ MN, which is also the ratio required above. BB’ is therefore correctly the front horizontal axis. 2. From the method of construction, - HS(=BN): TN(=HC)::H’M: NM: :cosé : sino. . Therefore HC is the true depression of the axis C'C’; for in the © preceding demonstration, the depressions were proved to equal re- spectively tanecosd and tanesino, and consequently to have the ratio of cosd : sind. 3. MH=cos6 and H@ is the sine of the same angle. MQ is therefore the radius in the same circle (fig. 1.) and equals the ver- tical semiaxis; for the position of the eye does not change the ap- parent length of this axis, since it is situated in the plane of projec- tion. AA’, ('C, BB’, are therefore the projected monometric axes. The values of 7 and s, commonly taken are, r=3, s=2, in which case, d : 18° 26’ and e=9° 28’. It is not unusual to give s the value 3, in which case «=6° 20’. ‘This affords a narrower terminal plane. 7. The regular octahedron may now be drawn, by connecting the extremities of the horizontal axes, and then uniting them by right lines with the points A, A’, as in fig. 3. If lines be drawn On the Drawing of Figures of Crystals. 35 through the points B and B’, parallel with CC’, and through C, C’, parallel with the axis BB’, a plane figure abcd is formed, which is a horizontal section of the cube. Through the points a, b,c, d, draw lines parallel with the vertical axis 4/4’, and extend them each side of these points, to a distance equal to the vertical semi- axis MA. By conneeting the upper and also the lower extremities of these perpendiculars by lines parallel with the lines a8, bc, cd, da, the figure will represent a cube. The cube may also be projected by drawing lines from M to the center of each edge of the octahedron, and then extending these lines to double their length. 'Theit extremities are the vertices of the angles of the cube; and BY connecting them a representation of * the cube is formed. 8. Dimetric System.—In the dimetric system of crystallization, the vertical axis is of varying dimensions, while the horizontal axes are equal as in the monometric system. ‘The vertical axis may be made to correspond to the dimensions in a dimetric crystal, by laying off on MA and MA’, (taken as units,) extended if necessary, a line a, equal to Zio if 6, the horizontal axis of the prism, =1, the line should equal @ (the vertical axis) merely. After determining thus the points A”, A’”, the dimetric octahedron may be formed in the same manner as the regular octahedron above described, except that the points A”, A’” should be substituted for A, A’. The method of describing the cube, already explained, may be employed also for the right square prism. Another right square prism may be repre- sented by drawing lines parallel with the vertical axis, through the extremities of the horizontal axes, making them equal to the vertical axis, and uniting their extremities. Also another square octahedron may be constructed by connecting the points a, 0, ¢c, d, with the ex- tremities of the vertical axis. 9. Trimetric System.—The monometric axes may be rere to trimetric forms as follows: if the axis 6=1, lay off MA” and 36 On the Drawing of Figures of Crystals. MA” equal to a, and MC’, MC” equal toc: if c=1, make MB”, MB’, equal to 6. By connecting the extremities of the axes, as already explained, the rhombic octahedron may be constructed. The rectangular prism may be projected, in the same manner as the cube ; the rhombic prism in the same manner as the second square prism just described; and the rectangular octahedron, in the same manner as the second dimetric octahedron explained in the last section. 10. Monoclinate System.—The axes a and 6 in the monoclinate system are inclined to one another at an oblique angle=y. To pro- ject this inclination, and thus adapt the monometric axes to a mono- clinate form, lay off on the axis MA, Ma= MA cosy, and on the axis BB' (before or behind M according as the inclination of 6 on a, in front, is acute or obtuse) Mb=MB xsiny. From the points 6 and a, draw lines parallel respectively with the axes q AA’ and BB’ and from their inter- section D’, draw through M, D'D, making MD=MD’. The line DD’ is the front lateral axis, and the lines AA, C’C, DD’ represent the axes in a monoclinate solid in which a=b=c=1. The points a and b and the position of the axis DD’ will vary with the angle y. The relative values of the axes may be given them as above coer: that is, if 6=1, lay off in the di- rection of MA and MA’ a line equal to a, and in the direction - MC and MC’ a line equal to c, &c. The right rhomboidal prism may be projected in the same man- ner as the cube or right rectangular prism, and the oblique rhombic prism, in the same manner as the right rhombic prism. 11. Diclinate System.—In the diclinate system, the vertical sec- tions through the horizontal axes intersect one another at right an- gles, as in the preceding system, but the inclination of a to (7) and a to c(#) are each oblique. This obliquity may be given the mono- metric axes as follows: Lay off on MA, (fig. 4,) Ma=MA xcosy, and on the axis BB’ (brachydiagonal), M6= MB’ xsiny. By com- pleting the parallelogram MaD’8, the point D’ is determined. Make MD=MD’; DD‘ is the projected brachydiagonal. Again lay off on MA, Ma’=MA xXcos6, and on MC, to the left, Mc=MC’ x sing. Draw lines from a/ and ¢ parallel to MC’ and MA; E’, the On the Drawing of Figures of Crystals. 37 intersection of these lines, is one extremity of the macrodiagonal ; and the line E’E, in which ME= ME’, is the macrodiagonal. AA’ DD’, EE’ are the axes in a diclinate form in which the axes are equal. From the observations on the preceding systems of crys- tallization, the method to be employed in giving the axes their rel- ative values in a particular diclinate form, is sufficiently obvious. The construction of the oblique rectangular prism is analogous to that of the cube. ; 12. Triclnate system.—The vertical sections through the hori- zontal axes, in the triclinate system, are obliquely inclined; also the inclination of the axis a to each axis 6 and ¢, is oblique. In the adap- tation of the monometric axes to the triclinate forms, it is therefore necessary, in the first place, to give the requisite obliquity to the mutual inclination of the vertical sections, and afterwards, to adapt the horizontal axes, ‘as in the diclinate system. The inclination of these sections we may designate A, and as heretofore, the angle be- tween a and 6,7, and aandc,f. BB’ is the analogue of the brachy- diagonal and CC’ of the macrodiagonal. An oblique inclination may be given the vertical sections, by varying the position of either of these sections. Permitting the brachydiagonal section ABA’ B’ to remain unaltered, we may vary the other section as follows: Lay off on MB, Mb’=MB x cos A, and on the axis C’C, (to the right or left of M, according as the acute angle A is to the right or left) Mc= MC xsin A; completing the paral- lelogram JMb/ De, and drawing the di- agonal MD, extending the same to D’ soas to make MD’/=MD, we obtain the line DD’; the vertical section passing through this line is the correct macrodiagonal section. The inclination of a to the new ma- crodiagonal DD’, is still a right angle; as also the inclination of a to 6, their oblique inclinations may be given them by means of the same formulas employed in the diclinate system, except that the axis D’D is to be substituted for C’C. The vertical axis 4A’ and the horizontal axes EE’ (brachydiagonal) and FF’ (macrodiagonal) thus obtained, are the axes ina triclinate form in which a=b=c=1. Different values may be given these axes according to the method heretofore illustrated. 38 On the Drawing of Figures of Crystals. 13. Tetraxonal system.—This system of crystallization includes those forms which contain three equal horizontal axes, at right an- gles with the vertical. ‘The normal position of the horizontal axes is represented in fig. 6. ‘The eye, placed in the line of the axis YY, observes two of the semiaxes, MZ and MU, projected in the same straight line, while the third MY ap- pears a mere point. To give the axes a more eligible position for a rep- resentation of the various planes on a tetraxonal solid, we revolve them from right to left through a certain number of degrees, 6, and elevate the eye at an angle «. ‘The dotted lines in the figure represent the axes in their new situation, resulting from a revolution through a number of degrees equal toO=YMY’. In this position the axis MY’ is projected upon MP, MU upon MN and MZ on MH. Designating the intermediate axis I, that to the right II, that to the left ILI, if the revolution is such as to give the projections of I and II, the ratio of 1:2, the relations of the three projections will be as follows: I: IL: WI=1: 2:3. The projection of I=sin 6. | Il=sin (60° —6), for MU N= UMY= YMU— UMU'=60° — 6. 1J1=sin (60°-+0). From these equations and the above ratios, it follows that, sin (60°-+-0) =sin (60° —6)-+sin 9; sin (60° —0)=2 sin 0; sin (60°-++6)=3 sin 0. Consequently since (Trig. Anal.) sin (60°-+4) = sin 60° cos d+sind cos 60°=2 sind; sin (60° —5)= sin 60° cos 5 —sin 9 cos 60°=8 sin 6. Adding the equations we obtain 2 sin 60° cosd=5 sind ; Q2sin 60° 2/2 V3 Dil Loe ione “. cotd=57 i. From this equation we may deduce sind =/ 3% 5 6 dD =19° 6! 24”. Whence tan 6= a re ee ee i _ In the first vertical, below H, On the Drawing of Figures of Crystals. 39 If the eye be elevated above the horizontal plane, the lines PY’, NU’, HZ will be projected below GG. The lengths of these projections are in direct ratio to the lines projected. To obtain the values of PY’, NU’, HZ, we observe that PY’=cos5; NU'=cos (60°—95); HZ=cos (60°+ 9). Whence, since cos=1/(R? —sin?), cosd=/(1—sin? 6) = 5734; cos (60° —d)=4/(1—4 sin? 0)= 4/31; cos (60°-+45)=/(1—9 sin? 0)= / 35. From these equations, the following relations result: eNO MAAS AY YT: which, therefore, is also the ratio of the projections of these lines below GG consequent on an elevation of the eye at any angle «. 1 If the second projection of the semiaxis I (y/P), = 5 part of PM (the first projection), cot e=scotd=5s 1. For if P Y’ be made radius in the two triangles P Y’y' and PYM, we shall have Py’=tan ce, and PM=tan6. But Py’: PM: 1: s; consequently tants {tan Ort cs 7. cot e=scoto. - In general it is most convenient to assume 2 as the value of s; then’ e—9° 500 lf s= 4/3; = 1101185". 14. Projection of the axes.—The above demonstration affords a method of projecting the tetraxonal axes, which is similar to the method in the monometric system. We may assume r=3, s=2. 1. Draw the lines 4.4, HH Fig. 7. at right angles with, and bisect- 7 ing each other. Let HM=6, or HH=26. Divide HH into six parts by vertical lines. These lines including the left and right hand verticals may be numbered from one to six as in the figure. 1 lay off HS=~— 6, and from S 40 On the Drawing of Figures of Crystals. draw a line through JV to the fourth vertical. YY’ is the projection , of the axis I. 2. From Y draw a line to the sixth vertical and parallel with HH. From T' the extremity of this line, draw a line to N in the second vertical. ‘Then from the point U in which TN intersects the fifth vertical, draw a line through JV to the second vertical; UU" is the projection of the axis II. 3. From R, where T'N intersects the third vertical, draw RZ to the first vertical parallel with HH. Then from Z draw a line through JM to the sixth vertical: this line ZZ’ is the projection of the axis III. 4. For the vertical axis, we observe in fig. 6. that Z’H=sin (30° — 6) =cos (60°+06); also MH =cos (30° — 6) =sin (60°++0). But sin (60° +95) : cos (60°-+6)=3/3 : 1=3 : tan 30°. : Consequently 1 MH: Z’H::1: tan 30°, or ZH equals tan 30°, in a triangle whose base is 3 MH. If therefore we lay off from N on the second vertical (fig. 7.) a line of any length and construct upon this line an equilateral triangle, one side NQ of this triangle will intersect the first vertical at a distance, HV, from H, corresponding to ZH in fig. 6.; for in the triangle NHV, the angle HNV is an angle of 30° and HN=! MH. MV is therefore the radius of the circle (fig. 6.) Make therefore MA=MA’=MV; AA’ is the vertical axis, and YY’, UU’, ZZ’ are the projected horizontal axes. The explanation of this construction, is obvious from the preceding demonstration, and from the remarks under the monometric system. 15. The vertical axis has been constructed equal to the hori- zontal axes. Its length in the several tetraxonal primaries may be laid off according to the method sufficiently explained. If lines be drawn through the extremities of the horizontal axes, parallel with the vertical axis, and the parts above and below be made equal to the vertical semiaxis, their extremities will be the vertices of the angles of a hexagonal prism, and by connecting them, we obtain the projection of this solid. A double hexagonal pyramid, the isos- celes dodecahedron, may be projected by connecting the extremities of the horizontal axes with each other and also uniting them with the extremities of the vertical axis. By drawing lines through the extremities of each horizontal axis, parallel to a line connecting the extremities of the other two axes, a plane hexagonal figure will be obtained which is the section of a hexagonal prism diagonal with the one above referred to; and by connecting the angles of this ' axis be connected with the points E or On the Drawing of Figures of Crystals. Al _ hexagonal plane with the extremities of the vertical axis, a second isosceles dodecahedron is projected. 16. To construct a rhombohedron, lay off verticals through the extremi- ties of the horizontal axes, and make the parts, both above and below these extremities, equal to the third of the ; vertical semiaxis, (fig.8.) The pomts , |. E, E, E/ E/ &c. are thus determined ; | and if the extremities of the vertical 4 E’, rhombohedrons, in different po- sitions, mR or —mR, will be con- structed. | Delineation of Secondary Planes on the Primary Forms. 17. Previous to drawing the secondary planes on a primary, it becomes necessary to determine the direction of the intersections of these planes with the primary faces, and also in most cases, with other secondary planes. The principles of analytical geometry have af- forded Naumann formulas for these intersections; but it would be giving this article too great an extension to enter into a full discus- sion of this method of determining intersections. It is in general sufficient to employ the method of construction. This method has been fully explained by Brooke, but in connection with the Abbé Haiiy’s system of crystallographic notation. In the employment of the plan of construction, the projection of the prism OP. aPo , is the most convenient preliminary step; that is, the cube in the monometric system, right square prism in the di- metric system, the rectangular prism in the trimetric, the right rhomboidal in the monoclinate, and the prism OP.c> Pa . Po, in the diclinate and triclinate systems.* This is advisable because in these forms the lateral edges are equal and parallel to the vertical axis, and the basal edges, to the horizontal axes; and consequently in laying off the different planes, these edges may be substituted for the axes. * The system of notation here adopted, is that employed by Naumann. It will be found explained and illustrated in my system of Mineralogy. Vou. XXXIII.—No. 1. - 6 42 On the Drawing of Figures of Crystals. 18. Suppose for example the right rectangular prism has been projected, (fig 9.) and it is required to place on its angles the plane 2P, whose parametric ratio is2:1:1. Since 2 refers to the vertical axis, we lay off on the lateral edge (e) twice as many parts of this edge as of each of the terminal edges (€ and e.) Consequently, by taking a point in the edge e distant from a, 4 the length of e, and a point in each é and €, 1 their respective lengths, and then join- ing these points, the conditions will be complied with, and the plane 2P will be constructed. If the plane to be introduced were AP2 the parametric ratio of which is 4 : 2: 1, (in which 4 refers to the vertical axis and 2 to the longer horizontal,) we should in the same manner mark off 4 parts of e, 2 of € and 1 of €; if the plane were 4P2, (in which 2 refers to the shorter horizontal axis,) 2 parts of € should be laid off, and 1 of €, By connecting the points thus determined, the plane 4P2 or 4P2 would be delineated. If the plane were 2Pam (2: :1), which represents a plane on the longer terminal edge, 2 parts of e should be laid off, and 1 of e; from the determined points in e and e, lines should be drawn to the opposite edges parallel with the edge é, and by connecting the ex- , tremities of the lines thus drawn, the desired representation of a plane 2Po would be completed. The same should be repeated on all the similar edges. ‘This will suffice to illustrate the manner of substituting the edges for the axes, and also male method of de- lineating single planes. 19. The manner of determining the intersections of planes, we may illustrate by an example. Suppose it were required to place the planes P, 2P, 4P2 and 2P2 on aright rectangular prism. Two rectangular prisms should first be accurately projected by the method which has been explained. One, of a size which may be considered ‘convenient for a representation of the crystal, drawn with light pen- - cil marks; the other of larger dimensions, for the purpose of deter- mining the direction of the intersections ; these intersections when determined are to be transferred to the smaller figure. On fig 9, | we may first lay down the plane P, by drawing lines connecting the centers of the three edges about the angle. ‘These lines are neces- sarily parallel to the diagonals of the three faces; the triangle mno is therefore the plane P. By connecting the points m, 6, n, the plane QP is constructed; for the plane mbn cuts off 2 parts of e to 1 of each é and é, as the expression 2P requires. To lay off 4P2 (4:13 2.) Let the whole edge ab represent 4; then an (2 of €) will equal 2 On the Drawing of Figures of Crystals. 43 _parts on the edge €, and ap (4 of é) will equal 1 part on é, agreea- bly to the expression 4P2; npd is therefore the plane 4P2. The Fig. 9. perimeters of the planes npb (4P2) and nmo (P) intersect one anoth- er in the points m and «; consequently the line of intersection, be- tween these two planes must be situated between these points, and therefore the direction of the intersection of P and 4P2 is no. The planes nmb (2P) and npb (4P2) intersect in the line nb, and therefore the intersection of 2P and 4P2 is in the direction | of nb. Again, the intersection of P and 2P has the direction mn. We may next lay off the plane 2P2, (2: 2: 1,) which may be constructed by marking off 2 parts on each e and é and 1 ‘part on e. Such a plane.is mro, since aa=2e, am=26é, and ar=1e. There- fore the intersection of mro (2P2) with mno (P) has the direction of the common line mo. The perimeters of the planes mro (2P2) and npb (4P2) intersect in the points « and 8. If therefore these planes formed an edge of intersection it would have the direction of the line of or ro. The line ro of the plane mro (2P2) is parallel to nb, of the plane mnb (2P); the intersections of 2P2 and 2P would therefore, be par- allel with these lines. In this manner all the mutual intersections of these and other planes may be obtained. Fig 10 exhibits these planes in their respective positions as above determined. ‘The planes may be lettered as in the figure; mno=a, mnb=a’, mro=0, npb=0'. The edges a: P anda ; a’ were made parallel with mn (fig. 9.) The intersection of P with 6 has the di- 44 On the Drawing of Figures of Crystals. rection mr, that of P with o', the direction of np. ‘The intersec- tions of a, 5, M are parallel with mo; those of a’, 0’, M, have the di- rection bn, as determined above. The edge a: 0’ is drawn in the direction ne, explained above as the intersection of npb and nmo. Finally the edge M : a’ is drawn parallel with mb, and the edge M : 0’, parallel with pb, which in fig. 9, is obviously the intersection of pbn with M. The planes 6 and 0’ do not meet; were the plane a’ wanting, their intersection would have been drawn parallel with — «8 or parallel with the edge a’ ; 0’. 20. In this manner a sketch of a crystal may be made or rectified, or a figure may be drawn, whose prototype has not been observed. The crystallographic expressions however, do not indicate the size of , the planes. ‘The edge M : 0’ might have been so drawn as not to ‘have formed an intersection with the plane P. Again, these sec- ondary planes might have been so extended, that in connection with the corresponding planes on the other angles, they should ob- literate mostly or entirely the primary faces.. ‘The intersections of the planes would not however be changed in direction. There would be new intersections of planes on opposite parts of the same primary face, which it would be necessary to determine in the above manner. 21. We may now add the planes 2Pm, 2Pm, Po, and mP; the two former are replacements | ye: of the longer terminal edge é, the third is situated on the shorter edge é, and the last is a replacement of a lateral edge. We may also sup- pose that 2Po meets the planes aand 6; 2Po, the plane 0; Po the planes a and 0’, and m P, the planes a’ and 6’. It is therefore necessary to determine the direc- tion of these intersections. For this purpose fig. 9 is redrawn (fig. 11) to avoid confusion from the multiplicity of similar lines, (this would not be required in practice,) and the lines in the preceding figure, not including the new planes, are here dotted. The plane nfuv is so drawn that an equals 5¢ and af=$ of te, which fulfills the conditions for the plane 2Pm (2.3. :1). Again On the Drawing of Figures of Crystals. 45 srow is the plane 2Po (2: o :1); for it cuts off 2 of e and } of é, or 2 parts of e to 1 of €. The perimeters of the planes untu (2 ‘Po ) and mno (P) intersect in the points n and «; the intersections of 2Poa with P has there- fore the direction «n, aid is parallel with the edge a : 0’ in figure 10. The perimeters of the planes vntu (2Po ) and mro (2P2), inter- sect in the pots « and 7; and a line from @ to 7 marks the direc- tion of the edge between the planes 2Po and 2P2. The perimeters of the planes srow (2Pa ) and mro (2P2), coin- cide in the line ro. The intersection of 2Pca and 2P2 has there- fore the direction ro and is parallel with the edge 6 : a’ in fig. 10. Again, the plane gmol represents P a, (1: 1+ ©) for it cuts off equal parts of the edges e and é. The perimeters of the planes gmol and nmo (P) coincide in the line mo; their intersection is therefore parallel to this line, or to the edges a: 0 and 0 : M, fig. 10. The perimeters gmol and npb (4P2) intersect in the points « and ¢; aline from « to ¢ therefore marks the direction of the edge be- tween Po and 4P2 (6’). Again, the plane prkh is the projection of oP (am:1: 1), for it cuts off equal portions of é and é, and is parallel with the lateral edge. The perimeters prkh (oo P) and mbn (2P) intersect in the points « and ¢; aline between these points is parallel with mn. The intersection of these planes will therefore be parallel with mn, or the edge a: a’ (fig. 10.) The perimeters prkh (o P), and pnd (4P2) intersect in the soit pand¢. A line drawn from p to ¢ determines therefore the inter- section of oP and 4P2 (0’). Fig. 12. Fig. 12, contains these additional planes laid down according to the above deductions. ‘The edge a : é/(3Po ) is parallel with the sg a: 0’; the edge é ; 6 has the direction “7; the edge 6(2Pa ) : 46 On the Drawing of Figures of Crystals. is parallel with the edge 6 : a’; the edge a : €(Po ) is parallel with the edge a: 6 or M: 6; the edge 6’ : € has the direction of a line from @ to ¢; the edge a’: e( wP) is parallel with the edge P : a; and finally the edge e : 0’ has the direction of a line drawn from p to ¢. | In this manner the intersections of all possible planes may be de- termined and transferred. It should be observed that similar parts of acrystal are similarly modified. Figure 12 is a completed repre- sentation of a crystal which presents the planes above designated, viz. OP. wPmo. mPa .P.2P.2P2.4P2.Pa .3Pa .2Pa@ . oP PrN Sys a ar tot ao eae EY et ar Oe This same descriptive expression applies equally to fig. 18, which contains the same planes as fig. 12, but differently proportioned in size. ‘The planes M have been diminished by the enlargement of e, thus producing a modified rhombic prism. ‘The directions of the intersections are identical with those in fig. 12. ~ This figure illus- trates a preceding remark ($ 19), that the descriptive expressions of planes indicate merely their situation and not their size. According to the same method, crystals may be projected in each of the crystallographic classes, after their axes have been accurately laid down. It was remarked that the figure employed for determin- ing the intersections should be large: in a large figure slight varia- tions from the true direction or position of lines produces errors of less magnitude. Also the lines should be carefully and delicately drawn. With the point of a needle on glazed cards, a very great degree of accuracy may be attained. PROJECTION OF SIMPLE SECONDARY. FORMS. 21. Monometric system.—The projection of many of the simple secondary forms,—for example the trisoctahedrons, the hexoctahe- drons, &c.—by the method of construction which has been explain- ed, would be a long and tedious process; at least when compared with the more simple method, depending on the relative lengths of the axes and the rhombic and trigonal interaxes in these forms. The right lines passing through the centre of the octahedron to the centres of its edges, are called rhombic interazes ; and those which pass to the centres of the faces, are the trigonal interaxes. In the several monometric forms, the extremities of one or more of these interaxes extended or diminished in their lengths, occupy the ver- On the Drawing of Figures of Crystals. 47 tices of the solid angles. If therefore these points (the extremities of the interaxes,) can be determined in the several crystalline forms, it will only remain to connect them, in order to form a projection of these solids. ‘The principles of analytical geometry afford the means of determining how much the interaxes of the octahedron must be increased or diminished to equal the interaxes in these different forms. It is thus found that each half of a trigonal interaxis must be increas- ed by that portion expressed in the fraction 2 mn—(m+n) mn-+ ~ mn+(m+ n) } and for each half of a rhombic interaxis, we have the corresponding fraction n—1 « n+l _ By giving mand x different values from 0 toa, the values of these interaxes for any monometric form may be obtained. The following values are thus deduced for several occurring forms ; Trig. interaxes. Rhombic interax. ‘ Trigonal trisoctahedron (fig. 20.)* 20 il 0 Dodecahedron (fig. 7.) «oO a 0 Hexoctahedron (fig. 25.) 302 2 1 hi ! 402 é = ce 002 = a Tetrahexahedron (fig. 11.) wO2 1 1 i 003 = 1 Tetragonal trisoctahedron (fig. 16.) 202 + 1 c 303 4 1 Cube, ~ @Oa 2 1 To construct the form 402, the octahedron is-first to be projected, and its axes and interaxes drawn. ‘Then add to each half of each trigonal interaxis, five sevenths of its length; and to each half of each rhombic interaxis, one third of its length. ‘The extremities of the lines thus constructed, are situated in the vertices of the solid angles of the hexoctahedron 402, and by connecting them, the pro- jection of this form is completed. 22. In the inclined hemihedral monometric forms—that is, those hemihedral forms whose opposite faces are inclined to one another and not parallel, as the tetrahedron, &c.—the rhombic interaxes do * For these and the following references to figures, the reader is referred to the copperplates in my system of Mineralogy. 48 On the Drawing of Figures of Crystals. not terminate in the vertices of the solid angles, and may therefore be thrown out of view in the projection of these solids. ‘The two halves of each trigonal interaxis, terminate in the vertices of dissim- ilar angles, and are of unequal lengths. One is identical with the corresponding in the holohedral forms, and is called the holohedral portion of the interaxis ; the other is the hemihedral portion. The length of the latter may be determined by adding to the half of the octahedral interaxis, that portion of the same indicated in the for- mula, | 2 mn—(m—n) mn-+(m—n) If the different halves of the trigonal interaxes, be assumed at one time as the holohedral and again as the hemihedral portion, the re- mOn mOn- : i verse forms —3— and —~g~ may be projected. The following table contains the values of the above fraction for several of the in- clined hemihedral forms and also the corresponding values for the holohedral portion of the interaxis. i Holohed. interax. Hemihed. interax. O Tetrahedron (fig. 30.) my! 2 : ne 202 Trigonal hemitrisoctahedron (fig. 34.) G- 3 2 303 ; (3 2 2 2 Tetragonal hemitrisoctahedron (fig. 40.) = x 5 ; 20 66 a 1 1 302 Inclined hemihexoctahedron (fig. 41) —g 5 5 402 i enints 5 504 66 9 2 a 93. The parallel hemihedrons, (for example, the Pentagonal Dodecahedron, or Hemi-tetrahexahedron) contain a solid angle, sit- uated ina line between the extremities of each pair of semiaxes, which is called an unsymmetrical solid angle. The vertices of these angles are at unequal distances from the two adjacent axes, 2 ———————— On the Drawing of Figures of Crystals. _ 49 and therefore are not in the line of the rhombic interaxes. ‘The . sabes [mOn] coordinates of this solid angle for any form, as ——g_? may be found m(n—1) n(m— 1) m1 ina 1 las, the situation of two points, a and 5, (fig. 14.) in each of the axes may be determined: and if lines are drawn through a and 6 in each semiaxis parallel to the other axes, the intersections c¢, c’ of these lines will be the vertices of the unsymmetrical solid angles, [mOn| those marked c of the form ito 18 by the formulas By means of these formu- and those marked c’, of the form [mOn] Te The trigonal interaxes are of the same length as in the holohedral forms. ‘The values of these interaxes, and of the coordinates of the unsymmetrical solid angle for different parallel hemihedrons, are con- tained in the following table. Trigonal Coord. of the un- interaxis. sym. solid angle. 303 Parallel hemihexoctahedron (fig. 49.) —- = 4 A 6c [402] 5 4 6 5) 7 7 7 ce [503] 2 4 10. 5) 3 Aas ep aO2 Hemitetrahexahedron (fig. 44.) ae “ a 1 aO02 « 5 Lia cag ih [ 003] iM " i 2 4 3 24. Dimetric system.—In an octagonal pyramid, mPn (fig. 59.) the interaxes, or diagonals symmetrically intermediate between the hori- zontal axes, terminate in the interaxal basal angles. Their length ex- ceeds the length of the interaxes of the octahedron, by a portion equal Vou. XX XIJI.—No. 1. 7 50 Meteorological Sketches. n— | : ) Poi If therefore the octahedron mP and its interaxes be project- ed, and these interaxés be ad a by a portion of their length ex- pressed in the fraction, — —— > they will equal the interaxes of the a octagonal pyramid mPn. This solid may then be projected by con- necting the extremities of these interaxes, with the extremities of the horizontal axes, and joining all the angles of the octagonal base thus formed, with the extremities of the vertical axis. 25. Tetraxonal system.—The dihexagonal pyramid (fig. 126.) may be projected in the same manner as the octagonal pyramid just described ; that is, by increasing the interaxes by a_ portion equal to n—1 n+l and connecting the angular points of the base thus projected, with | the extremities of the vertical axis. The scalenohedron (fig. 116.) mR” admits of a similar construc- tion with the rhombohedron mR. ‘The only variation required, is to multiply the vertical axis, by the number of units in m, after the pots E and E’ in the rhombohedron mR have been determined ; then connect the points E, or the points E’, with one another and with the extremities of the vertical axis. — 17? uniting the points thus determined with the horizontal axes, e Art. IV.— Meteorological Sketches ; by an Observer. [Prepared for the 13th edition of the American Coast Pilot.] Tue science of Meteorology is not only interesting to the philo- sophic observer, but the natural phenomena of which it takes cog- nizance, are such as daily affect the interest and comfort of every -member of the human family. But to no class of persons are these phenomena, as exhibited in various parts of the world, of so much practical importance as to the members of the nautical nelession A competent knowledge of these exhibitions, or of geographical mete- orology, is therefore an important element of that varied knowledge which is acquired by the skillful navigator. General View of the Atmosphere. The transparent aerial fluid which surrounds our globe, and which we denominate the atmosphere, forms a comparatively thin stratum Meteorological Sketches. 51 or envelope, which in the immediate vicinity of the earth, is greatly compressed by its own weight, and which in its most expanded and tenuous state is supposed to extend itself to the height of only for- ty-five or fifty miles from the earth’s surface. Its superincumbent pressure or weight is ascertained by means of the barometer, and is equal to a column of mercury about thirty inches in height. By means of this instrument we learn that one half its weight or actual quantity is within three miles and a half of the surface of the ocean ; and it is within this limit that nearly all the visible or important phe- nomena of the atmosphere are apparently developed. ‘The super- ficial area of the lower surface of the atmosphere is equal to about 200,000,000 square miles ; and as a compression of the whole mass to the common density which it exhibits at the sea level, would re- duce its entire height to about five miles, it follows that by this stan- dard of comparison the height or thickness of the atmosphere is to its superficial extent in the proportion of only 1 to 40,000,000. These several facts are too important. to be lost sight of, in our general reasonings upon the phenomena of the atmosphere; and the more so, as we are prone to give too much altitude to our concep- tions on these subjects. If we even consider the proper height or thickness of the atmosphere as equal to fifty miles, still, as compared with its entire surface, this is only equal to one five hundredth of the proportion which the thickness of a common sheet of paper, of the foolseap size, bears to its surface dimensions; and if we view the atmosphere either as condensed to the mean of the surface pressure, or in relation to the actual limit of all its tangible phenomena, it will only be equal to one five thousandth part of the proportional thick- ness here mentioned. We may hence perceive the inapplicability of analogical reasonings that are founded on the movements which occur in a chimney, or in an inclosed apartment, as attempted to be applied in explanation of the general movements of the atmosphere. Two instruments of modern invention, the barometer and ther- mometer, are truly invaluable as testing the condition of the atmos- phere, and their use should be familiar to every navigator. By the first, as we have-seen, the amount or weight of the superincumbent atmosphere, at any place, may always be accurately known, and by the indications of the other the temperature of the air as well as of the ocean, may be ascertained with equal precision. Among the most striking peculiarities of the atmosphere, are its rapid and almost constant movements of progression or circulation, 52 Meteorological Sketches. which, with some unimportant exceptions, appear to prevail through- out the globe. These movements evidently show the continued operation of some powerful impulse, which, to the writer at least, does not appear to have been satisfactorily explained. It is esti- mated from the average rate of sailing of ships during long voyages through different seas, and from other data, that the average velocity of the wind near the surface of the ocean is equal to eighteen miles an hour throughout the year, and in the common region of the clouds the velocity must be much greater. Temperature of Elevation. Elevation above the level of the sea, or the general level of a country, causes a regular variation in temperature. The first 300 feet usually cause a difference of about 1 degree of Fahrenheit’s ther- mometer. After ascending 300 feet, it is estimated that the thermom- eter falls a degree in 295 feet, then at 277, 252, 228, and 192 feet ; but 300 feet to a degree isa common rule. On these principles the limit of perpetual frost has been calculated. It is made a little more than 15,000 feet at the equator, and from that to 13,000 between the tropics, and from 9,000 to 4,000 feet between latitudes 40° and 59°. It has been found, however; that the above rule is subject to great variations, owing, probably, to the course, temperature, and super- position of the atmospheric. currents which prevail in different re- gions, and at different altitudes. Colder currents are often found resting upon, or interposed between, those of a higher temperature, and vice versa. On the Himalaya Mountains, in Asia, between the latitudes of 28° and 34° north, the region of vegetation has been found to extend several thousand feet above the supposed line of congelation in those latitudes. It is also remarkable that the line of perpetual snow is found at a much greater altitude on the northern side of these mountains than on the southern side in a lower lati- tude. From this it may be inferred that the temperature in high regions, as well as in lower situations, is greatly affected by the geo- graphical course and physical condition of the currents of atmos- phere which prevail in those regions. Stratification and Elevation of the Currents of the Atmosphere. It is obvious, from the courses of the clouds and other light bo- dies which sometimes float in the atmosphere, that the movements Meteorological Sketches. 53 of the latter are mainly horizontal, or parallel to the earth’s surface. Notwithstanding this, the common theory of winds supposes a con- stant rising of the atmosphere in the equatorial regions, connected with a flow in the higher atmosphere towards the polar regions, and a counter flow at the surface towards the equator, to supply the as- cending current. This ascending movement, however, has never yet been discovered, and it is easy to perceive that if it existed in the man- ner supposed, its magnitude and velocity must be altogether too great to have eluded observation. It is apparent, however, that different currents often prevail at dif- ferent altitudes, superimposed one upon another, and moving at the same time in different directions. These currents are often of different temperatures and hygrometrical condition, and are found moving with different degrees of velocity. It is by the influence of these currents that volcanic ashes, and other light substances, which are elevated by means of volcanic spouts or whirlwinds to the higher regions of the atmosphere, are conveyed to great distances, and in directions which are often contrary to the prevailing wind at the surface. On the eruption in St. Vincent, in 1812, ashes were thus deposited at Bar- badoes, which is 60 or 70 miles to the windward, and also on the decks of vessels still farther eastward, while the trade wind was blowing in its usual direction. On the great eruption of the volcano of Cosiguina, on the shores of the Pacific, in Guatemala, in Jan- uary, 1835, the volcanic ashes fell upon the island of Jamaica, at the distance of 800 miles in a direct line from the volcano. Facts like these ought to put at rest the common theory of the trade winds, according to which these ashes would sooner have fallen upon the northern shores of the Gulf of Mexico, or the peninsula of Florida. On the same occasion the volcanic ashes were also carried westward in the direction contrary to the trade wind on that coast, and fell up- on H. M. ship Conway, in the Pacific, in lat. 7° N., long. 105° W., more than 1,200 miles distant from the volcano, in the direction which is nearly opposite from that of Jamaica. ‘These phenomena were doubtless the effect of two different currents prevailing at dif- ferent elevations ; but we shall seek in vain, in these developments, for proof of the commonly received but imaginary system of the trade winds. The occasional interposition of a warmer current of atmosphere between the lower current and the higher regions, has been proved by the observations of aeronauts. In countries situated like the Uni- 54 Meteorological Sketches. ted States, where the surface is often occupied in winter, for long periods, by an intensely cold stratum of air from the interior eleva- tions, the warm currents from lower latitudes appear to find their way at a superior elevation; and their presence in this position is often demonstrated by the phenomena which they induce. Clouds, Fogs and Rain. The atmosphere is always pervaded by water in the form of trans- parent or invisible vapor, and the process of evaporation is contin- ually carried on, except in cases where the thermometer is below what is called the dew point, or when the vapor is being condensed in the form of clouds, fogs, or rain. ‘‘ Clouds and fogs are the same thing, being an assemblage of small vesicles of water floating in the atmosphere. At a distance in the atmosphere we see the whole as a cloud, but when the vapor sinks to the earth, or will not rise, and we are immersed in it, we call it a fog. Dew-fogs which hang over fields, are stratus clouds; and fogs which involve elevated objects, are cumulous clouds.” It is to circumstances of distribution, light, shade, distance, and perspective, that the great variety in the ap- pearance of the clouds is owing; and on this variety of appearance the following classification has been founded, by which the clouds have been considered as pertaining to seven classes : 1. Like a lock of hair, or a feather, called cerrus. 2. A cloud in conical or rounded heaps, called cumulus. 3. A horizontal sheet, called stratus. ' 4. A system of small fleecy or rounded clouds, called cirro-cu- mulus. ; 5. The wavy or undulating stratus, called cirro-stratus. 6. The cumulus and cirro-stratus mixed, called cumulo-stratus. 7. A cumulus spreading out in cirrus, and raining beneath, called nimbus. | The cirrus is usually the most elevated—sometimes as a gauze veil, or parallel threads. Its height is apparently from one to four miles. | Dew is the condensation of aqueous vapor upon the surface of a condensing body or substance. Clouds and fogs are watery particles condensed from aqueous vapor while floating in the atmosphere, where they continue to float till precipitated, or again dissolved. If by the concentration of these particles, or by any additional conden- Meteorological Sketches: 00 sation, their weight be increased beyond that which the extent of their surface can sustain, they then descend in the form of rain; and as the condensation ordinarily increases as the drops increase in mag- nitude, it is common to have more rain fall on the surface of the ground than on, an equal space upon the top of a house or church. Clouds, fogs, and rain are therefore essentially the same, the latter being the continuation or extension of the same process which pro- duced the former. ' : Owing to the evaporating properties of the atmosphere in the higher regions, as well] as the intensity of cold which there uniformly prevails, distinct clouds are seldom, if ever, found at a greater ele- vation than the summits of the highest mountains, which is about five miles. At an intermediate region, however, the clouds are often at a temperature above freezing, while the air at the surface is much below the freezing point, and the earth covered with snow. This condition of the clouds seems not unfrequently evident by their appearance to the eye of an observer. Snowy or frozen clouds are usually dim and undefined in their aspect or appearance ; and a fall of snow may not unaptly be termed the fall of a frozen cloud. an | Of Hail. Hail of small size, as it falls in wintry storms, appears as frozen rain-drops. From the occurrence of this phenomenon in a freezing state of weather, we find evidence that a stratum of air in the region of clouds is at a temperature above the freezing point, or warmer than that which is found at the surface at the same time. A heavy fall of snow when the temperature is much below the freezing point, affords, perhaps, the same indication. Summer hail of large size, which is deposited in a definite path or vein, or in a locality of limited extent, is usually accompanied by heavy thunder and vivid or continued lightnings, or a heavy rambling sound or rapid concussions, high winds, &c., and is believed to be the production of a vortex or whirlwind in the atmosphere, or spout as it is sometimes called, which is connected at its upper extremity with an overlying stratum of unusually cold air. A portion of this cold stratum probably descends on the exterior of the vortex, and on approaching the earth’s surface, is pressed into the vortex and there entwined or laminated with the layer of warm and humid air of the surface, which is drawn in at the same time. A rapid condensation, 56 | Meteorological Sketches. as is known, thus commences at the lower extremity of the whirling mass or column, and the condensed and frozen drops, passing into layers of air of a temperature alternately above and below the freez- img point, are carried upward by the powerful whirling and ascend- ing action of the vortex, till, with the successive coatings of con- densation received, they are finally discharged into the cold stratum at the upward extremity of the vortex, owing to the reduced tem- perature of which, they are prepared to receive a renewed acces- sion during their fall to the earth; or perhaps by their accumulated weight they are sometimes thrown through the sides of the vortex before reaching its higher extremity. By this violent whirling and elevating action, some of the hail-stones are thrown against each other and broken; and each successive layer of congelation may often be seen in the fractured sections of the hail. In all vorticular ccondensations of this character, when the cold is not sufficiently in- tense to produce hail, drops of rain are produced of a much greater size than are ever found in a common and direct fall of rain. Hail storms of this character are less frequent in the tropical re- gions than in the temperate latitudes, for the reason, probably, that a stratum of sufficient cold to produce the hail, is seldom found so near the lowest stratum that a vorticular communication can be es- tablished with the former, by means of an ordinary gust, spout, or whirlwind. Nor does this ordinarily happen in the temperate lati- tudes; but only when the lower warm stratum becomes overlaid, in close proximity, by a stratum from a colder region; an event which is not unfrequent in most countries within the temperate latitudes. It commonly happens, therefore, that several hail storms of greater or less magnitude and violence, occur on the same day, or about the | same period. Of Thunder Storms and Gusts. When a cold stratum or current of the higher atmosphere moves or rests upon a warm one which is next the earth, neither stratum, as such, can penetrate or displace the other. Nor can a sudden in- terchange or commingling take place between the masses or parti- cles of which these strata are composed, except by the slow and te- dious process of the successive action and convolution of single par- ticles, or small groups of particles, upon or around each other; but if a communication or interchange between the two strata becomes established by means of the action of a gradually excited whirlwind | Meteorological Sketches. 57 or water-spout, or if, owing to any inequality of surface or other ac- cident, a depression is made upon the lower stratum, so as to enable the colder air to descend at this point, then an immediate gyration or convolution will take place in the two masses at this point, the warm air rising as it becomes displaced, and a copious condensation will immediately follow. It is movements of this character which pro- duce the dense and convoluted appearance known as a thunder- cloud, and the thunder and lightning, rain, and perhaps hail, follow as necessary results. The precipitation of the colder stratum thus commenced, is reg- larly continued and enlarged till an equilibrium is produced, and the thunder storm thus engendered, assumes, of course, the direction of ~ the upper current to which it is appended, and which, in the tem- perate latitudes, is commonly from the western quarter. The warm surface air which is thus displaced at the commencement of the pro- cess, rises immediately in front of the colder intruding mass, and by the gyratory action thus commenced, becomes convolved in de- tached masses or layers with the colder surrounding air, and by the reduction of temperature thus produced, furnishes the large supply of aqueous vapor which is first condensed in the thunder cloud, and then precipitated in a heavy fall of rain; and the electric phenomena which are induced by this sudden contact or intermingling of masses of air of different temperatures and hygrometric conditions, become highly vivid, and too often destructive. The active gyration which is commonly produced within the body of the thunder storm or gust, is in the direction of the advance of the storm and of the rising warm _ air which is forced upward, or in the direction of forward and up- _ ward at the lower front of the storm.* In consequence of this gyratory action, a storm which advances at the rate of fifteen or twenty miles an hour, is often known to ex- hibit a velocity of wind during the period of its greatest violence, of sixty or eighty miles an hour. If the axis of this gyration in a thunder storm assumes, from any cause, a vertical position, we then have a perfect whirlwind or tornado, which, if it be so situated as not to reach the earth by its direct action, will exhibit to us the phe- nomena of a heavy thunder storm accompanied by rumbling sounds and concussions, and a fall of hail in or near some portion of its path. But if the regular action of the whirlwind should reach the earth, * See also Prof. Mitchell on thunder storms: Am. Jour. of Science, Vol; XTX. p- 278—282. Vol. XX XIII.—No. 1. 8 58 Meteorological Sketches. and continue for some time, great destruction may be expected to follow. ‘The path of these destructive whirlwinds is generally nar- row, and often but a few hundred yards in width. From the nature of the causes which we have before mentioned as being favorable to the occurrence of a thunder storm, it follows that many of these storms will be likely to occur on the same day, in different parts of the same country, as has been already remarked in the case of hail storms, with which they are often identical; and the writer has often found this to’ be true to a remarkable extent. The fatal accidents by lightning, in different parts of the country have often happened on the same days, and we have reason to believe that scores of tornadoes, hail storms, and thunder storms, have sometimes occurred on the same afternoon. It usually happens that the precipitations of colder atmosphere at these numerous points of disturbance, are sufficient to produce a marked change in the tem- perature of the surface stratum within a period of twelve hours there- after. aie Atmospheric disturbances of this kind, which do not produce vio- lent thunder or hail, are usually denominated squalls ; and it appears highly probable that the presence of air of a temperature consider- ably above the freezing point, is necessary to the production of thunder and lightning. In the Strait of Magalhaens, in Patagonia, where the air at the surface is neither warm nor very cold, the squalls, called by the sailors williwaws, are very frequent, and tre- mendously severe ; but, according to the observations of Capt. P. P. King, lightning and thunder are seldom known. The heavy condensation presented in a thunder cloud, is often spoken of in a manner which implies that the cloud possesses some mechanical or other energy, by means of which the violent wind is sent forth; but nothing can be more unreal than such a supposition. _ The cloud may indeed be the means of electric development, and furnishes also the watery deposition for the hail or rain, but all the particles of the cloud are passively inert, like those of a common fog or mist, and the violent winds and disturbing forces which may be pres- ent, operate to produce the cloud, but do not, in any important sense, result from its action. Water-spouts and Whirlwinds. The character of these meteors has already been described, in a measure, in our account of hail and thunder storms. The identity Meteorological Sketches. 59 of whirlwinds and water-spouts, was maintained by Franklin, and although at a later period this has been called in question, it appears to have been done without sufficient reason. From the equal distribution of the atmosphere as the oceanic en- velop of our earth, it results, that no movement of great violence can take place in any of its parts, except by means of a direct cir- cuit of rotation in the form of a vortex or active whirlwind. A vortex will not be regularly formed, nor continue itself in ac- tion, without the aid of an external propelling force and a constant spiral discharge from that extremity of its axis towards which is the tendency of motion. Both these conditions, it is believed, are ful- filled to the letter in the case of a common whirlwind or water-spout. The air at the upper extremity of the whirling column, owing to its elevation, is rarer than at the base, and the column itself, particu- larly in its central portions, is mechanically rarefied by the centrifugal effect of its own whirling motion. We have thus a sort of rarefied chimney into which the denser air at the base of the column is con- tinually forced, by the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere ; not to ascend in a separate current as in the common chimney, but en- tering into the organization of the whirling vortex, to supply the place of the preceding portions of air which are winding inwards and upwards to be again discharged at the upper extremity. The condition of force by which the propulsion is maintained, is found in the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere upon all sides of the whirling and therefore mechanieally rarefied column, and if the ex- pansive whirling motion be sufficiently activé to produce nearly a vacuum at the center, the external propelling force will be nearly fifteen pounds to the square inch. As the whirling column turns within its own compass like a top or any other rotative body, this force is quite sufficient to account for all the violence that is ever produced. ; ; Were there no vorticular or whirling action already excited, and no discharge from the upper extremity of the vortex, there could then be no inequality of pressure to produce rotation; but this movement and upward discharge having once commenced, from any cause, the par- ticles near the exterior of the column, like those of water in a funnel, yield at a little more than a right angle, to the external pressure, in their spirally approximating course towards the rarefied center. By the slowness of this central approximation as compared with the whirl- ing action, the intensity or magnitude of the external pressure becomes 60 Meteorological Sketches. gradually merged in the velocity of the rotative action. As the area of the spiral circuit decreases rapidly as we approach the center, it follows that the velocity of the whirling movement must be propor- tionally increased, as we perceive it to be in the funnel and in all reg- ular formed vortices. ‘Thus, if the rotative velocity near the exterior of the whirling column be at the rate of but ten miles an hour, at one third nearer the center the velocity must be more than doubled, and at two thirds of the distance from the first named point to the center, the absolute whirling velocity must be increased nine fold, which in this case is equal to ninety miles an hour; and in consequence of the reduced diameter of the circuit of gyration at the last point, the number of revolutions must here be as four hundred, to one at the point first mentioned. The increased ascending velocity, however, is not here taken into account, which may perhaps reduce the num- ber of comparative revolutions in the central portions of the col- umn. The extraordinary condensing and electric effects which often attend or follow these active whirlwinds, have been cursorily noticed under the head of thunder storms and hail. It is not intended to dwell here upon the causes by which whirl- _ winds and spouts are excited or first set in motion, but local disturb- ances in a heated stratum, at points where the same is beginning to be penetrated by the colder air of a higher stratum, are probably the chief exciting cause as in thunder storms. The agency of heat may also be effective.in continuing the upward discharge and vorticular organization, in cases where there is great disparity in the tempera- ture of the air at the upper and lower extremities of the whirling mass or column, but it is to the mechanical expansion caused by the centrifugal action and the powerful impulse of the external atmos- pheric pressure, that the increased and powerful activity of the whirl- wind is chiefly to be referred. . The term water-spout is undoubtedly a misnomer, as there is no _effect produced of which this term is properly descriptive, although the term air-spout would not be greatly inappropriate. The visible ¢olumn of condensed vapor which often appears in the rarefied cen- ter of the vortex when the latter is not enveloped in cloud, has probably given name to this meteor. But the water of the sea is not taken up by the spout or whirlwind, except in a slight degree and in the form of fine spray, like other light matter which is swept from the surface. ‘This cloudy stem or column frequently appears and disappears, while the action of the whirlwind continues without - Meteorological Sketches. 61 any important change. Owing to this fact, observers sometimes be- lieve that they witness the commencement of a water-spout, or tor- nado, when the same has previously been in action for one or more hours, and when the cloudy pipe or pillar happens to disappear, the Spout is supposed to have ‘ burst,’ while, often, it has undergone no important change, except, perhaps, a slight decrease in its activity. The active and violent portion of the whirlwind surrounds the spout invisibly, and is probably of much greater diameter at a distance from the surface of the earth than at the base of the spout. Thus, when a spout or whirlwind has passed near a ship, the upper spars have been converted into wreck while no violence of wind was felt on the deck. ; Water-spouts follow the course either of the surface wind or of the higher current with which they may communicate, or their course may be modified by both these influences without being absolutely determined by either. They abound most, however, in those calm regions which are found at the external limits of the trade winds, and in the regions near the equator. It has been common to ascribe whirlwinds and water-spouts, as well as larger whirlwind storms, to an impulse produced by the meeting of contrary currents, but the laws of distribution and of mo- tion in an oceanic body, are such as do not permit the movements of its different currents and gyrations to meet in conflict with each other; besides, any conflicting movement in the air would necessa- rily produce a rise in the barometer, whereas it is generally known to fall at the commencement of a storm or whirlwind, either of large or small extent. We may observe, also, that whirlwinds and spouts appear to commence gradually, and to acquire their full activity without the aid of foreign causes ; and it is well known that they are most frequent in those calm regions where, apparently, there are no active currents to meet each other, and they are least frequent where currents are in full activity. Of Trade Winds and the circuitous Character of the Atmospheric Currents. It is found that in almost every country, and in every sea, the wind is more or less predominant in a particular direction. In open sea, between the equator and the 30th parallel of north and south latitudes, the wind, for the most part, blows from the eastward ; but near the eastern borders of any ocean, below these latitudes, the . 62 Meteorological Sketches. wind blows in a direction more towards the equator than in its cen- tral or western portions. In the higher latitudes north of 30°, the westerly winds are found greatly to predominate, although the eddying or rotative action which is acquired by large portions of the lower stratum of air in these lat- itudes, causes much diversity and frequent changes in the specific direction of the local winds. But in the common region of clouds, where this eddying movement is less frequent, the main atmospheric current, at least in the United States, is fully as constant from the westward, as is the trade wind from the eastward in any tropical region. — At New York, in four successive years the westerly winds have been found to be to the easterly, as nearly as two to one. Observa- tions on the courses of the clouds for the same period, show the prev- alence of an atmospheric current from the westward at that elevation to be, as compared with those from the eastward, nearly as fourteen to one; the prevailing wind being southwesterly. At Montreal, in Lower Canada, as appears by the observations of J. M’Cord, Esq. the westerly surface winds also appear to exceed the easterly, in the proportion of more than four to one. In consequence of the general prevalence of westerly winds and currents in these latitudes, the passages of the fastest ships, from Europe to America, are found to occupy a much longer period than from America to Europe. The first movement of the trade winds towards the equator and westward, necessarily occasions an equal movement from the higher latitude to supply their place; and as the trade winds in their pro- gress westward are opposed by the American and Asiatic continents, across which these winds do not pass, it follows that these winds be- come deflected or thrown off towards the poles in order to support an equal distribution of the atmosphere in the higher latitudes; but the air thus transferred to these latitudes carries with it the rotative impulse which it acquired in the tropical latitudes, and by reason of the slower rotative motion which here prevails, is thrown to the east- ward in the form of westerly winds. An entire circuit of atmospheric currents is thus maintained on both sides of the equator, the most equable and determinate portion of which is to be found in the region of the trade winds; and this appears to be the general outline of the great system of circulation in our atmosphere, as well as in the ocean itself. It is to the geo- graphical course pursued by the winds in different portions of these Meteorological Sketches. 63 great circuits that the peculiarities of temperature and climate per- taining to different countries lying in the same latitudes, are chiefly to be referred, as also the remarkable absence or: predominance of rain which is peculiar to certain regions. The Monsoons of the Indian Seas are but a modification of the same system of circulation; the regular trade wind instead of turning towards the higher latitudes, being here deflected across the equator, where it returns to the eastward in the form of the westerly mon- soons; the easterly monsoons being the regular trade wind. ‘The monsoons have, indeed, been ascribed to local rarefaction in Asia and New Holland, but the northwesterly monsoon, regardless of this hypothesis, sometimes sweeps over half the breadth of the great Pacific Ocean in its eastwardly progress. The above generalization may also be expressed in the following form : I. Between the two parallels of 30° N. and S. the atmosphere at the earth’s surface, for the most part revolves around the axis of the earth with a slower motion than the earth’s crust, or is constantly being left behind in the movement of rotation. II. The space previously occupied by the atmosphere so left be-- hind, is by the centrifugal action of the earth’s rotation, constantly supplied from the higher latitudes. III. That portion of the atmosphere which is left behind in the tropical latitudes, and passes westward by the earth’s rotation, as above described, is, by the force of direct gravitation, constantly transferred to the higher latitudes; thus preserving the equilibrium of distribution, so far as the same is ever maintained in these latitudes. IV. That portion of the atmosphere which is so transferred to the higher latitudes after having acquired the high rotative velocity of the equatorial regions, is by this previously acquired impulse, thrown rapidly eastward in the form of westerly winds, thus completing the great circuit of perpetual gravitation, which is developed in each of _ the oceanic basins on both sides of the equator. It is by the currents of these natural circuits of gravitation, that hur- ricanes and sterms are found to be transported from one region or lo- cality to another; and the track of these storms affords demonstrative evidence of the predominating course which these currents pursue. Different sections of these currents often become locally modified in their apparent courses from various causes, and being often stratified, or as it were shwmgled upon each other, they exhibit in their cross- 64 Meteorological Sketches. ings, specific movements in different directions, and consequently frequent changes at the surface, while still performing with no little regularity the systematic courses which have been summarily pointed out. One obvious cause of the local irregularity and superposition of these currents is found in the retardation to which the lowest portions of the air are subject, owing to the resistance of the earth’s surface.* _ The rotative motion of the atmosphere and the earth’s surface in the latitudes which form the boundary between the trade winds and the returning westerly winds being nearly equal, this region is neces- sarily subject to calms, and to those sudden gusts and squalls which are usually excited in warm regions in the absence of a prevailing wind. ‘This region, in the North Atlantic, is known to navigators as the horse latitudes, because the traders between New England and the West Indies, in consequence of the lack of sustenance occasioned by these calms, were sometimes under the necessity of throwing over- board the whole or a part of their deck loads of horses. The great circuits of winds intersect and cross these latitudes in both directions on almost every meridian, but with little sensible effect at the sur- face, except towards the eastern margin of the Atlantic, where the northerly winds decidedly prevail ; and towards the western margin of the Atlantic and in the Gulf of Mexico, where the southerly winds are usually prevalent. . Similar results are found in nearly all the regions which separate the great natural circuits of winds from each other, and these tracts of ocean are known by the designation of the calms, and some- times are called the rains or the variables. Such is the region about the equator, which separates the northern from the southern trade winds, and the easterly from the westerly monsoons. The easterly monsoons, in approaching the equator, where they run into the westerly monsoons, necessarily acquire the same velocity of rota- tion as the earth’s crust, which of course produces calms; the north- erly or southerly tendency of the monsoons being here too small to produce a leading breeze at the surface. * There is one point of some interest which it has not been found convenient to introduce into these sketches, viz. an explanation of the causes which tend to produce extensive and successive gyrations in the lower strata or currents of air - which pass from the tropical to the higher latitudes; and which tend also to oblit- erate these gyrations in the strata which are leaving the higher latitudes and — proaching the tropical regions. Meteorological Sketches. 65 Land and Sea Breezes. Near the shores of an island or country it is often found that the wind, during different hours of the day and night, blows alternately to and from the land. Or in the case of a general or trade wind which is parallel to the coast, its course becomes alternately modified by an approximation to the above result. ‘This effect has been justly ascribed to the influence of diurnal heat and cold. Not that any vacuum is created by the heat into which the surrounding air rushes, as has sometimes been supposed, nor that a warmed stratum of air necessarily rises from the surface and ascends to the higher regions ; for, aside from the general error of these notions, a flat, low, and strongly heated island or coast, is found to have less effect in pro- ducing these breezes than a high and sloping country of more even temperature. The truth appears to be, that when the stratum which lies upon the inclined surface of a coast becomes warmed and rarefied by the daily heat, it is forced by the increment of pressure at its lowest mar- gin to move along the inclined surface of the country in the direction of the greatest elevation, or as near that direction as the prevailing tendency of the lower current will allow. Owing to the cooling process which goes on during the night, the specific gravity of this inclined stratum becomes predominant, and the reverse movement then commences and continues into the following morning. We find, too, that on the slopes of certain coasts and islands where there is sufficient elevation, the higher margin of this stratum, at certain seasons, will daily reach an altitude at which it is brought in contact with a higher stratum sufficiently cold to set in operation a squall or thunder storm, at a certain hour; after which the equilibrium is res- tored, and the usual counter movement again follows in its turn. Some diurnal effect of this kind upon the wind may be observed at times in almost every region; and, taken altogether, it is probably the most extensive agency which is exercised by heat in the production of winds. . R. Vou. XXXIII.—No. 1. 9 66 Alembic for distilling Amalgam of Gold. Art. V.—Description of an Alembic for distilling Amalgam of Gold, contrived by M. F. Maury, U.S. N. Tue common process of treating amalgam, at the gold mines in Virginia, consists in getting rid of the excess of quicksilver, either by straining, or simply by pouring it off, after it has been allowed to stand long enough in a crucible or other vessel, for the gold to settle at the bottom. ‘The latter is the method more generally practiced, though at the surface or deposit mines, where the gold is found in larger particles, the amalgam is freed from the excess of quicksilver, by holding it between the palm of the left hand and the thumb of the right, and forcing the excess of quicksilver off by pressure. The residuum, a friable mass of quicksilver and grains of gold, contains from twenty to fifty, or even a larger. per centum (in weight) of the latter metal; the per centum being largest when the grains of gold are coarse, and least when they are fine. ‘Thus reduced, the amal- gam is put into a sheet iron stz/l, holding about a pint, or laid ina common shovel, when it is put on the fire, and the quicksilver is “blown off.” When the still is used, about twenty five per centum of quicksilver, and some of the gold, are lost; but when the shovel is used, some of the gold, and all of the quicksilver, is lost. The loss of gold is greatest, when it consists of grains or points impalpably small; for it appears, that that degree of heat, attain- able in the operation of “ blowing off” the quicksilver, is not suffi- cient entirely to neutralize the affinity between the two metals. When the gold is fine, and the heat quick, much of the former passes off with the mercurial vapor: this is proved by condensing the vapor, and allowing the quicksilver thus obtained to stand for three or four days, when by carefully pouring off the top of it, an amalgam, having the consistency of oil in incipient congelation, is found at the bottom of the vessel. By subjecting this again to the operation of the still, pure gold is obtained. ‘The residuum in this case is about ten per centum of the gross weight of the amalgam. The metallurgical process of obtaining gold in Virginia is by no means perfect; in every stage through which it passes, from the stamps to the ‘ blowing off”? of the quicksilver, Wee is a wasteful loss of both metals. All the gold mines yield more in the small than they do in the large way. ‘This difference is the greatest, when the ores are lean ; é Alembic for distilling Amalgam of Gold. 67 these sometimes give twenty five or fifty and in some instances even seventy five per cent. more of gold by assays made in the closet, than they will yield in the practical way of extracting the metal ona large scale. Either Chilian mills or stamps, commonly the latter, are used for reducing the gangue (slate or quartz) to the state of fine sand; by this operation the larger particles of gold are detached from its ma- trix, and remain mixed with the sand. ‘The stamps are large cast iron pounders, weighing four or five cwt. They tend, by repeated blows, and by keeping up a constant trituration among the grains of pounded quartz, to render the particles of gold, how minute soever these in the first instance may be, still more impalpable. The gold and sand thus pounded and mixed together, are washed out through a copper sieve, by a constant stream of water from un- der the stamps, and by it carried thence over several feet of bul- Jocks’ hides, resting on an inclined plane, having their hair upwards and the grain of the hair turned down stream. ‘The heavier parti- cles of gold, and other weighty minerals, such as the sulphate of ba- ryta, the sulphurets of lead, zinc, iron, copper, and the like, lodge im the hair of the roughly tanned skins, while the sand, and much of the gold in attenuated particles, are carried off together into the waste by the force of the water. At some of the mines the gold is disseminated through the quartz, in particles so minute, that they are seldom visible to the naked eye. When this is the case, much of the precious metal is floated off by reason of its buoyancy. ‘The phenomenon of solid particles of gold being floated on water may be readily understood ; for if we imagine a solid cube to be cut from a flake of gold leaf, and this cube to be further diminished by trun- cation and bevelment, it is very evident, that the specific gravity of this crystal, will not be less than that of the ingot from which the gold beater obtained it; but if it be placed in a vessel of water, in order to sink, it must, in consequence of it and the water not actu- ally touching each other, displace a quantity of that fluid many times greater in volume than the crystal; therefore the latter, whatever its size might be, would not sink, so long as the volume of water to be displaced by sinking, should exceed the crystal in weight. Upon the same principle, a cambric needle will float on water, while the bar of steel from which it was manufactured, will displace several jimes its own volume of the same fluid, and carry with it to the bottom large pieces of cork and the like. 68 Alembic for distilling Amalgam of Gold. The gold with the crust and other minerals that do lodge on the skins, is washed off in a tub, whence it is put into a trough, that con- ducts a stream of water to one or more amalgamators (Tyrolese or Hungarian bowls,) from which is constantly presented another phe- nomenon in hydrostatics, viz: that of quicksilver rising from the bottom and floating on the surface of water. Owing to the rotary motion of the amalgamators, the friction of the sand and water against the quicksilver, it tends to separate into minute globes, which rise to the surface, and are floated off; this tendency increases as the quicksilver loses its fluidity and becomes less yielding, which it does by being more and more heavily charged with gold; a considerable portion of which is thus carried off, atom by atom, from the amalgamators. In the course of twenty four hours, two or three per centum of the quicksilver in each amalgamator is lost. About twenty five per centum of that put in the still, and all that put in the shovel, is lost in the operation of “ blowing off.” There is a loss of gold in the same operation; besides the gold which swims off in the state of amalgam, that which is carried off by adhering to the sand, and that which is floated off into the waste from the skins, and from the amalgamators. What would be the effect in the amalgamating process, if opposite states of electricity could be induced and kept up between the quick- silver and the gold, until the two metals unite? Would not the tendency to amalgamation be promoted, and in such a case, would not the loss by the floating off the quicksilver and gold be prevented ? These questions are proposed, because it is believed that ingenuity is able to supply a practical answer to them. If the metallurgy of gold were better understood, many mines that are now profitless might be advantageously worked. | To save the loss of quicksilver involved in the ordinary process of “blowing off,” and to save the gold which escapes with the mercurial vapor, the alembic here described, was invented. A, is the cucurbit, made of cast iron; it holds halfa gallon. B, is the capital, also of cast iron. C, is the beak, made of a gun barrel, bent asin Fig. 2. D, is the condenser, made of India rubber cloth; it was a water bag from the caoutchouc manufactory at Rox- bury. The edges of the cucurbit and the capital are ground smooth, so that the escape of vapor may be more easily prevented by luting. The inside of A, is also made smooth, so that the gold may not ad- Alembic for distilling Amalgam of Gold. 69 here to the bottom of the alembic. The beak is screwed and rusted into the top of the capital so that the joint may be steam tight. In the other end of the beak is a female screw to receive the screw which is in the mouth of the condenser. Fig. 2. After the inside of the cucurbit has been rubbed with chalk, to prevent the gold from adhering to the iron, in case the former should ‘melt, the amalgam is weighed and put in, and the capital put on and screwed down to the cucurbit, by means of the thumb screws E, E. The condenser uninjlated is then screwed on to the tips of the beak, the joint luted, and the condenser placed in a bucket of cold water. ‘The joint between the head and the body of the alem- bie is also coated with a luting of horse dung and pipe clay or ful- ler’s earth. As soon as the amalgam begins to boil, the condenser becomes inflated with the air, which was in the alembic, and when evapora- tion ceases, the cold air from the condenser now returns into the alembic, and becoming heated, expands and fills the space formerly occupied by itself and the quicksilver. If while the operation is 70 Crystallographic Examination of Eremite. going on, the heat be suffered not to fall below the boiling point of quicksilver, and the condenser be observed to contract, it is a sure sign that evaporation is no longer going on and that distillation is perfect. _ But if the condenser be unscrewed, and the tips of the beak be supposed to remain immersed in water, as soon as the pressure from within (whether by cooling, or from the absence of a fluid to supply vapor,) becomes less than that of the atmosphere with- out, the water is forced from the bucket through the tube into the alembic, and if the quicksilver be not all evaporated it is wasted, and the alembic is endangered by the concussion and sudden cooling produced within, by the cold water and steam. ‘Therefore as soon at the condenser contracts, the alembic should be removed from the fire, the condenser taken out of the bucket and unscrewed, and the alembic be suffered to cool in the air. This alembic has been in use at one of the Virginia mines for the last ten or twelve months, and when properly luted, the weight of the gold and quicksilver after distillation has invariably equalled that of the amalgam which they formed previous to the operation. It does away with the necessity of settling and pouring off, or straining, and saves all the gold and quicksilver lost in the common way of “¢ blowing off.”’ Art. VI.— Crystallographic Examination of Eremite; by James D. Dana, A.M., Assistant in the Department of Chemistry, Miner- alogy, &c. in Yale College. [Read before the Yale Nat. Hist. Society, June 19th, 1837.] Ar our last meeting we were informed by Mr. Thos. R. Dutton, that he had discovered in a bowlder at Watertown in this State, a few crystals of a mineral, which Prof. C. U. Shepard on examina- tion had announced to be an undescribed species ; and that Prof. S. had consequently described it as new under the name of Eremite. Through the kindness of Mr. Dutton, I have examined other crys- tals in addition to the one investigated by Prof. S. and thus am en- abled to add farther confirmation of the conclusion that the speci- mens belong to a species hitherto unknown. The crystals are all of them small. The largest is but one fifth of an inch long; the others vary in length from one sixteenth to one Crystallographic Examination of Eremite. 71 twentieth of an inch. ‘The smaller crystals seldom present brilhant faces, and for this reason, as also on account of their minuteness, they scarcely admit of the use of the reflective goniometer. The larger crystal, on the contrary, possesses highly polished surfaces, admitting of easy and accurate measurement. ‘The data for the fol- lowing calculations have therefore been obtained from the latter alone. Owing to the completeness of the different series of parallel inter- sections, the crystallographic expressions for the planes of each of the crystals may be deduced with perfect facility and certainty, inde- pendently of measurement; and hence, although the planes in some instances are microscopic, their interfacial angles may be accurately determined by calculation. The following are representations of three of these crystals. Hie. ba. The character of the crystals is obviously monoclinate. ‘There are no traces of cleavage to indicate whether the primary is the ob- lique rhombic or right rhomboidal prism ; but the size and brilliancy of M and P, two faces of the rhomboidal prism, and the occasional absence of the planes e, e’ which belong to rhombic prisms, favor the conclusion that the latter is the primary. The third plane 'T, of the rhomboidal prism, has been obliterated by the extension of é and e.* The crystals have been lettered in accordance with this view; the * The figures represent the crystals as standing on one of their rectangular primary faces (‘I’) asa base. The obtuse edge between M and T, is replaced by the plane €, and the acute edge by é. 72 Crystallographic Examination of Eremite. planes é and é€ replacing respectively the obtuse and acute terminal edges; e and e’ each rectangular terminal edge ; a and o the obtuse or acute solid angles, according as the mark — or ~ is placed over the letter; and e,e’ replacing the lateral edges. For the determination of the descriptive expressions of the crys- tal, (in which I employ Naumann’s system of notation,) the planes @ may be assumed as faces of the positive fundamental hemipyramid. The following descriptions are thence deduced for the crystals: _ 'Fig.1. oPo.aP’o.eP.Po.P.P’0.2P’o.—P. —Po. M Pe ened tua ce e/ eaiti'® Fig. 2. oPa.aP/o.a@P. oP2.Po.P.2P’2.P’o .2P’o. M P CN OU He Paes HO Ne e/ —P.—Po. ‘ ERM Fig. 3. oP. aP’/o.Po.2P2.2P’2.P’o.-2P/2.—2P2. M Biaee i) OU. ee 0! 7) Pe. é The angles assumed as the basis of the calculations are as fol- low : : €=140° 40’, M : e=126° 8’, M : e=136° 35’ The following are the results obtained by calculation. In some instances the angles coincide exactly, in others very nearly, with those which I have obtained with the reflective goniometer. a:63$c=:9471 3 13 10265 7=76° 14’.°.M ; T=108° 46 sity WIS ey 6’: 0/(over e’)=130°39e’ ; 6/=157° 43/ a a} DT=135° 39’ 0: 0=138° 8’ € 3) 1450 6! at M1319 53’ 0: M=148° 12’ eh 130016! a $a=106° 36 0 {01299 53/ é : €(adjacent)=93°12/ faa Ro 0: M=141° 257 Cia Oe a? M=118° 13’ 0 3 O(over ec) = 70°24’ é 3 6/=130° 32’ eto : a (overe)=109°54’e ; P=131° 52’ € $ a=148° 197 5 pian 93° 10/ ry =a (e) e at O Ey ° 0! r} o’=81 4! e/ @ P=150 50 € o — ; 86° 50’ Oo te a: To f1Oey | ee Mee ; Too eon oe MAU By al: M—=1900110' > es Meee es doneientes ;M— eeeigd Co = 0! 3 0/=67° 44/ e $ a= 148° 20/ e$a=146° 17 o 3 T=111° 2’ e$a=141° 34 € } A2=138° 58” Oo + M=1099 11’ ee’ = 152° 56’ e $ Wf =155° 287 ———————— S—<“—éCSéCt Crystallographic Examination of Eremite. 73 As these crystals (especially fig. 2.) afford a fine example of the method of crystallographic calculation in the monoclinate system, I here subjoin, for the assistance of such as may be interested in the study of Mathematical Crystallography, the several steps by which the above results have been obtained. In these explanations, I must necessarily make frequent references, for principles, to my System of Mineralogy. We may select for this examination, figure 2. Assuming 4 asa : face of the fundamental form, M= wPo,P=amP’m. The gen- eral descriptive expressions for the remaining planes are as follow: é=mPo re in/P’@ e=-—mPo =n a e=mP’o e= oPn 2——- mE e’= oPn’ The plane e (mP’o ) forms parallel intersections, with 4 and a, which intersections, since they are parallel with the edge a: M (Po ) are also parallel with the orthodiagonal edge of 4 (P.) Hence a= —P (§ 84, 2,) and e=P’m ($ 84, 2.) and also since e forms parallel intersections with a and —a, e— ai (yet, 12) é truncates the edge between 4 and a, which is the clinodiagonal edge of P, and therefore, é=Po (§84, 4.) é in the same manner truncates the clinodiagonal edge of —P. Con- sequently, é= —Po. (§ 84, 4.) The intersection of 6’ (mP’n) with a (P) is parallel to the clino- diagonal edge of P, (fig. 2.) consequently n=m (§$.84, 8) and 0’=mP’m. Again 0/ forms parallel intersections with e (P’c ) and ° . e : m e( oP,) and therefore its sign is of the general form mP/— ’ —] ($ 84,9.) But from the above, n=m, and consequently m=——s; from which we find m=2 ae ee The edge 0’ ; e’ (mP’a i is ‘pare to the orthodiagonal edge of 6’ (2P’2, fig. 2. b) consequently m=2 (¢ 84,2,) and e’=2P’a Vou. XXXILI—No. 1. 10 74 Crystallographic Examination of Eremite. The intersection of 6’ (2P’2) with e’ ( Pn’) is parallel to the basal section of 2P’2 (apparent in the crystal, though not in the figure, a perspective representation of it;) hence n’=2 (¢ 84, 1) and Ci — cogs Thus all the expressions for the planes of this crystal have been determined without a measurement. If the intersection of 0’ with e were not apparent in the crystal, it would be necessary first to de- termine e’ by measuring the interfacial angles M:e and Me’; these angles 136° 35’ and 117° 51’, diminished by 90° give the angles X in the two forms e (Po ) and e’ ( wP/n’;) and then since, tan 46° 35/=2 tan 27° 51’, it follows that n’=2 and e/= wP’2. Thence since the intersection of 6 with e’ is parallel to the basal section of 6 (mP’m), 6=2P’2 (§ 84, 1) as before found. The same might have been similarly determined by tneasuring the inclination of P on e and e’. For the determination of 6 and 0 of fig. 3. we observe that 0, e, M, and 0 form parallel intersections with one another, which inter- sections are parallel to the orthodiagonal edge of 6 and 0; therefore d6=mPm and 6= —m/Pm’. Again, 0’, € and the opposite e, form parallel intersections. Introducing therefore in the general equation for the parameters of planes forming parallel intersections, (¢ 28.) 1, », —1 for m,n, r m;, Bane Moran? ents De beiood for im’ 0/40 mT m ° we obtain 2 ee But we have already determined that n=m, 1 hence m= and m=; accordingly 6 =2P2. Inthe same m— 1 manner it is found that o= — 2P2. For the calculation of the dimensions and angles of the crystal we have as data, aPoa : Po =140° 40’, wmPo : —Po =126° 8’, oPm : oP=136° 35’. 180° — 140° 40’=39° 20/=/’ (Min. App. pp. 67. 68.) 180° — 126° 8’=538° 52/=u 136° 35’— 90° =46° 35’=X in oP. Since Poo and — Poo are coordinate forms, we may detonate ¥ 2 sin @ sin “/ sip (“@— “’) 7=002 14—=C. by the equation, tany="= whence we obtain Crystallographic Examination of Eremite. 715 - To determine the axes there are given the angles y, #, and X in oP. If b=1, tan X siny=c (§ 825) consequently c=1.0265. sin (y+) sin 49° 54/ Again a= singe sin 53° 52/ therefore a=:9471 Hence a?63c='9471 : 1: 1:0265. After thus determining the axes, the angles X, Y, Z, in the vari- ous forms are readily obtained by the equations p. 68 or 69. For example, with regard to oe. HP Oe fa X’ may be determin- an 7 ana ed by the equations tan X=— ———» tan X/=——-> tan 7 having first sin te! sin C been found by the equation, tanv=~. This gives X=59° 41’ which half the ceca angle a: a. By means of the equations an wu! an tan eee na? tan ¥Y’=— —» we obtain Y and Y’ which are respec- sin 7 tively the arareatiows sites of Monaand M ona. Again, by : tan (7-4) jai tan (7 Se) the equations, tan Z=—————» tan Z/ =» (o being found by the equation sin =) we find the angles Z, Z’ which are the supplements of Ton a and Tona. Y-+Y’=the inclination of 4 on a over an orthodiagonal terminal edge, and Z+ Z/=the in- clination of @ on a over a basal edge of the form +P. In the form 2P’2 whose axes have the ratio, 2a, 2b, c, the angle . “is identical with the corresponding angle'in P. zis found by c the determination of these angles, X, Y, Z, in this form, may be found by the same equations as above. The inclination of T on e may be determined by the equation for tan Z, in the form mP, ; {F tan ats +c?) an : € : c the equation tan =3"> and @ by the equation tan o= 9, Gat —_—» which affords the supplement of the. desired inclination; or by the equation, sin 7 (the sought angle)= cos X cosa e(oP.) The interfacial angle e ; M is determined by the equation for tan Y in P’ a In a similar manner the angles of the other forms may be obtained. == 4 on casi sin Xi. cos 7, in which X, is the angle X in the form 76 Geological Society of London. Arr. VII.—Address delivered at the Anniversary Meeting of the Geological Society of London, on the 17th of February, 1837 ; by Cuartes Lyeui, Jun., Esq., M.A., F.R.S., President af the Society. GenTLEMEN,—Y ov will bave learnt from the Treasurer’s Report that the finances of the Society are flourishing, and they would have appeared in a still more prosperous condition, had we not expended above 500/. within the year on our Transactions. Part of this sum has already been repaid by the sale of the volume just published, of which I may safely say that it yields to no preceding number in the value of its contents or the extent and beauty of its illustrations. The total number of Fellows of the Society, exclusive of Honor- ary and Foreign Members, at the close of the year 1835, was 670; at the close of 1836, 709; being an actual increase, after deducting 14 for deaths, removals, and resignations, of 39 Fellows.* We have to lament the loss of Dr. Henry, of Manchester, so highly distinguished as a chemist and philosopher, and who took a warm in- terest in the progress of our science. Our list of Foreign Members has been diminished by two deaths, those of Professor Hoffman of Berlin, and Baron Férussac of Paris. Professor Frederick Hoffman was suddenly cut off in his 39th year, at the moment when the scientific world were impatiently ex- pecting his account of the Geology of Sicily. You are probably best acquainted with him as the author of the great Geological Map of Western Germany, in which he made known the results of many years of patient and accurate research. ‘This Map, published in 1829, was divided into twenty-four sheets, and was followed in 1830 by an Atlas containing sections, and a more general map on a smaller scale of the same country. In the same year the author’s Geogra- phy and Geology of North-western Germany appeared,t which may be regarded as a commentary on the great map, comprising a de- scription of the physical outline of the country, its mountains, val- leys, plains, and river-courses, and a sketch of a portion of its geo- * The return of the number of Fellows, and the deaths alluded to in this Ad- dress, refer exclusively to the year 1836, and not to the period jnteryoHine between the last and present Anniversary. + Orograph. und Geognost. Verhaltnisse vom Nordwestlichen Deutschland, 2 vols. Leipzig, 1830. Geological Society of London. 77 logical structure, embracing the transition and secondary rocks of the Hartz, Thuringerwald, and Lower Rhine. In the larger map all the tertiary and alluvial deposits are represented by one color, the au- thor having never entered upon the subdivision and classification of these formations. He had studied, however, the newer secondary formations, which were depicted by several distinct colors, and their history would have been included in the work above alluded to, had he not been interrupted by his tour in Italy and Sicily in 1880. Among his other writings, I may enumerate an Account of Mag- deburg, Halberstadt, and the adjoining territory, and various papers which will be found scattered through the journals of Pogsendorff and Karsten, the Hertha, and other German periodicals. The only fruits which we as yet possess of the scientific expedition sent by the Prussian Government under Hoffmann’s direction to Italy and Sicily, are some letters written by him during the journey, and an excellent Memoir on the Lipari Islands; and a valuable work by one of his companions, Dr. Philippi of Berlin, who published in Latin a de- tailed account of the recent testacea of Sicily, and the tertiary fossil shells collected in the course of the expedition.* From Hoffiann’s letters it clearly appears that the novelty of the volcanic and tertiary phenomena of Southern Italy and Sicily had made a deep impression on his mind. He had been‘astonished, on recognising the identity of the modern trap rocks of the Val di Noto with those of ancient date in Germany, and the no less striking simi- larity of the Sicilian tertiary limestones, containing recent shells, to many calcareous secondary formations of northern Europe. The Lipari Islands afforded him a field for the examination of modern ig- neous rocks, and the slow effects of volcanic heat in modifying aque- ous deposits. The picture which he has given of the fumeroles of the western coast of Lipari, the principal island of the group, is graphic and highly instructive. At St. Calogero numerous fissures are seen permeated by heated vapors which are charged with sulphur, oxide of iron, and other minerals, in a gaseous state. Here the tufaceous and other rocks are variously discolored wherever the steam has pen- etrated, and are sometimes crossed with ferruginous red stripes, so as to assume a chequered and brecciated appearance. In one place a feldspathic lava has been turned by the vapors into stone as white * Phillippi, “Enumeratio Molluscorum Sicilize tum viventium tum in tellure tertiaria fossilium, que in Itinere suo observavit Auctor:” 280 pages 4to, and 12 lithographic plates, Berlin, 1836. 78 Geological Society of London. as chalk marl; in another, a dark clay has become yellow or snow- white, and these effects are not limited to a small space, but are seen extending for four miles through horizontal strata of tuff, which rise - occasionally to the height of more than two hundred feet. The greater part however of the alterations are referred to what are prop- erly called extinct fumeroles, or the action of volcanic emanations which have now ceased, but which must at one period have resem- bled those of St. Calogero. Some of these have produced veins of fibrous gypsum, calcedony, and opal, minerals which must have been introduced into the rents in a state of sublimation. In some places there are tufaceous marls, regularly alternating in thin beds, with still thinner and countless layers of granular gypsum, the whole mass being again run through every where by irregular branching veins of silky fibrous gypsum. ‘These strata, thus inser- sected, present a perfect counterpart to some of the secondary gyp- seous marls, both of the keuper and variegated sandstone formations in Germany.* When reading the Professor’s description of these phenomena, we share in the pleasure and surprise which he felt on comparing strata of high antiquity with others of so recent a date, and which, more- Over, owe a portion of that resemblance to changes now daily in progress. The writings of Baron Daudebard de Férussac were not devoted principally to Geology, but we are indebted to him for several me- moirs, and among others for an Essay, published in 1814, on fresh- water formations, with a catalogue of the species of land and fresh- water shells which were then known to enter into their composition. Monsieur de Férussac contributed largely to the Geological section of the Bulletin Universel des Sciences Naturelles, a journal, of which he was the chief editor and original projector. This Bulletin had, for its object, to give a monthly analysis or brief abstract, usually un- mixed with criticism, of the contents of all new publications in every department of science. ‘The work was first carried on for a year on a smaller plan, and then assumed in 1824 its enlarged and perma- nent form, being divided into eight sections, one of which was devo- ted to Geology, Paleontology, and Natural History. A monthly number appeared regularly, on this and each of the other seven sec- tions, the whole forming together a large octavo volume. In the or- * Liparischen Inseln, p. 41. Leipzig, 1832. 1 Geological Society of London. . 79 ganization and direction of this scheme, the Editor was indefatigable, and he succeeded in obtaining the co-operation of a great number of the most able and eminent writers. In announcing the original aim and scope of the undertaking, he laid stress on the difficulties under which men of science labor in procuring intelligence of new works, written in a great variety of languages in different parts of the world, and frequently buried in the voluminous and costly transactions of learned societies. He therefore expressed a hope that his Bulletin would serve as ‘‘a kind of telegraph’ for the rapid conveyance of the earliest intelligence of inventions and discoveries, so as to pre- vent philosophers from wasting their time and money in slowly feel- ing their way to results already found out by others, and attaining with great labor the very points from which they might have started. The Geological section of the Bulletin was ably supported by MM. Boueé, Brongniart, and other writers, and survived the other sections for some time, maintaining itself for seven years, till at length it was given up in 1831 for want of sufficient encouragement. The works of Baron Férussac on Natural History, and especially Conchology, would deserve from mea fuller notice, if they were not irrelevant to the subject of this address. HOME GEOLOGY. I shall now commence my retrospect of the proceedings of the Society, during the last year, by considering those papers which have been devoted to the Geology of the British Isles. There is proba- bly no space on the globe, of equal area, which has been so accu- rately surveyed as this kingdom; yet the most experienced geolo- gists are now exploring several parts of it with the feeling that they are entering upon terra incognita. Not only do they find it neces- sary to trace out more correctly the limits of formations previously known, but also to introduce new groups of fossiliferous strata and new divisions, in districts before supposed to have been well inves- tigated. The carboniferous deposits which are alike interesting, in a sci- entific and economical view, have deservedly occupied of late the particular attention of many able geologists, and we have received communications on the subject from Mr. Murchison, Mr. Prestwich, Professor Sedgwick, and Mr. Peile. ‘The observations of Mr. Prest- wich relate to the coal-measures of Coalbrook Dale, and the forma- tions immediately above and below them, together with the accom- panying trap-rocks. 80 Geological Society of London. There is perhaps no coal-field in the whole country of equal size in which the strata have been so much dislocated and shattered. Mr. Prestwich gives a detailed description both of the principal and minor faults, their direction, extent, inclination, breadth, and fall, and the difference of level produced by them in their opposite sides, which is sometimes slight, but sometimes amounts to six hundred or seven hundred feet. In some instances the change of level is by steps or hitches, which, it is truly said, may be owing either to un- equal resistance, or to a series of small dislocations. The walls of the fissures in the disjointed strata are sometimes several yards apart, the interval being filled with the debris of the strata. In other pla- ees they are in contact. In this last case it is particularly remarked that the surface of the ends of the fractured beds of coal and shale ‘is shining and striated. You are aware that this appearance has usually been attributed, and I believe rightly, to the rubbing of the walls of the rent one against the other, the lines of the polished and striated surfaces indicating the direction of the motion, but I have lately seen it objected to this theory, that the strie are not always par- allel, but often curved and irregular, and that the earthy contents of veins and faults often present the same glittering and striated faces, or slickensides as they have been called. I am familiar with the fact, and have always inferred that the movements were irregular and com- plicated, occasionally changing their direction, and that even when uniform, they may have acted unequally on materials varying in hard- ness and pliability. It is much to be desired that scientific travelers who visit countries shaken by earthquakes would observe with minute care all the phenomena attending the fissuring of rocks and buildings. 1 have been informed by an eye-witness of one of the late minor earthquakes in Chili, that the walls of his house were rent vertically, and made to vibrate for several minutes during each shock, after which they remained uninjured and without any opening, although the line of the crack was still visible. On the floor, at the bottom of each rent, was a small heap of fine brickdust, evidently produced by tritu- ration. In such instances it would be desirable to obtain fragments of the rent building, and compare them with the walls of natural fis- sures. In his examination of the fossils of the coal-measures, Mr. Prest- wich has shown that beds containing marine remains alternate with others in which fresh-water shells and land plants occur, appearances which he attributes to the flowing of a river, subject to occasional Geological Society of London. 81 freshes, into the sea, rather than to repeated changes in the relative level of land and sea. It is certainly the safer course to incline to this hypothesis when- ever there are no unequivocal signs, as in the Purbeck strata in Port- land, of land plants having become fossil on the very spots where they grew. For although there may be many river deltas like that of the Indus, where the land is subject to be alternately upheaved above, and then let down below the waters of the sea, yet such os- cillations of level must be considered as exceptions to the general condition of the earth’s surface near the mouths of rivers at any given period. Even in a case like the delta of the Indus, both the causes above alluded to may be expected to co-operate in producing alternate fluviatile and marine strata; for in the long intervals be- tween great movements of the land, the river will annually advance upon the sea with its turbid waters, and then retreat again as the pe- riodical flood subsides, and the salt waters, after being driven back for a time, will re-occupy the area from which they have suffered a temporary expulsion. In the conclusion of his valuable paper, Mr. Prestwich observes that the carboniferous strata of Coalbrook Dale must onee have been entirely concealed under a covering of new red sandstone, and they owe their present exposure partly to those movements which have shattered and elevated the coal measures, and partly to exten- sive denudation. It is natural therefore to inquire how many other coal-fields may still lie buried beneath the new red sandstone of the adjoining district. In relation to this point of ereat practical importance, Mr. Mur- chison formerly offered some conjectures, when speaking of the probable passage of the ten-yard coal of the Dudley field beneath the new red sandstone, which there flanks it on the east and west. That geologist now informs us that his conjectures have been verified, and that at Christchurch, one mile beyond the superficial boundary of the coal-field, the ten-yard and other seams have been reached by borings carried down to the depth of nearly three hundred yards. Adverting to this discovery, he directs attention to the possible ex- tension of other carboniferous tracts beneath the surrounding new red sandstone of Shropshire, Worcestershire, Staffordshire, and other central counties. Vou. XXXIII.—No. 1. 11 itt 82 Geological Society of London. It is clear that these geological considerations must be duly weigh- ed by those who speculate on the probable future duration of British coal, according to the actual or any assumed rate of consumption. Mr. Murchison, in describing the Dudley and Wolverhampton coal-fields, informs us that he has not yet found any fossil remains of decidedly marine origin, like those observed by Mr. Prestwich in Coalbrook Dale. The shellsseem to be all of fresh water genera, and the Megalichthys Hibberti, and other fish occuring at Dudley, of species identical with those of the coal measures of Edinburgh, may have inhabited fresh water. ‘The same author has colored on an Ordnance map the superficial area of the Silurian rocks connected with the coal-fields above men- tioned, and has shown that the Lickey quartz rock between Broms- grove and Birmingham, of which the geological position has remain- ed hitherto uncertain, is in fact nothing more than altered Caradoc sandstone, a member of the lower Silurian group. The same ap- pears as a fossiliferous sandstone in one district, while in another, it ‘passes into a pure quartz rock, a modification attributed to the prox- imity of underlying trap, for analogous changes have been seen at neighboring points where the absolute contact of the sandstone with the trap is visible. We are also indebted to Mr. Murchison for some interesting re- marks on the dislocations of the strata in the neighborhood of Dud- ley, and particularly for a description of some dome-shaped masses, from the center of which the beds have a quaquaversal dip. He speculates on the probable dependence of these phenomena upon the protrusion of volcanic matter from below, at points where it has been unable to find issue. It would, I think, have been more satis- factory, if, in confirmation of his theory, some natural section of one of these dome-shaped masses could be pointed out, where not only a nucleus of trap was apparent, but could be shown to have taken up its actual position in a soft or fluid state. Even if we should find in some instances a subjacent central mass of trap, porphyry or granite, not sending out veins or altering the strata, the folding of the beds round such a protuberance might admit of an explanation like that suggested by Dr. Fitton. He has supposed a set of yielding horizontal strata to be pressed upon by a subjacent hill or boss of hard rock, in which case the effect of upward pressure might resem- ble that seen, on a small scale, in the paper of a bound book, where a rinuté kndb in one leaf has imparted its shape to a great number Geological Society of London. 83 of other leaves without piercing through them.* Whatever hypoth- esis we favor, it is essential to observe that such hills as the Wren’s nest near Dudley, and others of similar ellipsoidal forms and internal structure, do not correspond to the type of volcanic hills, such as Etna, Mount Dor, or the Cantal. In both cases there may be an approach to a cone, and the beds may dip every where outwards from a common centre; but, in the volcanic mountain, the beds having an outward dip, thin off as they approach the base or circum- ference of the cone, which is not the case in inclined beds composing the hills alluded to in the neighborhood of Dudley; nor in the last mentioned instances do the lowest or subjacent rocks crop out round the circumference of the cone, as happens in the instances of the vol- canic eminences before alluded to, where the granite of the country round Mount Dor, the fresh-water beds and mica schist in the Cantal, the marine deposits around Mount Etna in Sicily,—each appear at the surface as soon as we have left the slope of the cone, and advance upon the surrounding low country. In attempting to explain the principal transverse faults of the Dudley coal-field, Mr. Murchison refers frequently to the theoretical principles expounded by Mr. Hopkins in his Researches in Physical Geology, a paper printed in the sixth volume of the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. Mr. Hopkins has there en- deavored to develop, by reasoning founded on mechanical principles, and by mathematical methods, the effects of an elevatory force acting simultaneously at every point, beneath extensive portions of the crust of the earth. He’is aware that in nature such a force must usually act under complicated conditions, so as to produce irregular phenomena; but he observes that in order to have a clear concep- "tion of the manner in which it would operate in producing move- ments and dislocations, it is useful to assume certain simple condi- ~ tions to which mathematical investigations may be applied. When we have deduced in this manner some results free from all uncer- tainty, these may serve as standard cases to which the geologist may refer more complex problems. Thus for example, a portion of the earth’s crust may be assumed to be of indefinite length, of uniform depth, and bounded laterally by two vertical parallel planes, beyond which the disturbing force does not extend. It is then supposed that a quantity of subterranean vapor or melted rock, existing at a * Dr. Fitton, Geol. Trans. 2nd Series, vol. iv. p. 244. 94: . Geological Society of London. certain depth, is expanded by heat so as to elevate the superincum- bent mass, the resulting fissures in this mass may then become mat- ters of calculation. According to Mr. Hopkins, rectilinear lines of dislocation will give rise to a set of longitudinal parallel fissures, and simultaneously to others precisely at right angles to them ; whereas in conical elevations, the fissures will diverge from a centre. If the general axis of elevation be curvilinear, the longitudinal fissures pre- serving their parallelism with it will be also curvilinear, while the transverse fissures being perpendicular to the former at abet points of intersection will no longer be parallel. To return from this digression, 1 must now recall your attention to other papers relating to the carboniferous deposits of England. The coal-measures of the northwestern coast of Cumberland have been examined by Prof. Sedgwick and Mr. Williamson Peile, who have described the Whitehaven and other fields in great detail, illustrating their account with a map and sections. ‘The recorded observations in numerous sinkings and borings, both in relation to the succession of the strata and to the complicated faults which intersect them, would have been involved in hopeless confusion, if they had simply consisted of a statistical collection of facts attested by miners; but in this paper, Prof. Sedgwick, aided by Mr. Peile’s practieal and scientific knowledge, has compared the different sections and gener- alized the phenomena, giving unity and consistency to the whole, throwing the strata into distinct groups, and referring the several faults to different movements, to which successive periods of time may be assigned. In connection with these recent contributions to the history of our carboniferous strata, | am happy to mention the excellent volume lately published by Prof. Phillips, forming the second part of his Illustrations of the Geology of Yorkshire. It is almost entirely de- voted to a description of the carboniferous or mountain limestone of Yorkshire and the north of England, a subject already admirably treated in some papers read before this Society by Prof. Sedgwick, particularly in his account of the carboniferous chain from Penigent to Kirkby Stephen.* As these geologists had separately explored the same ground, it is satisfactory to perceive that the leading divis- ions which they have proposed for the classification of the mountain limestone and associated strata, agree in every essential point. Mr. * Trans. Geol. Soc. 2nd Series, vol. iv. part 1. p. 69.—1835. ———— Geological Society of London. 85 Phillips has described the physical geography of the district occu- pied by these rocks, their lithological character, stratification, jointed structure, and the most remarkable faults which affect them, espe- cially those which have been called the great Penine and Craven faults. He also treats of the trap dykes which cut through the limestone, and discusses the probable epochs of the displacement of the strata, judiciously pointing out the difficulties unavoidably op- posed to the rigorous determination of the date of such dislocations. A large and very valuable portion of the work is filled with descrip- tions and plates of organic remains, especially of the brachiopodous and cephalopodous mollusca. Most of the species of these classes were probably inhabitants of the deeper parts of the sea, but there are fossil shells in the mountain limestone, which the author sup- poses to have lived near the shore, and belonging to genera formerly regarded as foreign to the carboniferous limestone, such as Isocardia, Nucula, Pecten, Patella, Turritella, and Buccinum. Many species of Zoophytes and Crinoidea are also described and figured in this excellent monograph. We are indebted to Mr. Austen for a description of the South of Devonshire between the river Ex and Berry Head, and between the coast and Dartmoor, a district consisting of transition rocks, new red sandstone, greenstone, and trap. His speculations on the origin of the different formations and the causes which gave rise to the exist- ing features in the physical geography of the country, display much talent and are full of instruction. The structure of Devonshire has also furnished a fertile field of inquiry to Messrs. Sedgwick and Murchison since our last anniver- sary. They have attempted the difficult task of establishing a clas- sification of the older rocks so largely developed in that county. ‘In every geological map hitherto published of Devonshire, all the stratified deposits of higher antiquity than the new red sandstone had been represented by one common color, the limestones being all included as integral parts of one great formation called greywacke.* But these gentlemen, after examining this region, announced at Bris- tol to the geologists assembled at the meeting of the British Asso- ciation, that the great mass termed greywacke, and previously undi- * The abstract of the Report of Messrs. Sedgwick and Murchison, published with a section in the Atheneum, August, 1836, and in other scientific journals, is the same as that written for insertion in the Proceedings of the Association. From that document, and from a written explanation of their views, which I obtained from the authors, the present observations are deduced. \ 86 Geological Society of London. vided, comprised in it several formations of great thickness, ranging in age from the Cambrian system of Prof. Sedgwick up to the true carboniferous series inclusive. The first groups mentioned by them in ascending order are the Cambrian and Lower Silurian, which great mass contains many distinct courses of limestone; and is sep- arable into several formations, distinguishable from each other by ‘stratigraphical position and by lithological and zoological characters. There appears, however, to be a great hiatus in the succession of rocks in Devonshire, as compared to South Wales, there being no traces of the upper Silurian strata, nor of the old red sandstone, nor even of the mountain limestone in its ordinary aspect. On the con- trary, the next group met with in ascending order, is a culmiferous series, the base of which distinctly reposes upon the above mentioned ancient rocks. This culmiferous deposit, far from appearing as a mere band, or at detached points, occupies about one third of the large county of Devon, and a considerable adjacent part of Cornwall ; its southern boundary ranging from Exeter on the east, by Launces- ton, to St. Gennis in Cornwall on the west; its northern frontier running by Barnstable and and South Moulton to near Wellington in Somersetshire. ‘These culmiferous beds are shown to contain thick beds of limestone; entirely dissimilar in structure and fossil contents from any limestones of the underlying ‘“ grauwacke,” in which they had previously been merged. ‘The culm measures con- sist of grit, sandstone, shale and limestone; and these rocks, it is said, are never affected by a slaty cleavage like the lower Silurian and Cambrian rocks on which they rest. From this character, as well as from their prevailing mineralogical structure and imbedded fossil plants, the authors regard the culmiferous formation of Devon as perfectly identical in age with other coal-fields, and as more par- ticularly analogous to the culm-bearing strata of Pembrokeshire; a part of which also once passed for “‘ grauwacke,” but Mr. Murchison has recently shown that it belongs to the South Welsh coal-field, which is known by all geologists to rest upon mountain limestone. Thus referred to the age of our ordinary coal, these strata of North Devon are further proved to lie in a great trough, their south- ern edges being turned up against the granite of Dartmoor, where they acquire, in contact with the granite, when traversed by elvan dykes, many characters of the metamorphic rocks, or those com- monly termed primary. ‘The phenomena of interference and altera- tion at the junction are such as to give a comparatively modern date Geological Society of London. 87 for the eruption of the Dartmoor granite, and to explain why so much difficulty and ambiguity has prevailed in determining the age of some of the altered culm beds. Among other points which this survey of Prof. Sedgwick and Mr. Murchison has settled, so far as Devon is concerned, is one of the highest theoretical interest, and on which for more than two years the Society has been anxiously desiring more accurate information ; T allude to the true stratigrapbical position of certain shales near Bideford in North Devon, containing fossil plants of the same species as those which are found abundantly in the coal. 1 may first remind you that a discussion had previously arisen respecting the alledged discovery by Mr. Weaver of anthracite, with the usual carboniferous plants, in the greywacke or transition rocks of Ireland.* Notwith- standing the value justly attached to the opinion of so experienced and long-practiced an observer, your Council hesitated to print his statement, and requested him to reexamine the ground. At the same time Mr. Griffiths, to whom we are looking for the publica- tion of a Geological Map of Ireland, had come to a different con- clusion, and Mr. Weaver having been induced to repeat his obser- vations, became convinced that he was in error, and has since stu- diously availed himself of every opportunity of announcing. this change in his views. You are aware that as yet in the British islands, scarcely any ve- getable impressions have been met with in rocks more ancient than the carboniferous strata above the old red sandstone, so that we know not what species of plants belong to the greywacke or transi- tion group. We can only presume from analogy that since the shells, corals, and other organic remains of that ancient group differ from those found above the old red sandstone, the plants also, if ever discovered, will differ as greatly. Considerable surprise was therefore excited when, during the Presidentship of my predecessor in this chair, a letter was read, addressed to him from Mr. De la Beche, stating that he had found near Bideford in North Devon, many well known coal plants in the lower greywacke, or far down in the transition series.t Such of the plants as were determinable had been identified by Prof. Lindley with species characteristic of the true coal measures, and which had never been found elsewhere . * Proceedings Geol. Soc., vol. i. p. 231. + Proceedings Geol. Soc., vol. ii. p. 106. 88 Geological Society of London. below the coal. ‘The anomaly, therefore, in the supposed position of these fossils was so great, that between the ordinary geological site of such remains, and that in which they were here inferred to present themselves, there would be interposed, if the series were complete, the whole of the old red sandstone, and at least the two upper formations of the Silurian system. When this point was con- sidered, I expressed to the Society my opinion in common with Mr. Murchison, as to the insufficiency of the proofs relied on by our Foreign Secretary, and we feel that we had a right to call for more conclusive evidence. ‘The simple fact of shales having been found charged with true coal plants, raised so strong a presumption in favor of their belonging to the regular carboniferous series, that the bur- then of proof rested with him who wished to assign to them either a higher or lower position. Our scepticism was regarded by Mr. Greenough as implying too marked a bias for a preconceived theory, and this he afterwards hinted in his anniversary address.* I may affirm, however, that in the first place it implied on my part no dis- trust of Mr. De la Beche’s skill or experience in geological survey- ing, and that had Prof. Sedgwick and Mr. Murchison advanced a similar opinion on analogous proofs, I should equally have withheld my assent. Suppose, for example, they had announced to us that they had found fossil fruits and leaves identical with those of Shep- pey in strata of the age of the white chalk with flints. I should have demanded from them, in corroboration, the most clear, une- quivocal, and overwhelming evidence. ‘If it were a region of dis- turbed and vertical strata, I should expect them first to have resort- ed in vain to every hypothesis of inverted stratification with a view of explaining away such an exception to the general rule. I might perhaps be told that we are unacquainted with the flora of the upper cretaceous period, and I admit that we are as ignorant of it as of that which belonged to the transition period, but when we consider the contrast of the shells and other fossils of the chalk and London clay, we naturally anticipate that if plants are ever found of the precise age of our chalk with flints, they will not prove to be of the same species as those of the Sheppey clay. There is a like presumption from analogy against the conclusion that the same vege- — tation continued to flourish on the earth from the period of the lower greywacke to that of the coal, because we know that in the course * Proceedings Geol. Soc., vol. ii. p. 164. Geological Society of London. 89 of the intervening epochs the testacea, zoophytes, fish and other classes of organic beings were several times changed. In regard to the proofs relied on by Mr. De la Beche, I should observe that he never attempted to show that the plant-bearing shales at Bideford were interstratified with rocks charged with shells or other fossils known to belong to rocks older than the old red sand- stone. | Since writing the above sketch of the different views recently pub- lished of the structure of Devonshire, I have received a letter from Mr. De la Beche, from which I am happy to learn that it is his in- tention before concluding his report on the Ordnance Map of De- von, to re-examine Devonshire. He is far, he says, from pretend- ing that his first views were perfect, and if he finds reason to modify any of them, he shall not hesitate to announce the change of opin- ion. In the mean time he no longer contends that the culmiferous strata are referable to the lower greywacke, and considers the point of difference to lie within a narrower compass, namely, whether the culm beds are to be considered as upper greywacke or coal. This question, on which he is not yet satisfied, evidently appears to him of much less theoretical importance than, I confess, it does to me. It is fair, however, that I should state the arguments which influ- ence his mind. If the plants, he says, found at Bideford in the cul- miferous series should belong to strata more ancient than the old red: sandstone, the fact would not stand alone, for he has Jately received a letter from M. Elie de Beaumont, detailing analogous phenomena in Britanny. It is stated that the greywacke there closely corresponds in general character with that of Devon, the upper part like the Devonian series containing anthracite. With this anthracite or culm are found at Montrelais, Chatelaison, and other places, fossil plants, the greater part of which are identical with those in the coal meas- ures ; but there are others which have not hitherto been detected in the latter rock. Patches of true coal measures rest in unconform- able position upon these upper greywacke beds of Britanny. Now I regret that 1 have not seen any printed account of the geology of this part of France ; for until we learn whether the plants in question are associated with true Silurian fossils, the testimony is quite incom- plete. We know not, for instance, whether the plant-bearing series in question, is old red sandstone or a Silurian formation, or whether it is a lower part of the true carboniferous system of which the strata had been disturbed before a higher portion was superimposed. Vou. XXXIIL—No. 1. 12 ~ 90 Geological Society of London. Similar remarks hold in regard to the observations made by M. Virlet in the Dictionnaire d’Hist. Naturelle, where in his late article “De lOrigine des Combustibles Minéraux,” he speaks of certain carboniferous deposits of Ireland, (those alluded to by Mr. Weaver before mentioned,) as well as others examined by M. Voltz in the Black Forest, also the culm beds of Britanny, and those of the de- partment of La Sarthe, as all belonging in age to the HOME transi- tion formations, ‘“ terrains de transition les plus récens.” Mr. De Ja Beche alludes to another discovery of coal ig im- plying as great an anomaly as that which he had imagined to occur in Devonshire, and by which he was himself once led into error du- ring an Alpine excursion, about eighteen years since, when he met with coal plants in the schists of the Col de Balme, in Switzerland. He then inferred that the beds belonged to the true coal measures, but M. Elie de Beaumont afterwards proved them 1o be lias; that is to say, be identified them with other rocks not far distant in the Alps, which were shown to be lias by containing Belemnites and other fos- sils. Mr. De la Beche was at first sceptical on the point, but after revisiting the Alps, he came round to the same opinion. Having therefore been in one instance misled by relying on the fossil vege- tables of the coal as affording a good chronological test, he naturally attached but small value to the same testimony as a criterion of the age of another set of rocks in Devonshire. Now you will easily un- derstand that a geologist, who is once persuaded that the same plants flourished in European latitudes from the period of the true coal to that of the lias, will be ready to concede without difficulty the prob- able existence of the same plants at an era long antecedent to the coal. We know that between the deposition of the coal and the lias there were successive revolutions in the races of animals which in- habited the waters ; the zoophytes, mollusca, fish, and, as far as we know them, the reptiles having been changed again and again; so that the fossils of the mountain limestone differ from those of the magnesian limestone or zechstein, these again from the organic re- mains of the muschelkalk, and these last from those of the lias. If we are to believe that the same plants survived on the land, while such fluctuations in animal life occurred in the, waters, why should we not imagine the longevity of the same species to have been still greater, so that they began to exist even before the deposition of the old red sandstone? But let me remind you that botanists have been led to very different conclusions respecting the laws governing the Geological Society of London. 91 distribution of fossil vegetables from the study of undisturbed dis- tricts. You are not ignorant that the strata of the Alps are involved in extreme confusion and complexity, mountain masses having been completely overturned and twisted, so that the same set of strata have been found at the top and bottom of the same section separated by several thousand feet of beds belonging to an older formation. So obscure is the order of position in Alpine geology, that the creta- ceous and greensand series have been classed by experienced geolo- gists as more ancient than the oolite, under which, in point of fact, they occasionally lie. Prof. Studer, in his work on the Bernese Highlands, after years of personal investigation, has published a map in which he has given a colored ground plan without venturing to commit himself by sec- tions, or a table of the regular order of superposition. After devoting a summer to the investigation of the same portion of Switzerland, with the advantage of Mr. Studer’s map and work, I was unable to satisfy myself that I had found a key to the classifi- cation or superposition of the formations, so enormous is the scale on which they have been deranged. I collected fossil plants on the Col de Balme, but I have not examined the precise localities further to the west appealed to by M. de Beaumont. I am far, therefore, from denying his facts or inferences, hoping at some future period more carefully to inquire into the evidence on the spot. No one, I am aware, is more desirous that others should visit the southern Alps and verify or criticise his facts than M. de Beaumont. Mean- while I am reminded of an expression of our mutual friend M. Von Buch. When I related to him some geological phenomena which surprised him; “I believe it,” he said, ‘‘ because you have seen it, but had I only seen it myself, I should not have believed it.” But to conclude, and to recall your attention to the structure of Devonshire, you will perceive that Mr. Murchison and Prof. Sedg- wick have endeavored, and I think successfully, to work a great re- form in the classification of the ancient rocks of that country, by ap- plying to them the arrangement which they had previously made for the deposits termed by them Cambrian and Lower Silurian in Wales and the adjoining parts of England. According to their survey and sections, the coal plants of Bideford, so far from constituting any anomaly, so far from affording any objection to the doctrine that par- ticular species of fossil plants are good tests of the relative age of rocks, do in reality from the place which they occupy, confirm that 92 Geological Society of London. doctrine; culmiferous rocks distinctly overlying the so-called grau- wacke, and not being referable to any of the well defined and normal types, which compose the old red sandstone and Silurian system. I shall now pass on to the consideration of other memoirs on Eng- lish Geology. The limestone which the Germans call muschelkalk, and the numerous fossils which are peculiar to it, have not yet been detected in England in any part of that great series of beds which in- tervene between the lias and the coal. In those parts of Germany where it occurs, it divides the beds of red mar! and sandstone, which occupy that ‘great interval into two divisions, the upper of which is called keuper, and the lower bunter sandstein. In the absence of the muschelkalk in this country, it has been impossible for us to sep- arate our new red sandstone into two well defined masses; but Dr. Buckland considers that certain portions of the upper beds in War- wickshire and elsewhere may be identified with the keuper by their mineral character, and near Warwick by the remains of a Saurian, which he believes to be of the genus Phytosaurus, a genus charac- teristic of the keuper of Wirtemberg. An examination in the South-east of England of the strata usually termed plastic clay, has led Mr. John Morris to offer several new, and as they appear to me, judicious suggestions in regard to the classification of these. beds. It is well known that wherever the tertiary strata are seen in immediate contact with the chalk, they consist of alternations of sand, clay, and pebbles, and in some few places a calcareous rock,—all these varying greatly in their thickness and in their order of succession in different places. Mr. Morris divides those of Woolwich into two parts, and states that the upper is characterized by a mixture of marine and fresh-water shells, the fresh-water genera being Cyrena, Neritina, Melanopsis, and Planor- bis. ‘The lower division contains exclusively marine shells. The author refers this intermixture to the influx of a river into the sea, ~ in which the London clay was formed. Mr. Morris considers the Bognor strata, which rest immediately upon chalk, as the equivalents _ of the lower Woolwich deposit, observing that the shells agree with those of the London clay. ‘These remarks seem to confirm the con- clusion to which he had been previously led by the grand section at Alum Bay in the Isle of Wight, namely that the beds usually styled. plastic and London clays belong to one zoological period. Geological Society of London. 93 MINERAL VEINS. Your attention has been called to the origin of mineral veins by Mr. Fox, who has endeavored to explain why so large a proportion of the metalliferous veins in England and other parts of the world should have an east and west direction. He supposes fissures filled with water, containing sulphurets and muriates of copper, tin, iron, and zinc in solution, through which currents of voltaic electricity are transmitted. The metals separated from their solvents by this action are deposited in the veins, and most abundantly in veins run- ning at right angles to the direction of the earth’s magnetism ; for as the magnetic currents of the earth pass from north to south, they cause those of electricity to move east and west, although considera- ble deviations from this direction must be occasioned in tlie course of geological epochs by variations in the magnetic meridian. Since Mr. Fox first ascertained the existence of electric currents in some of the metalliferous veins in Cornwall,* Mr. Henwood has made many experiments on the same subject, together with obser- vations on the distribution of metallic and earthy minerals in veins. He considers the results obtained by him to be in a great degree op- posed to the theory of Mr. Fox.+ Mr. Fox conceives the fissures in which metalliferous substances occur, to have been at first small and narrow, and to have increased gradually in their dimensions. ‘This doctrine has also been pro- pounded in a work with which you are probably familiar, and from which I have derived much instruction, I mean M. Fournet’s Essay on Metalliferous Deposits. ‘This Essay was originally included in the third volume of M. Burat’s continuation of D’ Aubuisson’s 'Trea- tise on Geology, (1835,) but it is now published separately, and gives the clearest general view which I have seen of the application of geological theories to phenomena observed in mining. It is writ- ten by one who has acquired much practical knowledge as a miner, and who is well versed in chemistry and mineralogy .t Werner, when he published his justly celebrated Essay on Mine- ral Veins, had come to the conclusion that the same rent, after being * Phil. Trans. 1830, p. 399. + See Mining Journal, Supplement 9. p. 34, December, 1836, and Annals of Electricity, No. 2. vol. i. on Electric Currents, &c. by W. T. Henwood, Esq. t Etudes sur les Depots Meétalliféres, par M. I. Fournet. 94 Geological Society of London. wholly or partially filled, has sometimes been reopened; and M. Fournet has endeavored more fully to explain the successive dilata- tion of the same veins at distinct periods. He has given examples in mines worked under his direction at Auvergne, in which the sul- phurets of iron, copper, lead, and zinc, besides quartz, barytes, and other minerals, seem evidently to have been introduced at different periods by chemical action accompanied by new fractures and dislo- cations of the rocks, and the widening of preexisting fissures.* You will find in M. Fournet’s treatise a copious analysis of a great variety of books on mining, besides a detail of facts which have fallen under his own observation. He has described first those veins which are decidedly connected with rents produced in rocks by mechanical movements, and which are supposed to have been chiefly filled from below by sublimation, more or less obviously connected with vol- canic action. He afterwards passes on to the consideration of those masses which have been called stockwerks’by the Germans, which are imagined by some to have their origin in the contraction of granite, porphyry, and other rocks as they cooled, numerous rents. being then formed, in which metallic particles were concentrated. In treating the subject in this order the author appears to me to have followed the most philosophical course, beginning with cases of undoubted rents of mechanical origin filled with minerals and metals introduced by sublimation, and then carrying with him as far as possible the light derived from these sources to dissipate a part of the obscurity in which all theories respecting the nature of Pluto- mic rocks and their minerals must, I fear, be forever involved. Much will still remain unexplained ; but those who proceed in an opposite direction often throw doubt and confusion upon the simplest phenom- ena, as has sometimes happened in an analogous case, when geolo- gists have begun with the examination of granite and granite veins, and have then endeavored to apply the ideas derived from this study to the trap rocks and volcanic dykes. Among the most interesting conclusions deduced by M. Fournet from his examination of the mining districts of Europe, I may men- tion the medern periods at which the precious metals appear to have entered into some veins: thus, to select a single example, some veins of silver of Joachimsthal in Bohemia are proved to have originated in the tertiary period. * See “Etudes,” &c. Section 3. + See “ Etudes,” &c. Section 2. Geological Society of London. 95 FOREIGN GEOLOGY. Among the researches into the geology of foreign countries in which our members have been recently engaged, I have great pleas- ure in alluding to the labors of Mr. H. E. Strickland and Mr. Ham- ilton in Asia Minor. ‘These gentlemen first examined the neighbor- hood of Constantinople, and found on both sides of the Thracian Bosphorus an ancient group of fossiliferous strata, consisting of schist, sandstone, and limestone. From the character of the fossils it is in- ferred that these rocks may probably be the equivalents of the upper transition or Silurian strata of England. The shells belong to the brachiopodous genera Spirifer, Producta, and Terebratula, with which the remains of corals and Crinoidea were associated, and frag- ments of a Trilobite. The rarity of any fossiliferous deposits of hanes antiquity than the old red randstone in any of the countries bordering the Mediter- ranean, or indeed to the south of the Alps and Pyrenees, lends con- ' siderable interest to this observation. In their way through France, our travelers examined the well known region of extinct volcanos in Auvergne, and afterwards found a counterpart to it in the Cata- cecaumene, a district in Asia known by that name in the time of Strabo, from its burnt and arid appearance. Some of the volcanos in Asia are of very modern appearance, although no notice of their eruptions falls within the limits of history or tradition. The vol- canic hills rise partly through lacustrine limestone in the valley of the Hermus, and partly cover the slope of the schistose hills which bound it to the south. ‘There are about thirty older cones, worn by time, and of which the craters are effaced or only marked by a slight depression ; and three newer cones, which preserve their characters unaltered, the craters being perfectly defined and the streams of lava still black, rugged, and barren. Here, as in the country of corres- ponding structure in France, we find streams of lava following the course of existing valleys, and yet frequently cut through by rivers. We find also a tertiary fresh-water formation, sometimes resembling chalk with flints, like that of Aurillac in France, and forming detach- ed hills capped with basalt, while more modern lavas have flowed at the base of the same hills. The extent of this analogy will be best appreciated by those who compare Mr. Strickland’s drawings with Mr. Poulett Scrope’s masterly illustrations of the French vol- canic region. 96 Geological Society of London. The countries watered by the rivers Meander and Cayster are described as having a simple geological structure. ‘There are gra- mitic rocks, with saccharine marble; there are also hippurite lime- stone and schist, and tertiary deposits unconformable to these, be- sides igneous rocks of various ages. he tertiary formations are chiefly lacustrine, and occur in nearly every large valley. They are composed of horizontal beds of calcareous marl and white lime- stone, in which are layers, and nodules of flint; they also consist of sandstone, sand, and gravel. The only representative of the secondary rocks of Europe is term-: ed by Mr. Strickland “hippurite limestone,” which appears to be very sterile in fossils. In this respect and in its other characters it agrees with that great calcareous formation described by MM. Bob- laye and Virlet in their splendid work on the Geology of the Morea.* According to these French geologists, three quarters of the Pelo- ponnesus are occupied by a compact limestone several thousand feet thick, in which they could discover scarcely any organic remains, except a few hippurites and nummulites, but which is supposed to be the equivalent of our chalk and oolites. Nothing, they say, can be more monotonous in character than this calcareous mass in the South of Europe, which appears to represent the larger part of our upper secondary formations of the North, where the rocks are so varied in lithological aspect and so distinguishable from each other by their well preserved fossils. | Ancient fossiliferous strata resembling those of the neleihodn a of Constantinople are said to be largely developed in the Balkan, a mountain chain of which we may soon expect to receive informa- tion from the pen of M. Ami Boué. That indefatigable geologist has already explored a large part of Servia, a country of whose phys- ical and moral condition we are perhaps more ignorant than of any other in Europe, and he is rapidly extending his survey over various parts of the Turkish empire, to the examination of which he proposes to devote several years. Meanwhile our late secretary, Mr. Ham- ilton, is continuing, with great zeal, his investigation of the borders of the Black Sea and other parts of Asiatic Turkey. * Paris, 1833, in folio, Itis tobe regretted that this work cannot be procured separately from other folios containing the scientific information collected during the French expedition to the Morea. Geological Society of London. 97 In a paper on the structure of part of the Cotentin, near Cher- bourg, the Rev. W. B. Clarke describes that country as consisting of hills or ridges of quartz rock alternating with valleys of slate oc- casionally associated with syenite and greenstone, which appear to be of posterior origin. A curious fact is mentioned: the quartz rock splits naturally into irregular masses, which have, nevertheless, some angles of fixed dimensions, namely, 103°, 64°, and 83°. Frag- ments of a green variety of schist exhibit the same angles under the same circumstances of position, proving that similar causes had acted on the two formations en masse, the same sets of joints, lines of strat- ification, and cleavage being found in both. Besides these facts, which are illustrated by diagrams, the author mentions others calcu- lated to throw light on the cleavage and jointed structure of rocks. PROOFS OF MODERN ELEVATION AND SUBSIDENCE. Under this head I shall first consider several notices of beds of | gravel, sand, clay, and marl, containing recent marine shells, which have been observed in various parts of Great Britain, a subject very frequently brought before our notice of late years. Deposits of this kind have been found by Dr. Scouler in the vicinity of Dublin, where they rise to the height of 80, and in some places of even 200 feet above the level of the sea. Besides marine shells of existing spe- cies, he has ascertained that some of the lower beds of this formation contain bones of the extinct Irish elk, by which we learn that this quadruped, although belonging to a comparatively modern period, and found_in peat-mosses, had nevertheless begun to inhabit this part of the world at a period anterior to some of the last changes in the position of land and sea, changes which are proved by the upraised shelly beds just alluded to. Now Professor Nilsson of Lund in Swe- den, although ignorant of these facts, had remarked to me that some great alteration must have occurred in the shape and extent of dry land and sea in Great Britain and the surrounding parts subsequently to the time when the Irish elk existed, otherwise so many entire skeletons of so large an herbivorous quadruped as the Cervus me- gaceros, would not have been found in so small an island as the Isle of Man. ‘That island may at no remote geological period have been united to the main land, and may have since been separated from it by subsidences, on a scale equal to the elevations of which there is such clear evidence in Ireland and elsewhere. Vol. XXXIII.—No. 1. 13 98 Geological Society of London. Changes in the relative level of land and water, in the estuary of the Clyde, are indicated by facts described in another paper by Mr. Smith of Jordan Hill, near Glasgow. Superficial deposits, in which a great number of marine shells of recent species are imbedded, are found on the banks of the Clyde below Glasgow, at the height of thirty or forty feet above the sea. I had myself an opportunity of verifying during the last summer several of these observations of Mr. Smith, and found equally clear proofs that the Island of Arran had participated in the upward movement, so that a circle of inland cliffs _ may be traced all round that island, between the base of which and the present high-water mark a raised beach occurs, and in some places beds of marine marls, formed of recent shells, as in the bay of Lamlash. Mr. Smith has also traced sea-worn terraces on each side of the Clyde below Dumbarton and between the Cloch Lighthouse and Largs. We are indebted to Sir Philip Egerton for some new details re- specting. the shelly gravel of Cheshire, of which he had previously treated; and to Mr. Murchison and Prof. Sedgwick for a joint pa- per on “a raised beach in Barnstable Bay on the northwest coast of Devonshire.” ‘This beach puts on for several miles where it is best exposed, the form of a horizontal under terrace resting upon an indented and irregular surface of the older formations. It presents a cliff towards the sea, in which beds of calcareous grit, sandstone, and shingle are seen perfectly stratified. ‘The bottom of the deposit is chiefly composed of indurated shingles resting on the ledges of the older rocks, and filling up their inequalities. ‘Through the whole cliff, but especially in the indurated grits, shells are abundantly dis- persed, identical in species with those now living on the coast, and well preserved, though sometimes water-worn. The authors point out that these beds cannot have been formed by accumulations of blown sand. ' They demonstrate an elevation of the coast during the modern period ; and there are phenomena both on the north and south coasts of Devonshire and Cornwall, which afford proofs of modern changes in the level of the land, both of upheaval and depression. The raised beach of Hope’s Nose, cor- rectly described by Mr. Austen, is the most striking instance in South Devon. * The quantity of rise of land in the modern period is from ten to forty feet in South Devon and Cornwall, nearly seventy feet in North Devon, while in Lancashire, Cheshire, and Shropshire there are Geological Society of London. 99 - marine deposits with recent shells at the height of from three hun- — dred to five hundred feet above the sea. It is natural to inquire what changes the surface of the dry land in England may have undergone during the occurrence of such up- ward and downward movements. Perhaps some observations lately made by Mr. Bowerbank in the south of the Isle of Wight may elu- cidate this point. He bas given us an account of a bed of chalky detritus, containing recent land shells, at Gore Cliff. This bed is ten feet thick, and rests immediately upon chalk marl. Many of the shells, which are plentifully scattered through it, retain their color. As the deposit ranges to the foot of St. Catherine’s Down, it is pos- sible that the waste and denudation of that chalk hill: may have sup- plied the materials. I have lateiy seen similar detritus resting on the chalk with flints, and arranged in numerous thin layers in the section exposed in cutting the railroad at Winchester, where a black . layer of peaty earth and carbonized wood intersects thin layers of white chalk rubble, from twenty to thirty feet thick. Such appear- ances are, in fact, very general in chalk districts; a bed of flints not water-worn occurring on the highest downs, while fragmentary chalk, often inclosing land shells, occurs on their slopes and at lower levels. Violent rains have been known even of late years to tear off the turfy covering from certain points near Lewes, and to wash away flints and chalky mud, and leave them in the hollow combs or flanks of the hills. This action of the elements would be most powerful at periods when the chalk first emerged from the sea, or whenever ‘it assumed in the course of subterranean disturbances a new position or physical outline. We must, I think, infer from the occurrence of certain recent ma- rine shells and shingles in the bottom of what has been termed the elephant-bed at Brighton, that, the chalk in the Southeast of Eng- land has undergone some movements of a modern date, the land - having subsided there to the depth of fifty or sixty feet, and having been subsequently raised up again to a level sms higher than its original position.* If it should appear upon careful research that that the land shells found in terrestrial alluviums covering the chalk are almost universally of recent species, I should not conclude that the emergence of the chalk hills from the sea had generally occurred at a very modern pe- * See Principles of Geology, 4th edit., vol. iv. p. 274. 100 Geological Society of London. riod, but merely that these hills had been modified in shape in recent times, and that during that modification, alluviums of older date had been washed away, or the land shells which they may once have con- tained have decomposed and disappeared. In regard to the great numbers of these shells preserved throughout the bed at Gore Cliff, and in many other places even at greater depths, it will not seem surprising to those who have observed the number of dead land shells which are strewed over the surface of the chalk downs, or lie con- cealed in the green turf in numbers almost as countless as the blades of grass. If the slightest wash of water should pass over such a soil, it must float off myriads of these shells, and they would imme- diately be involved in that white cream-colored mud which descends from wasting hills of chalk after heavy rains. Land shells so buried may retain their color for indefinite periods, as is shown by the state of species in the loess of the Rhine, and even in tertiary strata of much higher antiquity. While a variety of geological monuments are annually discovered which attest modern alterations in the level of the land, it is impor- tant to remark that new testimony is also daily obtained of the rising and sinking of land in our own times. I discussed at some length, in my last anniversary address, the evidence for and against the up- heaval of the coast of Chili during the earthquake of 1822, a con- troverted point to which our attention has lately been again recalled. I may remark, however, that since we have ascertained the fact of a rise of three, five, and even ten feet in parts of the same country in 1835, so distinctly attested by Captain Fitzroy, all doubts enter- tained as to the permanent effects of a preceding convulsion are com- paratively of small interest. Don Mariano Rivero dissents from the opinion that a change of level occurred at Valparaiso in 1822, and Colonel Walpole, after seeing the ground and conversing with per- _sons who were on the spot in 1822, and who still reside there, also considers the statement of a rise to be inaccurate. On the other hand Mr. Caldcleugh, who was formerly sceptical on the same point, has now come round to the opinion of Mrs. Calcott, (Maria Gra- ham,) and believes that an elevation of land did take place. Mr. Darwin, whose opportunities of investigation both in Chili and other parts of South America have been so extensive, thinks it quite certain that the land was upheaved two or three feet during the earthquake of 1822, and he met with none of the inhabitants who doubted the change of level. He states that the rise of land, even Geological Society of London. 101 in the bay of Valparaiso, was far from being uniform, for a part of a fort not formerly visible from a certain spot has, subsequently to the earthquake, fallen within the line of vision. ‘The most unequivocal proof of a recent rise is drawn from the acorn-shells, Balanida, found adhering to the rock above the reach of the highest tides. These were observed by Mr. Darwin sixty miles south of Valpa- raiso, and at Quintero, a few miles to the north of it; but his friend Mr: Alison detected them on a projecting point of rock at Valpa- - yaiso itself. The attached shells were there seen at the height of fourteen feet above high-water mark, and were only exposed upon the removal of the dung of birds, by which they would have been concealed from ordinary observation. In Mr. Darwin’s paper you will find many other facts elucidating the rise of land at Valparaiso, and he has also treated of the general question of the elevation of the whole coast of the Pacific from Peru to Terra del Fuego. Beds of shells were traced by him at various heights above the sea, some a few yards, others five hundred or even thirteen hundred feet high, the shells being in a more advanced state of decomposition in pro- portion to their elevation. Mr. Darwin also shows that parallel ter- races such as those of Coquimbo, described by Captain Basil Hall and others, which rise to the height of three hundred feet and more, are of marine origin, being sometimes covered with sea-shells, and they indicate successive elevations. There are also grounds for be- lieving that the modern upheaval of land has proceeded not only by sudden starts during convulsions of the earth, but also by insensible degrees in the intervals between earthquakes, as is now admitted to be the case in parts of Norway and Sweden. This gradual and insensible rising is supposed to affect, not only the region of the Andes, but also the opposite or eastern coast of South America, where earthquakes are never experienced: for the ’ Pampas of Buenos Ayres bear marks of having risen to their pres- ent height during a comparatively modern period, while the coast line of the Pacific, or the region of earthquakes and volcanic erup- tions, has been the theater of more violent movements. It is curious to reflect that if in one portion of a large area of the earth’s surface a rise of land takes place at the rate of a few inches in a century, as around Stockholm, while in another portion of the same area land is uplifted about a yard during an equal period, there will be caused, if sufficient time be allowed, a group or chain of lofty mountains in one place, and in the other a low country like the Pam- pas of South America. 102 Geological Society of London. Evidence of a sinking down of land, whether sudden or gradual, is usually more difficult to obtain than the signs of upheaval. _I shall therefore mention some facts which have been lately communicated to me by Professor Nilsson, from which it appears that Scania, or the southernmost part.of Sweden, has been slowly subsiding for sev- eral centuries, in the same manner as was lately shown to be the case with part of Greenland. In the first place there are no elevated beds of recent marine shells in Scania, like those near Stockholm and further to the north. Linnzus, with a view of ascertaining whether the waters of the Baltic were retiring from the Scanian shore, meas- ured in 1749 the distance between the sea and a large stone near Trelleborg. Now Mr. Nilsson informs me that this same stone is a hundred feet nearer the water’s edge than it was in Linneus’s time, or eighty-seven years before. He also states that there is a submer- ged peat moss, consisting of land and fresh-water plants, beneath the sea at a point to which no peat could have been drifted down by any river. But what is still more conclusive, it is found that in sea-port towns, all along the coast of Scania, there are streets below the high-water level of the Baltic, and in some cases below the level of the lowest tide. Thus when the wind is high at Malmé the water overflows one of the present streets, and some years ago some ex- cavations showed an ancient street in the same place eight feet be- ~ low, and it was then seen that there had evidently been an artificial raising of the ground, doubtless in consequence of that subsidence. There is also a street at Trelleborg and another at Skanor a few inches below high-water mark, and a street at Ystad is just on a level with the sea, at which it could not have been originally built. I trust that we shall soon receive more circumstantial details of these curious phenomena, which are the more interesting because it has been shown that the elevatory movement in Sweden diminishes in intensity as we proceed southward from the North Cape to Stock- holm, from which it seems probable that after passing the line or axis of least movement, where the land is nearly stationary, a movement may be continued in an opposite direction, and thus cause the grad- ual sinking of Scania. - Teannot take leave of this subject without remarling that the occurrence in various parts of Ireland, Scotland, and England, of re- cent shells in stratified gravel, sand, and loam, confirms the opinion which J derived from an examination of part of Sweden, namely, that the formations usually called diluvial have not been produced by any Geological Society of London. 103 violent flood or débacle, or transient passage of the sea over the land, but by a prolonged submersion of the land, the level of which has been greatly altered at periods very modern in our geological chro- nology. I now believe that by far the greatest part of the dispersion of transported matter has been due to the ordinary moving power of water, often assisted by ice, and cooperating with the alternate up- heaval and depression of Jand. I do not mean wholly to deny that some sudden rushes of water and partial inundations of the sea have occurred, but we are enabled to dispense with their agency more and more in proportion as our knowledge increases. ORGANIC REMAINS. .- Gentlemen, you have been already informed that the Council have this year awarded two Wollaston Medals, one to Captain Proby Cautley of the Bengal Artillery and the other to Dr. Hugh Falconer, Superintendent of the Botanic Garden at Saharunpore, for their researches in the geology of India, and more particularly their dis- covery of many fossil remains of extinct quadrupeds at the southern foot of the Himalaya mountains. At our last anniversary I took ocea- sion to acknowledge a magnificent present, consisting of duplicates of these fossils, which the Society had received from Captain Cautley, and since that time other donations of great value have been trans- mitted by him to our museum. These Indian fossil bones belong to extinct species of herbivorous and carnivorous mammalia, and to reptiles of the genera crocodile, gavial, emys, and trionyx, and to several species of fish, with which shells of fresh-water genera are associated, the whole being entombed in a formation of sandstone, conglomerate, marl, and clay, in inclined stratification, composing a range of hills called the Siwalik, between the rivers Sutledge and Ganges. These hills rise to the height of from five hundred toa thousand feet above the adjacent plains, some of the loftiest peaks being three thousand feet above the level of the sea. Wher Captain Cautley and Dr. Falconer first discovered these remarkable remains their curiosity was awakened, and they felt con- vinced of their great scientific value; but they were not versed in fossil osteology, and being stationed on the remote confines of our Indian possessions, they were far distant from any living authorities or books on comparative anatomy to which they could refer. The manner in which they overcame these disadvantages, and the en- thusiasm with which they continued for years to prosecute their re- 104 Geological Society of London. searches when thus isolated from the scientific world is truly admira- ble. Dr. Royle bas permitted me to read a part of their correspon- dence with him when they were exploring the Siwalik mountains, and I can bear witness to their extraordinary energy and perseverance. From time to time they earnestly requested that Cuvier’s works on osteology might be sent out to them, and expressed their disappoint- ment when, from various accidents, these volumes failed to arrive. The delay perhaps was fortunate, for being thrown entirely upon their own resources, they soon found a museum of comparative anat- omy in the surrounding plains, hills, and jungles, where they slew the wild tigers, buffalos, antelopes, and other Indian quadrupeds, of which they preserved the skeletons, besides obtaining specimens of all the genera of reptiles which inhabited that region. They were com- pelled to see and to think for themselves while comparing and dis- criminating the different recent and fossil bones, and reasoning on the laws of comparative osteology, till at length they were fully pre- pared to appreciate the lessons which they were taught by the works of Cuvier. In the course of their labors they have ascertained the existence of the elephant, mastodon, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, OX, buffalo, elk, antelope, deer, and other herbivorous genera, besides several canine and feline carnivora. On some of these Dr. Falconer and Captain Cautley have each written separate and independent me- moirs. Captain Cautley for example, is the author of an article in the Journal of the Asiatic Society, in which he shows that two of the species of mastodon described by Mr. Cliff are, in fact, one ; the sup- posed difference in character having been drawn from te teeth of the young and adult of the same species. I ought, to remind you that this same gentleman was the discoverer in 1833 of the Indian Herculaneum or buried town near Behat, north of Seharunpore, which he found seventeen feet below the surface of the country when directing the excavation of the Doab Canal.* But I ought more particularly to invite your attention to the joint paper by Dr. Falconer and Captain Cautley on the Sivatherium, a new and extraordinary species of mammalia, which they have mi-. nutely described and figured, offering at the same time many profound speculations on its probable anatomical relations. The characters of this genus are drawn from a head almost complete, found at first enveloped in a mass of hard stone, which had lain as a boulder in a * Journ. of Asiatic Society, Nos. xxv. and xxix. 1834. Principles of Geology, 4th and subsequent editions. See Index, Behat. Geological Society of London. 105 water-course, but after much labor, the covering of stone was success- fully removed, and the huge head now stands out with its two horns in relief, the nasal bones being projected in a free arch, and the molars on both sides of the jaw being singularly perfect. ‘This individual must have approached the elephant in size. ‘The genus Sivatherium, say the authors, is the more interesting, as helping to fill up the im- portant blank which has always intervened between the ruminant and pachydermatous quadrupeds, for it combines the teeth and horns of a ruminant, with the lip, face, and probably proboscis of a pachyderm. They also observe, that the extinct mammiferous genera of Cuvier were all confined to the Pachydermata, and no remarkable deviation ‘from existing types had been noticed by him among fossil ruminants, whereas the Sivatherium holds a perfectly isolated position, like the giraffe and the camels, being widely remote from any other type. I have not space to enter upon the warm discussion which has aris- en in France between MM. Blainville and Geoffroy St. Hilaire re- specting the amount of analogy which exists between the Sivatherium and the Giraffe, but I observe with pleasure that in the course of that controversy those distinguished naturalists do justice to the zeal and talents displayed by our countrymen Captain Cautley and Dr. Fal- coner, and to the services which they have rendered to science. While these discoveries were made on the banks of the tributaries of the Indus and the Ganges, Mr. Darwin was employed in collecting the bones of large extinct mammalia, near the banks of the Rio Plata, in the Pampas of Buenos Ayres and in Patagonia. Mr. Owen has | enabled me to announce to you in a few words some of the most strik- ing results which he has obtained from his examination of the speci- mens liberally presented by Mr. Darwin to the College of Surgeons, and of which casts will soon be made for our own and other public museums. ° In the first place, besides a cranium with teeth of the Megatherium, Mr. Darwin has brought home portions of another an- imal as large as an ox, and allied to the Megatherium. Fragments of its armor are preserved, as well as its jaws, femur, and other bones. There is also a third creature of the order Edentata, and belonging to this same family of Dasypodide, in the shape of a gigantic Arma- dillo, as large as a Tapir. Of the ruminant order there is also a no less remarkable representative in the remains of a gigantic Llama from the plains of Patagonia, which must have been as large as a camel and with a longer neck: and lastly, of the Rodentia there is the cra-_ Vou. XX XITI.—No. 1. 14 { 106 — Geological Society of London. nium of a huge animal of the size of a rhinoceros, with some modi- fication in the form of the skull resembling that in the Wombat. These fossils, of which a description will shortly be given to the Society by Messrs. Clift and Owen, establish the fact that the pe- culiar type of organization which is now characteristic of the South American mammalia has been developed on that continent for a long period, sufficient at least to allow of the extinction of many large species of quadrupeds. ‘The family of the armadillos is now exclu- sively confined to South America and here we have from the same country the Megatherium, and two other gigantic representatives of the same family. So in the Camelide, South America is the sole province where the genus Auchenia or Llama occurs in a living state, and now a much larger extinct species of Llama is discovered. Lastly, among the rodents, the largest in stature now living is the Capybara, which frequents the rivers and swamps of South America and is of the sizeof a hog. Mr. Darwin now brings home from the same continent the bones of a fossil rodent not inferior in dimensions to the rhinoceros. These facts elucidate a general law previously deduced from the relations ascertained to exist between the recent and extinct quadru- peds of Australia; for you are aware that to the westward of Syd- ney on the Macquarie River, the bones of a large fossil kangaroo and other lost marsupial species have been met with in the ossifer- ous breccias of caves and fissures. A cavern has lately been examined at Yealm Bridge, six miles south-east from Plymouth, by one of our members, Lieut. Col. Mudge, R. E., from whose account it appears that the bones of hy- enas are very numerous there. ‘They are associated with those of the elephant, rhinoceros, horse, and other animals usually found in caves. The number of fossil Carnivora, such as the hyena, wolf, fox, and bear, which have now been met with in districts of cavern- ous limestone in Great Britain, is so great, that we are the more struck with the rarity and general absence of such remains in sur- rounding and intervening districts, over which the same beasts of prey must have ranged. ‘The Pachydermata, as the elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus, are often discovered in ancient alluvial or flu- viatile deposits ; but had there been no caves and fissures we should scarcely have obtained any information respecting the existence of lions, tigers, hyenas, and other beasts of prey which inhabited the country at the same period. ) Geological Society of London. 107 The remains of at least two distinct Saurian animals have been discovered by Dr. Riley and Mr. Samuel Stutchbury, in the dolo- mitic conglomerate of Durdham Down near Bristol. They are al- lied to the Icuana and Monitor, but the teeth, vertebra, and other bones exhibit characters by which they are seen to be generically distinct from all existing reptiles. ‘They are particularly deserving of your attention as occurring in the bottom of the magnesian lime- stone formation, the oldest strata in which the bones of reptiles have as yet been found in Great Britain. ‘The most ancient examples of fossil reptiles known on the continent of Europe, occur also in the zechstein of Germany, a formation of about the same age. I alluded last year to a memoir of Sir Philip Egerton’s, in which he pointed out some peculiarities in the structure of the cervical vertebre of the Ichthyosaurus. He has now proved that in all the species of this genus there are three accessory bones, which he pro- poses to call, from their shape and position, subvertebral wedge bones. They are supplementary to the atlas, axis, and third ver- tebra of the neck, and seem to have escaped the observation of Cu- vier and other osteologists. Mr. Lewis Hunton has communicated to the Society an elaborate account of a section of the upper lias and marlstone in Yorkshire, showing that different beds in those formations are characterized by particular species of Ammonites arid other Testacea, each species having a limited vertical range. His observations are valuable not only as illustrating the distribution of fossils on the coast near Whitby, but also as furnishing a point of comparison between that district and many others in Great Britain. Mr. W. C. Williamson of Man- chester has had the same object in view in studying the fossils of the oolitic formations of the coast of Yorkshire, and informs us, as the result of his patient investigation, that although certain assem- blages of fossils abound in particular subdivisions of the oolite, many _ species range from the lowermost to nearly the highest beds. ‘This inference is confirmed when we compare the lists drawn up by Mr. Williamson, and those published by Prof. Phillips and other com- petent authorities. Thus some of the shells of the inferior oolite, mentioned in Mr. Williamson’s list (Trigonia gibbosa, for example,) occur also in the Portland stone of Wiltshire; another, as Ostrea Marshii, is characteristic of the cornbrash in the same county ; others pass downwards to the lias, as Orbicula refleca and Ammon- ates striatulus. If you consult the tables of organic remains which 108 Geological Society of London. Dr. Fitton has annexed to his excellent monograph on the strata below the chalk, just published in our Transactions, (2nd Series, vol. iv. part 2.) you will see that a considerable number of shells pass from the upper oolitic groups into the green-sand. We are not to conclude from these facts that certain sets of fossils may not serve as good chronological tests of geological periods, but we must be cau- tious not to attach too much importance to particular species, some of which may have a wider, others a more limited vertical range. The phenomena alluded to are strictly analogous to those with which we are familiar in the more modern deposits where different tertiary formations contain some peculiar Testacea, together with others common to older or newer groups, or where shells of species now living in the sea are associated with others that are extinct. An assemblage of fossil shells has been presented to our museum by Mr. J. Leigh and Mr. J. W. Binney, found at Collyhurst near Manchester, in red and variegated marls, which were referred by them at first to the upper division of the new red sandstone group ; but Professors Sedgwick and Phillips consider them to be a red and variegated deposit, belonging to the magnesian limestone series. As these fossils are new and characteristic of a particular subdivision of the beds between the lias and coal, it is to be hoped that they will soon be described and figured. The petrifaction of wood, and more especially its silicification still continues to present obscure problems to the botanist and chemist. The first step towards their solution will probably be made by care- fully examining vegetables in different stages of petrifaction, and . with this view Mr. Stokes has procured several specimens of wood, partly mineralized and partly not. Among these is a piece found in an ancient Roman aqueduct in Westphalia, in which some portions are converted into spindle-shaped bodies consisting of carbonate of lime: while the rest of the wood remains in a comparatively un- changed state. The same author has pointed out cases both of sili-- eeous and calcareous fossils, where the lapidifying process must have eommenced at a number of separate points, so as to produce spheri- eal or fusiform petrifactions, independent of each other, in which the woody structure is apparent, while in the intervening spaces the wood has decayed, having after removal been replaced by mineral matter. In some petrifactions, the most perishable, in others the most durable portions of plants are preserved, variations which doubtless depend on the time when the mineral matter was supplied. Geological Society of London. vy (OD If introduced immediately on the first commencement of decomposi- tion, then the most destructible parts are lapidified, while the more durable do not waste away till afterwards, when the supply has failed, and so never become petrified. ‘The converse of these circumstances gives rise to exactly opposite results. As to the manner in whieh the minutest pores and fibres discoverable by the microscope, even the spiral vessels themselves, can be turned into stone, or have their forms faithfully represented by inorganic matter, no satisfactory ex- planation has ever yet been offered. In considering, however, this question, you will do well to consult the important suggestion which a celebrated chemist, our late lamented Secretary, Dr. Turner, has thrown out on the application of chemistry to geology. He reminds us that whenever the decomposition of an organic body has begun, the elements into which it is resolved are set free in a state peculiarly adapting them to enter into new chemical combinations. ‘They are in what is technically termed a nascent state, the constituent mole- cules being probably of extreme smallness and in a fluid or gaseous form, ready to obey the slightest impulse of chemical affinity, so that if the water percolating a stratum be charged with mineral in- gredients, and come in contact with elements thus newly set free, a mutual action takes place, and new combinations result, im the course of which solid particles are precipitated so as to occupy the place left vacant by the decomposed organic matter. In a word, all the phenomena attendant on slow putrefaction must be studied whenever we attempt to reason on the conversion of fossil bodies: into stone ; and in regard to silicification, Dr. ‘Turner has shown how great a quantity of silex is set free as often as felspar decomposes, and how abundantly siliceous matter may be imparted from this source alone to running water throughout the globe. As I have mentioned the name of Dr. ‘Turner, I cannot pass on without an expression of sorrow for the untimely death of that ami- able and distinguished philosopher. Mr. Whewell im most feeling terms alluded this morning at the general meeting to this melancholy event, which is too recent and too painful to myself and others to allow me now to dwell longer upon it. Before quitting the subject of vegetable petrifactions, F owght to mention a memoir just published, by Mr. H. R. Géppert, Professor of Botany at Breslau, “On the various Conditions m which Fossil Plants are found, and on the Process of Lapidification.”** He has * Poggendorff, Annalen der Physik und Chemie, vol. xxxviii. part 4. Leipsic, 1836. 110 Geological Society of London. instituted a series of most curious experiments, and his success in producing imitations of fossil petrifactions has been very remarkable. I have only space to allude to one or two examples. He placed recent ferns between soft layers of clay, dried these m the shade, and then slowly and gradually heated them, till they were red hot. The result was the production of so perfect a counterpart of fossil plants as might have deceived an experienced geologist. According to the different degrees of heat applied, the plants were obtained im a brown or perfectly carbonized condition, and sometimes, but more rarely, they were ina black shining state, adhering closely to the layer of clay. If the red heat was sustained until all the organic matter was burnt up, only an impression of the plant remained. _ The same chemist steeped plants in a moderately strong solution of sulphate of iron, and left them immersed in it for several days until they were thoroughly soaked in the liquid. ‘They were then dried and kept heated until they would no longer.shrink in volume, and until every trace of organic matter had disappeared. On cool- ing them he found that the oxide formed by this process had taken the form of the plants. Prof. Goppert then took fine vertical slices of the Scotch fir, Pinus sylvestris, and treated them in the same way ; and so well were they preserved, that, after heating, the dot- ted vessels so peculiar to this family of plants were distinctly visible. A variety of other experiments were made by steeping animal and vegetable substances in siliceous, calcareous, and metallic solutions, and all tended to prove that the mineralization of organic bodies can be carried much farther in a short time than had been previously supposed. : These experiments seem to open a new field of inquiry, and will,. I trust, soon be repeated in this country. In endeavoring, however, to verify them, the greatest caution will be required, or we may easily be deceived. We must ascertain, for example, with certainty that every particle of animal or vegetable matter is driven off before - we attempt to determine the fall extent to which mineralization may have proceeded. Prof. Géppert is doubtless aware that conif- erous wood may. be burnt and reduced to charcoal, and after having been kept for some time at a red heat, will continue to exhibit, on being cooled, the discs or reticulated structure to which he alludes. If, therefore, some small particles of carbon remain in the midst of the oxide of iron, such portions may retain traces of the vessels peculiar to coniferous wood; and an observer not on his guard, might infer that the same structure was preserved throughout the mass. Geological Society of London. 111 In my last address, I alluded to Mr. Lonsdale’s detection of vast numbers of microscopic corallines and minute shells in the substance - of the white chalk of various counties in England, where this rock had not been suspected of consisting of recognizable organic bodies. I cannot deny myself the pleasure of mentioning the still more sin- gular and unexpected facts brought to light during the last year, by Prof. Ehrenberg of Berlin, respecting the origin of tripoli. 1 need scarcely remind you, that tripoli is a rock of homogeneous appear- ance, very fragile and usually fissile, almost entirely formed of flint, and which was called polir-schiefer, or polishing slate, by Werner, being used in the arts for polishing stones or metals. ‘There have been many speculations in regard to its origin, but it was a favorite theory of some geologists that it was a siliceous shale hardened by heat. The celebrated tripoli of Bilin in Bohemia consists of sili- ceous grains united together without any visible cement, and is so abundant that one stratum is no less than fourteen feet thick. After a minute examination of this as well as of the tripoli from Planitz in Saxony, and another variety from Santa Fiora in Tuscany, and one from the Isle of France, Ehrenberg found that the stone is wholly made up of millions of siliceous cases and skeletons of micro- scopic animalcules. It is probably known to you, that this distin- guished physiologist has devoted many years to the anatomical in- vestigation of the infusoria, and has discovered that their internal structure is often very complicated, that they have a distinct muscular and nervous system, intestines, sexual organs of reproduction, and that some of them are provided with siliceous shells, or cases of pure silex. The forms of these durable shells are very marked and vari- ous, but constant in particular genera and species. ‘They are almost inconceivably minute, yet they can be clearly discerned by the aid of a powerful microscope, and the fossil species preserved in tripoli are seen to exhibit in the family Bacillaria and some others the same divisions and transverse lines which characterize the shells of living infusoria. In the Bohemian schist of Bilin, and in that of Planitz in Saxony, both of them tertiary deposits, the species are fresh-water, and are all extinct. The tripoli of Cassel appears to be more modern, and the infusoria in that place, which are also fresh-water, are some of them distinctly identical with living species, and others not. In the tripoli brought from the Isle of France, the cases or shells all belong to well-known recent marine species. , 112 Geological Society of London. The flinty shells of which we are speaking although hard are very fragile, breaking like glass, and are therefore admirably adapted when rubbed for wearing down into a fine powder fit for polishing the surface of metals. It is difficult to convey an idea of their extreme minuteness, but I may state that Ehrenberg estimates that in the Bilin tripoli there are 41,000 millions of individuals of the Gazllo- nella distans in every cubic inch of stone. At every stroke there- fore of the polishing stone we crush to pieces several thousands if not myriads of perfect fossils. Gentilemen,—Although I have already extended this address be- yond the usual limits, I cannot conclude without congratulating you on the appearance of Dr. Buckland’s Bridgewater Treatise, a work in the execution of which the author has most skilfully combined several distinct objects. He has briefly explained the manner m which the materials of the earth’s crust are arranged, and the evi- dence which that arrangement affords of contrivance, wisdom, and foresight. He has also given us a general view of the principal facts brought to light by the study of organic remains; thus contributing towards the filling up one of the greatest blanks which existed in the literature of our science, while at the same time he has pointed out the bearing of these phenomena on natural theology. He has shown that geology affords one kind of testimony perfectly distinct from natural history, of the adaptation of particular means and forces to the accomplishment of certain ends for which the habitable globe has been framed. ‘These proofs are illustrated in the author’s chapters on the origin and mechanism of springs, on the distribution of metallic and other minerals in the earth, and the posi- tion of coal in stratified rocks. In reference to these points it is de- -monstrated that some even of the most irregular forces have produ- ced highly beneficial resuits, in modifying the subterranean economy of the globe. But I shall not dwell on this part of the Treatise, but pass on at once to that which constitutes the body of the work, and which relates to palzontology. In considering this department, the number and variety of objects which offer themselves to the naturalist are so great, that the choice was truly embarrassing. Dr. Buckland has judiciously selected a few of the most striking examples from each of the great classes of organic remains, and when speaking of extinct animals, has explained the method by which the anatomist and physiologist have been able to restore the organization of the entire individual, by reasoning from Geological Soceety of London. 113 the evidence afforded by a few bones or other relics preserved in a fossil state. He has described the parts of the living animal or plant most nearly analogous to those which are found buried in the earth, usually illustrating by figures the distinctness and at the same time the resemblance of the recent and extinct species, showing that all are parts of one great scheme, and that the lost species even supply links which are wanting in the existing chain of animal and vegetable _ creation. It is impossible to read the account given of the Megatherium, and to contrast it with that drawn up by Cuvjer of the same species, without being struck with the increased interest and instruction, and the vast accession of power derived from viewing the whole mechan- ism of the skeleton in constant relation to the final causes for which the different organs were contrived. The chapter on saurian and other reptiles. has afforded the Pro- fessor another beautiful field for exemplifying the infinite variety of mechanical contrivances and combinations of form and structure which the fossil representatives of that class exhibit. The account also of the Cephalopodous Mollusca, so many thou- sands of which are scattered through the strata, and which until very recently have presented so obscure a problem to the naturalist, is full of original observation. ‘The history of the animals which formed the Belemnites, of which it appears that nearly one hundred species are now known, and the proofs adduced that they were provided with ink-bags like the cuttle-fish, the description also of the fossil pen-and-ink fish, or Loligo, and other sections of this part of the Treatise, carry our information respecting the family of naked Ce- phalopods much farther than was ever attempted in any previous work. Nor should I omit to mention the exposition of an ingenious theory for the use of the siphuncle and air-chambers of the Ammo- nite, which, whether confirmed by future examination or not, be- comes in the author’s hands the means of conveying to the reader a clear and well-defined notion of the varied forms and complicated structure of these shells, and of awakening a lively desire to under- stand thei singular organization. | I may also recall to your notice the just and striking manner in which certain physical inferences are drawn from the conformation of the eyes of extinct Crustacea, such as the Trilobite. .The most deli- cate parts of these organs are sometimes found petrified in rocks of high antiquity, and it is justly observed, that such optical instru- Vou. XXXIL.—No. 1. 15 114 Geological Socrety of London. ments give information regarding the condition of the ancient sea and ancient atmosphere, and the relations of both these media to light. The fluid in which these marine animals lived at remote pe- riods must have been pure and transparent to allow the passage of light to organs of vision resembling those of living Crustaceans ; and this train of reasoning naturally leads us still further, and to more important consequences, when we reflect on the general adoption of the undulatory theory of light, and the connexion between light, heat, electricity, and magnetism. I have heard it objected, that the zoologist and botanist had al- ready advanced such abundant proofs of design in the construction of living animals, and plants, that the auxiliary evidence of paleon- tology was useless, and that to appeal to fossils in support of the same views was to add weaker to stronger arguments. In the living ani- mal, it is said, we can study its entire organization, observe its habits, see the manner in which it applies each organ, and so verify with certainty the ends for which any particular member was formed and fashioned. But in the case of the fossil, we have first to infer the greater part of the organization from such parts as alone remain, and then further to infer from analogy the habits and functions dis- charged, and lastly the former conditions of existence of the crea- tures so restored. If then we occasionally fall into error when spec- ulating on the use of the organs of living species, how much more easily may we be deceived in regard to the fossil ! In answering this objection, it cannot be denied that the data sup- plied by paleontology are less complete; but they are nevertheless abundantly sufficient to establish a very close analogy between ex- tinct and recent species, so as to leave no doubt on the mind that the same harmony of parts and beauty of contrivance which we admire in the living creature has equally characterized the organic world at remote periods. If this be granted, it is enough; the geologist can then bring new and original arguments from fossil remains to bear on that part of natural theology which seeks to extend and exalt our conceptions of the intelligence, power, wisdom, and unity of design manifested in the creation. It can now be shown that the configuration of the earth’s surface has been remodelled again and again; mountain chains have been raised or sunk,\ valleys have been formed, again filled up, and then re-excavated, sea and land have changed places, yet throughout all these revolutions, and the consequent alterations of local and gene- Geological Society of London. 115 ral climate, animal and vegetable life has been sustained. ‘This ap- pears to have been accomplished without violation of those laws now governing the organic creation, by which limits are assigned to the variability of species. ‘There are no grounds for assuming that spe- cies had greater powers of accommodating themselves to new cir- cumstances in ancient periods than now. ‘The succession of living beings was continued by the introduction into the earth from time to time of new plants and animals. ‘That each assemblage of new spe- cies was admirably adapted for successive states of the globe, may be confidently inferred from the fact of the myriads of fossil remains- preserved in strata of all ages. Had it been otherwise, had they been less fitted for each new condition of things as it arose, they would not have increased and multiplied and endured for indefinite periods of time. é Astronomy had been unable to establish the plurality of habitable worlds throughout space, however favorite a subject of conjecture and speculation; but geology, although it cannot prove that other planets are peopled with appropriate races of living beings, has de- monstrated the truth of conclusions scarcely less wonderful, the ex- istence on our own planet of many habitable surfaces, or worlds as they have been called, each distinct in time, and peopled with its peculiar races of aquatic and terrestrial beings. Thus as we increase our knowledge of the mexhaustible variety displayed in living nature, and admire the infinite wisdom and power which it displays, our admiration is multiplied by the reflection that it is only the last of a great series of pre-existing creations of which we cannot estimate the number or limit in past time. All geologists will agree with Dr. Buckland, that the most per- fect unity of plan can be traced in the fossil world throughout all the modifications which it has undergone, and that we can carry back our researches distinctly to times antecedent to the existence of man. We can prove that man had a beginning, and that all the species now contemporary with man, and many others which preceded, had also a beginning ; consequently the present state of the organic world has not gone on from all eternity as some philosophers had main- tained. But when conceding the truth of these propositions, I am pre- pared to contest another doctrine which the Professor advocates, namely, that by the aid of geological monuments we can trace back the history of our terraqueous system to times anterior to the first 116 Geological Society of London. creation of organic beings. — If it was reasonable that Hutton should in his time call in question the validity of such a doctrine, whether founded on the absence of organic remains m strata called primary or in granite, still more are we bound, after the numerous facts brought to light by modern geology, to regard the opinion as more than ques- tionable. I[ observe with pleasure that Dr. Buckland broadly as- sumes what I have elsewhere termed the metamorphic theory, having © stated in his 6th chapter that beds of mud, sand, and gravel, depos- ited at the bottom of ancient seas, have been converted by heat and_ other subterranean causes into gneiss, mica slate, hornblende slate, clay slate, and other crystallme schists., But if this transmutation - - be assumed, it must also be admitted that the obliteration of the or- ganic remains, if present, would naturally have accompanied so en- tire a change in mineral structure. The absence, then, of organic fossils in crystalline stratified rocks, of whatever age, affords no pre- sumption in favor of the non-existence of animals and plants at re- mote periods. BE The author, however, in another part of his Treatise contends, that even if the strata called primary once contained organic re- mains, there is still evidence in the fundamental granite of an ante- cedent universal state of fusion, and consequently a period when the existence of the organic world, such as it is known to us, was im- possible. ‘There'was, he says, one universal mass of incandescent elements, forming the entire substance of the primeval globe, wholly incompatible with any condition of life which can be shown to have ever existed on the earth.* Believing as I do in the igneous origin of granite, I would still ask, what proof have we in the earth’s crust of a state of total and simultaneous liquefaction either of the gra-_ nitic or other rocks, commonly called plutonic? All our evidence, on the contrary, tends to show that the formation of granite, like the deposition of the stratified rocks, has been successive, and that dif- ferent portions of granite have been in a melted state at distinct and often distant periods. One mass was solid, and had been fractured before another body of granitic matter was injected into it, or through it in the form of veins. In short, the universal fluidity of the crys- talline foundations of the earth’s crust can only be understood in the same sense as the universality of the ancient ocean. All the land has been under water, but not all at one time; so all the subterra- nean unstratified rocks to which man can obtain access have been melted, but not simultaneously. * Bucekland’s Bridgewater Treatise, vol. 1. p. 55. Geological Society of London. 7 Nor can we aftirm that the oldest of the unstratified rocks hith- erto discovered is more ancient than the oldest stratified formations known to us; we cannot even decide the relations in point of age of the most ancient granite to the oldest fossiliferous beds. But why, I may ask, should man, to whom the early history of his own species and the rise of nations presents so obscure a prob- lem, feel disappointed if he fail to trace back the animate world to its first origin? Already has the beginning of things receded be- fore our researches to times immeasurably distant. Why then, after wandering back in imagination through a boundless lapse of years, should we expect to find any resting-place for our thoughts, or hope to assign a limit to the periods of past time throughout which it has pleased an omnipotent and eternal Being to manifest his creative power ? But it is not my intention to advert now to these and other points on which I happen to differ from Dr. Buckland. I would rather express the gratification I feel in finding myself in perfect accord- ance with him on so many subjects. His work is admirably adapted to convey instruction on organic remains, and other departments of geology, both to beginners and to those well versed in the science, and is characterized throughout by a truly philosophical spirit, which betrays no desire to adhere tenaciously to dogmas impugned or re- futed by the modern progress of science. On the contrary, the au- thor has abandoned several opinions which he himself had formerly advocated ; and although still attached to the theory which teaches the turbulent condition of the planet when the lias and other fossil- iferous rocks were formed, and the general insufficiency of existing causes to explain the changes which have occurred on the earth, he yet refers in almost all parts of his book to the ordinary operations of nature to explain a variety of phenomena once supposed to be the result of causes different in kind and degree from those now acting. { have now, Gentlemen, only to offer you my acknowledgments for the high honor conferred upon me by my election to fill the Presi- dent’s chair for the last two years; and it is a source of great satis- faction to me to feel assured of the continued prosperity and useful- ness of the association when I resign my trust into the hands of a successor so distinguished for his zeal, talents, and varied acquire- ments as Mr. Whewell. 118 Experiments in Electro-Magnetism. Art. VIII.—Experiments in Electro-Magnetism ; by Dr. Cuartrs G. Pace, of Salem, Mass. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Dear Sir—I notice in the July No. of the Franklin Institute . Journal, an announcement of the discovery of the thermo-electric spark by an Italian philosopher, and also the subsequent exhibition of the spark by Prof. Wheatstone to Faraday and others ; the date of the discovery is not given. On referring to my notes I find that I obtained the spark in August last, but not the shock. The spark and shock were both obtained Dec. 2d, 1836, and exhibited to a number of friends, and announced in your last No. It appears that the European philosophers have not yet obtained a current of suf- ficient magnitude to afford a shock by the multiplier, although they use in the experiment a great number of pairs. In my experiment only a single pair is used either of bismuth and iron, bismuth and zinc, or bismuth and antimony, and yet the induced or lateral shock given by the multiplier is very distinct by acupuncture. ‘The par- ticular arrangement of the thermo-electric elements to produce such powerful effects, I do not wish to describe at present, as I hope ere long to announce it as a substitute for galvanic batteries m many experiments. On the disturbance of Molecular forces by Magnetism. A short article on this subject appeared in the last No. of this Journal, under the caption Galvanic Music. The following experi- ment, (as witnessed by yourself and others not long since,) affords a striking illustration of the curious fact, that a ringing sound accom- panies the disturbance of the magnetic forces of a steel bar, provided that bar is so poised or suspended as to exhibit acoustic vibrations. An electro-magnetic bar four and a half inches in length, making five or six thousand revolutions per minute near the poles of two horse shoe magnets properly suspended, produces such a rapid succession of disturbances, that the sound becomes continuous, and much more audible than in the former experiment, where only a single vibration was produced at a time. On the application of Electro-Magnetism as a moving power. Late in the fall of last year, (November,) I commenced the inves- tigation of this subject, not knowing that any thing more had ever Experiments in Electro-Magnetesm. 119 been effected than what appeared in an instrument before me at that time, viz. Ritchie’s revolving galvanic magnet, which consists of a horizontal bar of soft iron covered with copper wire, the ends of the wire descending into mercury cells. This instrument was the basis of my pursuit. Finding that this bar never attained its maximum velocity, from the occasional union of the battery poles, I soon reme- died this defect by a contrivance, wherein the bar moved vertically, and the mercury cells were entirely independent of each other. The instrument thus improved became an interesting and useful piece of apparatus, and is in fact the revolving interruptor described and figured in the last No. of the Journal. ‘The stationary magnets, instead of being single contrary poles, at opposite sides of the circle described by the bar, were multiplied so as to form an entire circle of poles, with the exception of an inch on each side between the opposite poles. ‘The magnets were short bars arranged in the form of acylinder, somewhat like the staves of a barrel, and the poles not in use were united by armatures of soft iron. ‘The velocity of this model was very great, but I found the scattering and oxidation of the mercury a great inconvenience and soon substituted for it solid conductors. ‘The wires on the bar had their similar ends united by single wires, which were brought down and soldered by cylindrical segments of metal, firmly fixed upon, but insulated from the axis. These segments, representing the ends of the wires covering the re- volving bars, were insulated from each other by pieces of horn or ivory. ‘Two wires connected with the poles of the battery pressing against these segments with a spring, furnished sufficient metallic contact to ensure the passage of the galvanic current through the wires from end to end. As the segments revolved, they presented opposite ends of the wires to the fixed battery wires and thus the poles were changed.* But the most important discovery in relation to the application of this power, is the following, viz. the admissi- bility of oil between the solid conducting surfaces. After the ma- * Before the appearance of the April No. of this Journal, in which Davenport’s machine was partly described, I addressed a letter to Prof. Silliman, to learn if he was aware of any experiments of the kind hitherto made. His answer was, ‘‘the best information you can have on this subject, will be embodied in the coming No. of the Journal.” The Journal appeared ‘with a description of Davenport’s ma- chine, but the mode of making battery connection and changing poles was reserv- ed, and until within a short time since, [ supposed that mercury was the medium. Finding lately that he used dragging wires upon semizones of metal, I have se- cured the above arrangement to myself by patent. 120 Experiments on Electro-Magnetisin. chine had revolved for a tine, 1 found it necessary to free the re- volving segments, (or discs they may be called,) from oxide, even when it was made of silver, gold or platmum. Amalgamating the surfaces, the oxide collected with still greater rapidity. It occurred “to me that if the interposition of oil or naphtha would not interrupt the current, the oxidation of the rubbing surfaces might be entirely prevented. On trying oil I was agreeably surprised to find that the current was not only not interrupted when the pressure of the metals was very slight, but that it passed with greater certainty, and enhan- ced the operation of the machine six fold. It appears that oil more than compensates for its non-conducting property, by ses ong the surfaces free from oxide. This discovery will prove of vast importance in the laboratory, as it will dispense with the use of mercury in many experiments, and prevent the constant necessity of amalgamating and cleaning conduc- tors. Having attained such an advantage in small models, 1 pro- ceeded to the construction of a large one. The revolving bars are a foot in length and weigh together ten pounds. ‘They are disposed at right angles on the same axis, but revolving in opposite ends of the cylinder of magnets. With steel magnets its power is very great ; but with galvanic magnets its power is sufficient to carry a machine for covering copper wire with cotton; and with the addition of more coils of wire, might doubtless be made to turn a large lathe. Now _ although it is certain that machines of this description may be applied to aconsiderable extent, yet it is evident that their power is limited. These and all other similar machines must be liable to the objection, that their magnetic forces cannot be made commensurate with their size and weight. ‘This objection I have surmounted, (as far as the- ory and a small model afford proof,) by the following arrangement. Instead of extending large bar magnets through the whole diameter of the circle, I have horse shoe magnets carried near to the circum- ference of the circle. ‘They are arranged on arms or radii like the spokes of a wheel, and both poles of each horse shoe are in opera- tion atonce. ‘They each change their poles four times in each rev- olution, and the change is effected as before by revolving segments or discs. From the great success of a small model on this plan, I have commenced and now nearly finished an engine ona grand » scale; from which Iexpect great power. ‘The revolving apparatus weighs nearly a hundred pounds. If its power should be in pro- portion to that of the small model, it must exceed one horse. Salem, August 15, 1837. - Remarks on the Rocks of New York. 121 Arr. [X.—Remarks on the Rocks of New York; by Prof. C. Dewey. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. THE opinion seems to be prevailing that the rocks of this section of our country are chiefly ¢ransztion. A great portion had been ranked among the secondary. For this there was a natural reason, viz. the horizontal position of the strata, and the general appearance of the rocks so diverse fron those of primitive countries ; especially, as the fossils were not understood. As early however as 1829, Prof. Vanuxem stated his conviction that these rocks are transition,* and in Bakewell’s Geology, republished in the same year, you remark in the “Outline,” p. 55, upon the rocks of Lockport and Niagara, that ‘there is a strong approximation to the transition character.” This is now well ascertained in relation to rocks much below those in their geological relations. Besides the evidence offered in this Journal for last January, by Dr. Hayes, of Buffalo, and in the Geological Report of this State to the Legislature last winter, I propose to present that which has occurred to me. ‘The subject was pressed upon my at- tention soon after my removal to this city last year, by considering the position of the coal mines in Pennsylvania and Ohio, and the strongly bituminous odor of the rocks in the calczferous slate of Eaton, and the appearance of bituminous shale in the strata above. this. The dip of the strata towards the south over a great extent of this State and Ohio and the western part of Pennsylvania, would carry the saliferous rock of Eaton and several of his incumbent strata far beneath the rocks in Pennsylvania and Ohio, which have the same relative elevation above the sea. As we pass from Lake On- tario, south and west, strata after strata lie upon each other in suc- cessive elevations, all having their dip towards the south, and with nearly the same inclination. Along the Genesee river it is one foot in eighty to one hundred feet. If we call it only one in a hundred, in fifty miles, which is Jess than the distance to the southern boundary of the State, the dip would place the rocks two thousand six hundred and forty feet or half a mile below their relative situation near Lake Ontario. * See Am. Jour. Vol. xvi. p. 254. See also Bakewell’s Geology, 2d Am. Ed. p. 369. Vout. XX XIII.—No. 1. 16 e 122 Remarks on the Rocks of New York. The surveys for canals and railroads, presented in various reports of the engineers, show us the relative situation of the strata at vari- ous places. ; Feet. Lake Erie is above the level of tide water, . ; : 570 Top of Niagara falls below Lake Erie, . : . 5 66 Water of the canal at Rochester below Lake Erie, . } 64 Bottom of falls at Niagara, (160 feet,) below Lake Erie, . 226 From bottom of falls to Lewiston, j : : ; 104. Lake Ontario is below Lake Ene : : : 330 Top of falls at Rochester below water of the eh ; : 31 do. do. falls of Niagara, : 33 Canal at Rochester above Lake Ontario, : : 266 Summit level of Genesee and Olean Canal is above the canl at Rochester, . ; A : : 950 The hills near it are several fonaeed feet ee, Allegany river at Olean above canal at Rochester, . 5 900 Ohio river at Pittsburgh is below Olean, ‘ 4 . 650 do. do. above canal at Rochester, : 250 do. do. Lake Erie, . A ‘ 186 Coal at Pittsburgh above the Ohio, ! ; ee 329 do. do. Lake Erie, . : : A 515 do. do. canal at Rochester, . : : 5719 do. do. Lake Ontario, é ° f 845 Ohio at Little Beaver river, near west line of Pennsylvania, is above Lake Erie, . d i ; . g 15 Coal near Little Beaver above Was Erie, i : 4 A12 Elevation of hill above the coal, . as ‘ bs 80 do. — this coal bed above canal at iochenen, 476 Passing from the Catskill range over its graywacke to the salzf- erous rock of Eaton, which shows itself east of Utica and extends westward to Niagara, lying under all the rocks of this extended dis- trict, the location requires it to be the old red sandstone of European geologists. It contains abundance of Fucoides Brongniartii, Har- lan, and many other similar vegetable remains. On this sandstone rests a series of slates, limestones, shales, and siliceous strata, which correspond perfectly to the mountain limestone of Europe, as noticed by Dr. Hayes in his communication already referred to. This great stratum of our mountain limestone includes the strata called by Prof. Eaton, ferriferous slate, argillaceous iron ore, ferriferous sandrock, calciferous slate, geodiferous limerock, and cornitiferous limerock. Remarks on the Rocks of New York. 123 More than one hundred feet in depth of the old red sandstone, and another hundred feet of the first four strata just mentioned, are seen at one view at the lower falls of the Genesee. In the calciferous slate which forms the precipitous banks of the river at and above the lower falls, and which is strongly bituminous, trilobites are found in abundance. Asaphus caudatus, as figured in Buckland’s Geol- ogy and Mineralogy, abounds, and is associated with the Orthocera- tite and Productus, and occasionally Spirifer. Another trilobite is less abundant, and a third species still more rare, Calymene Blu- menbachi? It has been found in the thick layer of the fragile ar- gillaceous slate which lies above the ferriferous sandrock, and is pre- cisely the same rock as the ferriferous slate which lies under the same stratum and which in truth occurs all through the calciferous slate in thin layers. In the rocks still lower in the geological series the species of tribolite abound. The trilobites of ‘Trenton falls and of the neighborhood of Utica, had placed those rocks in the transition series; but it was supposed they were of very limited extent. It needed only the evidence, now arising from the existence of tralo- bites alone, to prove that the rocks immediately above the sandstone belong to the same formation with those at Trenton falls, and that the rocks of this section belong to the transition series. ‘The posi- tion and fossils place the rocks far below the secondary, and render utterly improbable the existence of coal in them or under them. They rank with the mountain limestone of Europe and rest on the old red sandstone. Several names of the rocks given by Prof. Eaton to this mountain limestone are very appropriate, and they make an intelligible reference to different portions of the strata very easy and satisfactory. Still, they seem to form only different parts of the great formation of mountain limestone. Its whole thickness here and southward in the state, will be more than a thousand feet, Rochester, August, 1837. : Note.—The remains of the elephant in the museum of Mr. Bishop, noticed in the last number of this Journal, belong to one species of the mastodon. ‘The teeth of the elephant were from some place, it issaid, in Ohio. Those of the mastoden were found with the tusk in Perinton, as described. C.D, 124 Queries by the Geologists of the Survey of New York. Art. X.— Queries proposed by the Geologists of the new Survey of the State of New York.* Rocks. 1. Have ledges of rock been observed in your vicinity ? 2. Are the ledges on the sides, or on the summits of hills; on the shore, or in valleys? . 8. Is the direction of the ledges parallel to that of the hills, or what is the direction of each by compass ? 4. Are the rocks divided into regular layers ? 5. ‘Towards what point of the compass do these layers pitch with the greatest declivity ? 6. Are there veins of other rocks traversing those before men- tioned ? 7. In what direction do tee veins cut through the rock, and are they perpendicular or inclined ? 8. Have any ores been found, either diffused through the mass of rock, or in separate beds or veins? 9. Have any useful, or curious, or rare minerals been found in the rocks or veins? 10. What names are commonly used to designate the rocks, ores, minerals, &c. referred to? 11. Have they been applied to any useful purposes i ? 12. Where ledges of rocks have been recently uncovered by ex- cavations, are the surfaces smooth, as if by the action of running water, or with pot-holes, such as are seen at many water falls? 13. Do any of these surfaces shew grooves and scratches, as if hard masses had been dragged over them? 14. Do the rocks recently uncovered shew traces of the shells of barnacles, or other marine remains attached to them in sheltered sit- uations, and much above the level of the sea? 15. Are shells or petrifactions of any kind, or the remains of plants, found in any of the rocks, and in what kinds of rocks do they occur? 16. Are slate, limestone, sandstone, granite, gneiss, &c. found in your vicinity ? 17. Where rocks of different kinds come in contact, is heed any change in their characters near their junction ? * Received from W. W. Martuer of the survey, and being of general interest we insert them here.— Editor, Queries by the Geologists of the Survey of New York. 125 18. Do the rocks shew distinct lines of demarkation, or do they ~ gradually blend into each other? 19. At the junction of trapean and granitic rocks with others, are there any evidences of former high temperature, such as sublimation of sulphur into cavities, cokeing of coal, apparent fusion of the rock, a vesicular texture, or other appearances which are familiar to the mind, where the bodies have been heated ? 20. Where masses of granitic or trapean rocks occur in situ, can any connection be traced between these and dykes or veins of simi- lar materials which traverse the adjacent rocks ? Sands. 1. Are there beds of fine white sand, which contain no black, or red, or yellow grains? .2.. Has it ever been used for making glass, or for other purposes ? 3. Are there beds of red or black sand washed upon the beach? 4. Are these sands abundant enough for purposes of commerce ? ©. Have they ever been used as iron ores, or as a-substitute for emery, or for blotting sand? 6. Is the general surface of the country sand, clay or loam? 7. Do these substances form alternating regular layers? S. Does the sand on the surface of the country drift by the wind ? 9. Have any farms been thus materially injured ? 10. Have buildings, trees, hedges, fences, or walls been covered from this cause ; or marshes or ponds made dry land? Do the sands progress in any particular direction, and at what rate per annum ? 11. Is the sand in any locality hardened into a sandstone ? 12. Is sand washed along shore by currents, and deposited in new situations ? 13. Are any islands, sand-bars, spits, shoals, or beaches, known to have been thus formed ? 14. Have islands been connected with each other, or with the main land, by bars, spits, or beaches ? 15. Hane islands or coasts been washed away entirely, or in pat, by the action of the sea? 16. Where cliffs have been undermined, and have tumbled down, what kinds of earth, or rock, were exposed ? 17. Were they arranged in layers? 18. Were bones, shells, bits of wood, or lignite imbedded in them? 126 Queries by the Geologists of the Survey of New York. Clays. . Are any beds of clay known in the vicinity ? . Are the beds extensive or of small magnitude ? . At what depth do they lie below the surface ? . What is the thickness of the bed or beds? What materials were observed in digging down to them? . Are the clays in thin layers which easily separate ? . Do the beds of clay alternate with beds of sand and gravel? . Are the layers of the beds of clay, gravel, or sand, inclined, or are they level or undulating ? 9. What is the color of the clay? 10. Is it mixed with sand or is it free of grit? 11. When mixed with water, ore it form a tough and plastic mass, or does it crumble to a pap? | 12. When heated red hot, does it become Tea brown, or white? 13. 'To what useful purposes has it been applied ? 14. What quantities are annually exported, and for what pur- poses ? 15. Has it been tried as a manure on sandy soils? . 16. Do balls, or flat rounded masses of a hard earthy ae DIANA We - occur in the clay? 17. Are they arranged in layers parallel to the layers of clay ? 18. Are they of the same materials as the clay? Water, Springs, &c. 1. At what depth is water obtained ? 2. What strata are passed through before reaching it ? 3. Does clay, loam or rock, occur at the level of the springs? 4. Is the water ‘“‘ hard” or “soft,” as these terms are usually em- ployed when speaking of water? 5. Did the water percolate gradually mto the well aes first dug, or did it come in a strong stream? 6. Have shells, bones, pieces of blackened or common wood, beds of marl, or of clay, been observed in digging wells or cellars, or by the caving down of cliffs or banks on the shore, or by the side of streams? 7. Have mineral springs been discovered ? 8. What is their taste? ‘sulphurous, inky, pungent, or saline ? 9. Is there any sensible odor to the water? What is it like? Queries by the Geologists of the Survey of New York. 127 10. Is the water sparkling like bottled beer ; and does air bubble up from the fountain ? Na 11. Is there a reddish or yellowish deposit where the waters flow off, or in the adjacent meadows, or ponds, or is there a similar oily scum on the water ? 12. Do sticks, mosses, leaves, &c. become incrusted with a hard stony coat, or is there a gray or yellowish rock forming near the spring, by a deposit from its water ? 13. Has the water been used in the cure of any diseases? 14. Is the spring copious? 15. Do large springs burst from the earth ? 16. What is the temperature of springs? Salt Marshes. 1. Have the salt marshes in your neighborhood remained un- changed during the observation of the old inhabitants ? 2. If they have risen in level, to what cause do you attribute it? to animal or vegetable decomposition, or to both, to drift sand, min- eral springs, &c., wash of the sea, wash of the adjacent hills, or all these ? 3. If they have sunk below their former level, did it happen gradually, or suddenly ? 4. If the latter, was it at the time of any extraordinary natural phenomenon ? 5. Of what materials are your meadows composed ? 6. Are they covered with moss and cranberries? 7. Can they be made to tremble by walking or jumping on them ? 8. Have they changed in the amount of surface that can be mowed, within the period of a life? 9. Are there any evidences or traditions that they were once larger or smaller than they are at present? Submarine Forests. 1. Have trees, stumps, or logs been seen standing in the water on any part of the coast of Long Island, or of the adjacent coasts or islands ? 2. Where have they been seen, and in what depth of water? 3. Is the time of the subsidence of this land known? 4. To what cause do you attribute it? 5. Is there any tradition concerning it? ¢ 128 Queries by the Geologists of the Survey of New York. 6. Is the wood in its natural state, or is it more like charcoal in its appearance Subterranean Forests. 1. In digging wells, or other excavations, or by the caving down of banks and cliffs of earth, have any traces of trees, wood, bark, leaves, nuts or seeds been discovered buried deep in the earth, or at a greater depth than we would expect to find them from the effect of present causes ? 2. Were these remains in their natural state, or were they con- verted to stone, or to a black substance like charcoal ? 3. If the latter, has the substance been used as fuel ? 4. At what depth does it lie? and in what earth? (sand or clay ?) 5. What strata were observed above and below? 6. Do the trees stand erect ? 7. Do they lie all in one direction ? 8. Do you suppose drifting sands, washing by water, or other causes have buried them ? 9. What is the situation of this lignite with regard to the sea, or to water courses, and its relative height or depth above or below them? 10. Have shells or bones been found in the layer containing the © lignite, or in the adjacent strata ? 11. What is the color of the adjacent clay, Sina or gravel? 12. Have masses of a heavy yellow metallic stone (pyrites) been found in the adjacent clay ? and has it been applied to use? Peat Bogs and Shell Marl. 1. Are there inland meadows or swamps in your vicinity that tremble when one walks over them? 2. Are they covered by moss, and cranberry vines? 3. To what depth can a pole be thrust down? 4. How many are there, and of what extent in your vicinity ? 5. Does the peat, or black tremulous mud, rest on sand, gravel, rock, or a white clayey marl containing small shells? 6. Has the peat been used for fuel, or for burning lime or bricks ? 7. Has the peat, or shell marl, been used as a manure? Bog Iron Ore. 1. Are there ponds or marshes in the vicinity, in the bottom of which is a soft spongy, yellowish brown stone, or gravel ? : Queries by the Geologists of the Survey of New York. 129 2. Does it originate from mineral springs, or from stagnant waters ? 3. Has it been used as an iron ore? Marshes. 1. Have the marshes on the borders of lakes, on the banks of streams, or on the flat table lands, in your vicinity, changed materi- ally within the period of ae or within the remembrance of old inhabitants ? 2. Have they become more wet, and risen so as to cover land be- fore dry ? _ 8. Have they sunk in level, and from what cause ? 4. Have they become more dry, and from what cause ? 5. Have they changed in the natural growth of the soil ? Drainage of Lakes. 1. Are there any evidences of the lakes in your vicinity having once occupied a higher level than they do at present ? 2. Does this evidence consist in elevated beaches, or the cutting down of their outlets, or both these combined ? 3. Are there valleys which seem to have been once lakes, and what evidence is there on this point? 4, Are there regular stratified deposits of clay, sand, gravel, &c. in the valleys? 5. Are organized remains of plants or animals found in them? 6. In the gorges at the outlets of lakes, or along the courses of the streams which flow from them, are there marks to show the wearing action of water much above its present level. 7. Are there deep defiles through the country through which the water flows or seems to have once flowed? - 8. What is the nature of the strata of those defiles, and generally, of the country at any of the particular localities to which you may have referred ? firvers. 1. Are the rivers and streams in your vicinity, deepening their channels, or raising their beds by the deposit of alluvial matter ? 2. Do you know of instances of lateral streams bringing in such quantities of alluvial matter, and of so coarse a texture, that the larger stream is unable to sweep it away, and causes the formation of lakes in the valleys above ? 3. Are rivers or smaller streams lost by sinking in the ground ? Vou. XX XI.—No. te 17 130 Queries by the Geologists of the Survey of New York. Rolled Masses, Pebbles, and Erratic Blocks. 1. Are any large rounded or irregular masses of rock found in your neighborhood ? 2. Do they occur mingled with gravel and pebbles, or are they isolated on the surface, or imbedded in the earth? _ 3. Do they crumble away by the effects of the weather ? 4. Are they smooth, or nearly so, like pebbles ? 5. Are there scratches on them in one or more directions ? 6. Are there ridges on them in one direction only from the harder points of the stone, and parallel to the scratches? 7. Are these rounded masses all of one kind of rock? 8. What rock or rocks constitute these masses and pebbles ? 9. Are they similar to ledges of rock known to you, either in the vicinity or elsewhere ? 10. Are barnacles or other shells, or the remains of marine ani- mals observed on them, where they are at a distance from the sea, or buried in the earth ? 11. Has ice been known to move masses of rock in ponds, streams, bays, or inlets? Elevation of Land. 1. Are there beds of rock containing remains of animals or plants, whose proper habitat is the ocean? 2. Are the rocks horizontal or inclined? 3. Are they bent, contorted, or are they dislocated ? 4. What is the direction of the line of bearing of the strata? 5. Is there any evidence that the rocky strata have been elevated at one, or at several epochs? If at one epoch, all the strata are conformable up to the time of its occurrence, unless in the rare case of elevation without derangement of the dip. If at several, the. strata, formed subsequent to each of these epochs, are successively unconformable to those below, with the same exception as above. 6. Are the axes of elevation parallel, or do they intersect, and what are their directions ? 7. The occurrence of anticlinal and synclinal lines, and their di- rections, should be particularly noted. Agriculture, Manures, &c. 1. What manures are employed on the soil ? 2. Has a rotation of manures been tried ? Queries by the Geologists of the Survey of New York. 131 3. What rotation of crops is employed on the light, and what on the heavy soils ? 4. Have changes of rotations of crops been tried, and with what success ? 5. How are your manures prepared ? 6. Does lime, or ashes, or marl, or gypsum, or barilla, enter into the composition of the compost heap ? 7. Has salt, or nitre, or copperas peed tried in small quantity on the land as a manure? 8. Has limestone, or any other rock been ground and used as a manure ? 9. Do fish cause the production of as large a crop, when spread upon the soil, as when ploughed in fresh ? 10. Has peat been rotted and tried as a manure ? 11. Have harbor mud and pond-hole mud been tried ? 12. Have clay soils been dressed with sand, sand soils with clay, and marshes with gravel or sand ? 13. Are banks of shells known, except such as have been left by the Indians, and which are either superficial, or buried by a small depth of turf, drift sand, or earth washed over them, where the wa- ter flows ? Are there caves, land-slips, sink-holes, (formed by the sinking down of small tracts,) rocking stones, natural ice-houses, or curious or interesting natural phenomena of any kind that have come under your observation, not embraced in the preceding queries? Suggestions for collecting Geological Specimens, and observing Geological Phenomena. 1. Collect specimens of all those rocks, earths, sands, clays, peats, marls and lignites observed, and note the relative quantities, whether abundant or rare. 2. If any of these materials be applied to useful purposes, note their particular applications, the places where used, the amount of industry and capital employed, and the articles produced. 3. If they be not used, note whether in your opinion any one or all may be usefully employed, and for what; and what facilities the adjacent country may present for manufacture or transport, or from its contiguity to a market. A. Note the order of superposition of the different beds of rock, earth, sand, clay, &c. with regard to each other ; the amount and di- 132 Queries by the Geologists of the Survey of New York. rection of the dip; whether dislocations or faults, dykes, veins, &c. traverse the strata, and the direction and inclination of these dislo- cations, veins, dykes, &c. Sketches should generally be made to illustrate the thickness and relative position of strata, particularly if the strata be contorted. 5. Note if any traces of organic existence be observable in any of the materials mentioned, whether animal or vegetable, either as impressions, casts, or petrifactions; whether imbedded or loose in these materials. 6. The excavations in mining, quarrying, cutting canals, rail- roads, &c. offer particular facilities for observing the phenomena of stratification, of the superposition of rocks, &c. 7. In boring for coal, salt springs, &c. it is hoped that specimens of the rock, clay and sand, of every foot in depth passed through will be preserved, and accurate minutes made in writing on the spot. 8. In deep wells, mines and salt springs, the temperature of the water should be measured as it issues from the strata. 9. ‘The temperature of copious springs should be measured, noting if it be different at different seasons of year. 10. In mines, is there a local variation of the compass, and are there evidences of the passage of electrical currents ? 11. What is the mean temperature of the bottom of the mine? and of the rocks at the ends of the levels, at such a depth as to be beyond the influence of the heat of the air of the mine? 12. Specimens to illustrate the various kinds of minerals, rocks, clays, marls, peats, &c., should generally be about two by three, or three by four inches, and one to two inches thick, of a rectangular form, and free from hammer marks and weathering. 13. Fossils, or rock specimens containing foals must be taken of such a size as may be necessary to illustrate to the best advan- tage ; still, where fossils are imbedded in stone, much taste may be displayed in getting them out with a good shape and free from ham- mer marks. 14. The occurrence of bones, tusks, teeth, shells, &c. where wells, cellars, canals, roads, &c. have caused excavations to be made, should be particularly noted. 15. Every specimen from the same stratum at any one locality should be marked with a similar mark, and each specimen to cor- respond in its mark with that of the stratum from which it was ta- ken, on the sketch or section. Notice of Meteors. 133 16. Each specimen should be wrapped securely in a separate pa- per, and packed tightly in a box, so that it may not be rubbed and injured by transportation from one part of the country to another. 17. It is important that rock specimens and fossil remains should be taken from ledges of rocks in their natural position and not from loose masses. . 18. Soils should be taken from a depth of about 8 inches below the surface. 19. The name of the county, township, and the estate, should be distinctly marked on a small label, which should be enclosed in the wrapper of the specimen. W. W. Martuer, 2 Committee in behalf of T. A. Conran, § the board of Geologists. Arr. XI.—Notice of the Meteors of the 9th and 10th of August, 1837, and also of Nov. 12th and 13th, 1832; by Grorcr C. Scuarrrer, of New York. TO THE EDITOR. Havine had the good fortune to witness another “ meteoric dis- play,” and one which, as far as I can ascertain, has not been gener- ally noticed, I furnish you with the result of my observations, which if not rendered valueless by some other and better notes on the same subject, by some of our citizens, are entirely at your service. Since November last, when I observed the annual appearance of the 12th and 13th, (a short and hastily written notice of which I made for one of our papers, and which was copied into your Journal,) I have constantly watched the meteors of nightly occurrence, with reference to their direction and number. At the expiration of the six months when it was thought that a return might be expected, particular attention was paid, but few or none were seen ; the nights, however, were cloudy, and unfavorable for observation. For two or three weeks previous to the 9th of August, a large number was seen, chiefly radiating from some point in a line from Vega, to the point mentioned below. About 8 o’clock on the evening of the 9th, my attention was di- rected to several meteors, which, notwithstanding the bright moon- light, were very conspicuous. Following up the usual observations upon direction, it was soon found that there was a common center of radiation. 134 Notice of Meteors. It is to be remarked, however, that comparatively few were seen near this point, by far the greater number averaging a distance of 90° from it. On this account, I found it more difficult to designate the radiating point, than in November last, when J determined its place with considerable accuracy. On this occasion, (August 9th,) as near as could be ascertained, the center of radiation was not far from 55° R. A., 60° N. D., or near a point of a line from 8 to « Urs. Min. produced rather more than the distance between the two stars. These meteors in every respect, resembled those of November last, a large number having trains of some length and duration, and hardly less brilliant than on that occasion. From 8 until near 3 o’clock, between two and three hundred were seen. During the last hour the number seemed to diminish, and not having taken any precaution to ensure wakefulness, we were obliged to yield to the solicitations of Morpheus. The night was a favorable one for observation, and a curious coin- cidence is to be remarked in the fact that the same sort of lightning was visible in the northeast, as in November last. A shower had passed over us in the afternoon, but as this had not been the case on the former occasion, I am inclined to suspect some connexion be- tween the appearances. ‘There was a close resemblance to what is commonly called heat-lightning, though this appeared farther from the horizon. In the early part of the evening, the attention of a numerous party was directed to the heavens, and I found that when each observer selected a separate portion, the number noticed was greatly in- creased : from this I judge that a large number escaped notice. In the various notices of meteors in your Journal, I recollect but a slight mention of their appearance in 1832. I was not aware that I had seen them myself, until the latter end of the year 1834, when, describing to a friend a beautiful display of meteors that I had witnessed off Pernambuco, in a voyage home from Buenos Ayres, the resemblance to the meteors of 1833, (as descri- bed to me,) for'the first time struck my attention. I turned to my journal, and found to my surprise and delight that the minute of their appearance was made on the morning of November 18th, as being viewed during the previous night. The notice is to the following effect: that numerous meteors of exceeding brightness and beauty were seen, the least of them being more brilliant than Jupiter, then not far from opposition. Many of Questions relative to Mineral Veins. 135 them had trails, described by the men as similar to a comet, and one was said by them to have remained five or six minutes, though this doubtless was an exaggeration. ‘They also were described by them as having ‘split off from each other,” evidently referring to a ra- diation from some point. As I remained on deck but a part of the night, I did not see some of the most brilliant meteors as described to me by the men. Meteors were seen the night before, and as the extreme brilliancy on this occasion induced us to refer them to the atmosphere immedi- ately above us, they were carelessly ascribed to the unusual heat ; the minute was made and forgotten until more than two years after. At the time we were in sight of Pernambuco light, the night was one of the most splendid that I have ever seen in any latitude or un- der any circumstances. I very much regret that I have no data for the point of radiation, but as far as it goes, the testimony is good, the note having been made long before any notion was entertained of meteors being other than random fires of unknown origin. Arr. XII.—Questions relative to Mineral Veins, submitted to Practical Miners; by Ropert Were Fox,* England. 1. Name of the mine, as well as of the parish or district in which it is situated. 2. Number of metallic veins or lodes, and the description of ore which each contains. 3. Average size, direction by compass, and underlte of each lode, and whether very variable or not in these respects ; and do the lodes generally increase or diminish in size in descending into the earth? 4. Nature of the rocks or country traversed by each lode, whether granite, killas, elvan, &c., or all of them; and the bearings of the different rocks with respect to each other. 5. If any elvan courses, (porphyritic dykes ;) their appearance, hardness, sizes, directions, and underlie. 6. In which of the rocks have the respective lodes been found most productive of ore, and has there been any difference in this re- spect, between those of copper and tin, or of any other metal ? * Received through Dr. J. H. Griscom, of New York.—The eminent service rendered by Mr. Fox to the cause of science, especially in relation to the electri- city of mineral veins, entitle his queries to insertion in this place.—Editor. 136 Questions relative to Mineral Veins. 7. If copper lodes ; do they consist of yellow or gray ore, or of any other variety, and how are the varieties of the ore situated with respect to each other in the lodes? 8. If copper and tin occur in the same lodes, are those metals in different parts of them, or if near together, are they at, or near the opposite walls of the lodes, or are they intimately mixed? 9. If near the opposite walls of underlying lodes, which of these metals is the nearer to the upper or hanging walls, and which to the lower or foot walls ;—are these ores separated from each other by “ spar” (quartz,) or other substances ; and do the hanging and foot walls differ much in hardness ? 10. If other metals exist in the lodes, under what circumstances do they occur ; and what minerals have a tendency to crystallize, and how are the crystallized masses situated with respect to the contiguous ores? 11. Was there “ gossan” or other substance observed resting upon, or above the copper ore in the lodes, or if strictly tun lodes, were they found to be without gossan ? 12. Are the walls or “‘ capels” of the tin lodes harder than those of the copper lodes, and if in the case of a copper lode, one wall is harder than the other, is it the nearer one to the copper ore, or that which is the further from it? 13. Are the lodes, generally speaking, most productive of ore on the side of the hanging, or of the foot walls? 14. Is the rock or country immediately contiguous to the walls of any of the lodes, usually softer or harder than at a distance from them ; is there any difference in this respect between tin lodes, and lodes of copper, &c.; and is the hardness or softness of the lodes, in any direct ratio or inverse ratio, to the hardness or softness of the rock or country contiguous to the walls. 15. Are not the lodes often contracted into small veins or branches, and have any of these been found to open again into large lodes containing ore? In such cases, do not the opposite small veins or branches sometimes overlap each other, or become “‘ spliced,” as I believe it is termed ? 16. Do the lodes materially vary in size in traversing different rocks, and in which rocks are they the largest? Moreover, in pass- ing from one rock into another, from killas, to elvan or granite, .for instance, do they suffer any interruption, or break in their course, and if so, how much, and in what direction ? Questions relative to Mineral Veins. 137 i7. Are there any marks in the walls of a given lode, showing that one of its walls is at a lower level than the other, and, if so, to what extent; and is it not usually the hanging wall which 1s so cir- cumstanced ? 18. Are all or any of the walls, smooth and well defined, or are they imperceptible or indistinctly marked? In either case, are the lodes more or less hard than the ground in which they occur? 19. Are the hanging or foot walls most indistinct, and which of them are the hardest ? 20. When the tin lodes meet other lodes, are they intersected by them, and if the intersections take place in their underlie, are they thrown up by them, and how much?—The same question may be asked as it respects other lodes. | 21. Are there smaller veins having distinct walls or divisions in- cluded between the walls of the lodes, that is, are the lodes ‘“‘ comby”’ near the surface, or at a greater depth, and are such small included veins parallel, or oblique, as it respects the walls of the lodes, and of what do the former consist ? Q2. Are there any veins of clay, or veins, or portions of the con- taining rock, or country, in the lodes, and are they respectively near the hanging or the foot walls? 23. Have any masses of rock been found in the lodes, termed ‘¢ horses” by the miners, and did they appear to be completely sep- _ arated by the branches of any given lode from contact with the outer walls or country ? 24, What circumstances or appearances in the lodes are consid- ered the most favorable indications of any given ore, and what the least so? 25. Is not an increase in the underlie of lodes usually less favor- able for ore than when they become more vertical, and are they not generally more contracted in size, and more filled with mechanical deposits when their underlie is considerably increased ? 26. If any of the lodes have crossed or intersected other lodes, has it occurred. horizontally, or in their underlie, and at what angles ; and have they been found more productive of ore at the intersec- tions, or less so? 27. At what depth below the surface have the een lodes been found most productive of their respective ores; and have many cavi- ties, or ‘‘ vowghs’” been observed in them, and at what depths ? Vol. XXXIU.—No. 1. 18 138 Questions relative to Mineral Veins. 28. Have the arseniates of copper, iron, or lead, or much fluor spar, occurred in any of the lodes; and how were such substances situated in relation to the ores? 29. Is the “spar,” or quartz immediately contiguous to copper - ore, often more porous or friable, (locally termed “ honey comb or sugary spar,”) than that which accompanies tin ore, and even more so, than the spar which is at a distance from the copper ore in the same lode? 30. Are there any cross courses or flucans intersecting any of the. lodes, and what are the directions by compass, underlie, and average sizes of the former; and are they larger or smaller at the upper than at the lower levels? 31. Are the cross courses “ comby,” or subdivided into smaller veins of clay and quartz, or other earthy matter? 32. How far do the cross courses partake of the nature of the country through which they pass? 33. Do they dislocate or heave the lodes and elvan courses, and how much each of them; stating the underlie of the two last, at or near the places of intersection; and are the heaves greater or less at the upper than at the lower levels? 34. Are there any branches, small veins, or ‘‘ leaders” of ore in any of the cross courses between the dislocated extremities of the lodes, or only detached stones of ore ; and are the ores in the cross courses the same, or different in thei nature or appearance from those in the lodes? 35. Are the lodes more productive of ore near the cross courses, and on both sides, or only on one side of a given cross course, and on which side ? 36. Are there any branch veins s of ore nearly at right angles to the bearings of the lodes ;—of what ores do such feetanaulal veins consist;—how far have they been seen to extend; what is their un- derlie ;—and are they near the hanging walls of any cross courses * 37. Are there any beds, or “‘ floors’’ of tin, copper, or other metal, and under what circumstances do they occur? 38. Have they walls like lodes, or are they interposed between the beds or lamine of the rocks? 39. Are they connected with other veins, or quite distinct from them ; in what rocks or country are they most prevalent ;—and have any of the ores been observed to occur disseminated, or diffused’in — the rocks, not as veins, but at a distance from lodes or beds of ore? x Descriptions of two species of Tralobites. 139 40. What are the directions of the joints, heads, or natural divis- tons of the granite,. killas, elvan, or other rocks, and do such joints agree, or not, with the general directions of the lodes and cross courses ? R. W. Fox, takes the liberty to submit the accompanying ques- _tions to practical miners, hoping that they will kindly reply to them, or to some of them, and add such general observations on the subject of lodes as may appear to be worthy of notice. He hopes that it will not be inconvenient to them to furnish him with the desired in- formation without much delay ; it will be quite sufficient merely to refer to the numbers marked against each question. In any cases in which plans and sections of lodes and cross courses have been made, rough sketches of them will be much valued. Arr. XIL.— Descriptions of two species of Trilobites, belonging to the genus Parapoxipes ; by Mr. James Hau, Corresponding Member of the Yale Nat. Hist. Society. Read before the Yale Nat. Hist. Society, March 21, 1837. Tue following remarks and the accompanying figures are offered to this Society as illustrations of two species of fossil trilobites, which hitherto have been imperfectly and in many respects incorrectly de- scribed. ‘The buckler of these species was first observed by Prof. Eaton, and described as the abdomen and tail of an unknown trilobite, which he named in honor of the distinguished Brongniart, Brongni- artia Carcinoidea. ‘The buckler is often found in great numbers, and almost invariably separated from the abdomen. This circum- stance and the peculiar appearance of the fossil, led Prof. Eaton to the above conclusion respecting its nature, which, I believe, was sanctioned by Brongniart. Similar imperfect specimens of the two species were afterwards described by Prof. Green, (with the same views as to the nature of the fossil,) under the new designation 7'7- arthrus Beckii. More recently Dr. Harlan has corrected the prin- cipal error of preceding authors, (that of considering the buckler as the abdomen and tail,) and has described the specimens as constitu- ting two species of the genus Paradoxides. About two years since, while engaged in investigating specimens of unusual perfection from several localities, | observed some inaccuracies and omissions in the 140 Descriptions of two species of Trilobites. last author, arising probably from the imperfection of his specimens, which appear to be of sufficient importance to require new descrip- tions, generic as well as specific. __ ; Fig. 2. “Wy —_. = \ ~ \ \NS \ \ \ QS \\\ Ms Za y MI From the accompanying figures of these species, it is obvious that they do not strictly belong to the genus Paradoxides, as established by Brongniart ; for they are destitute of what this author gives as the most essential characteristic, viz. the extension of the arches of each of the lateral abdominal lobes, beyond the membrane above. ‘This character, however, is scarcely discernible in the P. gibbosus; and as these specimens have a strong resemblance in other respects to the Paradoxides, I concur with Harlan in referring them to this genus. This is an additional instance of the transitions*among the genera of trilobites, which interfere with the institution of perfect generic dis- tinctions. . Dr. Harlan observing the incongruities, modified the generic des- cription as follows :* ) rf *‘ Buckler destitute of oculiform tubercles; anterior border semi- circular; middle lobe marked with transverse furrows or bands. Abdomen composed of transverse bands or articulations continuous with those of the lateral lobes.” This generic description is evidently faulty. The anterior bor- der in the several species of Paradoxides is seldom semicircular, though generally curved and forming the segment of a circle; the transverse furrows, instead of extending across the middle lobe, as might be inferred from the description, are in general interrupted ; finally the character with respect to the abdomen is not sufficiently «Tt should be remarked that the most perfect specimen examined by Dr. H. presented but four abdominal articulations. Descriptions of two species of Tralobites. — 141 characteristic. I therefore propose the following, as a statement of the essential characters of the genus: Clypeus antice curvatus: lobis lateralibus antice conniventibus : lobo medio sulcis transversis tribus ; sulcis sepius medio interruptis. Abdomen lobis tribus bene declaratis ; articulis duodecim vel plu- ribus. In addition to the above characters of the genus I would state the following, as possessed in common by the two species under consid- eration. The buckler is much broader than long, with the margin curved anteriorly and truncated posteriorly. The lateral lobes form a nar- row border in front of the middle lobe and are expanded behind, and marked with a single transverse furrow, near their posterior margin. The posterior sulcus of the middle lobe is continuous and parallel to the posterior margin of the same; the two preceding sulci, curve slightly backward and are interrupted near the medial line. In front of the sulci, there are two distant slightly oblong depressions, direct- ed obliquely outward and forward, which evidently mark the situation of the eyes. Nearly in front of each of the ocular depressions, there is observed on the fresh specimen, a short transverse line scarcely elevated; with respect to their nature I can only conjecture, that they were occasioned by antenne lying directly below them, and this appears probable, from the position of these organs in some of the recent Entomostraca most analogous to this genus of trilobites, as for instance the species of the genus Argulus.* A small rounded protuberance occupies the centre of the posterior border of the me- dial lobe of the buckler. : The abdomen is not distinct from the post-abdomen ; in all there are nineteen articulations, with a small rounded expansion beyond the posterior one. The middle lobe presents a longitudinal row of small spines, one on the centre of each articulation. Near its base it is wider than either of the lateral lobes; from the base it gradually tapers with a slight curve, to the extremity. The lateral lobes in- crease somewhat in width from their base and attain a maximum width about one third the length of the abdomen from the posterior extremity, where each about equals the corresponding width of the middle lobe; from this point it gradually diminishes to the tail. The following eee distinguish the species. * See a figure of an American species of this Buus; A. Catostomi, in Vol. xxxI. of this Journal. 142 Descriptions of two species of Trilobites. Paradowides Beckii. (Fig. 1.) Buckler bounded in front and laterally, by a nearly uniform curve scarcely exceeding a semicircle, distinctly convex: lateral lobes cu- neiform, broader posteriorly, gradually narrowing from behind for- ward, and passing into the narrow border which bounds the middle lobe anteriorly ; greatest width of each lateral lobe, about one half that of the middle lobe; width of each opposite the centre of the middle lobe, more than two thirds its greatest width: medial lobe | somewhat broader than long, rounded posteriorly, convex; sulci deep and well defined, with the intermediate portions arched. The buckler of this species occurs abundantly in graywacke slate at the Cold Spring on the Erie Canal, eight miles east of Little Falls. This slate lies upon the lower transition limestone, of that part of the state. A small slab from this locality, scarce a foot long and two and a half inches wide, in the cabinet of this society, contains the remains and impressions of near forty specimens of the buckler. I have never met with a perfect abdomen in the Cold Spring slate, though specimens exhibiting a few articulations are common. I have restored the original specific name of this species given it by Green, partially on account of its priority, but more especially be- cause of the inappropriateness of the specific name Triarthrus (three- jointed) applied by Harlan. This term, as employed to designate - the genus by Green, who supposed that the buckler was the abdomen and tail, and three-jointed, was sufficiently appropriate. But with the present light on the subject, the buckler is very incorrectly de- scribed as “triarthritic ;’ and moreover the existence of the sulci is a generic character. Paradovides Eatoni. (Fig. 2.) Buckler convexly curved on the front margin, with a concave curvature laterally; nearly flat: lateral lobes broader posteriorly, greatest width about one half the breadth of the middle lobe ; ab- nde diminishing in breadth and much less than half their greatest breadth opposite the centre of the middle lobe: middle lobe some- what longer than broad, nearly flat; sulci distinct, with the interme- diate portions scarcely convex. This species is abundant in the graywacke slate in Turin, Utica, Fort Plain, and elsewhere in the state of New York. As Dr. Har- lan’s name, P. arcuatus, is not applicable to this species, I have taken the liberty of substituting the above, in honor of Prof. Eaton. On the Aurora Borealis of July 1, 1887. 143 Art. XIV.—On the Aurora Borealis of July 1, 1887. 1. Observations made at Rochester, by Prof. C. Dewey. On the evening of July 1st, the Aurora Borealis was very splendid ; indeed it far exceeded the splendor of that of the 25th of January last, as that appeared in this part of the state. ‘The day had been pleasant and warm. About two P. M. the temperature was 86°, and a shower was collecting rapidly in the northwest, which in the next hour and a half had been blown over us and dissipated with very little ram. ‘The temperature changed, and the sun shone forth in all his glory. The remainder of the afternoon was delightful. The evening was cool, the temperature being about 58°. Soon as the twilight had ceased, the aurora was seen in short flocculent, cloudlike forms all across the northern sky. Soon it extended quite round to the east and west points, at both of which broad and bright arches arose and extended more than half way to the zenith, while a multitude of streamers rose all round the northern sky towards the same point. About half after nine the broad belt of brilliant white aurora, rising from both sides of the east point, shot towards the zenith, near which it was met by a corresponding but less brilliant zone of light from the west. The general appearance continued very brilliant till ten minutes after ten, when the point a little south and east of the zenith, and towards which all the streams and pillars were directed, became a bright rose red, and soon sent off brilliant : coruscations in every direction but the south, with distinct flashes of white light much resembling that which is commonly called heat lightning. 'This soon ceased, and the white aurora again appeared as before. Near half after ten, a dark brown aurora rose in the N. W. and extended upwards ; soon after appeared on all sides the rose red or deep crimson, rising to the vertex near the star ¢ in the constellation Hercules, nearly in a right line between Alpheus in the Northern Crown and Lyra. The whole expanse except the south was most splendid. Soon the flashing from all sides towards the vertex mentioned, was renewed with great power. Great and constant changes in the color were occurring. ‘The white beams and streams intermingled with the red, added to the splendor of the scene; at length the brilliant flashing and waving of the aurora ceased. The vertex became clear of it, except as it flashed up in long and 144 On the Aurora Borealis of July 1, 1887. broad waves, and showed itself in serpentine forms for an instant and then disappeared. Soon however the whole scene was repeated. The vertex retained its place, as the constellations moved westward, and was now near “ in Hercules, and all the splendid light, beams, pillars, arrows, waving and flashing, were, if possible, more splendid than before. ‘This was at eleven o’clock. ‘The colors were constant- . ly changing their hues. From all the northern, eastern and western parts, the flashing light rose to the vertex, and seemed to shoot back again asitcame. Often the light would flash through thirty or forty degrees, disappear within twenty degrees of the vertex and reappear flashing as before, for the last ten degrees, as if it passed for ten de- grees behind some opake substance. ‘The sky was cloudless for the whole time. Ata quarter after eleven the red light disappeared, while long, arrowform, splendid streams continued to play for some time till they gradually subsided and only a luminous sky remained for most of the night. On the next evening, there was a slight au- rora. Whatever of beauty, splendor or grandeur, others may have seen in this phenomenon, no aurora has ever come under my observ- ation of equal brilliancy and variety. Rochester, July, 1837. 2. Observations made at New Haven, and elsewhere. This very brilliant display of northern lights was witnessed as far south as Columbus, Ga. (lat. about 32° 35’ N., long. 85° 11’ W.) It was seen there for about half an hour, commencing at 9h. 30m. Many streamers of a red color were observed, but their altitude is not stated. We have also observations of the phenomena from Cleveland, — Ohio; Fayetteville, N. C., and various places in Virginia, which, so far as they go, substantially agree with those made here. At Rich- mond, the display between two and three A. M. of the next morning, was distinctly noticed by a friend who happened to be there; but the printed statements make no mention of it. ‘The observations below given, were made by several persons of this place, and are in the main the same as were published in the [New Haven] Daily - Herald of July 6, 1837. , E. C. H. An Auroral display of unusual variety and splendor was witness- ed in this city on the night of Saturday last, the first of July. The day was one of the warmest of the season: at 2 P..M., therm. 84° Fah.; wind S. W. ‘Towards the latter part of the afternoon, dark On the Aurora Borealis of July 1, 1837. 145 clouds arose in the northwest and gave promise of a thunder storm, but about an hour before sunset they passed off to the northeast without much rain. At 6 P. M. therm. 78°, barom. 29.67 in., wind light from N. N. W. At 9h. 25m. just before the departure of twilight, the northern sky was observed to be faintly illuminated from W.N.W. to N.N.E., but much obscured by clouds. Itsoon became clear. At 9A. 38m, streamers began to form in the N., and soon after in N.E. and N.W., gradually becoming more frequent and increasing in brilliancy. At 10h. 30m., the action was most energetic, and the scene eminently animated and beautiful. From E., N., and W., and all points be- tween, streamers shot up from near the horizon in quick succession, with wonderful celerity and passed beyond the zenith, while others starting from an altitude of about 30° in the S. met the former about the corona in the constellation Ophiuchus. Auroral waves soon appeared, flashing upwards with great rapidity across the streamers and rolling up in wisps and sheets around the coronal point. The color of the streamers and waves was mostly a phosphoric white, but about 10A. 40m. for a short time a fine rose-red predominated. At 11h. 10m. the display was on the decline. By midnight it became quite faint, and the heavens were at the time much obscu- red by clouds. About this period the light was mostly confined to the eastern horizon, where among the clouds were seen indistinct columns of red and white. About 1h. A. M., (July 2d,) the clouds dispersed, and the sky became exceedingly clear, and thus continued during the’ remainder of the night. At 2h. the Aurora began to revive, and soon presented a specta- cle in many respects surpassing the former. At 2h. 10m. an indis- tinct arch about a degree wide, appeared, with vertex about 8° high in the N., between which and the horizon, the sky, although clear, seemed to be covered with dark vapor. From this arch arose broad streamers of a vivid yellowish white. Some of the streamers, how- ever, occasionally started from points in the dark space below the arch. About 2h. 30m., the display was at its maximum.. From W.N.W. to E., the sky was filled with streamers, passing over head, and forming a corona in the constellation Cygnus. Along these col- umns or streamers, swept upwards immense auroral waves, nearly unbroken from the horizon to the magnetic equator. These col- umns remained in unabated splendor for fifteen minutes, and were visible until about 3. At 2h. 38m. the arch was extinct, and the Vou. XXXITI.—No. 1. 19 146 On the Aurora Borealis of July 1, 1837. streamers were becoming shorter and less frequent. They were, however, for a long time, numerous about the N., and were visible — until overpowered by the superior light of the advancing sun. They » were distinctly observed as late as 3h. 30m., or about an hour after day break. Many observations on the position of the corona were made dur- ~ ing the night: those which are the most rele one are the fol- lowing, viz. 2h. 31m. centre of corona, alt. 75° 25’ azim. S. 4° 27’ E. 39 ee An ia i ic 3 30 42 sf A WAO Leh bv OF | These positions correspond nearly to the direction of the dipping needle at this place, if we make due allowance for the perturbations which the Aurora may have occasionéd, and for the difficulty of de- termining with precision the central point. The horizontal needle was much disturbed. Between 10h. 44m. and 11h. it traversed 3° 4’. In general, the north end of the needle was carried to the east of its mean position at this place, which is now about N. 5°55’ W. After midnight, the range of variation did not exceed one degree. ‘The needle was not observed on the 2d or 3d inst. From sunset to 2h. 30m. the wind was from N.W. and faint after that time, from’ N. N. W. and somewhat stronger. At 11h. 40m. the dew point was 67°, therm. being at 72°. ‘The barometer rose during the night: at 2h. 30m. A.M. (2d inst.) it stood at 29.76, at 6h. 29.80. Thermometer at 2h. 830m. 71°, at 6h. 69°. It is worthy of notice, that on this occasion there were two well marked and distinct seasons of greatest brilltancy or fits of maxi- — mum intensity, at an interval of about four hours. It will be found on examination of former accounts, that this is a common feature of Auroral exhibitions of unusual brilliancy, and that the first fit occurs within about an hour after the end of twilight. Future observations continued during the entire night, must determine the number of these seasons and the interval between them. ) The Aurora appeared on the night of Sunday, 2d inst. and was observed until 1h. 30m. of the 3d inst. It was not very conspicu- ous. At 9h. 30m. there appeared a low dim arch, with vertex about 5° high, sending forth occasional streamers to an altitude not exceed- ing 30°, after which no special change was noticed. The day was clear and fine; therm. at 2 P. M. 78°. On Spontaneous Combustion. _ 147 On Monday night, 3d inst. the Aurora was again seen. It was less conspicuous than on the 2d. ‘The evening was showery, but at 9h. 45m. the clouds began to disperse. ‘The North was illumi- ned with’a faint light, now and then adorned with a solitary streamer. Observations were continued until near midnight, but no increase Was seen. The hours and minutes above given are of apparent time. A.C.C.E. J. Art. XV.—On Spontaneous Combustion; by James Mrasz, M.D. In my ‘‘ Archives of Useful Knowledge,” vol. iii. p. 167, I re- corded three cases of the spontaneous combustion of large masses of bituminous coal from Virginia, two in cellars, and a third under a close arch, all of which occurred in Philadelphia.* A fourth case was stated of one thousand two hundred chaldrons of coal “‘ in a close compact magazine”’ in Paris, and a fifth of one thousand six hundred tons of the same article in the royal ship-yard in Copenhagen and all consumed, together with one thousand four hundred houses. ‘This happened in the year 1794. Bituminous coal has on other occasions taken fire. In the year 1822, October and November, three cases occurred of this, in. the navy yards of Brooklyn, New York, Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and Washington city. ‘The coal was from Virginia, and lay exposed to the air and rain. In the year 1828, one hundred chaldrons of coal which had been placed several weeks before on wet ground in Boston, took fire, with a volume of sulphurous matter rising in a state of ebullition. It was remarked that this was the third instance of the kind within the past year in that city. Another case was mentioned in the newspapers as having taken place in Ridgley’s coal-yard, Baltimore, some years since, in the * This last was from Dr. Seybert’s paper on Spontaneous Combustion, in New York Medical Repository, Hexade 3d, vol. iii. Two similar facts are given by Bartholdi, Annales de Chimie, No. 144: and translated in Tilloch’s Philos. Mag. vol. XVill. + In my additions to the article “Inflammation,” in Willich’s Domestic Encyc., I have given nine cases of spontaneous combustion from various causes. 148 On Spontaneous Combustion. month of August. This coal also was doubtless from Virginia. A similar accident has recently occurred in the coal yard of Nutter & Co., New York, to sixty tons of Virginia coal. (July, 1837.) , Mr. Dupont, the late extensive manufacturer of gunpowder, in- formed Dr. Seybert, that charcoal was also lable to spontaneous combustion when in powder and piled ina heap. He had suffered loss from this cause, and a similar accident had occurred near Paris. The French commissioners charged by the French government to examine into the causes of the explosions of powder factories, ascertained that charcoal in the lump, by attrition took fire. Char- coal inflames according to M. Caussigni, by the pressure of mill- stones, and has taken fire in the box of the bolter, into which it had been sifted ; the coarse powder experienced no alteration.— Annales de Chimie, No. 35. Mr. Sage saw the roof of one of the low wings of the mint at Paris set on fire by the spontaneous combustion of a large quantity of char- coal that had lain in the garrets. Two instances of spontaneous combustion took place in the pow- der manufactory of Essone, in the year eight and ten of the French, republic ; the first in the box for sifting the charcoal, and the sec- ond in the charcoal repository. Bartholdi attributes them to phos- phorus in the charcoal. May not one or more of the conflagrations of powder mills, which have taken place in the United States during the two past years, have been caused in this way? Linen, cotton, and woolen cloth, or the raw materials of these fabrics impregnated with flax-seed oil, or paint, or varnish, have fre- quently proved the causes of spontaneous inflammation, ~ Several years since a piece of canvass, forty yards in length, painted with white lead and oil, and exposed to the sun for some hours, was rolled up and put under cover. The next morning it was found smoking, and the whole except a yard, burnt to cinder, with a hole through the bottom of a wagon. ‘This happened at Mount Pleasant, Virginia. A large piece of coarse muslin, thor- ‘ oughly oiled for the purpose of making covers for boxes, was left over night, folded loosely in a shed in a yard in Market street, Bos- ton; in the morning, it was found burnt entirely through, and about to blaze. (1831.) A quantity of wool prepared with the usual proportion of oil for earding, and thrown into a heap in the evening, was found the next On Spontaneous Combustion. 149 morning ignited, and the floor to a considerable extent on fire. This happened at Hamlin & Bates’ factory ; and another instance occur- red at the establishment of Warner & Whetton.* Lamp oil was used. (1831.) A quantity of cotton clothing for seamen’s suits, had been oiled and hung up at Duxbury, Massachusetts, for a fortnight to dry, and were then taken down, rolled together, and placed in a shed; the next day they were found on fire. (1831.) The Schr. Hiram, laden with wool, when on a voyage from Bil- boa to New York, in March, 1825, was set on fire, in consequence of some linseed oil having been spilt on the cabin floor. Two pounds of wool greased with flax-seed oil, near Germantown, Pennsylvania, set fire to the building next morning. (1818.) The closet in which the paint and oil were kept at Boshor’s carriage factory, Richmond, Virginia, having been smeared with linseed oil, burst out in a flame. (1832.) Some cotton used in cleaning the cabin of the ship Birmmgham, became partially filled with flax-seed oil, and after some time it igni- ted. An express experiment proved that cotton thus impregnated would inflame in two hours. (New York, 1831.) Cotton rags, while delivering from the cellar of a store, 24 Broad street, New York, were found on fire. Oil had been spilt on them. (June, 1834.) Mr. Darant’s large balloon, varnished for the first time, exposed to the sun through the day, and rolled up in the evening, and de- posited upon chairs in a house in Jersey City, was found the next morning entirely consumed. ‘The varnish was composed of oil, tur- pentine and caoutchouc. (June, 1832.) Mr. Atkinson of Ellicott’s mills near Baltimore, stated that flax- seed oil spilt on [wood] ashes in an iron kettle, caused the ashes to inflame in twenty four hours. He made an experiment to test the fact, with success. Mr. Patterson, President of the United States’ Mint, repeated the experiment with cold hickory ashes, and one pint of flax-seed oil; in forty six hours after, the mixture was fairly ignited, and in a short time emitted flame, which continued upwards of an hour. After the flame had ceased, the ignition continued for eighteen hours, and the ashes were then poured out of the vessel. (1820.) | * Both at Plainfield, Massachusetts. Ample experience has taught European manufacturers that no oil should be used for greasing wool, but that of rape seed. 150 - On Spontaneous Combustion. A canvass recently painted with flax-seed oil, and then dried and rolled close, took fire after being three hours exposed to the sun on the deck of the Schr. Olive, at Troy, New York. (August, 1820.) A piece of old packing-sheet, which had lain long about an oil and color warehouse, and was besmeared with different kinds of vegetable oils, on being thrown behind some casks pretty much confined from the air, inflamed.—Edinburgh Phil. Jour. vol. vii. p. 219. A cask of oat meal left from May to August in a kitchen in Glas- gow, caught fire and was totally consumed together with the barrel. —Thomson’s Annals, vol. xvi. p. 390. A parcel of hops well dried, were put into a home-spun cotton gown and placed on a heap of cotton seed; after three months they inflamed. Cotton it was remarked has frequently been known to take fire spontaneously in a moist and heated atmosphere.—Milton, N. Carolina paper. (1824.) Certain ochres ground in flax-seed oil, inflamed during the : act of trituration. Alder charcoal has taken fire in the warehouses in which it was stored.* One of sixty three casks of lampblack on board the ship Catherine, bound to India from England, ignited, but was discovered by the fumes before it had burst into a flame.— Old Monthly Mag. Lon., 1827, p. 91. Wet Cotton.—The ship Earl of Eldon, in August, 1834, was set on fire, by reason of having shipped cotton in the rain at Bombay. A similar occurrence took place in 1836, on board a vessel which had taken in cotton at Apalachicola, Florida, during rain. A piece of red cedar about two ounces in weight, broken in two, and laid upon the shelf of the store of Mr. Adam Reigart in Lan- caster, Penn. inflamed after two years had elapsed, in June, 1834. It was part of a tree found in excavating the deep cut of the rail road, at the ‘‘Gap in the Mine Ridge,” Lancaster County, thirty feet below the surface. ‘The combustion was proceeding so rapidly, — that the shelf would have been in a few minutes on fire, and it evi- dently commenced in the interior of the wood, as some of the outer fibres were sound.—Hazard’s Register of Pennsylvania, vol. xiii, p- 399. Haussman relates that soveeal dozens of skeins of cotton, dyed red, and impregnated with an alkaline solution of alumina, with ex- * B.G. Sage. Walker’s Archives, vol. iii., p. 80. Report on the Geological Survey of Connecticut. — 151 cess of boiled linseed oil, were placed on a straw-bottomed chair, under a window, and at midnight they inflamed.* A heap of horse manure inflamed in the month of May, 1822, at Sharon, in Connecticut. The fire was two feet in circumference. American Journal of Science, vol. v, p. 201.+ Arr. XVI.— Notice of “A Report on the Geological Survey of the State of Connecticut ; by Prof. Cuartes UpHam Suepanp, M.D., &c. &c.”—with extracts and remarks, by the Eprror. In consequence of a recommendation by his excellency Gov. Edwards, the Legislature of Connecticut, in May, 1835, resolved— that the Governor be, and he is hereby authorized to appoint a com- mittee of suitable persons to make a geological survey of the State of Connecticut, and to report the same to the General Assembly at their May session of 1836. In consequence of this resolution, the Governor appointed Dr. James G. Percival and Prof. Charles U. Shepard to make and report on the proposed examination. These gentlemen having divided the labor, Mr. Shepard has re- ported on the economical mineral resources, and on the scientific mineralogy of the State. : Dr. Percival’s report on the geology, is, by permission of the legislature, deferred another year, that he may have time to finish his work. — It is impossible for any competent judge of the matter to peruse Mr. Shepard’s report without being convinced that he has brought to the task all the industry, perseverance, and science that were demanded, and that he has been particularly attentive to the practi- cal interests of the community. The result of this examination, as far as it is completed, does much honor to those who recommended, and to those who executed it, and we shall now give an analysis of the report of Professor Shepard, with copious extracts, since the * His theory of this is as follows: “In all cases where the oxygen of the atmos- phere is rapidly attracted and absorbed, the caloric, which serves as a base to the oxygen, giving it the qualities of gas, or elastic properties, is disengaged in such abundance, that if the absorbing bodies are susceptible of taking fire, or if com- bustible bodies are in the neighborhood, a spontaneous inflammation will take place.” —Annales de Chimie, No.144. Tulloch, Vol. 18. + It appeared subsequently, that this case of supposed spontaneous combustion was the work of an incendiary; the communication of both facts was from the same person, a respectable physician.—Editor. 152 Report on the Geological Survey of Connecticut. details are numerous and inipeHtaat and do not always admit of abridgment. In his introduction, after giving credit to those who have preceded him in examining the mineral resources of Connecticut, Prof. Shep- ard remarks—‘‘ I am far from entertaining the opinion that her min- eral wealth is yet fairly laid open to view. On the contrary, a glance only has been obtained, but enough it is believed, to awaken fresh zeal and confidence in relation to what remains concealed. “The opinion which has until recently prevailed respecting the metallic treasures of Connecticut was certainly erroneous. Her iron mines have often been represented as fast tending to exhaustion, and her iron manufacture as being attended with little advantage. One of these mines however, has long yielded its proprietors a clear annual profit of about five thousand dollars; while many handsome fortunes have been realized from the iron business in that section of the State. Instead of a failure in the supply of ore, it may confi- dently be asserted, that not one half of the workable beds in that district are as yet fairly uncovered ; while it is equally true, that as soon as proper economy in the burning of charcoal and the radical improvement of the hot air-blast are introduced, cast iron will be afforded at one half its present cost, and this without any diminution of profit to the manufacturer. An iron resource also, of great value, in the steel-ore of Roxbury, has hitherto been wholly unappreciated. And if our copper region has not as yet been a source of income to the State, it is not surely because we are deficient in this valuable metal, as the plainest indications show ; but for the reason that enter- prise and capital have been wanting to open these deposits: for workable veins of copper, unlike the other metals, rarely attain the surface of the earth. ‘The neglect of these mines however, until the present time, will prove less a detriment to the public wealth from the fact, that the working of deep mines (in consequence of the economy introduced into the system of furnishing supplies requisite to such undertakings, and the saving of power in the improvement of the steam engine) is now carried on, at less than one half the cost incurred twenty-five years ago. Cobalt, zinc, lead, bismuth and sil- ver, are also to be included on the list of metals which will one day augment the wealth of the State; nor are the indications of tin, a metal most of all to be desired, wholly wanting. Without wishing by unauthorized statements to allure the inconsiderate, and those not possessed of the necessary resources, into a branch of business where the chances of success would be greatly against them, I still feel it Report on the Geological Survey of Connecticut. 153 a duty to give it as my decided conviction, that the iron and copper - mines of the State constitute a legitimate object for the investment of capital ; and that if the enterprise of opening these resources is committed to persons of integrity and skill, it must prove eminently remunerative in its result, both to those immediately interested and to the population generally. For it is most obvious, that the work- ing of rich mines will not only react in a favorable manner on the agricultural interest, by advancing the price of farming produce, but will also promote the public prosperity by leading to the free circu- lation of capital, the improvement of roads, and to habits of increased industry in the people. ‘“'The advantages possessed by the State in respect to materials for architecture, decoration and porcelain,—for flagging, quicklime and cements,—if on the whole better known and admitted than those connected with her metallic resources, are still far from being appre= ciated to their full extent. This report it is hoped will make it evi+ dent, that they are not only bestowed upon us with a liberal hand, but that they have their value greatly enhanced by the topographical features and geographical position of our territory. The Sound affords a navigation secure almost as a river along the whole face of our southern boundary, while the Connecticut flows like a canal across the center of the State, and smaller streams and harbors cleave and indent the coast. Large and growing maritime cities must still continue to depend upon us for the supply of much of their most valued architectural materials; and in the improvement of harbors and the construction of fortifications, we are doubtless des- tined to contribute as largely as heretofore. ‘To an agricultural people, the possession of so many quarries under such circumstances, is peculiarly favorable; surpassing perhaps in direct advantages to them, the existence of mines. For the working of these, together with the smelting of ores, are arts of slow and difficult acquisition, requiring in’many instances the imvestment of an immense capital, which, in the fluctuating successes that often attend such operations, must sometimes remain unproductive for an entire generation. But the working of a stone quarry is little more than a branch of agri- culture. A farmer, supplying himself with a few additional instru- ments and materials, may work his ledges as well as his soil, accord- ing as one or the other rewards him best for his labor ; or he may manage both, without prejudice to either. His labor in each case, is alike conducted in the broad light and fresh air r of open day. Vou. XXXILI.—No. 1. 20 154 Report on the Geological Survey of Connecticut. ‘As it appeared important to connect with this report whatever seemed likely to promote the future development of valuable mine- rals in the State, I have felt myself called upon to introduce occa- sional details respecting the uses of minerals not commonly under- stood, and also to give very briefly the rules for detecting and recog- nizing such substances. And as encouragement to research, as well as for the purpose of making the public generally acquainted with our resources, I have included frequent statistical notices relating to the number of hands employed in various mines and quarries, and to the amount of products annually afforded. , “‘ How far the results I am herewith able to submit concerning the economical mineralogy and geology of the State will be thought valuable, I am unable to predict. I have however, discharged this part of my duty to the best of my ability, though the restricted pe- riod allowed, has compelled me to content myself in many instances with hasty examinations and brief descriptions. That there was room for the performance of many useful services in affording infor- mation to individuals in different parts of the State who were occu- pying themselves with mineral explorations, I am abundantly satis- fied ; and both my colleague and myself have the satisfaction of knowing, that we have dissuaded from many profitless enterprises not a few of our fellow citizens who stood in need of such advice, while we hope that we have been able also to furnish suggestions to others, that will ultimately be promotive of their interests. Without wishing to speak disrespectfully of a community which has never been placed second to any other in the Union for its widely diffused intelligence and general sagacity of character, I may still be permitted to say, that information relating to the mineral kingdom was almost every where found to be singularly deficient. Other communities no doubt share with us in this defect. Many persons, not otherwise wanting in intelligence, were met with, whose. belief in the virtues of the divining rod was unshaken ; iron-pyrites was often explored for gold, taley rocks were ground for plaster, and plumbaginous mica- slate extensively mined for coal! Most fortunate would it have been, could this deficiency have been supplied at an earlier period, as it could not have failed to check an immense expenditure of labor which has been worse than thrown away ; since it has always ope- rated more or less to interrupt the industry of neighborhoods, and to bring into unmerited discredit even scientific researches connected with the mineral kingdom. Report on the Geological Survey of Connecticut. 155 ‘A scientific report, embracing notices of all the simple minerals of the State, independently of their relations to the other sciences or even to the arts, though uninteresting to the general reader, still seemed to be demanded, not only to supply the wants of the many students of mineralogy in the public institutions of the State where the science is taught, but also for the purpose of indicating with accu- racy the numerous productions which still lie dormant as respects any useful applicability, but which the progress of the arts may ere long call into requisition. It may be added also, that it was pre- sumed the scientific community generally, were in the expectation of finding in this report a summary at least of the leading features of our mineral productions, since mineralogy has longer been cultivated and taught as‘a branch of education here, than in any other section of the country. The subject, for want of space, has necessarily been treated in an imperfect manner; though I venture to hope, that inas- much as many of the facts are new, it will not be found wholly de- void of interest to the mineralogist. It was certainly an unexpected result to myself, to be able to detect in so small a territory as that of Connecticut, and one whose strata had been so little perforated by mining operations, nearly one half of the well established min- eral species hitherto discovered thoughout the world, and fully three quarters of all the elements as yet made known to us by chemical analysis; much less was it anticipated at the outset, that it would become necessary, in the progress of this work, to add several new | species to the productions of the mineral kingdom.” Mr. Shepard’s Jabor is included under the three heads, Economical Report, Scientific Report, and Descriptive Catalogue. Under the Economical Report, there are the following divisions— 1. Metals, 2. Coal, 3. Plumbago, 4. Gems, 5. Polishing and Grinding Materials, 6. Soapstone and Potstone, 7. Materials for Alcaline and Earthy Salts, 8. Materials for Bricks, Pottery, Porcelain and Glass, 9. Fire-stones, 10. Fluxes, 11. Quick-lime and Water-cement, 12. Stone-Paints, 13. Decolorizing carbon- aceous slate, 14. Materials for Architecture and Decoration, 15. Materials for Flagging, Tiling and Paving, 16. Mineral Springs, 17. Materials for Agriculture. The State possesses many good deposits of iron ore. Of Magnetic Ore—there is a powerful bed at New Preston, on land of Alvan Brown—in the Buck Mountain, on the Housatonic river—in Reading, on land of Mr. Gregory. 156 Report on the Geological Survey of Connecticut. Magnetic iron is found also at Judson’s quarry, Newtown—in Winchester, &c. Magnetic iron sand is found on the sea board, ee New Haven quite to Stonington Point, and even beyond, upon the Rhode Island coast. It is derived from the rocks that border the Sound, and at Seldon’s Point, in Hadlyme, it is found in place in granite, consti~ tuting sometimes one-fourth or one-third part of the rock. Hematite in all its varieties, and bog iron ore, are found in many parts of the State. They contain: from one-half to four-fifths their weight of peroxide of iron. . “The fibrous brown hematite, compact hematite, and the ochrey mixtures of the two, are generally confined to primitive rocks, as gneiss and mica-slate.. They afford materials for very large iron- works in many countries, and are universally regarded as the best ores for yielding a malleable iron, and for being easily converted into steel. Although these ores (which may be referred to under the general name of hematite) are confined to a limited district of the State, they nevertheless appear to constitute its richest metallic re- source. The towns in which they exist are Salisbury, Sharon, and Kent; and the principal deposits hitherto explored, are those of the ‘© Ore-hill,”? Salisbury,—the Indian pond ore-bed, Sharon,—and the Kent ore-bed. The two first form beds in mica-slate; the last in a micaceous gneiss and quartz-rock. At Sharon and Salisbury, the ore is disposed in vast beds with a stratification every where obvious, and perfectly conformable to that of the adjoining mica-slate. It is moreover, free from secondary aggregates. At Kent on the con- trary, the order of arrangement is less visible in the bed, which at first view appears to be a confused accumulation of broken, decom- posing (and in some instances re-cemented) rock, at the foot of a high ledge. ‘‘ The Ore-hill mine of Salisbury, is by far the most important of these deposits. It is situated about two miles west of the Furnace- pond, and covers an area of several acres, forming the southeastern slope of a slight elevation of land. Itis worked like a quarry, open to the sky. The entire surface of the slope is destitute of vegeta- tion, and every where excavated by diggings and pits.” The ore is reduced in high furnaces, and yields on an average from forty to fifty per cent. of pig-iron. ‘This is principally con- verted into bar-iron at the furnaces where produced, or at the forges in Winsted and Canaan, and is there manufactured into bar-iron for Report on the Geological Survey of Connecticut. 157 musket and rifle-barrels, and for common uses for the blacksmith ; anchors, axle-trees, iron-bars and tires for wheels, irons for grist and saw-mills, shafts for steam-engines and manufactures of all kinds ; large screws for clothiers, paper-makers, and for pressing bales of cotton and hay. The best Salisbury iron has obtained a decided preference over all other iron, either foreign or domestic, for the con- struction of musket and rifle-barrels. ‘The Kent bed was formerly considered as a very important de- posit of ore. It supplied several extensive forge establishments for a great number of years with ore of an excellent quality ; but partly in consequence of the unskillful and improvident manner in which the original workings were conducted, and partly from the limited extent and peculiar situation of the bed, it has now sunk into almost. total neglect. It is situated on the western declivity of a low moun- tain, nearits base. In length the mountain is about three miles, and in height two hundred feet. Its length corresponds with the edges of stratification in the vicinity, which do not differ essentially from north by east. ‘¢ At present the workmen are directing their attention to a more recent opening, situated seventy or eighty rods north of the old mine, on the same slope and at the same elevation above the valley. It has been worked more or less for a period of thirty years. Until lately, the ore was obtained exclusively by burrows; but they have now formed a deep drain, open to the air as at the old bed, and from the sides of this drain they carry in burrows, where the workmen operate to advantage during the winter. The following is an approximation to the annual yield of furnaces in cast-iron in this section of the State :— The ore from N. Y. The ore from Conn. «‘ Housatonic manufacturing co., 500 tons. Macedonia furnace co., - 850.“ Kent furnace co., — - 600 “ Sharon valley-furnace, - - 800 tons. Raumaug iron co., - 500 << Chapinville, - - - - 400 “ Canfield & Robbins, - - - 400 “« Cornwall iron co., | = =a - . 500 « Cornwall-bridge iron co., —- - - 1000 « Limerock furnace, - - - 400 <“ Mt. Riga, - : = : 500 << 2450 4000” 158 Report on the Geological Survey of Connecticut. About 900 tons of ore go annually from the Salisbury beds to the Ancram iron works, and 800 tons of the Kent ore are consumed near the ore bed. The annual produce of cast iron from the hematite of the aes may therefore be estimated at 4500 tons. Mr. Shepard has the following valuable remarks and citations on the subject of the manufacture of iron. ‘Tn the fabrication of cast-iron it must be obvious, that a certain temperature is necessary to secure the favorable working of the fur- nace. If this is not reached, all the stock added, is (in the language of the furnace-men) “cut to pieces”’ without any reduction of the metal. ‘The manner in which the hot-blast secures the heat required, is at once understood if we reflect upon the ascertained fact, that in a furnace whose charges of stock amount to two tons per hour, the weight of air driven in, is six tons for the same time. . The differ- ence between the admission of this prodigious weight of air at 50° and 600° is most apparent, especially when it is considered that it enters the hottest part of the furnace. In both cases, the effect it produces to support combustion is the same; in the latter, however, it does not rob the combustion of the heat it produces. But before quoting the verification of the rationale given, and which experience has furnished, it is proper to allude to the method by which the air is heated, and to state how it is forced into the furnace. A number of arrangements have been adopted in Scotland for heating the air, but no one in particular seems hitherto to have proved itself superior to the rest. In general, the method may be described to consist, in “maintaining at a red heat, the cast-iron tubes through which the air from the blowing apparatus to the furnace is conveyed. But as the temperature of the furnace near the nozzles becomes so much ele- vated, it is necessary in order to prevent the melting of the cast-iron lining to employ the water-tweer ; which consists of an iron lining, cast hollow instead of solid, so as to contain water within, which is admitted by means of one pipe, and allowed to escape by another as it becomes heated. It thus becomes practicable to lute up the space between the blowpipe nozzle and the tweers, whereby all loss of air is prevented, and the bellowing noise formerly juice ee com- pletely suppressed. “To exhibit in a satisfactory point of view the operation of this . arrangement, the results obtained at the Clyde iron-works, in Scot- land, may be instanced. . Report on the Geological Survey of Connecticut. 159 “¢ During the first six months of the year 1833, when all these changes had been fully brought into operation, one ton of cast-iron was made by means of 2 tons 54 cewt. of coal, which had not pre- viously to be converted into coke. Adding to this 8 cwt. of coat for heating, we have 2 tons 134 cwt. of coal required to make a ton of iron; whereas in 1829, when the cold blast was in operation, 8 tons 14 cwt. of coal had to be used. This being almost exactly three times as much, we have from the change of the cold blast to the hot, combined with the use of coal instead of coke, three times as much iron made from any given weight of splint coal. “* During the three successive periods that have been specified, the same blowing apparatus was in use; and not the least remark- able effect of Mr. Neiuson’s invention has been the increased effi- cacy of a given quantity of air ia the production of iron. The furnaces of Clyde iron-works, which were at first three, have been increased to four, and the blast machinery being still the same, the following were the successive weekly products of iron during the , periods already named, and the successive weekly consumpt of fuel put in the furnace, apart from what was used in heating = blast :— : Tons. Tons. In 1829, from 3 furnaces, 111 Iron, from 403 Coke, from ‘888. Coal. ; 1830, 6c 3 ec 162 6 6c 376 “ 6G 836 6 1833, te 4 ce 945 (74 174 554 (3 *¢¢ Comparing the product of 1829 with the product of 1838, it will be observed that the blast, in consequence of being heated, has reduced more than double the quantity of iron. The fuel consumed in these two periods, we cannot compare ; since in the former, coke was burned, and in the latter, coal. But on comparing the consum pt of coke in the years 1829 and 1830, we find that although the pro- duct of iron in the latter period was increased, yet the consumpt of coke was rather diminished. Hence the increased efficacy of the blast appears to be not greater than was to be expected, from the diminished fuel that had become necessary to smelt a given quantity of iron. On the whole then, the application of the hot blast has caused the same fuel to reduce three times as much iron as before, and the same blast twice as much as before. ‘The proportion of the flux required to reduce a given weight of the ore has also been diminished.’ «In Scotland, Mr. Nemson’s invention has been extensively applied to the making of cast-iron, insomuch that there is only one Scotch iron-work where the invention is not in use; and in that 160 Report on the Geological Survey of Connecticut. work, apparatus is under construction to put the invention into ope- ration.’—(On the application of the Hot Blast, in the manufac- ture of Cast Iron, by Tuomas Cuarx, M. D., Professor of Chem- istry in Marishal College, Aberdeen. ‘Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. xiii, p. 373.) For additional details respecting this improvement, see a treatise ‘on the use of hot air in the iron-works of England and Scotland, translated from a report made to the Director General of mines in France, by M. Dorrenoy, in 1834. London. Murray. 1836.’’* Bog ore is abundant, and has long been wrought in the State, particularly in the central and eastern parts. The iron works of Stafford produce 350 tons of cast iron annu- ally—but a part of the iron comes from Massachusetts. - Spathic tron.—Of this ore, there is a great deposit at Roxbury, near New Milford. This ore consists of more than half protoxide of iron, and the rest is carbonic acid with a little manganese, lime and magnesia. This mine was wrought, many years ago, for silver, and then deep and expensive excavations were made, of the origin of which Mr. Shepard has given an interesting account. ‘This ore is usually called the steel ore, because it affords steel directly from the bar without cementation, and its nature has in this case been repeatedly verified of late years by the fabrication of cutting instruments from it. lyon pyrites are found in many parts of the State, and the mag~ netic variety in abundance in the towns of Trumbull, New Fairfield, and Litchfield ; in the latter town, it is particularly abundant. It is easily converted into copperas, but as yet there is no manufactory similar to that which is so well known at Stratford in Vermont, 12 miles west of Dartmouth College. Copper.—Most of the ores of copper are found in Connecticut ; and there have been many exportations, particularly in the early part of the late ‘century. A mass of native copper, weighing nearly 100 pounds, was found a few miles from New Haven, many years ago; and more recently (about 20 years ago) near Wallingford, one weighing 6 pounds, which is in the cabinet of Yale College, and it has been discovered repeatedly in Farmington. ‘The excavations formerly used as a State Prison, in Granby, were made a century ago, in digging for * The greater part of the extracts commencing at the top of the preceding page; was printed in Vol. xxxi, at p. 181 of this Journal, but we allow them to stand here again for the sake of the connexion. Report on the Geological Survey of Connecticut. 161 copper, and since the removal of the convicts ih os ce this mine has been wrought again. “The following is the report of Mr. Joun B. Jenxins of Swan- sea, Wales, of his trial made in 1830, upon four parcels of the ore :-— cwt. qrs. Ibs. per cent. cwt. qrs. Ibs. NG. 1. wt 4 0b via produce..13" metal, 6. 2 2, Heinen 121 O22 3, Zin tin 43 0 0 Qi 4, 4 2 24 102 0 1 26 Pee a ai PY 2°26 «««The quality of the copper in each parcel is very much the same, and may be said to be of the average quality of English cop- per; but their smelting qualities are below the average, being rather refractory. ‘The expense of smelting the above ores, per ton of 21 ewt. will be for No.1, £2119; No.2, £299; No.3,£1 188; No. 4, £280, exclusive of all custom house charges. The ores, if there were any quantity of them now for sale, would bring the following prices, viz :— ““*No. 1, about £9 9 6 Atthe present rate of exchange, $44 84 2, 8 96 ‘40 10 = 2196 14 08 4, 7 96 | 35 38 Average, 2) O #33 60 «©¢These are the prices as near as I can judge of them, or as much as a smelter could now give for them at Swansea, the miners to pay freight to this place, and all expenses of ware-housing, sam- pling, &c. &c.’ “¢ In order to show the richness of these ores when compared with those of Cornwall, the following statement of the produce of the English mines for three years, is subjoined from the same docu- ment.” Years. Tons of ore. Tons of cop. Rate p.c. Value per ton. Total value. 1815. 79,984 6607 77, £6130 £532,10800 PSG) 482/442... 6,968) 8 6105 937,621 00 HSE 8135727), 6,608... 8.4. 6116 410,936 0 0 Variegated copper ore, in rich veins, has been uncovered by G. W. Bartholomew, in Bristol ; the veins are in a granitic rock and in place, and it is suggested by Mr. Shepard, that the copper found in the red sandstone and in the trap of Connecticut, may have resulted Vou. XXXITI.—No. 1. 21 162 , Report on the Geological Survey of Connecticut. from the breaking up of a space? formation of copper in the primi- tive. Copper ore is found in Hamden and Cheshire, near New Ha- ven, as well as in many other places. In addition to the forms which have been enumerated, we may mention vitreous copper, yellow copper pyrites, and the green and blue carbonates. For many details relative to the indications of copper in thes ag we must refer to the report itself. Lead.—The number of places where lead has been found is very considerable, and mines have been wrought at Middletown, Wilton, &c. Some very rich specimens were brought, a few years since, to Yale College, from Brookfield, but they appear not to have belonged to a continuous vein. l.ane’s mine, in Monroe, is worthy of com- memoration, on account of the large proportion of silver—from 2 to 3.9 per cent. of the metallic lead; this ore is not hitherto abundant, but the mine has been merely opened, and not wrought deeper than a few feet. Since the proportion of silver is so large, this deposit of argentiferous galena ought to be explored. Zanc.—Blende, or the sulphuret of zine, is found in various places, and calamine (the carbonate) in small quantity at, Brookfield; cad- mia, an oxide of zinc, sublimes in the iron furnaces of Salisbury. Native Bismuth is found at Monroe. Arsenic—in the form of arsenical iron, (mispickel) exists at Derby, Monroe, Chatham, Wilton, &c. Cobalt and Nickel are found at Chatham. Molybdenum in Haddam. Titanium—in ee Plymouth, Granby, North Grecieien, and Middletown. Uranium, in the feldspar quarry, Middletown. “© Columbtum.—The State of Connecticut furnished the first sam- ple of this ore to science ; and in consequence of its American origin it received in England the name of columbite, and the new metal it was found to contain, that of columbium. “The china-stone quarry at Middletown has furnished the most extraordinary specimens of columbite yet described in the world. A single group of crystals obtained at this place weighed fourteen pounds.* It occurs in crystals disseminated through the feldspar, many of which are very remarkable, not only for their — size, but for their perfection of form. It is also found in small = * See this Journal, Vol. xxx, p. 387. Re port on the Geological Survey of Connecticut. 163 quantity at Haddam, in the granite-vein which contains the chryso- beryl. “The first sample was sent by Gov. WintHRor to Sir. Hans SLOANE, and was deposited with the collection of this gentleman in the British museum, where it was examined by Mr. Hatcuert, and afterwards by Dr. Wotnaston. The specimen was supposed to have been found near New London, which was the residence of Gov. Winturor ; but as the ore has not been re-discovered in that vicinity, it is more probable that it was obtained from the region of Middletown.” Tungsten is found at Monroe—both the wolfram, ferruginous tungsten, and the calcareous, besides the free oxide, which was there first identified.* Coal.—Connecticut being mainly a country of primary rocks, and accordingly, in three quarters at least of our territory,—in all but the secondary region of the valley of the Connecticut, and the lim- ited basin of Woodbury and Southbury,—the existence of coal is as certainly denied as that of rock salt in the same district. ‘The great central valley of the Connecticut abounds in a con- glomerate-rock, obviously composed of fragments derived from the contiguous primitive ; nor is it wholly wanting in bituminous shales and dark colored sandstone-slates, which are the more immediate attendants of coal deposits. Still these have not yet been found collectively arranged in that order of alternation, and penetrated and interleaved by vegetable remains and argillaceous iron-ore, circum- stances which are at least requisite to constitute safe indications for boring. The hopes that have been entertained have been founded chiefly on bituminous shale and limestone, black fissile slate, and thin interrupted seams and grains of indurated bitumen in sandstone and amygdaloid. “Impressions of plants are of very rare occurrence at the places where excavations have been made, and in many instances altogether wanting. A cupriferous sandstone-slate in Suffield at Enfield falls, occasionally embraces compressed stems, apparently of calamite, which are converted into brown coal. Similar remains were noticed at Southington, in one of the quarries of hydraulic lime. The coal-digging in Durham also afforded some obscure vegetable impressions. ‘The coal from these plants burns with a feeble flame and a disagreeable peat-like odor. That found in trap at Far- * See Vol. iv, pp. 52 and 187 of this Journal. 164 Report on the Geological Survey of Connecticut. mington, Southbury, and at Rocky Hill, Hartford, ignites slowly, and burns without flame or odor: it is therefore, rather referable to anthracite than to bituminous coal. The coaly matter, oc- curring in seams with crystals of dolomite in marly shale at Berlin, and in the bituminous shales of Southbury, is compact bitumen. In many instances when freshly taken from the quarry it is semi-fluid, or only so much inspissated as to form what is called the elastic bitumen, or mineral-caoutchouc. It burns with a white flame and much smoke.” ny: ‘“¢ Plumbago.—A plumbago-mine was parked to some extent, seventy or eighty years ago, in the northwest corner of Ashford, on Jand then owned by Mr. Apvontsan Bacxus. It had been pre- viously opened, but at what period is not now known. At the time here mentioned however, a number of tons of plumbago were ob- tained. The mine was worked in the manner of a quarry, and an excavation made of considerable extent. This is now completely filled up with stones, which have been carted thither from the con- tiguous fields ; a road also passes quite across one end of the trench. The rock of the vicinity is gneiss, analogous to that embracing the plumbago at Sturbridge, which is about six miles in a northeasterly direction from this place. And such is the conformity of this direc- tion with that of the stratification of the gneiss, as almost to justify the opinion, that the Ashford and the Sturbridge deposits of plum- bago have a connexion with each other. This suggestion is the more probable from the fact, that the gneiss rock is similar at both places, and eonteilts scales of the mineral in question at several inter- merdiate points.” A number of persons from Colchester, in 1813, fs the loose materials thrown out eighty years ago, obtained in a short time a wagon-load of plumbago. ‘“¢ Another depository of plumbago is in the western part of Corn- wall, on a mountain nearly three hundred feet high, and situated directly upon the eastern bank of the Housatonic river. It is the property of Mr. Grpzon P. Paneman. The rock is gneiss, and wherever it comes into view on its western slope, this mineral may be detected as entering more or less into its composition,—some- times in large proportion, forming a plumbaginous gneiss. A trench has been excavated at an elevation of about one hundred and fifty feet above the river, nearly six feet wide and twenty long, into a rock containing large lamine of plumbago.”’ Report on the Geological Survey of Connecticut. 165 Gems.— Topaz at Monroe in profusion in a vein of fluor spar— numerous crystals—some beautiful, but often large and coarse. Sapphire at Litchfield—chrysoberyl at Haddam—emeralds and beryls at Haddam—tourmaline at Monroe, Haddam, &c. Zircon at at Haddam and Middletown—garnets in many places—agates im East Haven, Southbury, Farmington—corundum in Litehfield. *¢ Soapstone.—The rock referred to under this name in Greenwich, Stanwich, Litchfield, New Hartford, Wilton and Colebrook, is en- tirely composed of asbestiform tremolite, and might with great pro- priety be called asbestus-rock, since in some of these places it forms extensive beds. All attemps to quarry and to split it, must be attended with so much difficulty, that it can never come into competition with genuine soapstone. Rudely shaped blocks of it are used to some extent in furnaces, in the chimneys of smiths and for common chim- ney-backs. | “< A soapstone better entitled to the name, though not of the best quality, exists in Somers, where it has been quarried for many years. The quarry is on the eastern side of Durfee mountain, about one hundred and fifty feet above its base. It occurs with talc-slate in interstratified masses in hornblendic gneiss. It abounds too much in tremolite crystals, and grains of magnetic-iron, to admit of the most valued applications of this substance as a fire-stone; besides it is injured by possessing too shistose a texture. ‘The uses to which it has been applied are, for hearth and grave-stones, and for jambs. At present however, it is but little worked. “ E, F, G, shelves, which severally move in grooves over the wells, so that they may be placed in the most convenient position. Under H is a waste pipe. AtIis ahydrant pipe. K,a pipe for emptying the wells and casks, with all of which it may be made to communi- cate by cocks, when requisite. N,O, casks which act as gas hold- ers, each having a communication with the cistern at Q or q, for letting in water from that source; the orifices being controlled by valves. By means of a pipe proceeding from its vertex, each gas holder communicates with a pipe or cock, at S ors. To these gallows screws, flexible leaden pipes may be attached, for transferring gas either from one of the holders to a bell glass, or from a bell glass to one of the holders. When a communication is established between the cavities, either of these offices may be per- formed, accordingly as the pressure within the holder is made greater or less than that of the atmosphere. It will be greater when the 247 Ys = 1 Ug i ; H UAT TAPES EEE J ALAA YAR ERA Fu a é —————— ——— — yj 7, = Y, y = SS Si ———_F = Sa = Sie LOU Hi imap i CTT ————— = Ss —— Hi "UL9ISY) IOUNaU J -ouphET S ILOET “AT 248 Sundry Improvements in Apparatus or Manipulation. valve for the admission of water is opened, that for letting it out being shut: and less when these circumstances are reversed. Fig. 2* affords a view of the lower side of the sliding shelf, in the wood of which it will be seen that there are two excavations, con- verging into holes. This shelf is loaded with an ingot of lead at L, to prevent it from floating in the water of the cistern. Culinary Paradox or Ebullition by Cold. This figure illustrates a new and instructive method of effecting ebullition by cold. The apparatus consists principally of a glass matrass, with a neck of about three feet in length, tapering to an orifice of about a quarter of aninch in diameter. ‘The bulb is bulged inwards, in the part di- rectly opposite the neck, so as to create a cavity capable of holding any matter which it may be desirable to have situated therein. In addition to the matrass, a receptacle, holding a few pounds of mercury, is requisite. The bulb of the matrass being rather less than half full of water, and this being heated to ebullition, the orifice should be closed by the finger, defend- ed by a piece of gum-elastic, and de- pressed below the surface of the mer- cury; the whole being supported as represented in the figure. Under these circumstances, the mercury rises as the temperature of the water declines, -in- dicating the consequent diminution of pressure within the bulb. Meanwhile, the decline of pressure lowering the boiling point of the water, the ebullition continues till the mercury rises in the neck nearly to the height of the mer- cury in the barometer. By introducing into the cup formed by the bulging af the bulb, cold water, alcohol, ether or ice, the refrigeration, the diminution of Pe eISSN hve) NASM th URL Ae RN meant. a Si Se foe le gee ceteaeictes eee ee SEE + For this figure see Vol. xiv, p. 200, of this Journal.—Ep. Notice of Oriental Minerals. 249 pressure and the ebullition are all simultaneously accelerated, since these results are reciprocally dependent on each other. The advantage of this apparatus and method of operating, lies first in the certainty and facility with which the apparatus is secured against the access of the atmosphere ; and in the next place, in the index of the diminishing resistance, afforded by the rise of the mer- curial column. Art. VIIi.— Notice of Oriental Minerals. 1. By Professor F. Haru. 2. By the Eprror. ie By Prof. F. Haut. A NuMBER of years ago, I received a box of minerals which were collected in Greece and the neighboring countries. For the collec- tion and transmission of them I am indebted to my worthy friend, the late Rev. Pliny Fisk, American missionary to Palestine, who died at Beyroot, in Syria. The specimens were sent without names, but were all carefully numbered, and notice given, in most cases, of the places from which they were taken. The following remarks on them were prepared shortly after they came to hand, but, in the hurry of business, the paper was thrown aside, and never again came under my inspection, till a few days since. Thinking that the publication of it was due to the memory of the excellent donor, | take the liberty, sir, at this late period, to place it at your disposal. From Sardis. 1. Milky quartz. A fine specimen—its aspect is slightly greasy. 2. ‘From the ruins of a church at Sardis.”” Calcareous breccia, composed ef white angular fragments of carbonate of lime, held together by a calcareo-argillaceous cement. 3. Yellow quartz, or citrine, picked up “between Sardis and Philadelphia.” 4. White granular marble—very beautiful, ‘“ from the palace in Sardis.” 5. Ghayhe oes, disintegrating carbonate of lime, “ from the Hees 6. “From the walls of an ancient church.” Marble sucré, an elegant specimen. 250 Notice of Oriental Minerals. 7. “From a Corinthian capital in a church.” Granular lime- stone. From Pergamos. 1. Marble, made of compact limestone. ‘‘ Broken from a pillar in the amphitheatre.”’ It bears some resemblance to the Potomac breccia, but contains seams and thin veins of a blood-red color, pro- duced, perhaps, by an oxide of iron ; nitric acid dissolves it, yielding a brisk effervescence. : 2. “Granite, taken from the walls of the same amphitheatre.” The three ingredients which constitute granite, are all present, and well mixed, but strikingly different in color. The quartz is white, the feldspar a dull red, and the mica pitch black. 3. “From a statue in a castle near Pergamos.”’ A rich, snow- white granular marble. 4. Granite, ‘ from the castle wall.”’. The feldspar is crystalline. 5. “ From a Corinthian pillar, three feet in diameter, in the castle at Pergamos.” It looks like the best Carrara marble. 6. Granite, similar to No. 2—‘‘a common rock between Haivali and Pergamos. From Smyrna. 1. Chalk, ‘‘ picked up in one of the streets.” Of a light gray aspect, a little soapy to the touch—is acted on violently by the acids, answers all the purposes of chalk, has on one side a little oolite, the eggs of which are harder than chalk, and some of them are hollow. . 2. Jasper, of the finest quality; color red, fracture, when recently made, is resinous. 3. Concreted carbonate of lime, “near Smyrna,” color dusky gray. A cylindrical cavity runs through its centre, which, it is probable, was once filled with some ligneous substance, now decom- posed and absent. 4. Stalactite, ‘‘ from the same place’—of a loose texture, and having several short branches. 5. “ From the hill on which the castle stands near Smyrna.” It is sienite. ‘The feldspar is crystallized, and strongly resembles adu- laria. 6. “From Mount Sipylus, between Magnesia and Smyrna.” Shining argillite, yielding a strong argillaceous odor when breathed on. Its color is bluish gray. Notice of Oriental Minerals. 251 7. A beautiful specimen of calcareous spar, with argillite on two of its opposite sides. It is white and very brilliant. 8. Calcareous breccia, gray, porous, and containing angular frag- ments of argillite. ‘This,’ says the Rev. missionary, ‘is the common stone of Smyrna.” 9. ‘From Mount Sypibus (or Sysibus) between Carrabar (or Canabar) and Magnesia, about twenty five hours N. E. of Smyrna. We rode two hours at the foot of a high mountain, composed of this kind of stone.” A dark gray limestone, with seams of white calcareous spar. From Ephesus. 1. A fine specimen of the chaux carbonatée saccaroide of Haiy, having a coarse grain, and somewhat of a pearly lustre. 2. Arragonite, connected with gray, granular limestone. 3. Common serpentine—color green, translucent at the edges. 4. Arragonite ; it appears to have been a part of an ancient fluted column. 5. “From an Armenian burying ground near Thyatira. The date of the stone from which it was broken, was 1199.” Itisa compact limestone of a gray color, containing white veins of the same substance. From Thyatira. 1. “ From a hill near Thyatira.” Compact limestone—has a smooth fracture, a little conchoidal. 2. * Near Thyatira.” This is a singular product of the mineral kingdom. At first sight, I took it to be compact garnet, but soon perceived that its fracture was different from that of the garnet. It refused to give fire with steel. I applied to it nitric acid, and a copious effervescence occurred. Its color is a bright red, probably due to the oxide of manganese. In appearance, it resembles the Haddam manganesian garnet. It is, unquestionably, a carbonate of lime, and is partly surrounded by milky quartz. 3. ‘From a mountain between Pergamos and Thyatira, composed wholly of this stone, at the foot of which we rode four or five hours in arich valley.”’ Siliceous limestone of a light gray color, and yielding sparks with the steel. 4. “From an orchard of olive trees near Haivali.”” A white mass of calcareous matter, which seems to have been formed by art. It is, probably, an ancient cement. 5. Sienite, chiefly hornblende, ‘“ from the Haivali college.” 252 Notice of Oriental Minerals. From Philadelphia. 1. “From a wall near Philadelphia, which the people of the country say was built of men’s bones. Some travellers are of the same opinion. Others think the stones of which it is constructed are petrifactions.” Persons belonging to the civilized portion of the world will not long, it is to be hoped, remain so ignorant of the mine- ral kingdom as to allow them to place confidence on such ill-founded. and foolish assertions. ‘The substance in question is, evidently, a calcareous concretion, and much of it stalactical. 2. “From a tomb at Antipas.” A specimen of coarse granular limestone. From Cyprus. 1. A singular stone, part of a nodule, apparently rounded by water. The mass looks like uncrystallized hornblende, sprinkled here and there with small cuboidal crystals, having the lustre of me- tallic cobalt. From Samos. 1. A good specimen of translucent arragonite of a whitish yellow color, in acicular crystals, radiating from three or four central points. 2. Greasy .quartz, in which are a few specks of silver-white mica. 3. A mineral of a light green aspect, and very unctuous. It isa variety of talc. its texture is fibrous, but the fibres are extremely minute, and crumble to pieces on being rubbed between the fingers. 4. Granular limestone of a sky-blue color, connected with par- tially crystallized calcareous spar. 5. Lepidolite, embracing thin layers of flesh-colored feldspar and a few half-formed crystals of the same substance. The lepidolite is pink-red, and composed of small scales. 6. Chlorite, soft, green, sectile—three specimens. 7. Fine grained siliceous sandstone, with minute veins of calca- reous spar. 8. Quartz. Yields fire readily ; a part of it white, and a part red. 9. Brown quartz, very compact and hard, differs little in appear- ance from the basanite. 10. Light-gray mica-slate, containing small spheroidal. particles of oolite. 5 Notice of Oriental Minerals. 253 11. Disintegrating porphyry, comprising crystals of white feldspar, which crumble between the fingers—also rounded masses of the same substance. 12. Granular limestone, hard, and susceptible of receiving a fine polish. 13. Agaric mineral? Acted on by several of the acids—has nearly the whiteness of chalk. 14. A fragment of a beautiful red jasper. 15. Concreted carbonate of lime, belonging to the stalactitic va- riety, and broken, apparently, from the side of a stalactite. 16. Granular limestone, of a gray color, covered on one side with perfect triangular pyramids of dog-tooth spar. 17. Limpid quartz, with carbonate of lime. The box contained twenty four specimens besides these, from the same island. Most of them were decidedly carbonates of lime, of the different varieties. From Rhodes. 1. Calcareous matter deposited on a shell. 2. Reddish calcareous sandstone, evidently oolite, similar to the Portland building stone. From Malta. 1. * Broken off from a column ten or twelve feet high, and in some places a foot in diameter.” Manifestly part of an enormous stalactite. 2. “St. Paul’s cave, three miles from Velletta.” Light gray compact limestone, holding shells in different states of decomposi- tion. It might perhaps be called zndurated marl. 3. “Near the centre of the island.” Much like No 2, except that it is friable. It answers for chalk, leaving a distinct mark on wood. From Syra. 1. Magnetic oxide of iron, black and red. This is a rich ore, and might if it exists in sufficient quantities, be worked with profit. I have seldom seen an iron ore, which attracted the magnet more powerfully. 2. An aggregate of mica and crystallized hornblende. 3. Talcose slate, with a few particles of carbonate of lime. Vou. XXXIII.—No. 2. 33 254 Notice of Oriental Minerals. 4. This specimen resembles semi-opal, but is harder; yields fire more freely and abundantly. It is of a cream-yellow color, and porous. 5. Acicular hornblende, very beautiful; crystals irregularly ar- ranged; some of them curved, and wearing a jet black aspect. 6. “From the ruins of a building belonging to the ancient capitol of Sira.””? Oolitic limestone of a reddish color. 7. Talc, green, indurated and filled with elegant flattened crys- tals of actynolite, very similar to those of the famous locality in Windham, Vt. 8. Mica slate, red on one side, and white on the opposite ; a part of it resembles lepidolite. ‘The whole is thickly sown with crystal- lized garnets, so much disintegrated that it is difficult to determime the number of their sides. 9. Mica slate, composed chiefly of layers of quartz and mica, the Jatter singularly contorted and twisted in every imaginable manner. 10. Magnetic oxide of iron, in small octohedral crystals, in chlorite. 11. Marble, white and fresh, as when taken from the quarry. ‘‘ Broken from the statue of a woman.” From Egypt. 1. “Broken off from arock near the pyramids. Some of the stones of which the pyramids are built are similar to this.” Piso- lite, a specimen as large as a man’s fist, composed of particles of a lenticular shape, varying in size from a small pea to that of a wal- nut. These lenses, made up of thin layers of carbonate of lime, are hollow, or filled with sand, colored yellow. 2. “‘The common stone of the temple at Carnac, Thebes.” A light gray, soft sandstone. 3. ‘A sample of the sarcophagus in one of the tombs of the kings, Thebes.”’ Sienite; the feldspar is flesh-red, and the horn- blende brownish, inclining to black. ’ 4. A fragment of Pompey’s pillar. ‘‘ This specimen was given me by Capt. Skinner, of an English brig, who had been on the top of Pompey’s pillar, and broke it off himself.” Granite. The mica is black; the quartz white, vitreous, and sparingly distributed; the feldspar is red, and is the principal ingredient. 5. Granite, similar to No. 4. ‘“ Broken from the statue of Mem- non at the temple of Memnon in Gornon, Thebes. The body of this statue, below the arms, is twelve feet in diameter from side to side ; the arms four feet in diameter.” Notice of Oriental Minerals. 255 6. “Found on the banks of the Nile, a little below Tentyra, more than four hundred miles from the sea.” Several specimens. It is a curious substance. It has the appearance of having once been an organized body, but to what species it belonged I cannot describe. Its description would occupy too much space. ‘The dif- ferent specimens are strikingly similar to each other in form, but unlike as to size. It gives fire reluctantly with steel, and is not acted on by the acids. 7. “From the mountains east of the Nile, near Minie.” Gray sili- ceous carbonate of lime. It has, at some period, apparently been operated on by heat. On one side it seems to have been partially fused. 8. ‘From the temple of Carnac, Thebes.” Jasper of an unusu- ally resinous lustre. It yields sparks as copiously as any flint. Its color is red. 9. “The common stone of the mountains of Gornon, where are the tombs of the kings.” A light colored, fine grained carbonate of lime. 10. Broken from a column in the Temple of the Sun at Balbec. Yellowish white granular limestone. 2. By the Epitor. Notice of mae Minerals, &c.—from the Rev. Mr. Rosertson, Missionary in Greece. From the Island of Syra. 1. Beautiful aggregate of crystals of black hornblende, red gar- net and epidote of a deep green; two pieces. 2. Quartz, tinged red and penetrated by crystals of epidote. 3. Crystallized hornblende, well characterized. 4. Crystallized actynolite, well characterized. 5. Deep green compact epidote, with distinct crystals of horn- blende imbedded. 6. Talcose slate, well characterized ; two pieces. From Delos. 7. Summit of Mount Cynthus. Fine grained granite; quartz red; feldspar white; mica black. 8. Summit of Mount Cynthus. Granite with crystals of sphene. 9. Gneiss, not ue characterized. From Malta. 10. St. Paul’s bay. Yellow cale-spar. 11. Catacombs of Malta. A beautiful soft tertiary limestone, with shells. 256 12. 13. 14. 15. Notice of Oriental Minerals. From the Island of Milo. A beautiful soft tertiary limestone, with Pectens, Obsidian, good ; a pebble. Sandstone. From Santorini. White trachyte, with specks of black mica; strong marks of fusion. 16. From Paros and Antiparos, Calc-spar, very good. From Eubea. . Red jasper; near Chalcis. . Mass of quartz, with garnets ; near Chalcis, . Compact deep green talc ; near Chalcis. . Compact deep green epidote; near Chalcis, . Hornblende rock ; near Chalcis, From Athens. . Red porphyry. . Red calc-spar. . Red compact limestone. Mars Hill. . White saccharoid limestone. Parthenon, From Tenos. . Compact deep green talc ; same as 19, . Epidote, crystallized in quartz. 28. Serpentine, golden yellow color, with dark spots, probably ehromiferous iron. 29. 30. Mass of epidote, garnet and quartz. From Smyrna and Gulf of Smyrna, Calcareous deposit in distinct layers, two inches thick, like stalactite, nearly filling an ancient water pipe, made of baked earth resembling tiles: a portion of the pipe four inches long still remains attached to the deposit, and retains its form curved. 36. . Siliceous deposit in distinct layers; near Vourla. . Compact limestone, Sahib Island. . Dark porphyry. Sahib Island. . Porous inflated lava. Sahib Island, . Brittle lignite. Sedicui. From Elba. Granite ; feldspar white ; quartz gray; mica black. Whole island said to be of the same rock. 37. Granite, with garnets, Meteoric Iron. 257 Art. [X.—Meteoric Iron. 1. In Texas. In Vol. viii. p. 218 of this Journal, is an account of the great mass of meteoric iron from the Red River, now in the cabinet of Yale College. Among almost forgotten files we find a letter, dated Sparta, ‘Tennessee, Sept. 15, and another, dated Oct. 17, 1829, from Robert Cox, to the editor, containing the following statements. A gentleman returned from a five years’ absence in the prov- ince of Texas, during which time he had been frequently with the Camanche Indians, and a small party of them conducted him to a mass of metal lying on the bank of a creek. Its length was four feet, and it was about one foot square [at the end.] It required six of the Indians to raise it on end. A piece weighing two ounces was cut off by a tomahawk. It possessed great hardness and tena- city, and when hammered (in the cold) shewed great malleability, being easily beaten out very thin without cracking or scaling. The color was stated to be between that of gold and silver. Its lustre was remarkable, and could not be tarnished by any thing that was done to it, even by the application of heat. The large mass of metal seemed to defy every attempt to make an impression on it, except under the hammer, when it became pliable and soft. From the acquaintance which we have with the large mass alluded to above, we cannot doubt that the piece described in Mr. Cox’s let- ters is nickeliferous meteoric iron. ‘Those that saw the piece were disposed to make it out to be gold, and probably saw a yellow tint quite as strongly as it existed, if indeed it existed at all, for the mal- leable iron which we have from the same region is like that of Sibe- ria, of a remarkable pure grayish white, with a high degree of lustre. We have recently seen a gentleman, who stated that he knew of several large pieces of malleable iron in Texas, and we hope to ob- tain some more precise information concerning them. 2. Meteoric Iron in France. The late Col. George Gibbs brought to this country some pieces of meteoric iron which he detached from a large mass lying on the mountains of Auvergne in France, and a notice of it was published in Dr. Bruce’s Journal of Mineralogy, in connexion with one of the Louisiana iron. 258 On Natural Magic. The following extract is taken from a letter addressed to the edi- tor by Mr. Wm. C. Woodbridge, the well known geographer, and dated Paris, Aug. 29, 1829. ‘Tn passing through Bonn, upon the Rhine, I visited Professor Noeggeratti, a distinguished mineralogist of that university. He spoke with great interest of our efforts in reference to mineralogy, and especially of the American Journal. He observed to me that, singular as it was, he had received through that Journal the first ac- count of an interesting fact in his own neighborhood. ‘“‘ He had heard many years since of a large mass of iron lying on _ one of the mountains termed ‘the Seven Mountains,’ in this vicin- ity, but which was supposed to be a remnant of an old furnace. He designed to examine it, but delayed from time to time, and at length heard that a foreign officer had been there and taken away a large portion. He thought little more of it, until some time after, when he saw in the American Journal of Science, Col. Gibbs’ account of his discovery of a mass of meteoric iron on this very spot. He im- mediately went to examine the fact: he found that the mass had been cut up and put into the forge, but the smiths not having skill to work it, it was again thrown aside, and lay buried under a heap of scoria. Prof. N., after some search, discovered a very large quan- tity of this iron, and verified the existence of nickel, and the truth of the account which the American Journal* had been the medium of announcing to the world, of one of the largest masses of meteoric iron yet discovered.”’ Art. X.—On Natural Magic; in a letter to the Editor. Tue theory of accidental colors, so ingeniously developed by the successive labors of Scherffer, Epinus and Sir David Brewster, a been alluded to by the latter, in his treatise on natural magic, probably adequate to account in some instances for spectral asia but for such only, in his opinion, it would seem, as may occur in full day light. Observation, however, has assured the writer, that appearances of this kind are not so peculiar to the strong light of day, nor so rare as seems to have been supposed. The retina of the eye, by the action of light upon it, has its sen- sibility weakened, which it will again recover completely, in the ab- * We are inclined to think that the account here referred to, must have been that originally published in Dr. Bruce’s Journal. On Natural Magic. ~ 259 sence, or partially by the mitigation, of this action. When therefore one keeps his eyes for a time directed to a portion of black surface surrounded by white, the sensibility of all that part of the retina on which the white surface throws its light, is weakened in a much higher degree than that which is occupied by the image of the black portion. Then on turning off the eyes to a quarter from which light comes nearly uniform, the effect on this now most sensitive portion, is contrasted with the slighter effect produced on the sur- rounding parts, and there appears to the observer, as it were, an image of light, in shape and size like the portion of black surface before viewed. . Now the relative amount of light reflected from white and from adjacent dark surfaces, is probably the same, whether the incident light be feeble or strong, and consequently the relative strength of their respective impressions on the retina is also the same. And in- deed the eye, especially if it has been for some time previously in the dark, seems to be not less sensible to this difference of impres- sion in a twilight than at noonday, provided the darkness be not too great, so as to render all objects nearly alike obscure. But how- ever this may be, the appearance of ocular spectra in such fainter light, is favored by the fact that the attention does not then, owing to the partial obscurity in which the substantial objects before us lie, so readily and so almost unavoidably fix itself upon them, which if it should do, any image that may remain impressed on the retina is not regarded, for the mind it seems cannot attend to two things at the same time. Another reason why such phenomena are so sel- dom noticed by individuals who do not purposely take the prelimi- nary steps necessary to produce them, is that the eye is usually a restless organ, rarely dwelling upon the same part of an object for more than a few minutes at a time. ‘The design and effect of this is, on a cormpensating principle, to prevent the formation of any impres- sions of such acharacter as to be inconveniently permanent or embar- rassing to our vision. ‘This propensity to wander is, however, some- times overcome, and the occasions when this may happen are various. A day or two since, listening to a public speaker at such a dis- tance, that, to catch his words I found it necessary continually to watch his lips, I at length cast a look towards the expanse of white ceiling beyond him, and saw a white picture clearly representing him, wherever I turned my eyes. The propensity before adverted to, is more commonly subdued involuntarily by grief, as for the de- 260 On Natural Magic. cease of a friend. If in consequence, by the accidental presence before the eye of a proper object, or a suitable combination of light and shade, a spectral appearance is then produced, (it being sup- posed now partially dark), a superstitious person might very readily be led, with a little aid from imagination, particularly as the idea of his departed friend is now uppermost in his memory, to believe strenuously that he had seen the ghost of the deceased. ‘The child who goes alone at dusk is prone to watch any black object, espe- cially if it is made conspicuous by a prevailing whiteness of the ob- jects about or beyond it. We can easily see how, on his looking round, his young imagination may, and not without a cause, be star- tled into a troublesome activity. nies The writer well remembers with what sensations he has in child- hood watched the spectres that on moonlight nights used to haunt the black garments hanging upon the white wall of his apartment. Any one may observe such phenomena very favorably on waking at dawn, by fixing the eyes for a considerable time (one minute or even less will suffice for an experiment) steadily upon a dark col- ored object projected or situated on a white or whitish ground, and then looking off towards the white ground, when directly he will perceive a white representation of the object he has been viewing, either upon the white ground, or between it and himself, according to his fancy. One can make it, when it is of a middling brightness, disappear and again reappear, by simply giving his attention for a moment to something beyond, and then again to the image. If the eye has been kept constantly upon the same point of the dark ob- ject previously viewed, the white image of the latter will be a dis- tinct and faithful representation. Otherwise it will be varied, and might by a startled imagination be easily conjured into the most frightful shapes. If a person is at twilight travelling towards a hill (or even a level space) covered with snow, and steadily watches another person in a dark dress, advancing a short distance before him, whose figure is projected towards the snow, he sees on looking aside, a white spectre in human shape. It will in some instances appear to be roving, the observer all the time thinking that he fol- lows it with his eyes, while in fact it depends for its motion upon this same movement of the eyes. Should it, before it fades into obscurity, arrive before some dark retreat, it there vanishes, for its appearance depends upon the light coming from objects beyond it. A result similar to those already described, might surprise a person Meteorological Sketches. 261 who looks up, after having for some time gazed down upon the path he is walking in, the black soil of which is strongly contrasted with the bleached grass on either side. Whoever will attentively watch the operation of this principle, in experiments which he can make almost any where and with very little trouble, will, we think, be abundantly satisfied that it must have acted no inconsiderable part, in keeping alive those supersti- tious impressions which in former ages have been so generally prev- alent, and that it is the talisman which raises some at least of the apparitions that are occasionally alarming the young and the super- stitious, at the present day. 5. Q. P. New Haven, March 8, 1837. Arr. Xl.—WMeteorological Sketches. (Continued from p. 65.) Of Deserts. Tue atmosphere is capable of absorbing aqueous vapor in pro- portion to its temperature, and as a current of air in passing from a colder to a warmer region necessarily increases in temperature, it thus acquires an increasing capacity for moisture, which tends to prevent the formation of clouds and rain. ‘This condition pertains not only to currents which descend from high mountains and sweep over elevated plains, but is peculiar to a certain section or portion of the great natural circuits of wind which are found in various re- gions, on both sides of the equator. ‘The necessary consequence, is a scarcity of rain in this portion of the aerial current, or in those places where the winds from the temperate or extra-tropical latitudes are found blowing towards the equator, either uniformly, or for reg- ular and determinate periods. We perceive here the principal cause of those arid deserts, comprising almost every variety of geological formation, which occupy so large a space in the otherwise most fruit- ful latitudes. On examining the map of the world, it may be seen that this ab- sence of rain is found chiefly in countries lying between the 18th and 32d parallels of latitude, and situated upon the eastern side of the great oceans or of the great circuits of wind which are found to Vou. XX XITLL—No. 2. 34 262 Meteorological Sketches. prevail in the temperate and lower latitudes. On the western shores of the Atlantic, in North and South America, where the aerial cur- rent is passing from the equator towards the higher latitudes, we find on the other hand that there are adequate supplies of rain. The same is generally true of the western shores and islands of the Pa- cific ocean; and the westerly monsoons being of this latter character, generally afford copious rains, while the easterly monsoons, or regular trade winds, which incline towards the equator, are equally remark- able for their dryness, at least within the latitudes above mentioned. In the atmospheric basin of the North Atlantic, we have the most striking exhibition of this effect in the great African desert of Sa- hara. Continuing our survey eastwardly under the same parallels, we find also the great deserts of Lybia, Egypt and Arabia, which for the most part are subject to the same course of general winds, the blighting effects of which fully exemplify the position which is here assumed. In the atmospheric basin of the South Atlantic, we find also, in South Africa, an arid region, extending across the same parallels of latitude, where a southerly wind is found to prevail, which in its progress towards the equator, becomes merged in the southeast trade-winds. ‘The same effects are produced on the east- ern shores of the Pacific ocean, where, upon the coasts of Chili, Bolivia and Peru, we have a like section of the general winds, which, notwithstanding the near proximity of the Andes, causes the desert of Atacama, and a remarkable absence of rain on other parts of the same coast. The same general effect is produced by the corresponding winds which prevail upon the western coast of North America, where, owing to the peculiar direction of the sea-coast and mountain ranges, the arid influence is extended, as in some parts of Asia, far into the temperate latitudes. ‘The phenomena attending the general winds in the basin of the Indian ocean, and New Hol- land, are of the same character. It seems to follow, that the gene- ral sterility, or periodical drought of the regions referred to, .is not to be ascribed to the peculiar constitution or composition of the nat- ural surface, or to excessive heat, but must be attributed to the pe- culiar course and the consequent hygrometric condition of the gen- eral winds which there prevail. Of the Variations of the Barometer. The fluctuations in the height of the mercurial column have long excited attention, and the proximate causes of these changes are Meteorological Sketches. 263 deemed, by late European writers, to be as yet unknown. These fluctuations of the barometer appear to differ in their character and origin, and may be classed under the following heads. I. The regular semi-diurnal oscillation, which in the tropical lat- etudes is at its maximum from 9 to 10 A. M., and at its minimum about 3 P. M. In the temperate latitudes, the effect appears to be nearly the same ; but Professor Forbes has shown that in very high latitudes the effect is reversed, the minimum being at 10 and the maximum at 3 o’clock. This oscillation appears to indicate a sys- tem of atmospheric tides, resulting from the rotation of the earth and its relations to the solar system. Il. The more striking and irregular variations which attend the presence and passage of storms of wind, especially in the higher latitudes. ‘This class of fluctuations is believed to admit of an easy and satisfactory explanation. It appears from a careful examination of the phenomena of hur- ricanes and storms, as they occur in various regions, that the great- est depression of the barometer is found within the body of the storm,—that this depression constantly accompanies the storm during its progress from one region to another, notwithstanding the tenden- cy of the air to move from all sides towards the point of least pres- sure,—and that the wind in these storms is found to blow in a lat- eral or circuitous direction, around the point of greatest depression, which is near the geographical center of the storm. Now when these facts are considered, it becomes evident that the centrifugal action of the air in this powerful rotative movement, effectually op- poses the gravitating tendency towards the point of least pressure, and thus maintains, mechanically, the constant rarefaction which causes the depression of the mereury under the storm. Were it possible to produce a movement of the wind from all sides of a storm, in the direction of its center, the depression of the barom- eter would at once be terminated, and an accumulated pressure would immediately take place. A demonstrative proof of our position is also found in the barome- trical depression which is so constantly exhibited in the permanent atmospheric eddy at Cape Horn and the Strait of Magalhaens, which is caused by the westerly winds that press upon the Cape and are disgorged into the Southern ocean around the southern termination of the Andes. Capt. P. P. King, who surveyed this region and who was furnished with the best instruments, adjusted to the standard 264 Meteorological Sketches. of the Royal Observatory, informs us that the mean height of the barometer was about 29.50 inches; and a register of the observations for seven months from February to August, inclusive, at the observ- atory at Port Famine, in the Strait, shows a mean of 29.43 inches. This result is confirmed by the observations of other officers; and may serve, also, to show the error of Mr. Daniell’s position, that the mean pressure of the atmosphere during the year, at the level of the sea, is every where the same. Ill. The constant or periodical accumulation of atmospheric pressure, which arises from natural obstacles, opposed to the course of the general or trade winds; and the corresponding depression of the barometer, which results from the retardation of such winds by like obstacles or by an unnatural and forced route, in their pro-- gress towards the point of observation. The most remarkable variations of this character are found under the eastern and western monsoons, in Asia and the Indian and Pa- cific oceans. ‘The N. E. monsoon or regular trade wind, obstructed in its natural course of deflection from the tropical to the temperate latitudes, by the great Asiatic elevations, is forced to continue a sluggish course across the equator, into the N.W. monsoon. The effect of this resistance in raising the barometer is such, that at Can- ton, in China, the mean height of the barometer during four months of the N. E. monsoon, fora period of seven years, has been found to be 30.20 inches. ‘The mean height during four months of the S. W. monsoon, owing probably to the tardy passage of the S. EK. trade from which it is derived, in its unnatural course across the equator, being, for the same period, only 29.86 inches. IV. The oscillation of an extensive region of atmosphere in the higher or temperate latitudes, causing a rise of the barometer of some days or even weeks continuance ; and a corresponding depression for like periods at other seasons. ‘These extensive oscillations may, perhaps, be referred to the alternately predominating influence of gravitation toward the poles, and the counter force of the centrifugal action of the earth’s rotation towards the equator, aided probably, by some of the other causes to which allusion has been made. Although storms of wind, from the manner of their development, usually produce rain in some portion of the area which they occupy, yet the fall of the barometer, being chiefly dependent on mechanical causes, has no necessary connection with the fall of rain. It appears from the observations of the Marquis Poleni, that in one thousand one British Association for the Advancement of Science. 265 hundred and seventy five instances of the fall of rain the barometer sunk only seven hundred and fifty eight times, being six hundred and forty five to one thousand. In the United States the most co- pious rains not unfrequently occur during an unusual elevation of the barometer. Rk. Arr. XII.—Seventh Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science—Liverpool, Saturday, Sept. 9. Tne report of the doings of this meeting, (appropriately called by one of the speakers her majesty’s parliament of science,) with a con- densed abstract of most of the papers, fills fifty six pages of the Lon- don Atheneum, equivalent to about three hundred of this Journal. When the papers, or so many of them as may be thought worthy of that honor, shall be printed in full, it is easy to see that they will occupy a large volume, which, should the Association be fully main- tained, will continue to form an annual contribution, of no small value, to science and the arts, several volumes of which have already ap- peared. It is impossible, consistently with our limits, and with the obliga- tions due to many persons and subjects, to do any thing more than cite from the printed reports of the Atheneum and of the Liverpool Standard and Mercury and other British papers received from valued friends abroad, some leading facts presented in the form of excerpts, and it may be with little connexion. In doing this we shall be obli- ged to pass over entire subjects, and which very possibly may be, in particular cases, more important, at least in the view of some of our readers, than those which we select. The meeting was fully attended; many distinguished men were there, although others whose names we have been accustomed to see on these occasions were absent. Magnets.—Mr. Cunningham, to try the efficacy of cast iron in forming magnets, ‘ got three small castings made of the horse-shoe form, each weighing seven ounces; on touching these with a small compound magnet in the usual manner, he was very agreeably sur- prised to find them absorb and retain the magnetic influence in a degree superior to any steel ones he had ever previously constructed ; and stated, that he had no doubt that they would be further improv- 266 British Association for the Advancement of Science. ed if beaten red hot and very slowly cooled, which would make the metal softer, and the grain more uniform, and they might afterwards be hardened at the poles to produce the maximum effect. He con- sidered this result of much importance, as it will enable us to con- struct compound magnets for magneto-electrical machines with great facility, and at a very nine expense, as any number can be cast from one timber pattern.” “¢ Mr. Holden said, that he had bestowed much time and attention on the construction of magnets. He preferred steel tempered blue, or to spring temper, and was on the whole, inclined'to doubt the value of the material proposed. He knew that cast iron was capa- ble of receiving strongly the magnetic influence, and bars of cast iron, as long as they retained their upright position, were found to possess polarity in a very high degree ; but he doubted whether, if they were removed from their upright positions, they would long retain their polarity to any considerable extent.” “Mr. Snow Harris observed, that from many trials and much ex- perience, he was convinced that hardened steel wire, just as it is to be had in the shops, without any further working it, or putting it into the fire, or altering its temper, was the best material for con- structing small needles, intended to retain their magnetism perma- nently ; and this latter consideration was of the utmost consequence when constructing needles for philosophic research, as, for instance, upon the magnetic intensity at various places, since the slightest alteration of power, in that case, would most materially and injuri- ously affect the result.” Mr. Scoresby preferred evenly tempered steel such as watch springs or ladies’ busks. ~ Prof. Henry had tried cast iron and found it did not retain its magnetic power. Tides.—* By a fortunate circumstance, the preservation of a reg- ister of the tides, kept for a short time during the 13th century, at London Bridge, by an abbot of St. Albans, John Wallingford, and which register had been preserved in the British Museum, it had had been clearly shown that the establishment for the port of London varied since that time by a quantity extending to between two and three hours: the cause of this could be as yet merely conjectured.” Jron.—On the use of Anthracite coal by the combination of heated air to the purpose of smelting tron ore.—‘‘ The reduction of the quantity of fuel expended to less than a third of that before re- British Association for the Advancement of Science. 267 quired of the bituminous kinds for the production of one ton of pig iron, the increase of from forty to fifty per cent. upon the former, make by this process, and the increased strength of the metal, when compared with that before obtained by him from the native ores of the South Welsh basin, with the use of the coke of the bituminous veins and cold blast, were the leading points of the paper. Mr. Crane dwelt on the abundance of this variety of fuel, of which there are large deposits in Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Sardinia, France, Transylvania, and particularly America.” On the Crystallization of Metals by Galvanic Influence.—The Secretary then read a paper, by Mr. Golding Bird, ‘on the crys- tallization of metals by galvanic influence.’ To this department of knowledge popular attention has been peculiarly attracted by the well known experiments of Mr. Crosse, detailed at the last meeting of the British Association at Bristol; and it is in con- nexion with this gentleman’s experiment that the present paper is more particularly interesting. It has long been a matter of extreme interest and importance to connect those changes constantly going on in the physical world with those which are observed in the labora- tory of the chemist ; to compare the researches of the experimental philosopher with the effects every where produced in the vast am- phitheatre of nature. With this view the experiments about to be detailed were undertaken. Philosophers have long been accustomed to attribute the formation and crystallization of metals in mineral veins to voltaic action, but this could be regarded as little else than a matter of assumption until some experiments actually supported this point of view. ‘To M. Becquerel we are mainly indebted for the knowledge of the power of a single galvanic circle in producing powerful voltaic decompositions, whilst to our own countryman, Dr. Faraday, we owe that most important piece of information, that poles, or attracting surfaces, are by no means requisite to the crys- tallization of a metal, and that all that is necessary for the reduction of a metal from a salt or oxide is the mere passage of a voltaic cur- rent. ‘That this current may be of the weakest intensity has been shown by Dr. Bird in an essay lately read before the Royal Society of London. ‘The apparatus contrived by Mr. Bird was very simple, consisting of an external cylinder of glass, capable of holding about half a pint of fluid, filled with a solution of common salt, (chloride of sodium ;) into the contents of this cylinder was plunged a second and smaller cylinder, furnished at its lower extremity with a plug of 268 British Association for the Advancement of Science. sulphate of lime: this second glass cylinder was filled with a solution of sulphate of copper; into the latter a plate of copper, furnished with a conducting wire, was immersed, whilst into the solution of salt a plate of zinc, also furnished with its conducting wire, was plunged. Under these circumstances, a current of electricity is developed, the plate of zinc becoming positive, and the plate of copper negative, although the intensity of the current could be scarcely supposed sufficient to the production of chemical action. Mr. Bird has how- ever shown, that when the connecting wires of the two plates of this elementary battery were immersed in a saline solution of a compound salt, the most important physical and chemical changes were produ- ced; and that if, instead of immersing these wires in fluids, they are twisted together, so as to insure metallic connexion, it will be found that the electric current developed will produce most interesting and unexpected effects on the metallic solution present in the smaller; for although, it might be anticipated that the copper would be redu- ced, yet we should expect that this reduction would be most obvious at the surface of the negative electrode, which, however, Mr. Bird has shown not to be the case; for on examining the plug of sulphate of lime, (plaster of Paris,) closing the smaller cylinder, and separa- ting the solution of sulphate of copper from the brine, it was found that beautiful and hard crystals of metallic copper were deposited in it, not in a confused manner, but in veins precisely resembling those met with in mines, of which, however, it is scarcely necessary to observe they presented but a miniature resemblance. From this, it appeared, that the mere passage of an electric current, independent of the presence of poles, was sufficient to effect metallic reductions, supporting in a satisfactory manner, the experiments of Dr. Faraday on this subject. ‘The metallic crystals thus obtained were very hard and brilliant, resembling in a striking manner those produced in the vast theatre of nature, indeed, some specimens exhibited by Mr. Bird, obtained by the aid of his miniature apparatus, precisely, and, indeed, so closely resembled the most perfect forms of native and ruby copper ore, that they would probably defy the most expert mineralogist to discover their true origin. These effects were, more- over, by no means confined to salts of copper; for, when solutions of antimony, lead, tin, zinc, bismuth, silver, or other metals, were placed in the inner vessels, instead of a solution of copper, the met- als were, in every case, reduced, partly on the plate of copper which served for the negative electrode, but chiefly in crystals imbedded in the mass of plaster of Paris closing the inner cylinder. ~ British Association for the Advancement of Science. 269 Other experiments, bearing upon this subject, were also detailed, which it is unnecessary to mention. They with those already noti- ced, were considered interesting in explaining the cause of the de- positions of metals in veins; for, as the magnetic theory of Arago, Am- pere, and others, requires that free currents of electric matter should be perpetually circulating around our earth ina direction at right angles to the magnetic meridian, so these currents, instead of merely causing the evolution of magnetic phenomena, are shown to be suf- ficient to produce most important chemical changes, causing, by their passage through masses of clay or earthy matter, the reduction and crystallization of the metals diffused through them in solution. To one circumstance, Mr. Bird particularly called the attention of the meeting, viz. the danger of considering the chemical changes produced in the bowels of the earth as in the first place depending upon metallic veins themselves ; for, although it was evident that by the action of heat upon them, thermo-electric currents may be, and no doubt are, developed, yet we must regard the first physical cause which induced the deposition and formation of these very veins ; and this cause, it is evident, can be none other than, in the first in- stance, chemical action. Upon this point, Mr. Bird’s experiments, in conjunction with those of Dr. Faraday and M. De la Rive, are certainly interesting, as throwing light upon that most obscure of subjects, the formation of metallic veins in the bowels of the earth. A valuable part of this communication appeared to us to be, that in which Mr. Bird suggested that the silification of wood is an elec- trical phenomenon. He has undertaken experiments to test this theory, and we are happy that so interesting a subject of i ay should be in such competent hands. Sediment.—The proportion of insoluble matter contained in the Mersey, amounts to twenty cubic inches in the flood, and thirty three inches in the ebb, in each cubic yard of water; evincing a prepon- derance of one in eight in the matter of the ebb, or 48.065 cubic yards of silt, &c. which is detained by the banks outside the Rock Narrows each tide, with the exception of what the succeeding ebb disturbs, at the exhausted stage of the former ebb. Thus, the ebb of to-day ranges over sixty four square miles, and the next ebb over forty four square miles, reducing by one third the first day’s layer, that being the relative proportion of silt held in so- lution, and deposited over the outer area, at the northern margin of which the cross set of the Irish Channel ebbs, limits the deposit Vou. XX XIITI—No. 2. 3D 270 «© British Association for the Advancement of Science. by sweeping into broad water what may extend so far. Now the excess of silt, on the seven hundred and thirty refluxes of tide that occur in a year, amounts to thirty five millions eighty seven thousand four hundred and fifty cubic yards, capable of spreading a layer, if equally disseminated, of twenty one inches thick over the first tide area; one third however is disturbed, and carried over the second tide area; or there is an uniform increase of the banks, and decrease of water in the channels of the estuary of the Mersey, amounting to seven inches perannum. ‘This deposition of matter is however very unequal, some parts of the coast and of the banks receiving great ac- cumulation, while others are often taken away. At the quarantine ground, the bed of the river shoaled up twenty two feet in eight years, and then eleven feet in two years, over a space of half a mile long by one quarter of a mile wide, and yet this was swept away in eighteen months. Captain Denham had been examining the port of Liverpool for fourteen years, and he infers from his observations, that a time will arrive when no access to this port could exist, unless man set bounds by his ingenuity, to the operation of tidal action. He made a number of local observations, which showed the diligence he had exercised in both planning and executing whatever he con- eeived might benefit this most important port; and he finished by an explanation of his principle of a constant sea level, which he had ascertained to be at three hours before, or three hours after high water, and by exhibiting the instrument which he had employed in drawing up water from different depths. Fossil Plants.—The President called on the Rev. Mr. Yates, who exhibited to the section some interesting remains of fossil veg- etables found in the new red sandstone of Worcestershire. He men- tioned the discovery of similar remains in the same formation in other parts of England, as at Coventry, where trunks of trees, of a considerable size had been found; and stated that in the Royal In- stitution of Liverpool is preserved a fossil trunk found in excavating Prince’s Dock. ‘The specimens laid before the section were from two quarries between Worcester and Ludlow, one in the parish of Stanford, and the other in Ombersley ; the former being where the new red sandstone joins the Silurian rocks. In this quarry the stone is rather greenish, like coal sandstone, and not unlike the Keuper of the Germans; but it may be traced ina line about ten miles, into sandstone of the usual red color. In the second quarry branches of trees have been discovered, and trunks partly converted into coal: each trank seems imbedded ina cylindrical mass of ferruginous British Association for the Advancement of Science. 271 matter. Through this quarry, a trap dyke passes, altering the rocks on each side. A specimen of the metamorphic rock encrusted by chabasie was exhibited. "The general appearance of the quarry led Mr. Yates to the conclusion that there had been a deposit formed by a current near the shore of a sea, which deposit had been fixed in a bay or recess where the remains of vegetables lay without being disturbed ; and he alluded to the banks at Liverpool, where scarce any drifted plants had been discovered, owing to the continued mo- tion of the currents, while they might be found in coves along the shores where the water was less agitated. Impressions in sandstone.—The Rev. Mr. Clarke exhibited speci- mens of vegetable remains inclosed in new red sandstone from Amer- ica transmitted to him by Prof. Hitchcock, who discovered the marks of the steps of birds in this rock a short time since. Ina let- ter to Mr. Clarke, the Prof. has notified further discoveries of these singular steps, and also the remains of Saurians in this formation. In graywacke he bad also discovered the remains of Marsupial quad- rupeds. Argas Persicus.—W. S$. Macleay in the chair.—Dr. Traill ex- hibited a specimen of the Argas Persicus, or poisonous bug of Mi- anneh in Persia, giving a short notice of its effects. In some parts of Persia it is the prevalent belief that this animal not only produces fever, but often death from its bite. It is not a true insect, but be- lones to the order Arachnid, and to the genus Argas, from which it was separated by Lamarck. ‘T'wo districts in Persia are largely infested with it, and it is reported that to sleep exposed in these is certain death. Dr. Bell, a resident, had never known a case in which death was produced, but had seen persons extremely ill from its effects—The Chairman doubted whether there was sufficient authority to believe that the bite of the insect was mortal, and ascribed the dangerous ef- fects to be the inflammation produced by pulling out a serrated probo- seis, and stated his opinion that death would not be produced unless in a diseased and excitable habit of body.—Dr. Traill stated, that its fatal effects had been positively mentioned by Sir R. K. Porter, Mr. Morier and other travellers. During the time that Gen. White was envoy to the Persian Court, the Schah dispatched a messenger after him, who requested him not to pitch his tent on a certain part near the city, on account of the bites of the insects.—Rev. Mr. Hope referred to a similar species in St. Domingo, which attack horses 272 British Association for the Advancement of Science. in the ear, and often prove destructive; and the Chairman observed that it was rare to see a drove of oxen in Cuba exempt from the attacks of noxious insects, but which, instead of being prejudicial, were considered beneficial to the animals. Mr. Halliday laid upon the table some plates of the Argas Persi- cus, exhibited by Dr. Traill ; he stated that there were two genera, the Argas and Ixodes, that produced these poisonous bites.—The President observed, that ‘ bite’ was an improper term for the wounds of these animals. ‘They were produced by the introduction of their long serrated proboscis, and the ill effects frequently attendant on these wounds, he thought, arose from the violent extraction of this serrated rostrum. Insects not produced by Galvanism.—Mr. Gray offered some re- marks on the supposed production of insects, by the experiments of Mr. Crosse, and referred to two experiments made by Mr. Children in a manner perfectly identical with those of the former. The solu- tion of silica was obtained from Mr. Garden in Oxford Street, and in one experiment it was sealed up, whilst in the other it was ex- posed to the air, but in neither case was there any appearance of insects. ‘The insects had been very indefinitely described by Mr. Crosse, some having six,-and others eight legs. It was no proof that they could not have been produced from the water used in the experi- ment because it was boiled, as that would not be sufficient to destroy the eges of the insects deposited therein. Rev. Mr. Hope remark- ed one peculiarity, that no one had given the insects a specific name, and that they merely appeared to belong to the commonest species of Acarii—Tbe Chairman mentioned the circumstance, that the seeds and germs of animals and vegetables are earlier and more quickly developed in a current of electricity, and that in all proba- bility, these favorable circumstances operated upon the eggs of the insects produced in question. It was well known that seeds would retain their vitality for an indefinite period of time, and there was no reason why any limit should be put to the vitality of the eggs of animals.—Mr. Gray stated that prussic acid had lately been used for the purpose of destroying insects at the British Museum, particularly those infesting amummy. Some of the larve of the common Musca having been put into the acid, remained uninjured after two or three days exposure,—Prof. Graham remarked, that other plants and ani- mals might be kept for an indefinite length of time, when the pow- ers of life were either retained or suspended. He also alluded to British Association for the Advancement of Science. 273 some curious experiments recently made at Edinburgh, although first by Sir Astley Cooper in London, with respect to the circulation of blood through the brains of particular animals. If the circulation _be suspended by pressure for half a minute, the animal becomes tor- pid, but after giving a few convulsive sobs recovers, whilst if it is sus- pended for a minute the animal irrecoverably dies.—The Chairman observed that he had often dried to powder the eggs of various in- - sects, which having been put into water were hatched. On a Method of destroying Insects.—The Rev. Mr. Hope read a letter from Sir Thomas Phillips, on a method of destroying insects which affect books and manuscripts, particularly the Anobza. For the purpose of preserving books, he had used paste, in which corro- sive sublimate was mixed, which would for some time resist their attacks. He had effected the destruction of Anobium striatum in his library, by placing in different parts of it pieces of beech plank, smeared over in the summer with pure fresh paste. It was soon discovered which pieces of the wood were infected, by the saw dust, and these were removed and burnt. So injurious is this species, that he considered that one impregnated female would be sufficient to destroy a whole library. He had also observed two other enemies— a small brown beetle; and one much larger, introduced from Darm- stadt or Frankfort-on-the-Maine, which was not very abundant, al- though very destructive. ‘This latter was about six times the size of the former, of a black color, with white spots or stripes, belong- ing to the modern family Curculionide, and being most partial to books bound in oak boards. Mr. Curtis suggested the employment of spirits of turpentine, as the effect of corrosive sublimate, and other poisonous substances, lasted only a short time, and soon stained the-leather.—The Chair- man remarked on the destructive effects produced by Dermestes in his hbrary in Cuba. It was probable that the insects which attacked the paper were different from those which attacked the paste, the former being Acari, and the Jatter small coleopterous insects. He had found no method of preservation so effectual as to give the books a free current of air, and, for this purpose, he was always ac- customed to leave his book cases open, the books being placed about two inches from the wall, so as to allow a free circulation.—Mr. Hope remarked, that the infusion of quassia had been esteemed a preventive; and Mr. Gray stated, that, in Geneva, the water used in the manufacture of paper was that in which quassia had been in- 274 British Association for the Advancement of Science. fused.—Mr. Golding Bird referred to the observations of Mr. Gray with respect to the production of insects, as stated by Mr. Crosse in his experiments, which he had repeated on a large scale, but without any result, although he had continued them for some weeks, varying them in every possible form. Statistics of the Deccan, §&c.—The four collectorates of the Deccan, within the province of Bombay, contain a population of 3,285,985 souls, and 48,987 square miles, or about 67 inhabitants to the square mile,—lying on an elevated plateau, formed by the Ghauts, and descending by a succession of steppes to the Coroman- del coast. The Poonah collectorate contains 8,281 square miles, 550,313 inhabitants, 1,827 towns and villages, and 114,887 houses, averaging about 4 inhabitants to a house, and 247 to a village, exclu- sive of the city of Poonah, which contains a population of 181,000. The rivers in the Deccan, during the monsoons, present magnificent streams of water, but, in the dry season, either a broad sandy plain, or a mere thread of water. The roads, with the exception of two great military roads, are untouched by art, and few of the rivers can boast of a bridge. With respect to Geology, there are no organic remains, and probably no country in the world in which the trap rock prevails to so great an extent. In the Deccan there are 200,000 square miles, without the intervention of any other rock whatever. This is succeeded by granite and other rocks of igneous origin, so that from the 25th degree of latitade, to Cape Comorin, including Ceylon, there are 700,000 square miles of igneous rocks and granite. ‘The tides of the atmosphere are one of the principal features connected with the climate of the Deccan. These tides, like those of the ocean, rise and fall twice within the twenty four hours, at stated periods, and with a regularity which can almost be calculated upon. During observations of four years’ continuance, made with different instruments, there was no variation in the order of the rise and fall, though there was occasionally some little varia- tion in the degree. ‘The atmospheric tides prevail from the equator to the pole, and are very observable to the 64th degree of lati- — tude,—the maximum being at the equator,—the minimum at the poles. ‘They exist even in our own latitudes, with all their varia- tions. In the Deccan, as throughout the world, the barometer ran- ges highest in cold weather, and diminishes during the monsoon. The temperature, at half past nine in the morning, is the mean tem- perature of the year; so that a register kept at that hour, gives the British Association for the Advancement of Science. 275 mean temperature of the year. With regard to the quantity of rain, the clouds, containing the water drawn from the ocean by the action of the sun, beat against the Ghauts, and the rain which falls there is fourfold the proportion of that which falls 30 or 40 miles to the eastward. At Poonah, which is only 50 miles east, the annual fall of rain is only 25 inches, whilst in Bombay it is 100. Hail falls only at the very hottest season, with the temperature from 95 to 100. The air is perfectly clear ;—suddenly the horizon is over- cast, the dust is blown up in dense masses, with occasional violent claps of thunder, and showers of large hailstones. Dews are very copious,—fogs little known. The climate is very salubrious. In his (Col. Sykes’s) camp, consisting of 100 persons, not a single death occurred in six years, and there was only one case of sickness which he did not cure without medical aid. In 1828, the deaths were 1.82 per cent., or one in 55 persons, not including cholera, or one in 40 including cholera, so that even in India, where this fright- ful disease originated, it appears to be much less serious than was supposed. Dr. Lawrence, the medical attendant at Bombay, had charge of 1000 natives for several years, and lost only 0.85 per cent., or less than one per cent. per annum. Agriculture, though rudely carried on, is very productive; there are forty five cultivated fruits, including six or seven species of the grape, and twenty two wild fruits, including the mangosteen, the date, &c. &c. There are two harvests in the Deccan, one at the hot and wet season, the other at the cold or dry season, and both of distinct kinds of grain or pulse—the harvest at the wet season is principally of rice, which is produced chiefly in the hilly country. The productiveness of some of the grains is perfectly astonishing. Four species were mentioned—one producing 33 stalks, and 61,380 grains from one seed; another, 1,690; a third, 2,985; anda fourth, 1,850. One species of wheat, taken out of a field at random, and now in his possession, contained 25 stalks, and 1,450 grains, the average on tolerable land being 8 stalks to each plant. Besides this, there are corn, barley, peas, and sugar cane. ‘There are 46 articles of garden culture. Edible fruits are numerous, and many wild plants and flowers are used as greens. Col. Sykes stated that the natives are quite as carnivorous as the inhabitants of Europe, so far, at least, as mutton is concerned. . The grasses are innumerable, some of them useful for cordage. The inhabitants make no hay, but allow the grass to remain on the ground till dry, when they cut 276 British Association for the Advancement of Science. it with sickles. ‘There are few fens, no heaths, and no oaks, elms, or hazels. The Zoology of the Deccan exhibits specimens of all the different varieties. The wild dog is a native of the Ghauts ; there are three kinds of monkeys, and two of bats. The domestic poultry of this country is supposed to have originated in India, the two species being identical. Most of the wading and swimming birds are identical with those of Europe. In noticing the fish, Col. Sykes remarked that a certain species of fresh-water fish were found in pieces of water, two thousand feet above the level of the sea, ex- actly resembling our own salt-water fish. With respect to popula- tion, the proportion of male to female births, which in England is 100 to 98—in the Deccan is 100 to 87; and this difference ob- tains, with very little variation, throughout India, modified by the singular fact exhibited in the excess of grown-up women over men. Sir Stamford Raffles, in his account of the island of Java, states that the proportion of births was 100 males to 82 females, but that the same disproportion did not exist between grown-up people. In the Deccan, the preponderance of male over female children is very strongly marked, but a greater mortality amongst the males at a subsequent period makes the females outnumber the males. The same law, therefore, appears to prevail both within and without the tropics. ‘The average number of deaths throughout the whole col- lectorate was one in 37, but that was in an exceedingly bad season, when the cholera prevailed. ‘The proportion of marriages is very nearly the same as in England and France, it being one in 125 in Poonah, one in 128 in England, and one in 130 in France. With respect to education—in one province there is only one school to 2452 inhabitants; in another, one to 4639; in a third, one to 3337. The tenures of land are exceedingly numerous, and amongst them is the freehold, which has been acknowledged by the native govern- ments; whilst there are many descendants of those amongst whom the land was originally divided, now in actual possession. Artisans of various kinds do the work of the farmers in their respective branches, and are paid by allotments of Jand, and a per centage on the produce ; thus, the barber shaves for his land; the tailor makes clothes for his land, &c.—which land is cultivated by them to pro- . duce food. The revenue derived by the government was 82 per cent. in the aggregate from land, and altogether averaged 8s. per annum for each individual. ‘The native manufacture of silk and cotton has been almost suppressed by the machinery of England. British Association for the Advancement of Science. 277 There are few other manufacturing products of any value, and these are not produced in the Company’s territories, with one or two slight exceptions. The transit duties on the conveyance of goods are exceedingly onerous, and form a great impediment to commerce. Statistics of trade between the United Kingdom and the United States of America.—The British colonies which now form part of the United States of America, were, with the exception of Georgia, all founded in the seventeenth century. The date of the first set- tlement of each individual colony was as follows :— Virginia - - 1607 | Maryland - - 1633 New York - - 1614 Connecticut - 1635 Massachusetts = - 1620 Rhode Island = - 1636 New Hampshire - 1623 North Carolina - 1650 New Jersey - 1624 South Carolina - 1670 Delaware - - 1627 Pennsylvania - 1682 Maine - - 1630 Georgia - - 1733 It was not until more than a century had elapsed from the period referred to in the foregoing extract, and when they had secured their independence, that any part of the raw material employed in the cotton manufacture «was received from the British plantations in America. - - 104 - - 146 fe cS TS20% \ = = 53 - - 239 2 ee tesO = - 15 - - 57 But Mr. Porter considered that it was not simply with reference to the numerical increase of the citizens of the United States that we should consider this question of the increase of our trade. Dur- ing the forty seven years that have elapsed since the first census was taken, in 1690, at least 11,000,000 of inhabitants have been 280 British Association for the Advancement of Science. added to their number, being equal to an increase of 276 per cent. But during that time we are fully warranted in believing that the wealth of the country has been augmented in a much greater pro- portion; and it may be fairly presumed that, but for the untoward interference of wars, and of that which is scarcely less inimical to national prosperity than war—commercial jealousy, the dealings be- tween the two countries must have become far more considerable than they are. During the period in question, America has added materially to her means of consuming foreign products by the extent to which she has carried the cultivation of exportable products. In 1791, the whole export of cotton from the United States was under 200,000 lbs. ; and it is shown by accompanying tables that the av- erage annual importation of American cotton into this country during the last ten years, has exceeded 225,000,000 lbs., the value of which cannot have been Jess than £7,500,000 per annum. In 1836 our importation was 289,615,692 Ibs., which, at the average price of the year, probably produced more than £10,000,000 sterling. The intercourse between this country and the United States is important, not only to our merchants and manufacturers, but also to our ship owners, and that in a continually augmenting degree. The tonnage of vessels which entered the ports of the United States from foreign countries, in each year from 1821 to 1836, distinguish- ing American and British from other shipping, was as follows :— ‘ Centesimal pro- oe American. | British. bora Total.. POR ARE Me iu Ash September. Vessels. tonnage. 1821 765,098} 55,188) 26,338) 846,624 V2 1822 787,961) 70,669) 29,872) 888,502 8.97 1823 775,271} 89,553) 29,915) 894,739 11.55 1824 850,033] 67,351] 35,016) 952,400 7.92 1825 880,754) 63,036; 29,891) 973,681 7.15 1826 942,206} 69,295) 36,359) 1,047,860 7.35 1827 | 918,361] 99,114] 38,475] 1,055,950 10.79 1823 | 868,381|104,167| 46,056 1,018,604 11.99 1829 | 872,949] 86,377] 44,366| 1,003,692 9.89 1830 | 967,227] 87,231] 44,669] 1,099,127 9.02 1831 | 922,952/215,887| 66,061| 1,204,900 | 23.39 1832 | 949,622/288,841]104,197| 1,342,660 30.41 1833 |1,111,441|383,487/113,218| 1,608,146 34.50 1834 |1,074,670/453,4951114,557) 1,642,722 42.19 1835 /1,352,653/529,922 111,388) 1,993,963 39.18 1836 |1,255,3841547,6061132,607! 1,935,597 43.62 British Association for the Advancement of Science. 281 The most important part of our trade with America consists in our exports of manufactured goods. The following table exhibits the declared value of those exports in each year from 1805 to 1836, with the exception of 1812 and 1813, the records for which two years were destroyed at the burning of the Custom House in Lon- don.* Declared value of British and Irish produce, and Manufactures, ex- ported from the United Kingdom to the United States of America, in each year from 1805 to 1811, and from 1814 to 1836. Years. Amount. Years. Amount. Years. Amount. 1805 | 11,011,409 | 1817 |6,930,359| 1827 | 7,018,272 1806 | 12,389,488 | 1818 |9,451,009| 1828 | 5,810,315 1807 | 11,846,513 | 1819 |4,929,815] 1829 | 4,823,415 1808 | 5,241,739 | 1820 |3,875,286] 1830 | 6,132,346 1809 | 7,258,500 | 1821 |6,214,875] 1831 | 9,053,583 1810 | 10,920,752 | 1822 |6,865,262] 1832 | 5,468,272 1811 | 1,841,253 | 1823 |5,464,874] 19833 | 7,579,699 1814 8,129 | 1824 |6,090,394|] 1834 | ~ 6,844,989 1815 | 13,255,374 | 1825 |7,018,934] 1835 | 10,568,455 1816 | 9,556,577 | 1826 4,659,018] 1836 | 12,425,605 One thing which cannot fail to strike any one on inspecting this table, is the large amount of our exports in the three earliest and two latest years of the series, when compared with those occurring in the intermediate years. ‘The extent of the shipments in 1815, Mr. Porter considered as the result of the renewal of commercial intercourse after the war. The years 1805, 1806, and 1807, 1835, and 1836, followed long periods of friendly intercourse. ‘The seri- ous falling off that occurred in 1808 and 1809, Mr. Porter, as al- ready stated, attributed to the effect of our celebrated Orders in Council, issued in retaliation for Napoleon’s Milan and Berlin De- crees. Nearly one third of our foreign export trade in 1805, 1806, and 1807, was carried on with the United States. The high degree of importance to each country of the trade which it carries on with the other, was shown in Tables appended to the Memoir. The proportions. which that trade bears to the entire for- eign trade of each country are as follows: . * This omission is less to be regretted, because of the unfortunate state of hos- tility into which the two countries were plunged during those years. 282 British Association for the Advancement of Science. Centesimal proportion which the trade between the United King- dom and the United States of America bore to the whole foreign trade of each country respectively, in each year, from 1821 to 1835. Centesimal proportion which Centesimal proportion which the trade with England bore the trade with the U. States Years. to the whole foreign trade bore to the whole foreign of the United States. exporttrade of England. 1821 - = 30.99 - - 16.95 — 1822 - - 38.16 - - 18.57 Teoy fe S20 aE OT 1824 - - 31.75 = - 15.86 1825 - - 37.67 - - 18.31 1826 - - 29.60 - ~ 14.77 1827. - - 39.03 - - 18.87 teaser) Ge 8475 a ne to. 1829 - - 33.19 - = 13.45 1830 - - 33.13 - - 16.02 1831 - - 41.78 ~ - 24.36 18382 - - 30.99 - - 15.00 1833 - - 39.41 - - 19.36 1834 - - 39.61 - - 16.43 (1835 - - 41.76 - - 22.31 The proportion which our export trade with the United States bore to our whole export trade was, in— LEO Siam Gerona el oe Op LSOT alu dene 1806 - - - - - 380.31 | 18386 - - - - - 28.28 Mr. Porter stated that in the foregoing observations all remarks upon the state of convulsion into which this most important branch of our foreign trade has lately been thrown had been avoided, partly because its occurrence is too recent to allow of a sufficiently calm estimate being made of the cause or causes which led to the catas- trophe, but chiefly because it would be difficult, if not impossible, to enter upon that subject without departing from that line of strict statistical research which it is desirable to preserve in the proceed- ings of this Section of the British Association. In conclusion, he remarked that the shipments of British produce and manufactures, in the year 1936, amounted, according to the value declared by the shippers, to £53,368,571, of which sum America took £12,425,605, or 23.28 per cent. The total shipments in 1835 amounted to £47,372,270, of which America took £10,568,459, or 22.31 per British Association for the Advancement of Science. 283 cent., the difference between the two years being, on the total ship- ments £5,996,301, and on the shipments to America £1,857,150. Without admitting or denying that these figures give evidence of over-trading, he called attention to the circumstances of the two people—namely, that the means of obtaining the comforts of life are enjoyed by a larger proportion of them than is the case with any other people ; that the habits and predilections of the citizens of the United States lead them to give a preference to British goods; that ours is the cheapest market in which they can procure many arti- cles necessary to them ; and that we are, out of all proportion, their best customers for the raw produce of their soil; and he asked whether, if the trade of the two countries were put upon a proper footing, and conducted upon enlightened principles, that amount of traffic could be considered excessive which gives annually to every citizen of the United States articles of British growth and manufac- ture to the value of sixteen shillings and ninepence three farthings! On the Mechanism of Waves in reference to Steam Naviga- tion.—Mr. Russell had, at previous meetings of the British Associa- tion, given an account of his investigations on the resistance of fluids to the motion of vessels, and ascertained the law of interference of the wave in modifying the nature and amount of that resistance. Since the last meeting of the Association he had extended his obser- vations to a variety of subjects of practical importance, and amongst others to the improvement of the navigation of such rivers as the Thames and the Clyde, in which steam navigation was extensively employed. In these rivers it was found that steam navigation was conducted under very great disadvantages when compared with the open sea. Mr. Russell had discovered that in shallow water one great impediment to high velocities was the generation of, what he termed, the great wave of translation of the displaced fluid,—not undulation of fluid, but translation of one part of the fluid, reaching -to the whole depth with equal velocity. When the vessel is pro- pelled, the water heaped on its side generates this great anterior wave of translation, which increases as the velocity increases ; the section of displacement of water is increased in the ratio of the sine of inclination. In one instance, where the depth was five feet, the anterior wave was three feet above the level of the water, so that the bow was buried in it, and when the vessel stopped the wave moved at eight miles an hour, and though the vessel drew but twenty inches water, her helm was knocked off. This anterior wave 284 British Association for the Advancement of Science. moves with a given velocity proportionate to the depth of the fluid, equal, in fact, to the fall of a heavy body through half the fluid. In some cases, the boat being stopped, Mr. Russell had followed the wave for a mile, and found it advance at the same rate. ‘The ob- ject then would be to make the centre of the vessel coincide as much as possible with the centre of the wave, thereby diminishing the anterior wave and diminishing the resistance. ‘This wave is at present generated to so enormous an extent, that in one case the waves extended to a considerable depth for a mile and a quarter, the depth of the river being increased one and a half foot in a chan- nel of five hundred yards. In six or seven feet water the immer- sion would be three feet more at stem than when the boat was at rest, the progress being doubly impeded by the anterior wave, and by the stern depression. ‘The question then was to what was the wave due? and how was it to be got rid of? In general, the greater the difference between the velocity of the vessel and that of the — wave, the more the impediment was diminished. ‘The increase of the velocity of the anterior wave relieves the vessel, and this is ob- tained, not by widening, but by deepening the channel, while at the same time the velocity of the stern wave is increased, so as to come forward to the centre of the vessel. In one instance a vessel moved at the rate of four miles with twenty two strokes a minute, at six miles with thirty five strokes, and at five and a half miles with from sixty to seventy strokes. The next great impediment to steam navigation consisted in the formation of lateral currents on the side of the vessel, which, having the same direction with the motion of the paddles, had the effect of diminishing the relative difference of the velocity of the paddles and of the fluid, and thus diminished the propelling power of the paddles, the engine being obliged to make an additional number of strokes. The: third evil arose from the stern or posterior wave or surge, by which great injury was done to the banks of the river, and to the smaller vessels navigating it. At an increased velocity this wave rises in a cycloid form into a break- ing surface. ‘The remedy for these evils was to be found, not in widening the river, as generally supposed, nor in giving gradual or gentle slopes to the sides of the channel, but in deepening the river and rendering its sides as nearly vertical as possible, by which the impediments were diminished to a very great amount. Mr. Russell had made experiments with different forms of channels, as :— a 2 —— British Association for the Advancement of Science. 285 The general result was, that in a rectangular channel the velocity was that due to the fall through half the depth of the channel. Thus the velocity of a wave of one foot was three miles an hour, of one of four feet eight miles, of one of fifteen feet fifteen miles. In all cases the rectangular channel was found to be the preferable one. Such a channel would generally be the most expensive, but some- times, where, as on the Thames, the land adjoining was of high value, and gentle slopes to the banks were therefore not attainable, the rectangular would be the cheaper form. The next wave generated was what Mr. Russell termed the wave ‘of unequal displacement,” arising solely, it was found, from the form of the vessel. ‘This wave was seen diverging on both sides of the vessel, from the bow towards the stern, arranged in two straight lines extending to a great distance behind it. ‘This wave might be greatly diminished, and sometimes almost entirely removed, by giv- ing the lines of displacement a slight concavity towards the stern, the vessel being sharpened out. When the vessel does not raise the water in giving uniform progression, but is so bluff that certain points displace more than others, an anterior wave is formed of ex- cessive displacement, the injury done by which is only inferior to that of the stern surge. Mr. Fairburn, of Manchester, stated, in reply to a question put by Dr. Lardner, that the results of his experiments corresponded with those obtained by Mr. Russell, and mentioned one instance where, at a velocity of seven miles an hour, the channel being five feet deep, the stern was dragging on the ground.—Mr. Herapath inquired what posterior form of vessel Mr. Russell had found the best. Mr. Russell stated that on this point the result of his experi- ments indicated a form very different from that approved of by na- val officers in general. They preferred a form bluff in front, and tapering towards the stern. Mr. Russell’s experiments went to show that this should just be reversed, and he had made sixteen of them at different velocities, from three to fifteen miles an hour. In the navigation of the Clyde, the progress of the formation of vessels had been in accordance with this opinion. At first they were built very bluff, with their maximum breadth at a distance from the stern of one-third of the whole length ; thus a wave of excessive displace- ment was generated, going off at right angles, and making a break Vou. XXXIII—No. 2. 37 286 British Association for the Advancement of Science. more than was necessary to allow the stern to pass through. Now the vessels were built with full sterns and narrow stems, with their maximum breadth at midships. For working well, however, a very deep keel was, he knew, necessary to give the helm full effect. In answer to the question whether these experiments might be made with model vessels on a small scale, Mr. Russell said that experi- ments with models were generally very fallacious and complicated, and that his had been made with vessels from seventy five to one hundred feet long. When asked whether they were made with or against tide, he replied that the existence of a previous current modi- fied the velocity of the wave, which was to be measured by the ve- locity of the water, not by the land.—Mr. Wenfall observed that Mr. Russell’s statements were corroborated by an observation of his own, that in an instance where the tide rose thirty six feet, the effect of the lateral waves had been to form a rectangular excavation to four or five feet. On the Corroding of Iron by Salt Water.—Mr. Hartley read a paper, ‘on the corroding of iron by salt water.’ The object of the paper was to show that brass protects both bar and cast iron in a very perfect manner. The brass did not appear to have undergone any action, which, as stated by the President, is rather BpHPSEM to received notions of electro-chemical action. On some singular Modifications of the Ordinary Action of Nitric Acid on certain Metals—Dr. Andrews next read a paper, ‘on some singular modifications of the ordinary action of nitric acid on certain metals.’ Bismuth in nitric acid of specific gravity 1.4, was rapidly acted upon, but this action immediately ceased when the bar was touched by platinum. On removing the platinum from the liquor, the bismuth will sometimes begin again to dissolve; at other times, its surface will become covered with a black crust, - which is soon removed by the acid; but the metal, though now ex- hibiting a beautifully polished surface, is no longer acted upon by the acid, or, at least, is dissolved only with extreme slowness. Thus, a slip of metal, which, in its ordinary state will require only a few seconds to complete its solution, will, when thus slightly modified, resist, for many hours, the action of the same acid. Copper and tin present similar phenomena, but zinc, when treated in the same way, has its oxidation and solution not arrested, but merely retarded. Arsenic was found to present a singular anomaly when heated in nitric acid, so as to give rise to effervescence: the British Association for the Advancement of Science. 287 contact of the platinum in the usual way did not produce any effect, whereas, when an acidulous solution of silver is used, platinum ex- ercised its usual influence. In the case of six metals, platinum checks the action of nitric acid, and three of them appear to be brought into a permanently peculiar state, opposed to chemical action. Platinum always sepa- rates any film of oxide as its initial function, but after its separation, it exercises a polarizing action, for example, it brings the other metal into a peculiar state, which enables it to resist chemical action. On the conclusion of this paper, the President drew the attention of the Section to the analogy between the facts detailed by Dr. An- drews, and the preservation of iron by brass, as instanced in the communication of Mr. Hartley. In both cases, according to the known laws of electro-chemical action, effects, the very opposite of what are observed, should present themselves. ‘The bismuth, cop- per, &c. should oxidize quickest when in contact with the platinum ; and if, as would seem demonstrated by Mr. Hartley, brass protects wrought and cast iron, the brass itself should be acted upon with in- creased rapidity. The solution of these anomalies, he conceived quite within the range of science in its present state, and he urged upon the members of the Section the necessity of studying the phe- nomena in question, as their explication would constitute a very valuable addition to the existing state of our electrical knowledge. Gravel, bowlders, &c.—Mr. Sedgwick had seen gravel on moun- tains two thousand feet high. Erratic blocks, he considered, could not be of fluviatile, but of marine origin, and organic remains of large animals were not likely to be abundant in gravel carried by currents of the sea, from the destruction caused by their violent ac- tion. Animal remains had been found in the clay gravel of the east of England; but this gravel he conceived as differing from that in other parts of the country.—Sir Philip Egerton said, that Mr. Strick- land’s flintless gravel, occurring to the N. W. of the Avon, could be only a partial formation, as he had. observed, that in Cheshire the gravel always contained flint. At Cocknell he had obtained two grinders of an elephant, and many marine shells, and many like shells in other places, all of existing species, and occurring often with pieces of rolled coal.—Mr. Phillips stated, that one of the questions proposed by the Association, was the determination of the phenomena of the English gravel formations, but to the present time sufficient evidence had not been collected. He alluded to Mr. 288 British Association for the Advancement of Science. Murchison’s opinions, that a strait formerly divided England from Wales: into this strait gravel might be drifted from both sides; and Mr. Murchison had discovered, in Wales, local covered by erratic gravel. He himself had discovered in a valley of the Yorkshire Wolds at an elevation of six hundred feet, gravel drifted from Cum- berland, and containing bones of the elephant.—Mr. Sedgwick had traced the gravel of the central parts of England to its northern sources ; and he instanced a singular phenomenon of a mountain, near Buttermere, which appeared to be water-worn by a stream passing over it. The recent elevation of Siluria, he conceived, was proved by the morasses and lakes in its lines of valleys, which val- leys, although shaped under the ocean, had been evidently modified by existing waters. He concluded by asserting, that all examina- tion of nature, by means of accurately ascertained facts, must agree with moral or scriptural interpretation; and that we need have no fear as to the one clashing with the other, as truth cannot oppose truth, but must, in all cases, be coincident. Geology of the Desert between Suez and Cairo.—In this desert travellers have always suffered great inconvenience from the want of water, and this was likely to prove a serious obstacle to the proposed communication by this route to India. In order to overcome the inconvenience, Mr. Briggs, the British consul, employed a Swiss engineer to bore for water. Mr. Gensberg, the engineer, caused the first boring to be made in the Valley of Kejche, but being un- successful, he transferred his operations to the Valley of Candelli, where water was found in clay underlying a calcareous rock. Con- siderable ingenuity. was shown in the excavation. Besides the usual boring downwards, lateral openings were made to increase the sup- ply of water: borings were made in other situations, and very sin- gular results obtained. A great variety of strata were penetrated, and this variety existed even within a limited distance of superficial extent: thus, in one place marine sand was found; and a little way off, terrestrial or desert sand: gravel occurred only in one spot. But the most singular geological phenomenon was the existence of gra- nite over clay, in which good water was obtained. ‘The marquis mentioned that a notice of the intention of the British consul to bore for water, appeared in the first volume of the Journal of the Geo- graphical Society, but that the communication now laid before the Section, was the first notification of the results obtained. — —c a EE | British Association for the Advancement of Science. 289 The Sclerotic Bones of the Eyes of different Birds and Rep- tiles.—Mr. Allis read a paper ‘ on the sclerotic bones of the eyes of different birds and reptiles.’ He stated, that he believed the sub- ject of his paper had not received much attention from comparative anatomists. With regard to their number, Cuvier had stated them to be twenty, but he had never found more than seventeen, and sometimes even only one. He then quoted the observations that had been made on this subject by Blumenbach, Cuvier, Carus, Yar- rell and Buckland, and proceeded to state, that ‘‘the shape of the individual bones is so various, that it cannot be given in any general terms; the external edge of the bones is, in most instances, beauti- fully serrated, but the serration is not visible in the bony ring: this serration being generally destroyed by the process of boiling that is necessary to their preservation. ‘The rings generally overlap each other, there being a depression on the under side of one bone, and a precisely corresponding one on the upper side of its fellow; so that when overlapping each other they present nearly an even sur- face, having one bone with both depressions on its inner surface, and forming an interior key to the arch; another, having two de- pressions externally, and forming an exterior key. They form a defense and protection to the eye, and those birds which are pug- nacious, or have a peculiarly rapid flight, or vary their attitude in flying, &c., have the sclerotic rings of larger size and more convex form, and are of greater strength; the same remark holds good with respect to water-birds. Another use of these bones, is, altering the convexity of the cornea, as mentioned by Dr. Buckland.” He then exhibited a great number of specimens of these bones, and ob- served, that in the eagles and vultures they were strong and large, and varied in number from fourteen to sixteen; in owls, soft and porous, and not hard, as Cuvier had stated; in the gallinide the the number varied from thirteen to seventeen; in the columbide they were small and feeble ; in the ostrich tribe they were large ; in the gralle small and feeble; in the scansores the same, and twelve or thirteen in number; in the swimmers they were weak and small, and from twelve to sixteen in number; in divers, strong and large, and twelve to fifteen in number; in the passerine they varied considerably, but were generally weak ; in reptiles they varied con- siderably in number, shape and size. Chemical Composition of Vegetable Membrane and Fibre.—A paper ‘on the chemical composition of vegetable membrane and 290 British Association for the Advancement of Science. fibre,’ by the Rev. J. B. Reade, was read by the secretary. The author commenced by observing, that Professor Henslow, in his late work on Botany, hhad stated, that great difficulties existed in the way of obtaining an accurate analysis of the chemical composi- tion of vegetable membraye and fibre. Having observed the accu- racy with which his friend, Mr. Rigg, of Walworth, analyzed vege- table products, he recommended him to commence a series of, experiments on this subject, and obtained the following results :— Spiral vessels from the Hyacinth yielded— Carbon - - - - = - 41.8 Hydrogen - - - - - - bit Nitrogen - - - - - - 4.3 Water - - - - - - 51.8 Residuary matter - - - = - 1.0 100.0 Cellular tissue :— Carbon - Satan - - - 39.2 Oxygen - - - - - - 7.4. Nitrogen - - - - - - 3.9 Water - - - - - - 48.5 Residue - - - - - - 1.0 100.0 An analysis of different parts of the flower-stalk of the hyacinth gave the following results :— Cc 15 peso) N W... JRes Epidermis and stomates - 41.7 — 2.0 40 50.8 1.5 Cellular tissue beneath epidermis 41.8 — 2.1 4.1 50.5 1.5 Woody fibre under bark - 39.2 0.5 — 5.7 55.6 1.0 Spiral vessels - - - 338 17 — 3.9 58.1 0.5 In these experiments, the existence of nitrogen to so great an ex- tent was pointed out as remarkable. Vegetable Phystology.—Mr. Nevan detailed some experiments ‘on vegetable physiology.’ The experiments were performed on elms, forty years of age in February, 1836. 1. The stem of the tree was denuded, in a circle, of its cortical integument alone, leaving the alburnum beneath uninjured. On the May following the denuded part was filled up by the exudation of bark and wood from the upper surface of the wound, and the tree had not suffered in growth. British Association for the Advancement of Science. 291 2. The bark and cambium were removed in the same manner. In August, 1837, this tree sickened, and there was no formation of wood or bark in the wounded part. ‘Two developments, however, took place, one above the other, from below; the former having the appearance of roots, the latter were branches with leaves. 3. The bark and two layers of alburnum were cut away. The tree was at the time unhealthy ; it, however, put forth its leaves on that and the ensuing spring, but shortly after died. No sap was observed above or below the wounded part. Roots were developed from the upper, and branches from the lower part of the section. 4, The bark and six layers of alburnum were taken off. The tree became much less vigorous, but did not die, and otherwise pre- sented the same appearance as the last. 5. The bark and twelve layers of alburnum were stripped. The consequences were again similar to the last two; the alburnum above and below the cut being dry, but an accidental cut that pene- trated into the heart-wood exuded sap. 6. This was a repetition of the experiment of Palisot de Beau- vais, by cutting away a circular ring of bark around a single branch. The branch continued to grow, and roots sprouted from the under surface of the isolated bark and branch. 7. In this the whole of the wood of the tree was cut away, ex- cept four pillars, composed of bark and sap-wood. In this case, the sap first appeared from above, descending by the pith, and then from the heart-wood, the alburnum being dry. In this case the sap must have passed up the alburnum, and horizontally through to the heart-wood. Mr. Nevan inferred from these experiments—1. That the life of the tree does not depend on the liber or cambium. 2. A descent of sap takes place before the development of leaves. 3. That new matter arises from below; which had not previously been allowed. He thought there were two distinct principles in the tree,—one, the ascending, or leaf principle ; the other, the descending, or root prin- ciple. Mr. Nevan had also performed some experiments on the conversion of roots into branches, and came to the conclusion, that buds or branches might be developed from any part of the root above its extreme end, from which point it was impossible for buds to be developed. — Professor Lindley remarked that these experiments confirmed en- tirely the theory of the structure of wood adopted by Du Petit 292 British Association for the Advancement of Science. Thouars. He did not think that the existence of any new princi- ple could be inferred from the experiments. In the seventh experi- ment the horizontal circulation of the sap'was proved, and confirmed the accuracy of Hall’s experiment of cutting a tree nearly through on alternate sides, when the sap still ascended. Suspended Animation.—Sir James Murray had seen two cases of suspended animation from blows on the stomach; one recovered, and the other died. ‘The remedy he should recommend, would be to throw a bucket of cold water over the body—gasping would en- sue, and respiration follow. Tron.—Mr. Fairburn then read a Report on the comparative strength and other properties of cast iron, manufactured by the hot and cold blast. At a previous meeting of the Association, Mr. Hodgkinson read a Report on the comparative strength and other properties of iron man- ufactured by the hot and cold blast.—In the prosecution of inquiries since made, it was conceived desirable to subject the metals operated upon to more than one species of strain; to vary their forms, and, by a series of changes, to elicit their peculiar, as well as comparative prop- erties. Ist, they have been drawn asunder by direct tension; 2dly, they have been crushed by direct compression both in short and long specimens ; and, 3dly, they have been subjected to fracture by transverse strain, under various forms of section, and at various tem- peratures. ‘Ten bars of hot and cold blast iron were also loaded with different weights, from 112 lbs. to near the breaking point, and left for many months to sustain the load, and to determine the length of time necessary to effect the fracture. ‘The bars thus loaded, are still (with one exception) bearing the weight, having been suspended upwards of six months, and, from what we can at present perceive, there is every chance of a long and protracted ex- periment. In making the experiment on transverse strain, a num- - ber of models of different sizes and forms were prepared, and the irons, both hot and cold blast, were run into the form of these mod- els ; but as there is usually a slight deviation in the size of the cast- ings from that of the model, the dimensions of the bars were accu- rately measured at the place of fracture, and the results reduced, by calculation, to what they would have been if they had been cast the exact size of the model, assuming the strength of rectangular beams to be as the breadth and square of the depth, and the ultimate de- flection to be inversely as the depth, the length being constant. In British Association for the Advancement of Science. 293 comparing two irons, the greatest care was taken to subject them as nearly as possible to the same treatment. . A series of experiments was also made to determine the strength of hot and cold blast iron at various temperatures, from 82° (the freezing point) to the boiling point; for this purpose, a cast-iron trough was employed, in which the bars to be broken were placed, and covered with snow or water, (which was kept at the proper temperature by a jet of steam,) as the case required; the weights were then gradually laid on until fracture took place. The strength of bars made red hot was also tried, and, contrary to expectation, they retained their tenacity and power to resist the load to a considerable extent: the reduction of strength in a bar one inch square, in a range of temperature from 32° to that of red- ness, was rather more than one-sixth, the deflection being upwards of 14 inch in a bar 2 feet 3 inches long. RESULTS. Carron Iron, No. 2. (Scotch.) Mean ratic of transverse strength, assuming the cold blast iron ats - - - - - - 1,000 : 9,799 Mean ratio of power to resist impact - - 1,000 : 1,038.9 Whence, in the transverse strength of Carron iron, No. 2, using a variety of forms of section, the strength of the cold blast is to that of the hot blast, as 100 to 98, nearly. Deven Iron, No. 3. Mean ratio of strength in sections of various forms (thirteen experiments) —- - - - 1000 : 1409 Power to sustain impact - 4- - - 1000 : 2742 This is an exceedingly hard iron, with a singular appearance, the centre or more granulated parts of the fracture being surrounded with a circle having the appearance of hardened steel. Buffery, No. 1, Staffordshire Iron, cold and hot blast. Mean ratio of breaking weight - - - 1000 : 925 Mean ratio of power to resist impact - - 1000 : 965 In the buffery iron, the hot blast manufacture is weaker, whether Wwe view it in its transverse strength, or its power to resist impact. Coed Talon, No. 2, North Welsh Iron. Mean ratio of strength in a number of experiments 1000 : 1014 Mean ratio of power to resist impact wir 1000 : 1219 Vou. XXXITI.—No. 2. 38 294 British Association for the Advancement of Science. Modulus of elasticity in Ibs. for a bar of one inch square. 14,680,000 Cold blast ; OR : 14,313,500 Ibs. 15,810,000 ioe blatt ; EeCinn ‘ 14,322,500 Ibs. Elslear Cold Blast, No. 1, against Melton Hot Blast, No. 1, (York- shire Iron.) Mean ratio of strength - - os - - 1000 : 809 Mean ratio of power to resist impact - - - 1000 : 858 The modulus of elasticity in all the irons are computed ; but only given in a few cases in the results. Relative strength of hot and cold blast iron to resist a transverse strain at different degrees of temperature. Cold blast 949.6 at 32°. Hot ditto 919.7, Mean. Ratio of strenoth, 1,000 : 977.6. Power to resist impact, 1,000 : 1,039. Cold blast 748.1 at 191°. Hot ditto $23.6. In these experiments, it appeared, that the cold blast lost in strength from 32° up toa blood red, perceptible in the dark as 949.6 to 723.1; whereas, in the hot blast the strength is not so much impaired, being as 917.7 at the freezing point, and 829.7 when perceptibly red im the dark. . In all former experiments on the transverse strain of cast iron, it has been assumed, that the elasticity remained perfect up to one third the breaking weight. In pursuing these experiments, discrep- ancies were noticed, and results widely different to those generally received were observed. It was found that one seventh, and, in some cases one eighth the breaking weight was sufficient to produce a permanent set. ‘These facts induced.an extended series of expe- riments, principally to determine what load was necessary to effect a permanent set; and, if such weight continued for an indefinite time, would break the bar. It became a question of great impor- tance to know, if a weight, having once impaired the elasticity, would or would not, if continued, increase the deflection. ‘The in- quiry, therefore, was—To what extent can cast iron be loaded with- out endangering its security? ‘To solve this question ten bars of hot and cold blast, differently loaded, were placed upon a frame, to as- certain the amount of deflection at stated periods, and to determine what was necessary to break the bars with their respective loads. In the cold blast, with a load of 280 lbs., the deflec- Hein Est tion increased in 103 days from - - 1,025 to 1,033 British Association for the Advancement of Science. 295 Hot blast, ditto, from - - - - 1,173 to 1,197 Cold blast, with a load of 336 lbs., increased in 105 - days, from - - - - - - 1,344 to 1,366 Hot, ditto, from - - - - 1,573 to 1,627 Cold, with a load of 392 lbs., et the deflection in 108 days, from - - - - - 1,786 to 1,843 Hot, ditto, from - - - - - 1,891 to 1,966 - Cold blast, with a load of 448 lbs., continued to increase in deflec- tion, and ultimately broke, after sustaining the weight 35 days. All the bars from the hot blast broke in the act of loading them with the above weight, 448 lbs. Mr. Fairburn stated, that all the irons were made of the same materials, and under the same circumstances. ‘The irons were of fifty sorts. : Mr. Cottam inquired as to the elastic forces. Dr. Young and Mr. Tredgold had found that the strength of the material would fail if loaded beyond its elastic force ; he wished to know whether the loads had been more or less than 850 Ibs. to the foot. Mr. Fairburn stated that some of the loads were more, some less, and that a weight of 280 lbs. produced a permanent set of an inch square bar. The President remarked, that the calculation as to elastic forces was scarcely to be confided in. Mr. Fairburn, in answer to another question, stated, that the hot blast iron was the more flexible and better capable of bearing impact; but that all the results of impact had been taken from calculations founded on cold blast iron. Mr. Fairburn stated, that the crystalline appearance was finer in hot than in cold blast. ‘There were no experiments made on the loss by re- melting, and none on wrought iron,—all on cast iron. In reply to Mr. Cottam, he mentioned, that all the Scotch irons had no cinder ; the composition of the others they did not know. Great difficulty had been experienced on this point, because the different manufac- turers were unwilling to give information.—Mr. Guest professed on his part the fullest readiness.—Some conversation took place with regard to the peculiarity of appearance in the broken bars. The President remarked, that when a rectangular bar of any substance is exposed either to fracture, or even to temporary deflection, a similar appearance was found: this was known from the experiments on glass by polarized light. Mr. Fairburn in assent said the crystals were always more compact in the edge than in the centre. Mr. Webster inquired whether the elastic weight was always less than 296 British Association for the Advancement of Science. one third of the breaking weight. Mr. Fairburn said, always—and afterwards replied to a question from Mr. Guest, that the Scotch hot blast iron showed a greater comparative strength as compared with cold blast, but that they had made no experiments on South Welsh iron. There was a perceptible permanent set from 280 lbs., the experiments being of from five to ten minutes in duration, and it be- ing possible to judge the deflection to the one thousandth part of an inch.—Mr. Webster said it had been found that the first set was owing to the breaking of the first crust, and that beyond the first permanent set up to the elastic limit, the deflexion increases exactly as the weight. Some further conversation ensued, in which Mr. Smith and others took part, when Mr. Guest suggested the propriety of farther continuing these researches, to which the President agreed, and suggested a recommendation to this effect from the committee of the section to the general committee. Thanks were then voted to Mr. Fairburn for the zeal and skill with which he had prosecuted these researches for the Association. Rail Roads and Canals in the United States—Prof. Henry, of New Jersey College, Princeton, U. S. then addressed the section, and said, he had been requested to present to the Association a map of the United States, in which were marked the railways and canals completed and in progress. ‘They had been fully described in some French works lately published, and in the American Almanac. After enumerating several geographical facts well known to our readers, as to the three natural divisions of America, the Atlantic slope, the middle basin of the Mississippi, and the Pacific slope, &c. he mentioned that there were now one thousand five hundred miles of railway in operation in the United States, and two thousand miles of canals ; and that three thousand miles of railway were in progress, which had been in a great degree interrupted, owing to the late com- mercial convulsions.—In answer to a question put by Mr. De Butts, he stated, that, on the Hudson, there being very little current, one hundred and fifty miles were frequently accomplished by the steam- boats in nine hours.—Dr. Lardner much doubted, whether a speed of fifteen miles an hour could be generally attainable-—Mr. Webster stated, that Mr. Blunt, an American engineer, had, in a pamphlet which he quoted, declared, that the American boats had aceomplish- ed seventy four miles in five hours, and that the distance from New York to Albany, one hundred and fifty miles, was performed in ten hours by boats built principally with a view to speed. (To be continued in the next No.) On the Aurora Borealis in Summer. 297 ‘Art. XIII.—Remarks on the occurrence of the Aurora Borealis in Summer; with an abstract of Huxham’s Auroral es from 1728 to 1748; by Epwarp C. Herrick. Art the recent meeting at Liverpool of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Prof. Christie read a paper, in which he stated his belief that ‘‘ the occurrence of an Aurora Borealis in England in the middle of summer, is a phenomenon hitherto unre- corded.”’* ‘This belief is erroneous; and as the opinion is very generally entertained, that the Aurora Borealis is peculiarly a win- ter phenomenon, it may be worth while to show from published records that it pertains to midsummer no less than to midwinter. Nearly a century since, John Huxham, one of the most learned physicians of his time, published at London a Treatise on Epidem- ical Diseases.t Supposing that much information concerning the eauses of epidemics might be derived from observations of the weather, he devoted uncommon attention to meteorological studies. in his work, besides the ordinary phenomena of the weather, which he records with much apparent care, he furnishes a register of the Aurora Borealis for the space of twenty years. It cannot be sup- posed that his record is perfect ; for without extraordinary care and good fortune, occasional omissions are unavoidable; yet it is proba- bly a faithful and tolerably complete account of the Aurora Borea- lis, as seen at Plymouth in England during the time above stated. A mere quotation from this work, of the great displays of the Au- rora Borealis observed in summer, would be sufficient for my pres- ent purpose ; but as a record of this kind furnishes valuable data for determining whether, as is commonly supposed, the phenomenon returns at certain epochs with unusual frequency and brilliancy, I will here note every case which the author has recorded. In most of the instances which he has registered, the general character of the event is indicated by a single word ; in other cases a * See an account of Prof. Christie’s Memoir, in the London Athenzum of Sept. 30, 1837, (No. 518,) p. 718. + Observationes de Aére et Morbis Epidemicis, ab anno 1728 ad finem anni 1737, Plymuthi facte, ete. Auctore Joanne Huxham, M.D. R.S.S.—edit. secun- da, Londini, 1752. 8vo.— Vol. alterum, ab anni nimirum initio 1738, ad exitum aisque 1748. Londini, 1752. 8vo.—The first edition of the first volume was pub- lished about 1739. I quote from the second edition. 298 the date only is mentioned. he adds a short and comprehensive description. On the Aurora Borealis in Summer. given in ‘the Julian or old style.” 1728. Feb. 26. Mch. 22. 23. July 2. 4. ‘17. 22. Aug. 18. 20: Oct. 1. 14, 15. De 1729. 1730. 1731. 1732. 1733. Jan. 18. Feb. 7. Feb. 2. Mch. 21. June 27. July 10. Slight. Slight. Very great: corona.* Slight. Slight. Unusual: slight. Slight. Slight. Very great. Great: Slight. Slight. Great. Very great. Slight. Slight. Great. Slight. Bright. Slight. Very great. Slight. Slight. Very great. Slight. Slight. Slight. Slight. Slight. Very great. Great. 1733. Sept. Oct. Nov. 1734. Sept. Aug. Oct. Feb. 1735. 1736. Aug. Sept. Oct. Noy. 1737. 1738. Apl. 1739. Feb. Mch. 8. 29. 27. 27. 29. May 14. 15. ). 20. In some of the more important cases, The dates are Great. Slight. Great. Great. Slight. Slight. Slight. Great. Slight. Great: Slight. Slight. - Narrow zone fr. £. to w. corona. Slight. Slight. Slight. Greater than 7th. Great and variegated. Slight. Very gr’t: corona : fiery. do. do. do. Slight. Great. Uncertain. Great. Slight. Great. Great. Great: corona: fiery. Great: corona. Great: fiery. * The description of this case would apply very well to the display of July 1, 1837, as seen here. “ Permagnum observavi Lumen Boreale, cujus Radii lucidi at non colorati, vibrantes, terminari videbantur in coruscante quasi Umbella, paulo ultra Zenith.” Vol. 1. p. 12. On the Aurora Borealis in Summer. 299 1739. Sept. 12. 1743.Mch. 8. Very great. 13. Apl. 1. Slight. 1740. Mch.12. Great. June 28. Slight. 13. Slight. 1744. Mch. 22. Brilliant. 14. Dec. 14. May 27. 24, 1741. Mech. 5. 1745. Feb. 9. Great, 9. Slight. and a slight one in Feb. without date. 21. - 1746. Feb. 9. June 29.* 27. July 12. Very great. Mch. 14. Sept. 21. Great. Oct: 77. 27. Dec. 28. 1742. Feb. 20. 1747. Jan. 2. Slight. Mch. 5. Slight. Mch. 22. 6. Narrow zone from n. §. Nov. 21. Great. 15. Very great. [tos.w. Dec. 6. Very great: fiery. 16.: 1748. Jan. 22. Slight. 94, Aug. 28. Very great: fiery. 1743. Jan. 12. Great. Dec. .4. Great. From the above register, it appears that some of the most bril- liant displays of the Aurora Borealis witnessed during the period of record, occurred in June, July and August. Dr. Henry Gibbons, in a valuable essay on the Aurora Borealis, contained in “ The Advocate of Science and Annals of Nat. Hist.” 8vo. Philad. 1834, Vol. i. p. 21-25, gives a tabular view of all the Aurore witnessed by him at Wilmington, Delaware, from Aug. 28, 1827, to the end of December, 1833, together with the meteoro- logical circumstances of each occurrence. ‘This record plainly con- tradicts the prevailing opinion stated in the former part of this pa- per. ‘The following are the dates of each instance: 1827. Aug. 28; Sept. 8, 9, 25; Nov. 9, 18.—1828. Jan. 18; Sept. 26, 27.— 1829. Jan.28; March 18; Dec. 19.—1830. May 6,14,15; June 10,11; July 14; Aug. 15, 20; Sept. 12, 15, 16, 17; Oct. 93 Dec. 11, 12.—1831. Jan.6,7; Feb. 6; March 8; April 20; May 8; June 10; July 4, 5, 10, 31; Oct. 29.—1832. Jan. 22; Mareh Q7; Aug. 22,23; Sept. 30; Nov. 14.—1833. Jan.2; March 21; May 17; June 17; July 10; Oct. 13; Dec. 15. The Aurora has been abundant during the recent summer. It was observed here three times in June, seven in July, and six in August. ‘There were fourteen evenings in June, seven in July, and ten in August, in which the sky was overcast, so that no Aurora could have been seen. * This case is uncertain. ‘Arcus nempe igneus lucidus valde ab horizonte prope 8. E. ad gradus saltem 90 projectus.” 300 On the Aa roanauBencstis an Summer. A display of the Aurora Borealis is often a very extensive phe- nomenon. ‘That of February 18, 1837, which was seen in many parts of Europe, was also noticed here.* Prof. Christie, in his me- moir above cited, mentions its occurrence in England this year, May 19, June 24, July 1, 2, 7, and August 25. At this place, on the night of May 19, the sky was entirely overcast, and rain was falling: observation on the Aurora was of course impossible. On the 24th of June, there was an unusual display here and in Ver- mont. On the Ist of July, the exhibition was very grand, and nearly equal to any ever witnessed in this region.t A slight ap- pearance of it was seen on the 2d. ‘The evening of the 7th was mostly overcast, and the moon was shining. No Aurora was de- tected, and none, unless uncommonly brilliant, could have been seen. On the 25th of August there was here a moderate display ; at Castleton, (Vermont) a corona was formed, and the whole exhi- bition was one of great brilliancy and beauty. It is greatly to be desired that careful contemporaneous observa- tions on the Aurora Borealis should be made by persons stationed at many different and distant places. Within the last two hundred years, a vast multitude of isolated accounts have been recorded, most of which are of comparatively little value to science. A tenth part of the labor which they have cost, had it been spent in well concerted contemporaneous observations in different parts of the world, would long ere this have contributed important data for a sat- isfactory theory. . ‘The most probable opinion is, that the Aurora is in some way a result of magneto-electric action, but the laws which govern its capricious appearances have thus far eluded all investi- gation. . No facts have to my knowledge hitherto been published which throw any light on the question, whether during an appearance of the Aurora in the United States, attended by a disturbance of the needle, a correspondent magnetic disturbance and auroral appear- ance can be detected at about the same distance from the corres- ponding magnetic pole in New Holland. Is it too much to hope that some of the many American ships which traverse the Indian ocean, where opportunities for making the necessary observations must often occur, will hereafter bring home the desired information? New Haven, Conn. Nov. 11, 1837. * See this Journal, vol. xxxil. p. 396. t See p. 144 of this volume. Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudson. 301 Art. XIV.—Some account of two visits to the Mountains in Essex County, New York, in the years 1836 and 1837; with a Sketch of the Northern Sources of the Hudson; by W. C. Repriewp. Notwirustanpine the increase of population, and the rapid ex- tension of our settlements since the peace of 1783, there is still found, in the northern part of the state of New York, an uninhabited re- gion of considerable extent, which presents all the rugged charac- ters and picturesque features of a primeval wilderness. ‘This region constitutes the most elevated portion of the great triangular district which is situated between the line of the St. Lawrence, the Mo- hawk, and Lake Champlain. That portion of it which claims our notice in the following sketches, lies mainly within the county of Essex, and the contiguous parts of Franklin, and comprises the head waters of the principal rivers in the northern division of the state. In the summer of 18386, the writer had occasion to visit the new settlement at McIntyre, in Essex County, in company with the pro- prietors of that settlement, and other gentlemen who had been invi- ted to join the expedition. Our party consisted of the Hon. Archi- bald McIntyre of Albany, the late Judge McMartin of Broadalbin, Montgomery county, and David Henderson, Esq. of Jersey City, proprietors, together with David C. Colden, Esq. of Jersey City, and Mr. James Hall, assistant state geologist for the northern dis- trict. First Journey to Essex. We left Saratoga on the 10th of August, and after halting a day at Lake George, reached ‘Ticonderoga on the 12th; where at1 P. M. we embarked on board one of the Lake Champlain steamboats, and were landed soon after 3 P. M., at Port Henry, two miles N. W. from the old fortress of Crown Point. The remainder of the day, and part of the 14th, were spent in exploring the vicinity, and examining the interesting sections which are here exhibited of the junction of the primary rocks with the transition series, near the western borders of the lake, and we noticed with peculiar inter- est the effect which appears to have been produced by the former upon the transition limestone at the line of contact; the latter being Vou. XXXIIL.—No. 2. 39 302 Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudson. here converted into white masses, remarkably crystaline in their structure, and interspersed with scales of plumbago. On the evening of the 13th we were entertained with a brilliant exhibition of the Aurora Borealis, which, between 7 and 8 P. M., shot upward in rapid and luminous coruscations from the northern half of the horizon, the whole converging to a point apparently fifteen degrees south of the zenith. ‘This appearance was succeed- ed by luminous vertical columns or pencils of the color, alternately, of a pale red anda peculiar blue, which were exhibited in great beauty. . On the 13th we left Port Henry on horseback, and, after a ride of six miles, left the cultivated country on the borders of the lake and entered the forest. ‘The road on which we traveled is much used for the transportation of sawed pine lumber from the interior, there being in the large township of Moriah, as we were informed, more than sixty saw-mills. Four hours of rough traveling brought us to Weatherhead’s, at West Moriah, upon the Schroon river, or East Branch of the Hudson, thirteen miles from Lake Champlain. An old state road from Warren County to Plattsburgh passes through this valley, along which is established the line of interior settlements, in this part of the county. Our further rout to the westward was upon a newer and more imperfect road, which has been opened from this place through the unsettled country in the direction of the Black River, in Lewis County. We ascended by this road the woody de- files of the Schroon mountain-ridge, which, as seen from Weather- head’s, exhibits, in its lofty and apparently continuous elevations, little indications of a practicable rout. Having passed a previously unseen gorge of this chain, we continued our way under a heavy rain, till we reached the dwelling of Israel Johnson, who has established himself at the outlet of a beautiful mountain lake, called Clear Pond, nine miles from Schroon river. This is the only dwelling house upon the new road. To travel in view of the log fences and fallen trees of a thickly wooded country, affords a favorable opportunity for observing the specific spiral direction which is often found in the woody fibre of the stems of forest trees, of various species. In a large proportion of the cases which vary from a perpendicular arrangement, avera- ging not less than seven out of eight, the spiral turn of the fibres of the stem in ascending from the ground, is towards the left, or in popular language, against the sun. It is believed that no cause has Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudson. 303 been assigned for this by writers on vegetable physiology. The direction, in these cases, coincides with the direction of rotation in our great storms, as well as with that of the tornado which visited New Brunswick in 1835 and other whirlwinds of like character, the traces of which have been carefully examined. We resumed our journey on the morning of the 15th, and at 9 A. M. reached the Boreas branch of the Hudson, eight miles from Johnson’s. Soon after 11 A. M., we arrived at the Main Northern Branch of the Hudson, a little below its junction with the outlet of Lake Sanford. Another quarter of an hour brought us to the landing at the outlet of the lake, nine miles from the Boreas. Taking leave of the “road,” we here entered a difficult path which leads up the western side of the lake, and a further progress of six miles brought - us to the Iron Works and settlement at McIntyre, where a hospita- ble reception awaited us. : Settlement at McIntyre.—Mineral Character of the Country. At this settlement, and in its immediate vicinity, are found beds of iron ore of great, if not unexampied extent, and of the best quality. ‘These deposits have been noticed in the first report of the state geologists, and have since received from Professor Emmons a more extended examination. Lake Sanford is a beautiful sheet of water, of elongated and irregular form, and about five miles in ex- tent. ‘The Iron Works are situated on the north fork of the Hud- son, a little below the point where it issues from Lake Henderson, and over a mile above its entrance into Lake Sanford. The fall of the stream between the two lakes is about one hundred feet. This settlement is situated in the upper plain of the Hudson, and at the foot of the principal mountain nucleus, which rises between its sources and those of the Au Sable. A remarkable feature of this mountain district, is the uniformity of the mineral character of its rocks, which consist chiefly of the dark colored and sometimes opalescent feldspar, known as labrado- rite, or Labrador feldspar. ‘Towards the exterior limits of the for- mation, this material is accompanied with considerable portions of green augite or pyroxene, but in the more central portions of the formation, this feldspar often constitutes almost the only ingredient of the rocks. It seems not a little repugnant to our notions of the primary rocks, to find a region of this extent which is apparently destitute of mica, quartz, and hornblende, and also, of any traces of 304 Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudson. stratified gneiss. ‘This labradoritic formation commences at the valley of the Schroon river, and extends westerly into the counties of Hamilton and Franklin, to a limit which is at present unknown. Its northern limit appears to be at the plains which lie between the upper waters of the Au Sable and Lake Placid, and its southern boundary which extends as far as Schroon, has not been well de- fined. It appears probable that it comprises an area of six or eight hundred square miles, including most of the principal mountain masses in this part of the state. So far as is known to the writer, no foreign rocks or boulders of any size or description are found in this region, if we are not to except as such, the fragments of the dykes, chiefly of trap, by which this rock is frequently intersected. The surface of the rock where it has been long exposed to the weather, has commonly a whitened appearance, owing to its exter- nal decomposition. Blocks and boulders of this rock are scattered over the country in a southerly and westerly direction, as far as the southern boundary of the state, as appears from the Report of Pro- fessor Emmons* and other observations, and they are often lodged on the northern declivity of hills, high above the general level of the country. ‘The most eastern of these transported boulders known to the writer, is one of about one hundred tons weight, at Cocksackie, on the Hudson, one hundred and thirty miles south from the labra- doritic mountains. This block is found on a hill, three hundred feet above the river, and one hundred and fifty feet above the general level of the adjacent country. First Expedition to the Mountains —Encampment. It has been noticed that the north branch of the Hudson, after its exit from Lake Sanford, joms the main branch of the river, about seven miles below the settlement at McIntyre. Having prepared for an exploration up the latter stream, we left MelIn- tyre on the 17th of July, with three assistants, and the neces- sary equipage for encampment. Leaving the north branch, we proceeded through the woods in a southeasterly direction, passing two small lakes, till, at the distance of three or four miles from the settlement, we reached the southern point of one of the moun- tains, and assuming here a more easterly course, we came, about noon, to the main branch of the river. ‘Traces of wolves and * Geological Report, p, 110. Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudson. 305 deer were frequently seen, and we discovered also the recent tracks of a moose deer or the American elk. We had also noti- ced on the 16th, at the inlet of Lake Sanford, the fresh and yet undried footsteps of a panther, which apparently had just crossed the inlet. The beaches of the river, on which, by means of frequent. ford- ing, we now traveled, are composed of rolled masses of the labra- doritic rock, and small opalescent specimens not unfrequently show- ed their beautiful colors in the bed of the stream. As we approached the entrance of the mountains, the ascent of the stream sensibly in- creased, and about 4 P. M., preparations were commenced for our encampment. A comfortable hut, of poles and spruce bark, was soon constructed by the exertions of our dexterous woodsmen. The camp-fire being placed on the open side, the party sleep with their heads in the opposite direction, under the lower part of the roof. On the morning of the 18th we resumed the ascent of the stream by its bed, in full view of two mountains, from between which the stream emerges. About two miles from our camp, we entered the more precipitous part of the gorge through which the river descends. Our advance here became more difficult and somewhat dangerous. After ascending falls and rapids, seemingly innumerable, we came about noon to an imposing cascade, closely pent between two steep mountains, and falling about eighty feet intoa deep chasm, the walls of which are as precipitous as those of Niagara, and more secluded. With difficulty we emerged from this gulf, and continued our up- ward course over obstacles similar to the preceding, till half past 2 P.M., when we reached the head of this terrific ravine. From a ledge of rock which here crosses and obstructs the stream, the river continues, ona level which may be called the Upper Still Water, for more than a mile in a westerly and northwesterly direction, but con- tinues pent in the bottom of a deep mountain gorge or valley, with scarce any visible current. ‘To this point the river had been ex- plored by the proprietors on a former occasion. Lake Colden.—Mountain Peaks. Emerging from this valley, we found the river to have a meander- ing course of another mile, in a northwesterly and northerly direc- tion, with a moderate current, until it forks into two unequal branches. Leaving the main branch which here descends from the east, we fol- ~ lowed the northern tributary to the distance of two hundred yards 306 Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudson. from the forks, where it proved to be the outlet of a beautiful lake, of about a mile in extent. This lake, to which our party afterwards gave the name of Lake Colden, is situated between two mountain peaks which rise in lofty grandeur on either hand. We made our second camp at the outlet of this lake, and in full view of its inter- esting scenery. Previous to reaching the outlet, we had noticed on the margin of the river, fresh tracks of the wolf and also of the deer, both appa- rently made at the fullest speed, and on turning a point we came upon the warm and mangled remains of a fine deer, which had fallen a sacrifice to the wolves; the latter having been driven from their savage repast by our unwelcome approach, ‘There appeared to have been two of the aggressive party, one of which, by lying in wait, had probably intercepted the deer in his course to the lake, and they had nearly devoured their victim in apparently a short space of time. The great ascent which we had made from our first encampment, and the apparent altitude of the mountain peaks before us, together with the naked condition of their summits, rendered it obvious that the elevation of this mountain group had been greatly underrated ; and we were led to regret our want of means for a barometrical meas- urement. The height of our present encampment above Lake San- ford was estimated to be from ten to twelve hundred feet, and the height of Lake Colden, above tide, at from one thousand eight hun- dred, to two thousand feet, the elevation of Lake Sanford being assumed from such information as we could obtain, to be about eight hundred feet. The elevation of the peaks on either side of Lake Colden, were estimated from two thousand, to two thousand five hundred feet above the Jake. ‘These conclusions were entered in our notes, and are since proved to have been tolerably correct, ex- cept as they were founded on the supposed elevation of Lake San- ford, which had been very much underrated. August 19th. The rain had fallen heavily during the night, and the weather was still such as to preclude the advance of the party. But the ardor of individuals was hardly to be restrained by the storm; and during the forenoon, Mr. Henderson, with John Che- ney, our huntsman, made the circuit of Lake Colden, having in their course beaten up the quarters of a family of panthers, to the great discomfiture of Cheney’s valorous dog. At noon, the weather being more favorable, Messrs. McIntyre, McMartin and Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudson. 307 Hall, went up the border of the lake to examine the valley which extends beyond it in a N. N. E. and N. E. direction, while the writer, with Mr. Henderson, resumed the ascent of the main stream of the Hudson. Notwithstanding the wet, and the swollen state of the stream, we succeeded in ascending more than two miles ina southeasterly and southerly direction, over a constant succession of falls and rapids of an interesting character. In one instance, the river has assumed the bed of a displaced trap dyke, by which the rock has been intersected, thus forming a chasm or sluice of great depth, with perpendicular walls, into which the river is precipitated in a cascade of fifty feet. Before returning to camp, the writer ascended a neighboring ridge for the purpose of obtaining a view of the remarkably elevated val- ley from which the Hudson here issues. From this point a moun- tain peak was discovered, which obviously exceeds in elevation the peaks which had hitherto engaged our attention. Having taken the compass bearing of this peak, further progress was relinquished, in hope of resuming the exploration of this unknown region on the morrow. - Avalanche Lake.—Return to the Settlement. On returning to our camp, we met the portion of our party which had penetrated the valley north of the lake, and who had there dis- covered another lake of nearly equal extent, which discharges by an outlet that falls into Lake Colden. On the two sides of this lake, the mountains rise so precipitously as to preclude any passage through the gorge, except by water. ‘The scenery was described as very im- posing, and some fine specimens of the opalescent rock were brought from this locality. Immense slides or avalanches had been precip- itated into this lake from the steep face of the mountain, which in- duced the party to bestow upon it the name of Avalanche Lake. Another night was passed at this camp, and the morning of the 20th opened with thick mists and rain, by which our progress was further delayed. It was at last determined, in view of the bad state of the weather and our short stock of provisions, to abandon any fur- ther exploration at this time, and to return to the settlement. Re- tracing our steps nearly to the head of the Still Water, we then took a westerly course through a level and swampy tract, which soon brought us to the head waters of a stream which descends nearly in a direct course to the outlet of Lake Henderson. ‘The distance 308 Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudson. | from our camp at Lake Colden to McIntyre, by this rout, probably does not exceed six miles. Continuing our course, we reached the settlement without serious accident, but with an increased relish for the comforts of civilization. This part of the state was surveyed into large tracts, or townships, by the colonial government, as early as 1772, and lines and corners of that date, as marked upon the trees of the forest, are now dis- tinctly legible. But the topography of the mountains and streams in the upper country, appears not to have been properly noted, if at all examined, and in our best maps, has either been omitted or rep- resented erroneously. ‘Traces have been discovered near McIntyre of a rout, which the natives sometimes pursued through this moun- tain region, by way of Lakes Sanford and Henderson, and thence to the Preston Ponds and the head waters of the Racket. But these savages had no inducement to make the laborious ascent of sterile mountain peaks, which they held in superstitious dread, or to explore the hidden sources of the rivers which they send forth. Even the more hardy huntsman of later times, who, when trapping for north- ern furs, has marked his path into the recesses of these elevated for- ests, has left no traces of his axe higher than the borders of Lake Colden, where some few marks of this description may be perceived. All here seems abandoned to solitude; and even the streams and lakes of this upper region are destitute of the trout, which are found so abundant below the cataracts of the mountains. Whiteface Mountain.— The Notch. At a later period of the year, Professor Emmons, in the execu- tion of his geological survey, and accompanied by Mr. Hall, his as- sistant, ascended the Whiteface Mountain, a solitary peak of differ- ent formation, which rises in the north part of the county. From this point, Prof. E. distinctly recognized as the highest of the group, the peak on which the writer’s attention had been fastened at the termination of our ascent of the Hudson, and which he describes as situated about sixteen miles south of Whiteface. Prof. E. then pro- ceeded southward through the remarkable Notch, or pass, which is described in his Report, and which is situated about five miles north from McIntyre. The Wallface mountain, which forms the west side of the pass, was ascended by him on this occasion, and the height of its perpendicular part was ascertained to be about twelve hundred feet, as may be seen by reference to the geological Report Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudson. 309 which was published in February last, by order of the legislature. It appears by the barometrical observations made by Prof. Emmons, that the elevation of the table land which constitutes the base of these mountains at McIntyre, is much greater than we had been led to suppose. Second Journey to Essex County. The interest excited in our party by the short exploration which has been described, was not likely to fail till its objects were more fully accomplished. Another visit to this alpine re- gion was accordingly made in the summer of the present year. Our party on this occasion consisted of Messrs. McIntyre, Hender- son and Hall, (the latter at this time geologist of the western dis- trict of the state,) together with Prof. Torrey, Prof. Emmons, Messrs. Ingham and Strong of New York, Miller of Princeton, and Emmons, Jr. of Williamstown. We left Albany on the 28th of Fh! and took steamboat at Whitehall on the 29th. — At the latter place an opportunity was af- forded us to ascend the eminence known as Skeenes’ mountain, which rises about five hundred feet above the lake. Passing the interesting ruins of Ticonderoga and the less imposing military works of Crown Point, we again landed at Port Henry and pro- ceeded to the pleasant village of Kast Moriah, situated upon the high ground, three and a half miles west of the lake. ‘This village is elevated near eight hundred feet above the lake, and commands a fine view of the western slope of Vermont, terminating with the ex- tended and beautiful outline of the Green Mountains. We left East Moriah on the 31st, and our first day’s ride brought us to Johnson’s at Clear Pond. ‘The position of the High Peak of Essex was known to be but a few miles distant, and Johnson informed us that the snow remained on a peak which is visible from near his residence, till the 17th of July of the ct year. . We obtained a fine view of this peak the next morning, bearing from Johnson’s, N. 20° West, by compass, a position atch corresponded to the previous observations ; the variation in this quarter being somewhere between 8° and 9° West. Descending an abrupt declivity from Johnson’s, we arrive at a large stream which issues from a small lake farther up the country, and receiving here the outlet of Clear Pond, discharges itself into the Schroon river. The upper portions of these streams and the Vou. XXXITU.—No. 2. 40 310 Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudson. lakes from which they issue, as well as the upper course of the Bo- reas and its mountain lakes, are not found on our maps. From the stream last mentioned, the road ascends the Boreas ridge or moun- tain chain by a favorable pass, the summit of which is attained about four miles from Johnson’s. Between the Boreas and the main branch of the Hudson, we encounter a subordinate extension of the mountain group which separates the sources of the two streams, through the passes of which ridge the road is carried by a circuitous and uneven route. We reached the outlet of Lake Sanford about noon on the Ist of August, and found two small boats awaiting our arrival. Hav- ing embarked we were able fully to enjoy the beauty and gran- deur of the lake and mountain scenery which is here presented, all such views being, as is well known, precluded by the foliage while traveling in the forests. ‘The echoes which are obtained at a point on the upper portion of this lake, are very remarkable for their strength and distinctness. ‘The trout are plentiful in this lake, as well as in lake Henderson and all the neighboring lakes and streams. We arrived at McIntyre about 4 P. M., and the resources of the settlement were placed in requisition by the hospitable proprietors, for our expedition to the source of the Hudson. Barometrical Observations on the Rout. The following table shows the observations made with the barome- ter at different points on our rout, and the elevation above tide wa- ter as deduced from these observations and others made on the same days at Albany, by Matthew Henry Webster, Esq. No detached thermometer was used, the general exposure of the attached ther- mometers to the open air being such as to indicate the temperature of the air, at both the upper and lower stations, with tolerable accu- vacy. In the observations with the mountain barometer a correc- tion is here made for variation in the cistern, equal to one fiftieth of the depression which was found below the zero adjustment at thirty inches. : It is proper also to state, that the two mountain barometers made use of, continued in perfectly good order during our tour, and agreed well with each other in their zero adjustment, which is such as will give a mean annual height of full thirty inches at the sea level; but, like other barometers which have leather bottomed cisterns, are lable to be somewhat affected by damp and warm weather when Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudson. 311 in the field, and it is possible that this hygrometric depression may have slightly affected some of the observations which here follow. Upper sta- Bik tion.—Ba-|Lower sta-} 2.2 di rom. cor-/tion.—60 | sos eel) 1-50}feet above} @ 2 cages or varia-|tide at Al-| So Date. Place of observation. Hour. tion Of tis-|bany. 3 3 tern. = <= Att.) Ba- |Att) Ba- | £2 Th. rom. |Th.| rom. | © July 29, 29, Lake Champlain at White Hall, - - 9 A. M.| 72°] 29.91] - 2 90 fe Summit of Skeenes’ Mountain at Do." : 8.40 “ | 71 | 29.39] - - 588 i Lake Champlain at Port Henry,- - - 5 P. M.| 73 | 29.91 = East Moriah, Four Corners, t ERE Were 5.45 “ | 71 | 29.09 : 880 July 31, | Road summit, 9 miles from Lake Champlain, {10.45 a. m.| 71 | 28.42 | 72°) 29.94 }1.546 sf West Moriah, at Weatherhead’s,Schreon valley, 1.15 P. M. 75 | 28.86 | 7. Foe Pally, is Road summit, pass of Schroon Mountain, 4 69 | 28.57 | 73 | 29.93 | 1.875 3 Johnson’s, at Clear Pond ay oe ines 5150) 2) 67 SFOShaTe « 12.012 Aug. 1, Do. Do. Second observation,t [6.20 a.m.| 62 | 28 03} 70 | 30.04 | 1.991 if Road summit, ridge west of Johnson’s, 8 6 | 64 | 27.45] 71 & 12.592 x Boreas River ‘bridge, - - - - 9.45 “ | 69 | 28.01 | 73 | 30.02 |2.026 cs Hudson River bridge, sabi lhe’ Salen Se Lake Sanford inlet, - - : <6 Tron Works at McInfyre,_ - : ae Lake Henderson outlet, : - - {12.30 p. at] 78 | 28.19 Lake Champlain is about ninety feet above tide water. It appears from the above that the two principal depressions in the section of country over which this road passes, west of the Schroon valley, is in one case two thousand and in the other eigh- teen hundred feet in elevation. Second Expedition to the Mountains. We left the settlement on the 3d of August, with five woodsmen as assistants, to take forward our provisions and other necessaries, and commenced our ascent to the higher region in a northeasterly direction, by the rout on which we returned last year. We reached our old camp at Lake Colden at 5 P. M. where we prepared our quarters for the night. The mountain peak which rises on the east- ern side of this lake and separates it from the upper valley of the main stream of the Hudson, has received the name of Mount Mc- Martin, in honor of one now deceased, who led the party of last year, and whose spirit of enterprise and persevering labors contrib- uted to establishing the settlement at the great Ore Beds, as well as other improvements advantageous to this section of the state. * Four hundred and ninety eight feet above Lake Champlain. + Seven hundred and ninety feet above ‘do. + Mean of the two setts of observations two thousand feet, nearly. 312 Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudson. On the 4th we once more resumed the ascent of the main stream, proceeding first in an easterly direction, and then to the southeast and south, over falls and rapids, till we arrived at the head of the Great Dyke Falls. Calcedony was found by Prof. Emmons near the foot of these falls. Continuing our course on a more grad- ual rise, we soon entered upon unexplored ground, and about three miles from camp, arrived at the South Elbow, where the bed of the main stream changes to a northeasterly direction, at the point where it receives a tributary which enters from south-southwest, Following the former course, we had now fairly entered the High Valley which separates Mount McMartin from the High Peak on the southeast, but so deeply enveloped were we in the deep growth of forest, that no sight of the peaks could be obtained. About a mile from the South Elbow we found another tributary entering from south-southeast, apparently from a mountain ravine which borders the High Peak on the west. Some beautifully opalescent specimens of the Labradorite were found in the bed of this stream. High Valley of the Hudson. ‘ Another mile of our course brought us to a smaller tributary from the north, which from the alluvial character of the land near its entrance is called the High Meadow fork. ‘This portion of our rout is in the center of this mountain valley, and has the extraordi- nary elevation of three thousand and seven hundred feet above tide. We continued the same general course for another mile, with our rout frequently crossed by small falls and cascades, when we emerg- ed from the broader part of the valley and our course now became east-southeast and southeast, with a steeper ascent and higher and more frequent falls in the stream. ‘The declivity of the mountain which incloses the valley on the north and that of the great peak, here approximate closely to each other, and the valley assumes more nearly the character of a ravine or pass between two moun- tains, with an increasing ascent, and maintains its course for two or three miles, to the summit of the pass. Having accomplished more than half the ascent of this pass we made our camp for the night, which threatened to be uncommonly cold and caused our axemen to place in requisition some venerable specimens of the white birch which surrounded our encampment, Sa eentianenentiomeenaiaeinn Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudson. 313 Phenomena of Mountain Slides. A portion of the deep and narrow valley in which we were now encamped, is occupied by a longitudinal ridge consisting of boulders and other debris, the materials, evidently, of a tremendous slide or avalanche, which at some unknown period has descended from the mountain; the momentum of the mass in its descent having accu- mulated and pushed forward the ridge, after the manner of the late slide at Troy, beyond the center of the valley or gorge into which it is discharged. It appears indeed that the local configuration of sur- face in these mountain valleys, except where the rock is in place, ought to be ascribed chiefly to such causes. It seems apparent, also, that the Hudson, at the termination of its descent from the High Valley, once discharged itself into Lake Colden, the latter ex- tending southward at that period to the outlet of the Still Water, which has been noticed in our account of the former exploration. This portion of the ancient bed of the lake has not only been filled and the-bed of the stream as well as the remaining surface of the lake, raised above the former level, but a portion of the finer debris brought down by the main stream, has flowed northwardly into the present lake and filled all its southern portions with a solid and ex- tensive shoal, which is now fordable at a low stage of the water. The fall of heavy slides from the mountains appears also to have separated Avalanche Lake from Lake Colden, of which it once form- eda part, and so vast is the deposit from these slides as to have rais- ed the former lake about eighty feet above the surface of the latter. In cases where these slides have been extensive, and rapid in their descent, large hillocks or protuberances are formed in the valleys ; and the denudation from above, together with the accumulation be- low, tends gradually to diminish the extentand frequency of their occurrence. But the slides still recur, and their pathway may often be perceived in the glitter of the naked rock, which is laid bare in their course from the summit of the mountain towards its base, and these traces constitute one of the most striking features in the moun- tain scenery of this region. Main Source of the Hudson.—Fall of the Au Sable. On the morning of the fifth we found that ice had formed in ex- posed situations. At an early hour we resumed our ascending course to the southeast, the stream rapidly diminishing and at length becom- 314 Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudson. ing partially concealed under the grass-covered boulders. At 8.40 A. M. we arrived at the head of the stream on the summit of this elevated pass, which here forms a beautiful and open mountain mead- ow, with the ridges of the two adjacent mountains rising in an easy slope from its sides. From this little meadow, which lies within the present limits of the town of Keene, the main branch of the Hudson and a fork of the east branch of the Au Sable commence their descending course in opposite directions, for different and far dis- tant points of the Atlantic ocean. The elevation of this spot proves by our observations to be more than four thousand seven hundred feet above tide water; being more than nine hundred feet above the highest point of the Catskill mountains, which have so long been considered the highest mountains in this state. The descent of the Au Sable from this point is most retinaheahtee In its comparative course to Lake Champlain, which probably does not exceed forty miles, its fall is more than four thousand six hun- dred feet! This, according to our present knowledge, is more than twice the entire descent of the Mississippi proper, from its source to the ocean. Water-falls of the most striking and magnificent charac- ter are known to abound on the course of this stream. High Peak of Essex. Our ascent to the source of the Hudson had brought us to an ele- vated portion of the highest mountain peak, which was also a prin- cipal object of our exploration, and its ascent now promised to be of easy accomplishment by proceeding along its ridge in a W. S. W. direction. On emerging from the pass, however, we immediately found ourselves entangled in the zone of dwarfish pines and spruces, which with their numerous horizontal branches interwoven with each other, surround the mountain at this elevation. These gradually decreased in height, till we reached the open surface of the moun- tain, covered only with mosses and small alpine plants, and at 10 A. M. the summit of the High Peak of Essex was beneath our feet. The aspect of the morning was truly splendid and delightful, and the air on the mountain-top was found to be cold and bracing. Around us lay scattered in irregular profusion, mountain masses of various magnitudes and elevations, like to a vast sea of broken and pointed billows. Inthe distance lay the great valley or plain of the St. Lawrence, the shining surface of Lake Champlain, and the ex- tensive mountain range of Vermont. The nearer portions of the Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudson. 315 scene were variegated with the white glare of recent mountain slides as seen on the sides of various peaks, and with the glistening of the beautiful lakes which are so common throughout this region. To complete the scene, from one of the nearest settlements a vast vol- ume of smoke soon rose in majestic splendor, from a fire of sixty acres of forest clearing, which had been prepared for the “ burning,” and exhibiting in the vapor which it embodied, a gorgeous array of the prismatic colors, crowned with the dazzling beams of the midday sun. The summit, as well as the mass of the mountain, was found to consist entirely of the labradoritic rock, which has been mentioned as constituting the rocks of this region, and a few small speci- mens of hypersthene were here procured. On some small de- posits of water, ice was also found at noon, half an inch in thick- ness. ‘The source of the Hudson, at the head of the High Pass, bears N. 70° E. from the summit of this mountain, distant one and _a quarter miles, and the descent of the mountain is here more grad-. ual than in any other direction. Before our departure we had the unexpected satisfaction to discover, through a depression in the Green Mountains, a range of distant mountains in nearly an east di- rection, and situated apparently beyond the valley of the Connec- ticut; but whether the range thus seen, be a portion of the White Mountains of New Hampshire or the mountains of Franconia, near the head of the Merrimack, does not fully appear. Our baromet- rical observations on this summit show an elevation of five thousand four hundred and sixty seven feet. ‘This exceeds by about six hundred feet, the elevation of the Whiteface Mountain, as given by Prof. Emmons; and is more than sixteen hundred and fifty feet above the highest point of the Catskill Mountains. Wear of River Boulders. The descent to our camp was accomplished by a more direct and far steeper rout than that by which we had gained the summit, and our return to Lake Colden afforded us no new objects of examina- tion. The boulders which form the bed of the stream in the upper Hudson, are often of great magnitude, but below the mountains, where we commenced our exploration last year, the average size does not much exceed that of the paving stones in our cities ;—so great is the effect of the attrition to which these boulders are subject in their gradual progress down the stream. Search has been made by the writer, among the gravel from the bottom and shoals of the 316 Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudson. Hudson near the head of tide-water, for the fragmentary remains of the labradoritic rock, but hitherto without success. We may hence infer that the whole amount of this rocky material, which, aided by the ice, and the powerful impulse of the annual freshets, finds its way down the Hudson, a descent of from two thousand to four thou- sand seven hundred feet, is reduced by the combined effects of air, water, frost, and attrition, to an impalpable state, and becomes im- perceptibly deposited in the alluvium of the river, or continuing sus- pended, is transferred to the waters of the Atlantic. Great Trap Dyke. On the 7th of August we visited Avalanche Lake, and exam- ined the great dyke of sienitic trap in Mount McMartin, which cuts through the entire mountain in the direction from west-northwest to east-southeast. This dyke is about eighty feet in width, and being in part broken from its bed by the action of water and ice, an open chasm is thus formed in the abrupt and almost perpendicular face of the mountain. ‘The scene on entering this chasm is one of sublime grandeur, and its nearly vertical walls of rock, at some points actu- ally overhang the intruder, and seem to threaten him with instant destruction. With care and exertion this dyke may be ascended, by means of the irregularities of surface which the trap rock presents, and Prof. Emmons by this means accomplished some twelve or fif- teen hundred feet of the elevation. His exertions were rewarded - by some fine specimens of hypersthene and of the opalescent lab- radorite, which were here obtained. ‘The summit of Mount McMar- _tin is somewhat lower than those of the two adjacent peaks, and is estimated at four thousand nine hundred and fifty feet above tide. The distance from the outlet of Lake Colden to the opposite ex- tremity of Avalanche Lake is estimated at two and a quarter miles. The stream which enters the latter at its northern extremity, from the appearance of its valley, is supposed to be three-fourths of a mile in length, and the fall of the outlet in its descent to Lake Col- den is estimated, as we have seen, at eighty feet. ‘The head waters of this fork of the Hudson are hence situated farther north than the more remote source of the Main Branch, which we explored on the Ath and 5th, or perhaps than any other of the numerous tributaries of the Hudson. ‘The elevation of Avalanche Lake is between two thousand nine hundred and three thousand feet above tide, be- ing undoubtedly the highest lake in the United States, east of the Rocky Mountains. Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudson. 317 The mountain which rises on the west side of this lake and sep- arates its valley from that of the Au Sable, is perhaps the largest of the group. Its ridge presents four successive peaks, of which the most northern save one, is the highest, and is situated immediately above the lake and opposite to Mount McMartin. It has received the name of Mount McIntyre, in honor of the late Controller of this state, to whose enterprise and munificence, this portion of the coun- try is mainly indebted for the efficient measures which have been taken to promote its prosperity. Ascent of Mount McIntyre. On the morning of the 8th, we commenced the ascent of Mount McIntyre through a steep ravine, by which a small stream is dis- charged into Lake Colden. The entire ascent being comprised in little more than a mile of horizontal distance, is necessarily difficult, and on reaching the lower border of the belt of dwarf forest, we found the principal peak rising above us on our right, with its steep acclivity of naked rock extending to our feet. Wishing to shorten our rout, we here unwisely abandoned the remaining bed of the ravine, and sustaining ourselves by the slight inequalities of surface: which have resulted from unequal decomposition, we succeeded in crossing the apparently smooth face of the rock by an oblique as- cent to the right, and once more obtained footing in the woody cover of the mountain. But the continued steepness of the acclivity, and the seemingly impervious growth of low evergreens on this more sheltered side, where their horizontal and greatly elongated branches were most perplexingly intermingled, greatly retarded our progress. Having surmounted this region we put forward with alacrity, and at 1 P. M. reached the summit. | The view which was here presented to us differs not greatly in its general features from that obtained at the High Peak, and the weather, which now began to threaten us with a storm, was less fa- vorable to its exhibition. A larger number of lakes were visible from this point, and among them the beautiful and extensive group at the sources of the Saranac, which are known by the settlers as the “Saranac Waters.” The view of the Still Water of the Hud- son, lying like a silver thread in the bottom of its deep and forest- green valley, was peculiarly interesting. ‘The opposite front of Mount McMartin exhibited the face of the great dyke and its pas- sage through the summit, near to its highest point, and nearly parallel Vou. XX XIII.—No. 2. Al 318 Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudsoi. to the whitened path of a slide which had recently descended into Avalanche Lake. In a direction a little south of west, the great ver- tical precipice of the Wallface Mountain at the Notch, distinctly met our view. Deeply below us on the northwest and north, lay the valley of the west branch of the Au Sable, skirted in the distance by the wooded plains which extend in the direction of Lake Placid and the Whiteface Mountain. Mount McIntyre is also intersected by dykes, which cross it at the lowest points of depression between its several peaks, and the more rapid erosion and displacement of these dykes has apparently produced the principal ravines in its sides. ‘The highest of these peaks on which we now stood, is intersected by cracks and fissures in various directions, apparently caused by earthquakes. Large blocks of the same labradoritic rock as the mass of the mountain, lay scattered in various positions about the summit, which afforded nearly the same growth of mosses and alpine plants as the higher peak visited on the 5th. Our barometric observations show a height of near five thousand two hundred feet, and this summit is proba- bly the second in this region, in point of elevation. ‘There are three other peaks lying in a westerly direction, and also three others lying eastward of the main source of the Hudson, which nearly ap- proach to, if they do not exceed, five thousand feet in elevation, making of this class, including Mount McMartin, Whiteface, and the two peaks visited, ten in all. Besides these mountains there are not less than a dozen or twenty others that appear to equal or exceed the highest elevation of the Catskill group. Visit to the Great Notch.—Return to the Settlement. The descent of the mountain is very abrupt on all sides, and our party took the rout of a steep ravine which leads into the valley of _the Au Sable, making our camp at night-fall near the foot of the mountain. The night was stormy, and the morning of the 9th _ opened upon us with a continued fall of rain, in which we resumed our march for the Notch, intending to return to the settlement by this rout. After following the bed of the ravine till it joined the Au Sable, we ascended the latter stream, and before noon arrived at this extraordinary pass, which has been described by the state geol- ogists, and which excites the admiration of every beholder. Vast blocks and fragments have in past ages fallen from the great preci- pice of the Wallface Mountain on the one hand, and from the south- Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudson. 319 west extension of Mount McIntyre on the other, into the bottom of this natural gulf. Some of these blocks are set on end, of a height of more than seventy feet, in the moss-covered tops and crevices of which, large trees have taken root, and now shoot their lofty stems high above the toppling foundation. The north branch of the Hudson, which passes through Lakes Henderson and Sanford, takes its rise in this pass, about five miles from McIntyre, and the eleva- tion of its source, as would appear from the observations taken by Prof. Emmons last year, is not far from three thousand feet above tide. : ; Following the course of the valley, under a most copious fall of rain, we descended to Lake Henderson, which is a fine sheet of water of two or three miles in length, with the high mountain of Santanoni rising from its borders, on the west and southwest. It is not many months since our woodsman, Cheney, with no other means of offense than his axe and pistol, followed and killed a large pan- ther, on the western borders of this lake. Pursuing our course along the eastern margin of this lake, we arrived at the settlement about 3 P. M., having been absent on our forest excursion seven days. Elevation of the Mountain Region. The following table of observations, as also the preceding one, is calculated according to the formula given by Bowditch in his Navi- gator, except for the two principal mountain peaks, which are cal- culated by the formula and tables of M. Oltmanns, as found in the appendix to the Geological Manual of De la Beche, Philadelphia edition. For the points near Lake Champlain, the height is de- duced from the observations made at the lake shore, instead of those at Albany, adding ninety feet for the height of Lake Champlain above tide. ‘The barometrical observations made at Syracuse, N. Y., at the same periods, by V. W. Smith, Esq., (with a well adjusted ba- rometer, which has been compared with those of the writer,) would give to the High Peak an elevation of five thousand five hundred and ten feet. ‘The observations at Albany have been taken for the lower station, because the latter place is less distant, and more nearly on the same meridian. Perhaps the mean of the two results may with propriety be adopted. In most of the other cases, the results deduced from the observations at Albany agree very nearly with the results obtained from the observations made at Syracuse, 320 Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudson. Upper sta- & tion.— Ba-|Lower sta-| = 9 rom. cor-|tion.—60 | eo5 rected 1-50/feet above! 2 © Date. Place of observation. Hour. |for varia-jtide at Al-| 5 8 tion of cis-jbany. 23 i tern. = = Att[ Ba- |Atty Ba- | 52 Th.| rom. |Th.| rom. | 5 Aug. 3,| Lake Colden outlet, 5.30 pv. m.| 70°| 27.00 | 74°! 29.78 |2.851 Aug. 4,| Hudson River, above the Dyke Falls, 12.30 “ | 74 | 26.72| 72 | 29.97 |3.356 er Do. in High Valley, E. of Mt. McMartin, (2.30 pv. mu Us Do. one third mile above camp, in the ~ High Pass, Aug. 5,| Head of the High Pass, source of the main branch of the Hudson anda fork of the east branch of the Au Sable, sf Summit of the High Peak of Essex, one and a quarter miles 8. 70° W. from the source of the Hudson, Aug. 8;| Summit of Mount McIntyre, between Lake Colden and West branch of the Au Sable, Aug. 12,| Summit of Bald Peak,” on the west shore of 72 | 26.37 | 73 | 29.96 |3.711 52 | 25.66 | 72 | 29.97 |4.344 47 | 25.43 | 64 | 30.20 |4.747 .| 47 | 24.83] 69 | 30.24 |5.467 60 | 25.11 | 73 | 30.14 |5.183 ee ae he! ae ah _ be] & Lake Champlain, six miles N. 29° W. from >|11 a. m.| 65 | 27.99 Crown Point, 2.065 fe Lake Champlain at Port Henry, 4 P. M.| 75 | 30.02 : ; Do. corrected as for 11 a. mM. : - 73 | 30.03 View of Lake Champlain.—Routs to the Head of the Hudson. Bald Peak is the principal eminence on the western shore of Lake Champlain, about seven miles N. N. W.,from Crown Point, and was ascended by the writer on our return to the lake. A good car- riage road leads from East Moriah nearly to the foot of the peak, from whence the ascent by a footpath is not difficult, and may be ac- complished even by ladies, without hazard. ‘The summit commands a good view of some of the principal peaks in the interior, and the prospect of the prolonged basin of Lake Champlain, which is ob- tained from this point, is well worth the trouble of the ascent, and is worthy the attention of tourists who can find it convenient to land either at Port Henry or Westport. The source of the Hudson and the High Peak of Essex, can be most conveniently reached from Johnson’s, at Clear Pond, by a course N. 20° W. ; or by landing at Westport, or Essex and proceed- ing to the nearest settlement in Keene. By landing at Port Kent, and ascending the course of the Au Sable to the southeast part of Keene, and from thence to the Peak, the most interesting chain of wa- terfalls and mountain ravines that is to be found, perhaps, in the United States, may be visited. At Keene, Mr. Harvey Holt, an able woods- man, who was attached to our party, will cheerfully act as guide and assistant, inreaching the mountain. From the valley which lies south- ward of the peak, and near to the head waters of the Boreas and Au Sable, may be obtained, it is said, some of the best mountain views which this region affords. But travelers in these wilds, must be * 1975 feet aboye Lake Champlain. Wallface Me. | he ye => SS s g =) = 2 =I oO § n Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudson. 821 provided with their own means of subsistence, while absent from the settlements. “3B, ep ; SNUG as 4 OWN Us. Tall! his WZ * High Peale of E ssex The above sketch must be considered only as an approach to correctness of topography, and is based in part upon the survey lines, as found on the County map; but the geographical position is approximated to Burr’s Map of the State of New York, by means of bearings from known objects on the borders of Lake Champlain. 322 Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudson. Mountains of. New Hampshire. The only point east of the Mississippi which is known to exceed this group of mountains in elevation, is the highest summit of the White Mountains in New Hampshire; the elevation of which is given by Prof. Bigelow from barometrical observations, reduced by Prof. Farrar, at six thousand two hundred and twenty-five feet.* Prof. Bigelow adduces the observations of Capt. Partridge, made several years since, as giving an elevation of only six thousand one hundred and three feet. But the writer is indebted to Dr. Barratt for a memorandum of observations made by Capt. Partridge in Au- gust, 1821, which gives the height of the principal peaks of the New Hameahice group, as follows : Mount Washington, above the sea, 6.234 feet. sé Adams, oG co poeo ‘¢ (Jefferson, ef “ ©§.058 ‘¢ — Madison, ec “4.866 “Franklin, ce ATI ‘Monroe, ee “4.356 From this it appears most probable that there are a greater number of peaks in the Essex group that exceed five thousand feet, than in New Hampshire ; although the honor of the highest peak is justly claimed by the latter. Imperfect State of Geographical knowledge—Resources of the Mountain District. It appears unaccountable, that the elevation of this region at the sources of the Hudson should have been, hitherto, so greatly under- rated. Even Darby, in his admirable work on American geography, estimates the fall of the rivers which enter Lake Champlain from the west, as similar to those on the east, which he states to be from five hundred to one thousand feet.+ The same writer also estimates the height of the table land from which the Hudson flows, at something more than one thousand feet!{ ‘The mountains of this region, ap- pear to have almost escaped the notice of geographical wtiters, and in ~ one of our best Gazetteers, that of Darby and Dwight, published in 1833, the elevation of the mountains in Essex county, is stated at one thousand two hundred feet. In Macauley’s History of New York, published in Albany in 1829, there is, however, an attempt to describe the mountains of the Northern district of the State, by * New England Journal of Medicine and Surgery, Vol. V., p. 330. t Darby’s View of the U.S. p. 242. t Ib. p. 140. Exploring Visits to the Sources of the Hudson. 323 dividing them into six distinct ranges. ‘This description is neces- sarily imperfect, as regards the central portion of the group; but this author appears to have more nearly appreciated the elevation of these mountains than any former writer. He states the elevation of Whiteface at two thousand six hundred feet, and the highest part of the most westerly or Chateaugua range at three thousand feet. To the mountains near the highest source of the Hudson, including probably the High Peak, he has given the name of the Clinton range, and has estimated their elevation from six hundred, to two thousand feet!* He also describes the West Branch of the Hudson which rises near the eastern border of Herkimer county, as being the prin- cipal stream. The Northwest Branch, which unites with the main North Branch, a few miles below Lake Sanford, he describes as rising on the borders of Franklin and Essex counties and as pursuing a more extended course than the North Branch. Perhaps this de- scription may be found correct, although information received from other sources does not seem to confirm this position. It is understood that Prof. Emmons, in pursuing his geological ex- plorations, has ascended another of the principal peaks situated eas- terly of the highest source of the Hudson, and made other observa- tions which will be of value in settling the geography of this region. The Professor finds the northern district of the state, to be one of great interest to the geologist, and although from the deficiencies of our maps, he is constrained to the performance of duties which per- tain to the geographical, rather than to the geological department of science, yet all that can be accomplished in either branch, with the means placed at his disposal, may be confidently expected from his discriminating zeal and untiring perseverance. Owing, perhaps, to the soda and lime which are constituents of the labradoritic rock, and its somewhat easy decomposition when ex- posed to the action of the elements, the soil of this region is quite favorable to the growth of the forests as well as the purposes of agri- culture. The beds of iron ore which are found on the waters of the Hudson, at McIntyre, probably surpass in richness and extent, any that have been discovered in other countries. In future prospect, this region may be considered as the Wales of the American conti- nent, and with its natural resources duly improved, it will, at no dis- tant period, sustain a numerous and hardy population. New York, November I, 1837. * Macauley’s History of New York, Vol. 1., pp. 2 to 9 and 20,21. Albany, 1829. 324 Contributions to English Lewicography. Art. XV.—Contributions to English Lewicography ; by Prof. J. W. Gipss. No. I. Account of some Arabie Words found in English. Abuna, (Arab. G sah Ethiop. AN-4: our fae ; comp. Heb. 93°38 ;) the title of Christian priests in Syria; also of the primate of Abyssinia. Al, (Arab. if the; comp. Heb. “1, for 55 ;) a prefix to many words derived from the Arabic, which, however, has amalgamated with the noun itself, and lost its original significancy ; as, alcaid, alchimy, alko- ran, etc. Src Alcaid, (Arab. os a governor, with pref. if the, from oly to lead, govern ;) a name a of office among the Moors, Spaniards and Portu- guese. This word is not to be confounded with cadi, which has an entirely different origin. cs Alchimy, (Arab. \4+4= kimia, as if the hidden art, with pref.) the, from > to hide;) the more sublime and difficult parts of chimistry. Comp. chimistry. It is remarkable that Buchardsen ad- heres to the old derivation from Gr. 7éw. Sx 1c. 2 Alcohol, (Arab. j= a pigment for the eyes made of the black cs Cour OI oxyd of antimony, with pref. oN the, from i to blacken or paint the eyes; comp. Heb. 5m> idem;) pure spirits. However diffi- cult it may be to show the connection between a pigment of antimony and pure spirits; yet the fact of the connection is evident from Span. alcohol, which unites these two significations. 3 GB 2 Alcove, (Arab. ae) kubba, an arch, with pref. ai the, from hide, conj. ii. 20 construct with an arch; comp. Heb. Map a chamber, dor- mitory, so called because arched, from 3a; to make ‘curved or hollow ; 3) a recess in a chamber to sit or lie in; hence a recess in a library UR I 44-CS Aldebaran, (Arab. ul, ssf liter. the follower, scil. of the Pleiades, from “f+ 7 SO to follow ; comp. iHeb, 23 idem ;) a star of the first magnitude in the southern eye of the constellation Taurus. Contributions to English Lexicography. 329 S ee (xe 5 Alembic, (Arab. Gxt or KI a chimical vessel for distillation, with pref. Sf the;) a chimical vessel for distillation. Gor Algebra, (Arab. fen the reduction of parts to a whole, or of fractions to a whole number, with pref. J the, from vane to bind up, to consolt- date, to make whole ; comp. Heb. 923 to be strong, as if to be girded ;) universal arithmetic, a general mode of computing by signs. Richard- son has given the Arabic word incorrectly. Alkali, (Arab. ree the ashes of a plant called glass-wort, from which Ie Ce alkali is obtained, with pref. m)) the, from cs to fry ; comp. Heb. mp to roast ;) the name of a peculiar class of chimical substances. 5~ 07, Alkoran, (Arab. &) i, $ liter. a reading, with pref. a the, from i 3 fo read ; comp. ae Nop to cry, to call, to read ;) the sacred Be of the Mohammedans. Also called koran, q. v. ce Almagest, (Arab. magest = Gr. “éyeot0c, greatest, with pref. ov the ;) the name of an astronomical work by Ptolemy. 5 a = (Almande. (Arab. af a diary, calendar, with pref. Sf the ;) a diary, calendar. Cadi, (Arab. cal a judge, from cs'3 to decide, judge; comp. Heb. mxp to cut off, to judge ;) among the Mohammedans, an inferior judge. This word is not to be confounded with alcatd, which has an entirely different origin. 5 =- ican Caliph, (Arab. RAMS khalipha, @ successor, vicegerent, from Cs to succeed ; comp. Heb. eda to pass along, to succeed ;) a title given to the successors of Mohammed. Chimistry, (Arab. 4445 kimia, as if the hidden art, from (54> to hide ;) the science which teaches the nature of bodies. In usage it is distinguished from alchimy, q. v. SIC 2 Coffee, (Arab. 5aQs kahwa, wine, also a decoction of coffee, from ¢ 39 conj. iv. to drink frequently ;) the name of a berry, and of a drake made from it. Vou. XXXIIL.—No. 2. 42 326 Contributions to English Levicography. 5G 4 Cotton, (Arab. (25 cotton ; comp. So linen, also Heb. nin> 4 tunic ;) a soft, downy substance obtained from a plant. § -IC-F 2ecr Dragoman, (Arab. Ola targoman, an interpreter, from te to interpret ; comp. Chald. n34m idem ;) in the east, an interpreter. Bs ce “Ee Emir, (Arab. Veal a cemmander, prince, from Nad to command ; comp. 4 e Heb. "28 to say, also to command ;) in Turkey, a title of honor given to those who claim descent from Mohammed. ‘The form omrahs, which 2-¢ is derived from the Arabic plural a} 0 x} by annexing s, is not to be mnitated. 4c Fetwa, (Arab. c$ gS a legal decision or answer, from Us con]. iv. fo give a legal decision ; comp. Heb. np to open ;) a written decision of the muftt. Comp. oe Bow 2 BF Haji, (Arab. spl a pilgrim to Mecca, from ao Zo £9 on a pil- grimage to Mecea; comp. Heb. 335 to move round ina circle, to dance, to celebrate a festival ;) a Mohammedan pilgrim. Se See FTarem, (Arab. ie @ sanctuary, a woman’s apartment, from to prohibit ; comp. Heb. 3m primar. to shut up, te prehibié;) im the east, the woman’s apartment. GEC fe Hegira, (Arab. = hijra, flight, leaving one’s counéry, from ts to fly ys comp. Heb. 447 idem ;) the fight of Mchammed from Mecca to Medina, ey which the MACE reckon time. Imam, (Arab. cbel a priest, from a to go before, to lead in sacred rites ;} : S a Mohammedan priest. ‘The form iman is incorrect. 9 —-¢ Islam, (Arab. c Maul liter. devotion or submission, scil. ta God and his e prophet Mohammed, hence the Mohammedan religion, from @\” conj. Al. to submit to God ; comp. Heb. 03W to be sound, Hiph. éo make peace by submission ;) the Mohammedan religion. Comp. Moslem and Mu- sulman, which are from the same root. Islamism, the preceding word with the Greek termination ism. Contributions to English Lexicography. 327 Kebla, (Arab. Ave he region in front of a person, the direction of a person's face in prayer, frem bY to meet ; comp. Heb. Sp fo be before, or over against ;) the direction of a person’s face in prayer. Woran, in usage the same as Alkoran, q. V. Gives Mamiuk, (Arab. Selso possessed, @ See pass. part. from Cues to possess, rule ; see Heb. 327 to reign ;) in the east, a kind of mer- cenary soldier. Ge - | Minaret, (Arab. Splio a place for a Ye ht, the turret of a Mohammedan =_— — femple, from ps fo shine; comp. Heb. 792 idem;) the tower of a Mohammedan tempie. Mohammed, (Arab. Once =Uo praised, also Mohammed, from —_— to praise ; comp. Heb. 73M to desire earnestly ;) the proper name of the Arabian impostor. 11 C= Eas, Molla, (Arab. cs90 maula, a@ president, lord, from ey to preside, govern ;) among the Mchammedans, a superior judge. %S Cc — —-— - = Mosk, (Arab. ASU masjid, a temple, from AS fo incline the head, to worship ; comp. Heb. 430 idem ;) @ Mohammedan temple. TAS e) Moslem, (Arab. pho one devoted to God and his prophet Mohammed, a Mohammedan, from nv con]. i. £0 submit fo God; comp. zslam above ;) a Mohammedan. e 3 Mufti, (Arab. ¢5*20 one who decides cases of Mohammedan law, from Lis conj. 1. fo give a legal decision; comp. fetwa above ;) in Turkey, the chief minister of religion and law. Musulman, the Persian form of the Arabic word moslem. The plural form musulmen has arisen from mistake and is incorrect. 55 — nem Rais, (Arab. mal a captain, from Cul to be head or chief ; comp. Heb. 4 the head;) in the east, the captain of a ship. = = — Ramadan, (Arab. joes af ;) the month of fasting among the Arabians. 328 Dr. Mantells Lecture on Zoophytes. § Ce i Sheikh, (Arab. Basan an old man, also a name of office, from “Ae to be old ;) among the Arabians‘and Moors, a man of eminence. 2 = apt Sherif, (Arab. CRS pit noble, from 3, to be noble ; comp. Heb. aw f ce ae idem ;) a title of honor given to the descendants of Mohammed. ¥ 4 —-cJ - =-— e Sultan, (Arab. lbh. a prince, ruler, from J... to rule; comp. Heb. bw idem ;) the title of the emperor of Turkey. Wadi, (Arab. vis ;j)a ae or bed of a river. "6 - i= Vizier, (Arab. -3 J wr) liter. one loaded with business, from f\ f 5 to fae comp. Heb. a71idem;) among the Mohammedans, a minister of state. Art. XVI.—Lectures and Remarks of Dr. Grvzon ManTewu. No. 1. We have received, from time to time, printed notices of the ad- mirable lectures of Dr. Mantell on geology and other subjects, de- livered at Brighton, England, and printed, (in an abridged form,) in the papers of that town. Like all the productions of that highly gifted and enlightened man, they are replete with accurate science, with enlarged views of the relations of things, and with happy moral applications. We have, for some time, intended to publish in this Journal, parts of these lectures, and occasionally to give them entire, believing that we can in no way gratify and instruct our readers more effectually in the sciences of which they treat. ‘T’o the adept, they will prove an interesting review, and to the student and especially the young lec- turer, they will afford a fine model of a condensed, perspicuous and beautiful style, with as much of accurate science as can well be com- municated in a popular lecture. : We are happy also in the opportunity of paying, (consistently with the plan of our work,) this mark of respect to a gentleman who is an ornament to his country, and to whom science, especially geol- ogy, comparative anatomy, and paleontology are greatly indebted. —Ebp. Dr. Mantell’s Lecture on Zoophytes. 329 Dr. Mantell’s Lecture on Zoophytes. The subject* (says the reporter) which he had selected for illustra- tion, was one of peculiar interest, and yet perhaps less understood by the general observer, than any other department of natural science ; nor was this surprising, when we considered that notwithstanding the press had poured out books on natural history in such abundance and variety as absolutely to retard the progress of knowledge by the over- whelming mass of materials, yet there existed not in our language one good elementary work on that wonderful division of the animal kingdom which it was the purpose of his present attempt to elucidate. If it be necessary (said Dr. M.) for me on this, as on previous occa- sions, to defend investigations of this nature from the charge of inu- tility or frivolity, and answer the question—‘ To what practical end and advantage do such researches tend ?” I might refer to the history of all science, where speculations even the most unprofitable, have invariably led to great practical benefits. But I will take a higher ground, and, in the language of a philosopher alike the pride of our country and the admiration of Europe, assert, that there is a lofty and disinterested pleasure in scientific pursuits which ought to exempt them from such questioning. ‘Communicating as they do to the mind the purest happiness, after the exercise of the benevolent and religious feelings, of which our nature is susceptible, I would allege this as a sufficient and direct reply to those who having themselves little capacity and less relish for intellectual pursuits, are constantly repeating this inquiry.” ‘The natural philosopher, accustomed to trace the operations of the laws which the Creator has established, in circumstances where the uninformed and unenquiring eye per- ceives neither novelty nor beauty, walks in the midst of wonders ; every object which falls in his way elucidates some principle, affords some instruction, and impresses him with a sense of harmony and order, and of deep humility and dependence. Nor is it one of the least advantages of these pursuits that they are independent of ex- ternal circumstances, and may be enjoyed in every situation of life; the calm and dispassionate interest with which they fill the mind, renders them a most delightful retreat from the agitations and dissen- sions of the world, and from the conflict of passions, prejudices, and * Jn aid of the funds of the new Association for the Fishermen of Brighton. 330 Dr. Mantell’s Lecture on Bachliytésk interests in which we all find ourselves continually involved; in short, by directing our attention to the investigation of natural phenomena, we may realize the beautiful fiction of our immortal Shakspeare, and find— ; ‘Tongues in trees—books in the running brooks— Sermons in stones—and good in every thing. The beautiful world around us is every where full of objects present- ing innumerable varieties of form and structure, of action and posi- tion; some of them being inanimate or inorganic, and others pos- sessing organization and vitality. ‘The organic kingdom of nature ia like manner was separated into two grand divisions, the animal and the vegetable. ‘The differences between organic and inorganic bodies were very numerous and manifest; but in this brief discourse he need only mention a few obvious and familiar characters. All the parts of an inorganic body enjoyed an independent existence: if he broke off a crystal from the mass before him, the specimen did not lose any of its properties—it was still a mass of crystal as before; but if he removed a branch from a tree, or a limb from an animal, both the one and the other were imperfect; and the parts removed underwent decomposition; the plant withered, the animal matter underwent putrefaction. Again, if crystals, which may be considered the most perfect models of inorganic substan- ces, were formed, these crystals will continue of the same size and figure, unless acted upon by some external force of a chemical or mechanical nature: nor has the crystal any power of increasing or diminishing its bulk but by addition or subtraction externally. In organic bodies the characters are totally different: they acquire definite forms and structure which are capable of resisting for a time the ordinary laws that affect inorganic matter, and internally they are in constant change; from the moment of the first existence of a plant or animal, to the period of its dissolution, there is no repose, youth follows infancy, maturity precedes age. It is thus with the moss and the oak, the mite and the elephant, life and death are com- mon to them all. The lecturer went on to describe the principles of vitality which existed in animals and vegetables, and by which their systems of vessels were enabled to attract and select nutriment, and maintain their existence till the period when the vital principle quitted the frame it had animated. ‘Thus the body became subject to the laws which affect inorganic matter, the bough hangs down, and the slender stem bends towards the earth, the animal falls to the Dr. Mantell’s Lecture on Zoophytes. 331 ground, the skin becomes distended, and the graceful form of life disappears, chemical changes begin to operate, decomposition takes place, and finally dust returns to dust and the spirit of man to Him who gave it. Dr. M. next described the essential characters of ani- mal existence and contrasted it with that of the vegetable kingdom; defining the former as possessing certain determinate external forms, which were gradually developed, and having an internal organiza- tion possessing systems of vessels for effecting nutrition and support, combined with a nervous. system communicating sensation and vol- untary motion. ‘The external forms are as various as the imagina- tion can conceive, from the god-like image of man to the shapeless mass of living jelly that floats on the waves; from the elephant and whale to the insect and monad, of which five hundred millions are contained ina single drop of water: in short, so various and dissimi- lar are the forms of animals even on our own globe, that the opinion of astronomers that the inhabitants of the glorious orbs around us must of necessity, from the different description and conditions of the respective planets, be totally unlike any that exist on the earth, can no longer appear marvellous and incredible. ‘The lecturer then observed, that of all the extraordinary forms, none were more unlike what the common observer would conceive of animals, than the sponges, corals, &c., which were known by the name of zoophytes, from two Greek words signifying animal plants. In this very town Mr. Ellis, in 1752, first discovered the animal nature of sponges, and many other forms previously supposed to be plants. Dr. Mantell then described the flustra which occurs on the rocks, and on almost every leaf of sea weed, appearing like a fine lace work. When viewed through a powerful microscope, every pore in this lace work is found to be the cell of a polypus or living animal, in form of a tube with the border fringed with bony feelers or tentacula. These were the instruments by which the animal obtained its prey, it might be seen expanding these feelers, then suddenly contracting them, and retreating into the cell, and then again protruding forth, the whole surface of the flustra exhibiting at every pore a living form. Dr. M. then pointed out on his beautiful drawings magnified views of these extraordinary beings, drawn from living specimens from the sea shore. The jflustra (which the lecturer observed he took as the type of zoophytal animation, because it was so common,) is a com- pound animal, consisting of a fleshy substance with an internal cal- careous skeleton, the foci of vitality consisting of polypi, by whose 332 Dr. Mantell’s Lecture on Zoophytes. agency the life of the whole mass is maintained. How far each polype may possess sensation apart from the rest or from the general — mass, whether they are separate centres of sensation, and suscepti- ble of pain and pleasure individually, it is impossible for us to deter- mine. We have a living proof, in our own species, in the Siamese twins, that there may be a united organization with distinct nervous system and individual sensation. However this may be, it is certain that the Almighty Creator of the universe has bestowed on these, as on all his creatures, the capacity and means of enjoyment. Dr. M. then mentioned the various and almost endless forms which this class of animals assumed, some being branched like trees, and flexi- ble, others of a stony hardness ; some in large blocks with convolu- tions on the surface, of which the brain coral was a familiar exam- ple; others not unlike large fungi, some of a beautiful blue color; while a well known species was of so exquisite a vermilion, that a comparison with it was the greatest compliment paid to the lips of beauty. This species, the Corallium rubrum, so much used for or- namental purposes, is common in the Mediterranean and other warm seas; and immense quantities are annually obtained for the manu- factories at Naples, Leghorn, and other places. In a living state it forms a branched figure of about one foot in height, and is covered over with a fleshy substance of a pale bluish color, is studded with numerous starlike projections, from which issue polypi with six or eight feelers, the whole looking, when the animals are expanded, like a branch of a tree with a crimson base, a bluish bark and numerous flowers. The paintings exhibited by Dr. Mantell, of the red coral when alive, were very beautiful, and admirably illustrative of his description. All the principal forms of corals were exemplified by drawings, and by a fine and numerous series of specimens, (of the skeletons, as the lecturer termed them,) of madrepores, astree, &c. The appearance of the recent zoophytes when seen in tranquil water was described by Dr. M. as most beautiful; the bottom of the Red Sea was so enamelled with them in some parts as to appear like a bed of tulips or dahlias; and when we looked at the drawings of some of the large fungi, which had a crimson disk with a purple and yellow centre, we could not doubt the propriety of the com- parison. From the wonderful structure of the zoophytes, Dr. M. proceeded to the consideration of the still more marvellous effects produced by such apparently helpless beings, the production of coral Dr. Mantell’s Lecture on Zoophytes. 333 reefs, and finally of islands and even continents. A painting of a circular island produced by these animalcule was exhibited, Dr. M. describing it from the graphic account of Capt. Flinders, and shew- ing how it first appeared above the waters, then gradually acquired a covering of soil in which a few plants took root ; sea fowl frequented it and brought seeds of other vegetables; these grew, and cocoa nuts wafted thither by the currents, took root, and palms shed their beau- tiful foliage over the new isle; lastly, man discovered it, erected his hut upon it, and called himself lord of this new creation. Surely, said Dr. Mantell, it is to an insular paradise of this kind that our inimitable poet Moore alludes in those exquisite lines— Oh! had we some bright little isle of our own, In a blue summer ocean far off and alone, Where a leaf never dies in the still-blooming bowers, And the bee banquets on through a whole year of Homer &e, The lecturer then proceeded to the consideration of the fossil corals, which are found in various parts of England, illustrating his re- marks with descriptions and the exhibition of specimens; and lastly, described the extraordinary animal called Encrinite, which is not a coral, but allied to the star fish, and has a long articulated column, on the top of which is a cup-shaped receptacle furnished with nu- merous tentacula or feelers on the margin; this contained the body of the animal, the mouth being in the centre, and the feelers serving and conveying the prey into it, as in the polypi of the zoophytes. The animal when spread out resembled a flower, and when closed, was very like a lily with the petals partially shut. The skeleton, which was alone found ina fossil state, consisted of an immense number of bones: upwards of thirty thousand had been counted in one individual. ‘The Derbyshire limestone is entirely made up of the petrified bones of these animals, and owes its beautiful markings to the sections of their remains. We have seen, says Dr. Mantell, the marvellous organization of being so minute as to be invisible to the naked eye, their modes of life and action, and the important physical changes effected by such apparently inadequate agents. What beautiful, what striking proofs of the wisdom and goodness of the Eternal are here exhibited. Beings are called into existence, so minute as to elude our unassisted vision, yet possessing powers of voluntary motion and sensation, each with its system of muscles and vessels, and living upon beings still more minute, of which mill- | ions might be contained in a drop of water; nay, even that these Vou. XX XUHI.—No. 2. 43 304 Dr. Mantell’s Lecture on Zoophytes. last are supported by living atoms still less, and so on, and on, ill the mind is lost im wonder, and can pursue the subject no farther. Next we see the results produced by these myriads of animated forms; the excess of calcareous matter brought into the waters of the ocean consolidated by the influence of these minute beings, and forming new islands and continents. Lastly, we find in the ancient natural records of our globe, evidence that the Almighty Creator acted by the same agents in past ages. The beds of fossil coral are now the sites of towns and cities, occupied by a people in the highest state of civilization who construct their abodes of the lime- stone, and ornament their palaces with the marble formed of the consolidated skeletons of the zocphytes which lived and died in an ocean that has long since passed away. Hence we perceive that - He who formed the universe creates nothing in vain; his works all harmonize to blessings unbounded by the mightiest or most minute of his creatures; and the more our knowledge is increased, and our: powers of observation enlarged, the more exalted are our conceptions of the wonders of creation. ‘Thus, to use the eloquent language of an eminent divine, while the telescope enables us to see a system in every star, the microscope unfolds to us a world in every atom. The one teaches us that this mighty globe, with the whole burden of its people and its countries, is but a grain of sand in the field of immensity—the other, that every atom may harbor the tribes and families of a busy population. ‘The one shews us the insignificance — of the world we inhabit, the other redeems it from all its insignifi- cance, for it tells us that in the leaves of every forest, in the flowers of every garden, and in the waters of every rivulet there are worlds teeming with life, and numerous as are the stars of the firmament ; the one suggests to us, that beyond and above all that is visible to man, there may be regions of creation which sweep innumerably along, and carry the impress of the Almighty’s hand to the remotest scenes of the universe; the other, that within and beneath all that minuteness which the aided eye of man has been able to explore, there may be a world of invisible beings, and that could we draw aside the mysterious curtain which shrouds it from our senses, we might behold a theatre of as many wonders as astronomy can unfold; a universe within the compass of a point so small as to elude all the powers of the microscope, but where the Almighty ruler of all things finds room for the exercise of his attributes, where he can raise ano- ther mechanism of worlds, and fill and animate them all with the evidence of his glory. , Influence of the Great Lakes on our Autumnal Sunsets. 335 Art. XVII.—Influence of the Great Lakes on our Autumnal Sun- sets; by Winuis GayLorp. _ Forzren tourists speak with rapture of the beautiful dyes im- printed by autumn on the foliage of our American forests; our leaves do not fade and fall, all of the same decaying russet hue, but the rich golden yellow of the linden, the bright red of the soft maple, the deep crimson of the sugar maple, the pale yellow of the elm, the brown of the beach, and the dark green of the towering evergreens, are all blended into one splendid picture of a thousand light shades and shadows. ‘To the observer, our autumnal woodlands are gigantic parterres, the flowers and colors arranged in the happiest manner for softened beauty, and delightful effect. And when these myriads of tinted leaves have fallen to the earth; when the squirrel barks from the leafless branches or rustles among them for the ripened but still clinging brown nuts; the rural wanderer is tempted to throw himself on the beds of leaves accumulated by the wind, and while he looks through the smoke-tinted atmosphere, half imagines that he is gazing on an ocean of flowers. : But the claims of our American autumn upon our admiration, are very far from depending entirely on the -rainbow-colored foliage of our woodlands, unrivalled in beauty, though they certainly are: to these must be added the splendors of an autumn sunset, the rich- ness of which, as we are assured, has no parallel in the much lauded sunsets of the rose-colored Italian skies. In no part of the United States is this rich garniture of the heavens displayed in so striking a manner as in the valley of the great lakes, and the country immedi- ately east or southeast of them, and this for reasons which will shortly be assigned. ‘The most beautiful of these celestial phenomena begin to appear about the first of September, sometimes rather earlier, and with some exceptions last through the months of September and October, unless interrupted by the atmospheric changes consequent on our equinoctial storms, and gradually fade away in November with the Indian summer, and the southern declination of the sun. Not every cloudless sunset during this time, even in the most favored sections, is graced with these splendors; there seems to be a pecu- liar state of the atmosphere necessary to exhibit these beautiful re- flections, which however often witnessed, must excite the admiration of all who view them, and are prepared to appreciate their surprising richness. 336 Influence of the Great Lakes on our Autumnal Sunsets. On the most favored evenings the sky will be without a cloud; the temperature of the air pleasant; not a breeze to ruffle a feather, and a dim transparent haze tinged of a slight carmine by the sun’s light, diffused through the whole atmosphere. At such a time, for some minutes both before and after the sun goes below the horizon, the rich hues of gold, and crimson, and scarlet, that seem to float upward from the horizon to the zenith, are beyond the power of language to describe. As the sun continues to sink, the streams of brilliance gradually blend and deepen in one mass of golden light, and the splendid reflections remain long after the light of an ordinary sunset would have disappeared. We have said that not every cloudless sunset exhibits this peculiar brilliance; when the air is very clear, the sun goes down in a yellow light it is true, but it is comparatively pale and limited; and when as is sometimes the ease in our Indian summers, the atmosphere is filled with the smoky vapor rising from a thousand burning prairies in the far west, he sinks like an immense red ball without a single splendid emanating ray. It is our opinion that the peculiar state of the atmosphere ne- cessary to produce these gorgeous sunsets in perfection, is in some way depending on electrical causes; since it very commonly hap- pens, that after the brilliant reflections of the setting sun have dis- appeared, the auroral lights make their appearance in the north, and usually the more vivid the reflection, the more beautiful and distinct the aurora. ‘This fact the numerous and splendid northern lights of last September, succeeding sunsets of unrivalled beauty, must have rendered apparent to every observer of these atmospheric changes. Connected however with this state of the atmosphere, and cooperating with it, is another cause we think not less peculiar and efficient, and which we do not remember ever to have seen no- ticed in this connection, and that is the influence of the great lakes acting as reflecting surfaces. : ‘ Every one is acquainted with the fact that when rays of light im- pinge or fall on a reflecting surface, as a common mirror, they slide off so to speak, in a corresponding angie of elevation or depression, whatever it may be. ‘The great American lakes may in this respect be considered as vast mirrors, spread horizontally upon the earth, and reflecting the rays of the sun that fall upon them, according to the optical laws that govern this phenomenon. ‘The higher the sun is above the horizon the less distance the reflected rays would have to pass through the atmosphere, and of course the less would be the Influence of the Great Lakes on our Autumnal Sunsets. 387 effect produced by them; while at and near the time of setting, the rays striking horizontally on the water, the direction of the reflected rays must of course be so also, and therefore pass over or through the greatest possible amount of atmosphere previous to their final dispersion. It follows that objects on the earth’s surface, if near the reflecting body, require but little elevation, to impress their irregu- larities on the reflected light; and hence any considerable eminences on the eastern shore of the great lakes, would produce the effect of lessening, or totally intercepting these rays at the moment the sun — was in a position nearly or quite horizontal. ‘The reflecting power of a surface of earth, though far from inconsiderable, is much less than that of water, and may in part account not only for the breaks in the line of radiance which exist in the west, but for the fact that the autumnal sunsets of the south are inferior in brilliance to those of the north. We have been led to this train of thought at this time, by a succession of most beautiful sunsets, which, commencing the last week in August, have continued through the months of Sep- tember and October, with a few exceptions, in consequence of the atmospheric derangement attending the usual equinoctial gales. It will be seen by a reference to a map of the United States, that from the residence of the writer, (Otisco, Onondaga Co. N. Y..,) the lakes extend on a great circle from north to south of west, and of course embrace nearly the whole extent of the sun’s declination, as observed from this place. ‘The atmosphere of the north then with the exception of a few months is open to the influence of re- flected light from the lakes, and we are convinced that most of the resplendent richness of our autumnal sunsets may be traced to this source. The successive flashes of golden and scarlet light that seem to rise and blend and deepen. in the west, as the sun approaches the horizon and sinks below it, can in no other way be so satisfactorily accounted for as by the supposition, that each lake, one after the other, lends its reflected light to the visible portion of the atmos- phere, and thus as one fades, another flings its mass of radiance across the heavens, and acting on a medium prepared for its recep- tion, prolongs the splendid phenomena. We have for years noticed these appearances and marked the fact, that in the early part of September, the sunsets are generally of un- usual brilliancy, and more prolonged than at other or later periods. They are at this season, as they are at all others, accompanied by pencils or streamers of the richest light, which diverging from the 338 Influence of the Great Lakes on our Autumnal Sunsets. position of the sun, appear above the horizon, and are sometimes so well defined that they can be distinctly traced nearly to the zenith. At other seasons of the year, clouds just below the horizon at sunset produce a somewhat similar result in the formation of brushes of light; and elevated ranges of mountains, by intercepting and divi- ding the rays, whether direct or reflected, effect the same appearan- ces; but in this case there are no elevated mountains, and on the most splendid of these evenings the sky is always perfectly cloudless. We have marked the uniformity in the relative position of these pencils at the same season of the year for a great number of years; and this uniformity, while it proves the permanence of their cause, has led us to trace their origin to the peculiar configuration of the country bordering on the great lakes. At the time of year these pencils are beginning to be the most distinct, a line drawn from this point to the sun would bear at sun- set, about twenty five degrees north of west, passing over the west end of lake Ontario, the greatest diameter of Lake Huron, and across a considerable portion of Lake Superior. At this time, or about the first of September, the streamers or pencils exhibit somewhat the appearance shown in the following engraving: 1 eT \ vat | ry, \\ i iW ] ~ \\\\\ } | ; Was \ I I y \N\ ‘ \ \ nV | Hf Yy AW AMR HHH YY y Wy SN AN\\ WATT j Yh - g \ \ \\\ \ i Y Yyy GY \ N\A) “Hl yy \ NAW Uh WY) fy Z; Z SS \ ) } fy WY U7 g S \\\ Wf tj 722A ay y Zp H Y Lite \Y Yi, GY Ye < Yj Z 13 10 pas Here A, represents the place of the sun, some two or three de- grees below the horizon B, B. Fig. 1, denotes the reflections from Lake Erie. 2, the comparatively dark space caused by the penin- sula between Lake Erie and Lake St. Clair. 3, represents the re- flected rays from St. Clair. 4, the now reflecting peninsula between the St. Clair and Lake Huron; and 5 to 13 the reflection from Lake Huron, broken into pencils by the elevated lands on the south- eastern margin of the lake. Influence of the Great Lakes on our Autumnal Sunsets. 339 From considerations’ connected with the figure of the earth, the relative position of the sun and the lakes, the nature of reflecting surfaces, and the hills that it has been ascertained border Lake Hu- ron on the east, it appears clear to us, that the broken line of these hills acts the part of clouds or mountains in other circumstances, in intercepting and dividing into pencils the broad mass of light reflect- ed from the Huron, and thus creating those beautiful streamers that appear in the north of west, and with which, as it were, the com- mencement of autumn and the Indian summer is marked. Farther to the south, appears distinctly the break occasioned by the land that intervenes between the Lakes Huron and St. Clair, and this as well as the one between the latter lake and Erie, is rendered more stri- king by the brilliant pencil streaming across the heavens from the St. Clair. The reflected light of this body of water, insulated as it is by the shaded spaces in the sky, and separated from the glowing masses to the north and the south, is, throughout the season, one of the most striking and best defined objects in the west. From the middle of September to the early part of October, during which time the sun sets nearly in the west from this place, the appearance of the reflected rays is somewhat like the representation below. lll SW Z \ul WM BEA 234 foun A Here the letters and figures represent the same objects as in the former cut, and show that the cause of the pencils must be perma- nent or such a change in their inclination would not take place with the declination of the sun. The reflections from Erie at this time rise in a broad unbroken mass a little south of west, while that from St. Clair occupies the centre, and the maze of pencils from Huron begin to blend and show nearly as one body. As the sun returns still farther south, the light from Erie occupies a still more prominent place; the column of light from the St. Clair inclines still more to .* 340 Influence of the Great Lakes on our Autumnal Sunsets. the right; the breaks from the isthmuses of Erie and Huron become less distinct; the reflections from the Huron are melted into an un- broken mass, the interruption from the hills being lost in the oblique position of the pencils; and the sun has scarcely time to leave this extensive line of reflection, before all these streamers and breaks - are abruptly melted into the rich dark crimson that floats up from the Michigan, or the mighty Superior. At the close of October or the first of November, the splendor of the heavens, though sensibly diminished, is at times very great, and the outline of the reflections presents the following appearance. _The figures and letters are still the same, and taken in connection with the southern declination of the sun shows as before the fixed nature of the causes, and their relative position to the observer. Lake Erie now fills up the foreground in the direction of the sun; St. Clair is still distinct, and separated from Erie and Huron; the hills which in early autumn were between us and the sun, and broke up the light thrown from the Huron into such beautiful pencils, are now to the northward of any light reflected to us, if indeed they are not beyond the line of rays from the lake, and the streamers from this source disappear from the heavens, not to return, until, with another year and a renewed atmosphere, the sun is again found in the same position. Were there any elevated ranges on the peninsula of Michigan, we might reasonably expect that the reflected light from that body of water, would be broken as is the cone from Lake Hu- ron. But Michigan is too level to offer in its outline any such in- terruption, hence the pencils must fade away with the disappear- ance of the sun from the line of the Huron, St. Clair, and Erie. It is possible too that as the season advances the atmosphere loses its proper reflecting condition, and renders it impossible for reflected Remarks on the. Genus Paradoxides of Brongniart. 341 light to produce the effects of September or October. The electric change denoted by the fact that in the region of the lakes, thunder | rarely occurs after these phenomena become visible, and that these "4 are usually accompanied or followed by the aurora, would seem to : render such a supposition probable. ¥ We have thrown out these hints—for we consider them nothing more—in the hope of directing the notice of other and more com- petent observers to the facts stated, and, if possible, thereby gaining a satisfactory solution of the splendid phenomena connected with our autumnal sunsets, (should the foregoing not be considered as such,) or should further observations show that any of the above premises or inferences have been founded in error. Otisco, November 8, 1837. Art. XVIII.—Some Remarks on the Genus Paradoxides of Brong- niart, and on the necessity of preserving the Genus Triarthrus, proposed in the Monograph of the Trilobites of North Amer- ica ; by Jacos Grezn, M. D., Professor of Chemistry in Jeffer- son Medical College. Tue genus Paradoxides, first proposed by Prof. Brongniart, and founded on a magnificent trilobite in M. DeFrance’s collection, has embarrassed tnost fossil zoologists who have attempted to make use of it in arranging and describing their specimens. ‘The late Pro- fessor Dalman, in his important memoir on the trilobites, published in the Transactions of the Swedish Academy, would not admit the genus as it now stands, into his work, but grouped some of the spe- cies included in it, under the generic name of Olenus. The animal remain in M. DeF'rance’s cabinet, is called by Prof. Brongniart Paradoxides spinulosus, and was the only Paradoxides which he had examined when his valuable work on the Trilobites first appeared. Dr. Wahlenberg’s fine figure of the old Linnean Entomolithus paradoxus, was so analogous in all its principal charac- ters to the fossil of DeFrance, that he not only did not hesitate to consider it another species of the same genus, but he gave the ge- neric name itself to this group, to preserve the memory of Linne’s singular relic. Nowif this genus had embraced those animals only, which exhibit, what its author considers, its essential characters, there would have been no difficulty on this subject. ‘These charac- Vou. XXXILI—No. 2. 44 342 Remarks on the Genus Paradoxides of Brongmart. ters are, that the animals should be blind, and that the arches of the lobes, and especially those of the tail, should be prolonged beyond the membrane which sustains them. But notwithstanding these re- marks, and doubtless from a desire not to multiply names, Professor - Brongniart has introduced into his genus Paradoxides, from draw- ings, three animals, which bear a very faint resemblance to those on which it was founded ; these fossils he names P. scaraboides, P. gibbosus, and P. laciniatus. The first has an expanded tail, some- what like an Asaph; the second has no prolongation whatever of the lateral and caudal arches, and the third is supposed to be fur- nished with eyes. I have but little doubt that Prof. Brongniart will exclude these fossils when he comes to examine them for himself from his otherwise natural genus Paradoxides, in some future edition of his most admirable work. The practice adopted by some of amending, modifying, or in some essential point, altering the generic characters of one author to adapt them to new animals discovered by another, I suppose to be altogether inadmissible and contrary to the established canons of a correct nomenclature. I have been led to these remarks in consequence of some recent attempts to force my genus Triarthrus into that of Paradoxides. It is not pretended, I believe, that the animal remain I have described as Triarthrus Beckii, bears the most distant resemblance to the P. spinulosus or the P. tessini, the only true Paradoxides of Brongni- art, but that the head, according to one author, is like that of the P. scaraboides, and the tail, according to another, is similar to that of the P. gibbosus. It is obvious that by such a process of compression and amalgamation, of decapitation and curtailment, all generic dis- tinctions would be of little value. y It is one of the fixed principles of nomenclature among natural- ists, that the first name applied to a genus, should be invariably re- tained, and that the author himself of the genus should not be allow- ed, without the most cogent reasons, to infringe this law. From the great accumulation of species, and from the new discoveries with regard to old ones, in fossil zoology, it is plain that if we adhere to the genera as first established, and create no others; or if, on the plan of Fabricius, we make subdivisions of them, by introducing new characters to adapt them to new objects, then the genera will not only be overloaded, so as to be comparatively useless, but they will necessarily embrace animals very imperfectly characterized. Again, Remarks on the Genus Paradoxides of Brongmart. 343 it is maintained by many, that an indispensable condition to the es- tablishment of a genus, is that some species be at the same time ex- hibited as typical of the whole group. When this can be done, its expediency and propriety is exceedingly obvious ; but when we con- | sider our imperfect views of organized beings, taken as a whole,— and more especially our limited knowledge of fossilized bodies, a knowledge, however, which is almost daily increasing ; it is manifest that species now at the head of a genus, will, in the progress of dis- covery, more naturally arrange themselves in some other position in the group. But when an author himself regards a particular species as the type of his genus, we must, I suppose, retain his generic name for that type, whatever may become of the other species which our imperfect knowledge may have led us afterwards to group with it. Governed by the preceding principles, | would. suggest the pro- priety of limiting the genus Paradoxides of Brongniart to those fossil remains only, which are allied in their structure to the P. tessini and P. spinulosus, and which must be regarded a typical species. On the same ground I would urge the necessity of retaining the genus Triarthrus, which was proposed in 1832. A slight comparison of some of the essential characters of the two genera, will prove the importance of separating them. PAaRADOXIDES. TRIARTHRUS. Body--depressed—-not contractile.| Body—elevated—contractile. Costal arches—with filamentous|Costal arches—with no prolonga- or spinous prolongations. tions whatever. Lateral lobes—wider than the|Lateral lobes—not wider than the middle lobe. middle lobe. For these reasons, and some others which might be specified, I conceive that the genus Triarthrus ought not to be merged in that of Paradoxides. The following may be considered as the Hen ene characters of the Triarthrus. Body slightly convex—contractile. Buckler—with transverse furrows or folds. Oculiferous tubercles—none. Abdomen, with ten or more articulations. Lateral lobes, not prolonged as in Paradoxides. Tail simple, or furnished with a membranaceous expansion. 344 Remarks on the Genus Paradoxides of Brongniart. The peculiar organization of the tail naturally divides the genus into two sections, and all the species, as far as they are known, may be arranged as follows. Genus TRIARTHRUS. Tail simple, or without membranaceous expansion. T. Becki. T. Gibbosus. (P. Gibbosus of Brong.) ! Tail with membranaceous expansion. T. Scaraboides. (P. Scaraboides, Brong.) T. Laciniatus? (P. Laciniatus, Brong.) In the last number of your Journal there is a very interesting paper on some trilobites, by James Hall, Esq., and he has had the good fortune to discover and describe the first perfect specimen of our Triarthrus Beckii, the only American species of this genus which I suppose has yet been found. His excellent paper contains the figure and description of what he imagines to be another species, but judging from the representation he has given of it, and from the numerous heads or bucklers of the animal in my possession, the cur- vature of the external margin of the cheeks, which seems to consti- tute the principal peculiarity, has been produced by the manner in which the animal has been fossilized. Before closing these remarks, 1 may mention an objection which has been urged against the genus ‘Triarthrus, because it was founded on the supposition that the buckler was the abdomen of the animal. This objection, I think, will not be considered valid, especially as the term Triarthrus, which, though originally applied to the three divis- ions or articulations, of what was then supposed to be the abdomen, may now, without much latitude of interpretation, be considered as referring to the three lobes, or longitudinal divisions of the body, the name would then be analogous to Trilobite, Trimerus, and other ap- pellations common in zoological nomenclature. At any rate, I now propose the name Triarthrus, for the group as above characterized. Remarks on the Barometer, & c. 345 Art. XIX.—Remarks on the Barometer, with a table of Meteoro- logical Observations, made on board of the U. S. Ship Peacock, from July 8th, to August 17th, 1837, during a passage from Peru to the United States, by way of Cape Horn, reported by W.S. W. Ruscuenpercer, M. D., Surgeon U. S. Navy, &c. Tue barometer has not been in general use in the Navy of the United States more than fifteen or twenty years. Though this pe- riod is sufficient for establishing its utility in foretelling states of weather, it has not yet gained the universal confidence of the officers. However certain the indications of this instrument may be on shore, where it is at perfect rest, and where the observations may be made with the nicest accuracy, the same cannot be said of it when at sea; where, from the incessant motion of the ship, in spite of the best mechanical contrivance for its suspension, the mercurial column is constantly fluctuating, and therefore the observations are obnoxious to error, and at best must be considered only as proximative to the truth. In the British navy the same difference of opinion prevails, though we might infer, that it is implicitly relied on in some instances. We were told, when in China, that the commander of an English two- and-thirty gun frigate, in the month of August, 1835, actually threw overboard all his guns, because the rapid sinking of the barometer indicated an approaching typhoon. ‘This gentleman took to himself the credit of thereby saving the ship, which was in a few hours af- terwards thrown upon her beam ends by a violent storm, and with difficulty saved from total loss, even thus lightened of her battery. Such instances must go far in establishing the claims of the instru- ment to confidence. It is pretty generally conceded that the barometer is more faithful in its indications in some positions than in others; and while it is al- most altogether distrusted near the equator, it is confidently referred | to in high latitudes. In the city of Lima, Lat. 12° S, Dr. Unanue, (Observaciones sobre el clima de Lima,) tells us, the barometer only varies from two to four lines throughout the year, without any estab- lished order, the range being two lines higher in the summer than in the winter. It should be borne in mind, that the atmosphere of this region is rarely affected by any very strong commotion ; and in one instance, (April, 1808,) just before a fresh south gale, it rose between two and three lines above its ordinary maximum height. In the island of Ceylon, also near the equator, the barometer invariably foretells an approaching gale. 346 Remarks on the Barometer, &c. At places beyond the tropics, scarcely a difference of opinion ex- ists on the subject. At Valparaiso, Lat. 33° S., any considerable fall of the mercury is almost always followed by a gale from the north, accompanied by heavy rain; and at the Cape of Good Hope, Lat. 35° S., the sinking of the barometer always precedes the storm. Off Cape Horn, Captain King, R. N., found its indications of the utmost value, and states that its variations ‘correspond to_ those of high northern latitudes in a remarkable manner, chang- ing south for north, east and west remaining the same.” In anoth- er place he says, “‘ with respect to the utility of the barometer as an indicator of the weather that is experienced off Cape Horn, I do not think it can be considered so unfailing a guide as it is in the lower or middle latitudes. Captain Fitz Roy, however, has a better opinion of the indications shown by this valuable instrument: my opinion is, that although the rise or fall precedes the change, yet it more frequently accompanies it.”* ; The barometer is subject to a diurnal fux and reflux, which was first remarked, I believe, by Baron Humboldt, in 1802, at Lima, and since confirmed by various observers at other places. At that place, Dr. Unanue states, it rises from five o’clock, A. M. until nine, the time of its maximum height; from that hour until meridian, it re- mains stationary ; then falls until four o’clock, P. M. and remains sta- tionary ; it again rises from seven till eleven o’clock, and again de- scends from midnight until four o’clock, A. M. The variations of the barometer were noted every four hours, through the day and night, in a range of 93 degrees of latitude in the Atlantic, and 45 degrees in the Pacific ocean. The first column in the table shows the day upon which the obser- vations were made; the second, the position of the ship ; the third, the hour of the day, beginning at the meridian, (marked m,) the fig- ures 4 and 8, immediately following, are four and eight o’clock, P. M.; 0, is the sign of midnight, and the figures 4 and 8 are four and eight o’clock, A. M.; so that the divisions of the day are in accord- ance with the nautical method of reckoning time. The fourth col- umn contains the variations of the barometer; the fifth and sixth, the temperature of the air and water by Fahrenheit’s thermometer ; the seventh, the direction of the wind; the eighth, the distance run by log each four hours, to show proximately the force of the wind, * Sailing Directions for the coasts of eastern and western Patagonia, &c., by Philip Parker King, Captain R. N., F. R.S., &e. London: 1832. Remarks on the Barometer, &c. ; 347 and the ninth, records the state of the weather. When not marked reefs, the ship was under full sail. The temperature of the air and water were examined by the same thermometer, and therefore we may suppose the temperature of the air is marked lower than it actually was, as the mercury would fall something from the evaporation of the moisture left upon the glass after each immersion. According to the table, the fluctuations of the barometer do not precede the changes of weather, but as Captain Fitzroy remarks, seem to accompany them. On the 28th of July, the ship was lying- to ina gale, the barometer standing at 29.76 inches ; on the 29th, the barometer standing at 30.15, the ship is still lying-to, the weather moderating with the rise of the mercury. The barometer having fallen in the preceding five days from 30.50 to 29.75, on the 4th August, (lower than it was in the gale of the 28th July,) the weather was cloudy and the wind moderate. ‘The mercury continued to fall until the 11th, when it stood at 28.40, yet in the mean time the weather, though somewhat boisterous, was not so heavy as to require the ship to lie-to. The same description of weather was experi- enced under almost all the variations of the barometer, though it was commonly fair when the mercury stood above thirty inches, but not invariably so. The observations do not show that the mercury has a regular di- urnal flux and reflux, though it was seldom stationary throughout the twenty-four hours. It would seem, from our present knowledge, that the fluctuations of the barometer indicate changes of weather differently in different latitudes ; while a rise of the mercury in some regions is followed by fresh gales, in others, the same phenomena follow the fall of the column. If this be established, it is clear that the barometer is not of universal practical use in navigation, but requires to be studied for particular regions. Though we may generalize from the table before us, the observa- tions are too limited to infer any general rules, or establish any one fact in relation to the practical use of the instrument ; but, sufficient evidence, with very little labor, might very soon be accumulated by navigators, to put all questions at rest in regard to it. The temperature of the water, both in the Pacific and Atlantic, was constantly higher than that of the air, and increased as we ap- proached the land at Rio de Janeiro, as well as at Bahia. U.S. Ship Peacock, Norfolk, Va., October 27, 1837. 348 Meteorological Observations.. Meteorological Observations, made on board of the U. States Ship Peacock, on her passage from Huacho, (Peru,) to the United States, via Cape Horn,* 1837. Date. ‘osition. oat Ep Lat. 12°18’ s. July 8 | Lon. 78° 59' Lat. 14°14’ s. 66 9 Lon. 80°58’ w. Lat. 16° 18’ “ 10 Lon. 82° 46’ Mate 17° 25's. “ 1 Lon. 84° 10’ Lat. 17° 31's. 6 12 Lon. 84° 29’ Lat. 18°3's. 66 13 Lon. 85° 42’ Hour. Barometer. m.|29.95 4|29.96 §|29.99 0/30.00 4)29.98 §/29.98 i (29.98167 4\29.93) 8|29.96 Q)29.95 4|29.94 30.00 “|m,|30.00 4|30.65 §|30.06 0/30.00 29.98 30.03 30.03/67 30.00 30.03 30.00 30.05 30.05 30.08/68 30.08 30.05 30.05 30.05 /6 30.05 30.09 30.00 30.02 30.00 30.00 oronrlloanomntlignowstlan 30.05 | Water. 7070, 6970 6769 69 70 Calm. Sd. Ed. Calm. Variable) 3 Sd. Ed. 66 67 69 68'70 66 [Dictate 13 Weather. Pleasant. 66 66 Cloudy. Cloudy, reefs. Squally. Cloudy. Cloudy and squally. Cloudy. 66 Flawy. Pleasant. Squally. Squally, reefs. Cloudy. Moderate. * The observations after doubling Cape Horn, are, by permission of the author, omitted—as those now published give the most interesting, and the remainder, although valuable, are too extensive for our pages.—Ep.: Date. opnoanelanoaps=lancantlancoanzliance Meteorological Observations. arometer. Hour. ie) m, (30.05 67 30.0069 30.00 68 30.00 67 29.95 67 30.00 67 29.98 69 30.0368 30.05/68 30.00 66 30.05 68 30.07/69 30.07'70 30.08 69 30.07/68 30.0968 30.00 69'70 30.0868 30.07/68 30.13)/67 30.13/66 30. 15|67 30.20/68 30.18.69 30.15/67 30.18/68 30.18/70 30.19/68 30.16/68 30.19/68 30.15/67 30.15167 30.16 69 30.15/70 30.17 67 30.19 67 30.18 65 . (67 30.10}69)70 30.15/67/71 30.15/68'6 Weather. Pleasant. Pleasant. 66 Squally. Pleasant. Cloudy, rain. Pleasant. Cloudy. Squally. Pleasant. Squally. Pleasant. B aS B Bi) EN Sieh 69,Sd. Ed. | 8 70 66 1 70 ef 15 70 se 12 70 OPA lig| 70; . * 12 70s 17 70 “ Ih 70 sc 16 70 “ 19 70 6 19 70 South’d.|22 70 Sd. Ed. |17 71 as 17 71 6 4 70 “c 5 70 & 15 70 “ 23 70 “ 19 70 “6 23 70 6 25 70 66 21 70 6 27 71 6 27 71) S.E. |30 69 be 29 70 6 27 ih “ 20 70 “ 12 70 sc 5 71 és 9 70) East’d. |18 70| Variable 11 70} Calm. | 2 70|\Sd. Ed. | 6 70 ce 17 70 Re 6 70 oe 6 69 Oi 7 69|Souih’d.|10 69 ce 7 70 ec 15 Vou. XX XIII.—No. 2. 300 Meteorological Observations. Z 8 1s s 5 a 3 Weather. g a Blas = | = 3 a a estes aE ea i ea i ED Lat. - |iy,|80.28/69/70|South’d./19 Fine weather. 26°58’ s.| 4/30.17/67/69| S. W. 113 7 July 21 §30.15)65/69, « jaa Cloudy. Lon. | 030.15)66(58) South. |19] Cloudy, squally, reefs. 91° 30’ | 4/380.12/64|69|- S. E. 25 Cloudy, fresh. 8'30.15/67/69 “ 23) Cloudy, squall and rain. | Lat. |m,)80.15/66/69| ~« —|19) Moderate, pleasant. 28° 26’ s.| 4/30.12/65/68 Es 16 mi 22 8)30. 17/64/67 26 30 Clouds. Lon. | 0)30.18/64/67; “ 129 Fresh, pleasant. 93° 45’ | 4'30.18)62/66 c 14 Pleasant. 830. 22164'67 Cea OO) te Lat. |m,/30.22)64/66) «(22 Fine. 29° 24’ s.| 4/30.18/60167, “ (22 Pleasant. se Q3 §|30.23/62)66 ‘ 21 te Lon. | 0/30.246265) “ 14 mt 94° 39’ | 4/30.25/62/64| Calm. | 4 a §)30.24'63/65|/ Variable) 4 Cloudy. Lat. |m_|30.24/64/65| Calm. | 9 Ke 30° 07’ s.| 4/30.20/64/66 “ 1 Pleasant. “6124 8)30.26/63/64 ee 1 a Lon. 0/30.25160/64) Variable} 4 & 94° 05' | 4/30.25/63/64|Nd. Wd.) 4 a 830. 25)63164 ee 12 a Lat. |m.30.25/65/65,. “| 5 « 32° 27's.| 4/30.25/65165 a 14 “ “25 8/30.25/65/65 OG 24 re Lon. 0/30.25)64)63 oe 26 ut 92° 53’ | 4)30.23/64/63 cis rs 8/30.25|62/63 Ot 30 rf Lat. |m.|30.25/63|64| «36 Squally. 35° 15’ s.| 4|30.10/62/61 c 37 Squally, fresh. 66 26 - | 8)30.07/62/60 2 37| Reefs, squally, fresh. Lon. | 0/30.00/62/59| “ 36 Squally, fresh. 90° 32'| 4/29.95|5658)Sd. Wd.'30) Squally, with rain. 8/29.97/56/59,| |30; Squally and cloudy. Lat. _|m./29.90/55|57 eS Fresh and clear. 35° 41’ s.| 4/29.92/55157, “« {18 Hove to. Sieh 8/30.05)53)/57, —** 4| Fresh and squally. Lon. 0/30.10/53/57|South’d.|-0 ve 89° 28’ | 4/30.12/53/56) Calm. |12 Moderated. 8139. 10/55/56 U6 12 MG Date. Meteorological Observations. 56 48 30.07/48 29.76/48 29.76/48 29.83/47 30.00/48 30.15)47 é lRoxenistex © mw BS |Hour. (oe) = | HR 30. 15)44 30.25|46 30.26/44 30.33)45 30.30/49 30.36/47 . (46 30.38)47 30.40/48 30.45/47 30.50/47 30.45/46 opronopllaxsoamzlanomne| 30.42/46 = 30.26/44 30.40/43 30.05 42 30.0040 29.62 42 29.7438 30.35/49|50 30.45/48/4¢ 30.45/46): m.|30.40/47|46 30.40/45/4 30.35/44): 30.15/42 /- 30.13/43/43 29.98 42\: 29.83 41\: 29.76 40\: 29.70 40|36 29,54 41\|: 29.55 36): 29.7037 301. 4 2 Weather. = La 5 i= Calm. | 1 Pleasant. Variable|11 ae N. W. [25 Rain, reefs. S. W. |34 ee South’d.|/27 Lying to. 66 17 6 ee 4 Squally. Sd. Ed. | 0 oe e 6 Lying-to. e 6 Moderate. 66 5 66 Calm | Pleasant. 66 O 66 6é : 0 66 Nd. Wd.| 7 ce eel Moderate. Nd. Ed. |21 ec ue 22 Cloudy. (15 31 66 North’d.|33 <é medipe (815) Squalls, rain. 66 36 6é «(36 Cloudy. Been 15,7 Squall, rain. “140 Fine. 6 38 Cloudy. 6eé 36 (3 Nd. Wd.'36 i be AO 6G 66 AO 6c North’d./40 Hazy. oe 38 Cloudy. 66 36 66 (a3 38 66 66 39 66 66 39 66 66 36 66 Nd. Ed. |38 Rain. Nd. Wd.|/37 Reefs. ‘Sd. Wd./29 “ 6G 29 66 66 45) 66 352 Meteorological Observations. ESE 8 eae hae Weather. a [3 18a [eel eae Lat. |m./29.90)36)38)Sd. Wd.|25 Moderate. 58° 50’s.| 4/29.90/42/41|Nd. Wd.|11 Cloudy. Aug. 4 $)29.92)44/43, « 8 Reefs. Lon. | 0/29.85/41/44, « {11 Cloudy. 80° 09’ | 4/29.90/42/43) « 21 a _8)29.75/40 42Nd. Ed. (25 No reefs. Lat. |m.|29.72)41/42) «32 Cloudy. 55° 48’s.| 4/29.6241/41| < 135 Rain, cloudy. 5 §)29.55/44/42| = 138 Rain, reefs. Lon. | 0/29.38)44/42; « 32) ~ se 76° 13’ | 4|29.29/43/41) « [26 Rain, no reefs. -§29.20/41/40| «+ 29 a Lat. (m.\29.15)44|42 i 22 ee os 56° 26's.| 4/29.22)41/41|Nd. Wd./24 Rain, squally. 16 8/29.10/40|40| West’d. |22 ¢ os Lon. | 0/29.14)36|/39)Sd. Ed. [33 Hail, squally. 71° 36 | 4/29.27|/35/40|South’d./32 Snow, squally. 829.40/34/44/sd. Wa.36 eee Lat. }m.29.43)32/40, * |30 Cloudy, reefs. |56° 22's.) 4:29.55/29|38/Sd. Ed. |30| Snow squalls, reefs. tse eh 8/29.65/31)/39 Gobi as te Me a Lon. | 029.64)84/39| “ (28 a 66° 24'| 429.64/37/42/Sd. Wd./34 Rain, squalls. 8 29.62)39|41} “ |382) Snow squalls, reefs. Lat. |m.|29.70/40/45}, = {32 3 i 54° 43's.| 4/29.70/36/42| << |32| No reefs, squally- he) 8/29.72;38/40| “ (27 Rain and hail. Lon. | 029.7638/40) “ (23 Rain and sleet. 62° 13’ | 4/29.803639) “ — \24 Moderated. 8/29.75'35|\42|Nd. Wd.\27 Pleasant. Lat. |m./29.83)3943, «= 28 Squally, reefs. 54° 41's.) 4)29.'70/38)\40 Chase Se i * coat) 8/29.72)38/39| * (29 e a Lon. | 0/29.55)38\40| << 19 Squally, hail. 59° 06' | 4|29.383640/ « | 0 Lying to. 8/29.15/38/40 ie 0 ee Lat. |m./29.05\42/42|Nd. Ed. | 8 Moderating. 54° Ol's.| 4/29.00|41/40|Nd. Wd.|13) a “ 10 8|29.00/40/40 a 16 Clear. Lon. | 0 28.95/41 40; * {I8 Me 57° 11’ | 4128.7540/39|. 17 Rainy. 8[28.52.41\41'Nd. Ed. 112 a Meteorological Observations. 353 Date: aronestlinnoasziaxnome lancome laonom ee lmanom nS |Hou. arometer. pela 28.45 29.04 29.22 29.32 29.30 29.44 29.50 29.62 29.69 29.75 29.80 29.90 29.90 29.91 29.90 29.96 29.95 29.91 29.93 29.90 29.86 29.86 BH 4140 Water. 28.40/39 40 28.45/39 39 28.40/39 39 28.55/39 40 28.73/40 39 28.70/42 39 28.91/40 39 29.07/4039 29.07/4039 29.05|3938 29.00/4039 29.09/42 41 28.80/46 46 28.90/41 42 40 42 40,40 40/39 40,42 46|47 46/48 4647 46|46 47/47 48/46 48/48 4950 49/50 4950 5254 5457 54156 5157 5257 54.56 48 48 =| a Shel Nd. Wd.j1 Sd. Wd./20 ey, «(38 « [43 «140 66 33 66 3D 66 37 66 36 66 33 Nd. Wd.|25 66 298) Variable} 8 South’d.16 Sd. Wd.|30 66 39 66 40 66 40 6é 34 6c 30 66 29 66 29 6c 33 66 36 66 39 66 Q7 73 26 66 30 66 29 66 28 66 20 Calm. | 8 Nd. Ed.| 1 66 16 66 45) Weather. Fog. Cloudy. Reefs, cloudy, rain. Reefs, rain. Cloudy. 66 Moderate. Clear. 66 be 66 Squally, reefs. Nearly calm. Rain, cloudy. Pleasant. 66 66 Moderate. 66 Squally, rain. Moderate. Moderate, clear. 66 66 66 66 Fine weather. 66 66 Cloudy. 354 On Meteoric Showers in August. Arr. XX.—Further proof of an annual Meteoric Shower in August, with remarks on Shooting Stars in general; by Ep- warp C. Herrick. In a hasty communication published in the last number of this Journal, I stated my conviction of the high probability, that there | generally occurs on or about the 9th of August in every year, a remarkably large number of shooting stars. In support of that opinion, it was shown that such a meteoric shower had been ob- served at that period, in at least six different instances. Since that article was written, I have continued the search, and have had the gratification of finding several additional facts, which confirm the proposition. ‘These will be here recited. (1.) Mr. 'T. Forster, in his Pocket Encyclopedia of Natural Phenomena, &c. 12mo. London, 1827, has a short article on me- teors, which he divides into three classes. Of the third kind he says, “They are generally small, and of a bluish-white color, but their peculiar characteristic is that of leaving long white trains be- hind them, which remain visible for some seconds, in the tract in which the meteors have gone.” * * * “ These kind of meteors abounded on the night of 10th August, 1811, after a showery day.” Part I. p. 40. In the same work, (p. 298,) in the Rustic Calen- dar, under date of August 10, he remarks, “ Falling stars and me- teors most abound about this time of year ;’—and refers to Calen- dar at end of Researches about Atmos. Phenom., and to the Pe- rennial Calendar. Neither of these works is at my command. This ‘ Encyclopedia’ is made up chiefly from manuscripts left by the author’s father, T, F. Forster, Esq. who was long distinguished: as an assiduous meteorologist. (2.) In the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 70, (1780) is a letter from Sir William Hamilton, de- scribing a series of eruptions of Vesuvius witnessed by him in the month of August, 1779. Not having. access to the original Trans- actions, I quote the following extracts from that letter, through Dodsley’s Annual Register, for 1780. London. Svo. “1779. August 9. Upon the whole, this day’s eruption was very alarming: until the lava broke out about two o’clock, and ran three miles between the two mountains, we were in continual apprehension of some fatal event. It continued to run about three hours, during which time every other symptom of the moun- tain-fever gradually abated, and at seven o'clock at night all was calm. It was On Meteoric Showers in August. 395 universally remarked, that the air this night, for many hours after the eruption, was filled with meteors, such as are vulgarly called falling stars; they shot gen- erally in a horizontal pasar, leaving a luminous trace behind them, but which quickly disappeared. The ont was remarkably fine, starlight, and without a cloud. This kind of electrical fire seemed to be harmless, and never to reach the ground.”—Ann. Reg. pp. 81, 82. It is scarcely possible that these meteors came from Vesuvius. The writer says expressly, that at 7 at night all was calm, and gives us no intimation that there were, after that hour, until the morning of the 11th, any signs of disturbance in the mountain. If these bodies proceeded from the crater, they must have been visible in their ascent. Moreover, had they been either incandescent or burn- ing particles ejected from the volcano, they must have fallen to the earth. The constant expectation of a new volcanic eruption, doubtless induced many persons to maintain a vigilant watch during the night, and thus they happened to witness this display of shooting stars, which might otherwise have passed unnoticed. (3.) The following extracts are taken from the “ Results of « Meteorological Journal for August, 1826, kept at the Observatory of the Royal Academy, Gosport, Hants,” contained in Taylor’s Philosoph. Mag. and Journal, 8vo. No. 341. London, Sept. 1826. Vol. 68. “This high mean temperature is chiefly owing to the warm and sultry nights in which meteors were frequently seen. In the night of the 10th instant, from 9 till 12 P. M., there was a fine display of meteors in all directions, amounting to 42 ; the lower ones appeared the largest and most luminous, and several left long sparkling trains behind them. It is remarkable that these meteors appeared almost at regular intervals, viz., three, four, and sometimes five, in quick succes- sion about every quarter of an hour. There were dark horizontal beds of cirros- tratus-of an electrical appearance moving about at the time, which with freshen- ing breezes from the westward, seemed to favour their appearance. Two brilliant meteors, each about four inches [ ! ] in apparent diameter, were also seen here in the nights of the 18th and 27th. They descended comparatively slow from an alt. of 44° or 45°, and in the mean time each separated into two distinct meteors before they disappeared. According to observations made here for some years past, meteors have been more prevalent in August, than in any other month.” pp. 237, 238. (4.) In the Philosophical Magazine and Journal, 8vo. London, No. 277, May, 1821, Vol. 57, p. 346, is a “Series of Queries re- garding Shooting Stars and Meteors,” by John Farey, Sen., in which he furnishes evidence that on the night of August 9, 1820, there was seen at G'osport, a very unusual number of shooting stars. 396 On Meteoric Showers in August. The following statements are from the remarks prefixed to the queries. * Under the head of ‘ Atmospheric Phenomena’ [in the Annals of Philosophy] the Doctor [William Burney, of Gosport] has of late years recorded the number of his observations on small Meteors or Shooting Stars: these, in the year 1820, were in January 7, Feb. 2, Mch. 1, Ap. 2, May 2, June 1, July 15, Aug. 80, Sept. 10, Oct. 4, Nov. 2, and Dec. 5; making 131 in this year: in 1819 the aaune num- ber of each observations was 121. “ The singular fact, of the month of August having furnished so very dispro- portioned a number of these observations, is accompanied by the mention, that 35 of these were observed in one howr, which preceded midnight on the 9th of August last;—they shot in different directions, and three of them whose visible patlis lay between the constellations Ly7a and Ursa Major were caudated or appeared with tails; and the Doctor adds ‘ their sparkling trains having been left brilliantly illu- minated, for several seconds of time subsequent to the disappearance of the igni- ted bodies: this indeed was the grandest display of meteors we ever remember to have seen in so short a period, arising from the very gaseous or inflammable state of the air.’” The two latter instances (1826 and 1820) may by some be deem- ed not at all uncommon; but it must not be forgotten that all the records of meteors seen at Gosport are most wonderfully diminu- tive. It is perfectly certain that these displays far surpassed any appearance of the kind, observed in those two years. During the entire year 1820, 131 meteors only were registered at that place ; in 1819, 121; in 1824, 100; and in 1825, 159. In each of these years, August is the most fertile month. It is not easy to imagine how so few only could have been seen by a person who took any notice of them whatever. (5.) An unusually large number of brilliant meteors or shooting stars was seen in different parts of this country on the night of August 10,1834. ‘The quotation below given in evidence is taken from the meteorological record of Dr. Henry Gibbons, whose wri- tings evince him to be an attentive and faithful observer. The ob- servations were made at Wilmington, Delaware (N. lat. 39° 41’, W. long. 75° 28’) and published in “The Advocate of Science and Annals of Natural History.” Svo. Philadelphia, Vol. I, 1834, p- 179. “On the evening of the 10th of this month (August), and until it became cloudy next morning at 4 o’clock, an unusual number of brilliant meteors were visible. Their course at first was from north to south, and afterwards from east to west. Two or three were sometimes observed in a minute. On the night of the 11th they were again visible. I find by an account in some of the newspapers, that the same phenomenon was observed at Cincinnati, Ohio, on the same nights.” On Meteoric Showers in August. 357 T have not been able to find the papers which contain the obser- vations made at Cincinnati. (6.) Mr. Luke Howard, in a meteorological table in Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, Sept. 1813, p. 240, reports, ‘©1818, Au- gust 11. A Stratus after sunset, with Cirrostratus remaining above. Small scintillant meteors now appeared, falling almost directly down, and seeming to originate very low in the atmosphere.” As Mr. Howard, in his journal published. in the Annals, rarely notices these meteors, it is probable that if they had not been on this occa- sion, uncommonly numerous, they would not have been mentioned. (7.) For the following additional paragraph concerning the me- teoric display seen at Breslau, on the night of August 10, 1823, I am indebted to Prof. Elias Loomis, of Hudson, Ohio, whose library contains a copy of Brandes’s work on shooting stars. “ This evening was so still, the air so mild, and the heavens, though not en- tirely free from clouds, so rich in shooting stars, that even travelers, who felt no particular interest in ieee HACC ee had their attention attracted by the nu- merous and large fiery meteors.” p. 9. The above shows plainly that on this occasion the meteors were much more than usually abundant and brilliant. It is interesting to note that on the evening of the 8th next previous, the number seen at Breslau was above the average. No observations are given of the evening of the 9th, which may have been cloudy. (8.) The meteoric shower of last August (1837) was more splen- did than I before supposed. Froma gentleman of this city who was abroad very early on the morning of the 10th, I learn that at about 3 A. M. he saw within ten minutes, in an eastern region of the sky, which comprehended not more than a fourth part of the hemisphere, at least fifty shooting stars. Many left brilliant trains, and three were often visible at once. ~ On the night of August 10, 1837, there was also an unusual dis- play of meteors, but invisible here, as our sky during that night was entirely overcast. By permission of Professor Silliman, I copy the following from a recent letter to him, written by Mr. Davis B. Lawler, of Cincinnati, Ohio. “On the night of the 10th of August last (1837), being at Springfield, in this State, about 70 miles N. N.E. of this city, sitting at the front of the hotel there in the evening with some friends, between the hours of 8and 9 P. M. we were all struck with the uncommon number and brilliancy of the meteors or falling stars, which made their appearance, and commanded our attention without being Vou. XX XITI.—No. 2. 46 358 On Meteoric Showers in August. in any wise attentive to them, being engaged in conversation. "Their coufsé of track was from the N. N. KE. to 8. S. W., and of various degrees of brilliancy,— some of them very large and splendid. No watch was kept for them, and no par- ticular attention paid to them, and we soon retired into the interior of the house. The air was uncommonly transparent and the moonlight bright.” (9.) The display of shooting stars described in the following ex- tract, must have been one of uncommon numbers, and although the time does not correspond with the other dates within a week, yet the case deserves to be copied in this connection. If the times of the occurrence of the meteoric showers have gradually changed within six hundred years, it is highly important that we should know it. The quotation is from Matthet Paris Historia Major, etc. Ed. W. Wats, S. T. D. fol. Lond. 1640. p. 602. A. D. 1243. ‘‘Et eodem anno, videlicet septimo Calend. Augusti, fuit nox se- renissima, aérque purissimus, ita quod Lactea, sicut solet placidissima nocte hye- mali contingere, manifesté apparebat, Luna existente octava. Et ecce stelle cadere de ceelo videbantur, velociter sese jaculantes hac et illac. * * * In uno instanti, preter solitum, triginta vel quadraginta saltitare vel cadere vide- rentur, ita scilicet, quod due vel tres simul uno tramite, volare se mentirentur. Unde, si vere stelle fuissent, (quod nullius sapientis est sentire) nec una in celo remansisset. Considerent Astrologi, quid hujusmodi portentum significet: sed omnibus intuentibus, videbatur nimis stupendum et prodigiosum.” This date is the 26th of July of the Julian style, and conse- quently about the 2d of August of our present calendar.* (10.) Observations on shooting stars have of late engaged the attention of persons in various parts of Europe. The September No. (1837) of the Lond. and Edin. Philos. Magazine, which has recently arrived, contains three articles on this subject ;—one by M. Wartmann, of Geneva, and two by M. Quetelet, of Brussels. The following quotations from the latter show that the author suspects a “meteoric shower in August. “M. Sauveur stated that being on the road from Brussels to Liége, in the night of the 8th of last August (1836) he observed a considerable aniaine of shooting stars, of which Cee aiime re remarkable for their size and brilliancy. M. Que- telet suggests that this epoch presents a singular agreement with that of the 10th 4 -* There are on record several other well-marked instances of ancient star- showers, some of which it may be difficult to reconcile with the periodic times of the present day. If their dates are truly given, these displays have happened, at various times between A. D. 764 and 1243, in the months of March, April, Oeto- ber and December. There seems however good reason to suppose that the me- teoric showers of antiquity did in fact occur at times of year somewhat removed from the present periods. A statement of these instances, with an inquiry inte this change of period, may be expected in the next volume of this Journal. On Meteoric Showers in August. 359 of August, which the results of observations of shooting stars, point out as one of those which are to be remarked for the abundance of meteors of this kind.” p. 270. “Tt would seem that a cause exists which produces from about the 8th to the 15th of November, more frequent appearances of shooting stars. I have also thought that I remarked a greater frequency of these meteors in the month of August (from the 8th to the 15th).” p. 272. From the preceding statements it then appears, that on or about the 9th of August, in at least eleven different years (viz. A. D. 1779, 1781, 1798, 1811, 1820, 1823, 1826, 1833, 1834, 1836, 1837) there has occurred a meteoric shower, or in other words, an unusually abundant display of shooting stars. As no observations have yet been made for the purpose of de- tecting the August shower, it is somewhat remarkable that so many instances have been recorded. It should be noticed, that these Au- | gust showers have rarely been watched later than midnight. Since shooting stars are found to come mostly from that region of the heavens towards which the earth is moving, it cannot reasonably be doubted that each of these displays would have been found to be more abundant, during the hours of the next morning. That re- gion, (which for brevity may be called the tangential region,) rises of course about midnight, and comes to the meridian about 6 A. M. The memorable storm of stars of November, 1833, scarcely com- menced before 11 P. M.; and it is altogether probable, that every November metcorie shower which has occurred since that year, would have passed unseen, had not special watch been maintained after midnight. Characteristics of the August Meteoric Shower. i. This shower appears to be longer than that of November. As far as can be gathered from the accidental observations hitherto made, its duration may be considered about three days. It may perhaps be found to extend through ten or fifteen days, and to arrive at its maximum about the ninth. See 1, 3, (1), (5), (6), (7), (8). 2. The ‘radiant,’ or apparent starting point of the meteors, ap- pears to be farther north than in the November shower. . On this point, however, nothing positive can be stated without more obser- vations continued during the whole night. See Mr. G. C. Schaef- fer’s paper, p. 133 of this volume, and 3, (5). 3. Although its displays are in general superior to those of the November shower, yet it seems never to have risen to the mag- 360. On Meteoric Showers in August. nificence to which both the November and the April showers have occasionally attained. On the number of Meteoric Showers in a year. Three during the year may be considered as well established, viz. those of November, August and April. Of the latter, however, our knowledge is lamentably defective. It is certain that an unusual display of shooting stars was witnessed in this country about the last of April, 1803, and that very extensive meteoric showers occurred in April, A. D. 1095, and 1122. No proper efforts to discover the April shower have to my knowledge yet been made. A careful look out should be, and probably hereafter will be kept'up, for ten days before and after the 30th of that month. Having looked through many hundred volumes in search of me- teoric showers, it seems to me rather improbable that any fourth periodical time will be found. ‘There are however several uncer- tain statements which afford some slight reasons for supposing, that there may be a meteoric shower about the middle of February, and also about the middle of June. As the phenomenon is one which in most cases would escape ordinary observation, we must look for our evidence chiefly to the future. If the showers of A. D. 902 and 1202, now referred to October, (new style,) should be found cor- rectly stated, then we shall be obliged to admit that in these two years a meteoric shower occurred in October; and we ought to lose no opportunity for ascertaining whether their successors can now be discovered. On the nature, motions, and numbers of Shooting Stars. Shooting stars are without doubt cosmical or celestial bodies, and not of atmospheric or terrestrial origin. No plausible reasons for the common supposition that they are particles of electricity, or in some way the result of electrical action, have, to my knowledge, ever been advanced. If we consider them as aclass of bodies wholly distinct from me- - teorites, then we have no knowledge of their constituent elements. The different colors and appearances which they present, clearly indicate however that they differ in constitution. ‘The majority are white, many are yellowish-white, some are red, and a few are green. They probably also differ in density ;—some appear to us like mere streaks of phosphoric vapor; others seem to be solid balls of On Meteoric Showers in August. 361 fire, and leave behind them trains of scintillations, which are some- times iridescent. ‘These trains not unfrequently retain their lustre and their position several seconds, which, considering the excessive tenuity of the atmosphere at the place, is a fact quite unaccountable. I know of nothing which renders it at all improbable, that meteorites and shooting stars are bodies of the same class and have a common origin. No one can by the eye discriminate between them. By well-planned simultaneous observations in distant places, Brandes* has proved that shooting stars come principally from that part of the heavens towards which the earth is tending. He has also proved that they do sometimes actually move upwards. ‘This apparently anomalous motion is easily explained. His observations were made commonly between 9 and 11 P. M., when of course the tangential region is beneath the horizon; so that a meteor coming from that region must, if it comes into our field of view, move up- wards. Observations made in this city on various days of the pres- ent month, between 7 and 10 P. M., show that at this season at least, three fourths of the shooting stars visible here at this time of day, move from the N. E. quarter towards the S. W. If the premises first stated are true, the reasons for this general tendency are sufficiently obvious. At a corresponding south latitude, we might expect this tendency to be from the S. E. It must ever be exceedingly difficult to determine the velocities of shooting stars, and the statements on this point are not satisfac- tory. If their rate is found to be from 18 to 36 miles a second, it seems necessary to suppose that they move in a direction contrary to that of the earth’s motion. Shooting stars are wonderfully numerous. Leaving out of con- sideration the myriads which fall during the meteoric showers, the average daily number for the whole globe ts at least two millions. It is of course impossible rigidly to determine this number ; but there is no difficulty in showing that this statement is probably far within the truth. 1. The average number visible per hour at one place, M. Quetelet, who has devoted much attention to the sub- ject, states at sexteen. ‘This calculation is based on observations made in Germany and in Belgium, but there is no reason for sup- * A valuable abstract of Brandes’s account of his observations, was published by Prof. Loomis, in Vol. 28 of this Journal, to which I am chiefly indebted for my information concerning those researches. 862 On Meteoric Showers in August. posing that part of the world to be particularly favored in this re- spect. In fact these meteors are, according to scientific travelers, much more abundant within the tropics than in higher latitudes ; - and Capt. Parry speaks of them as not uncommon in the extreme north. ‘This average number, however, appears to be the result of observations made before midnight, when of course shooting stars are least numerous, and also to be founded on the assumption, that ‘¢ a single observer or several observers directed towards one and the same region,” can detect half of the whole quantity visible at one place. ‘This number is therefore too small. Observations made in this city, at various times in November, 1837, by three observers, (a number insufficient to secure all) give an average of rather more than 20 per hour.* Other observations justify the assumption of this number, as a fair hourly mean. During the entire day then, 480 might be seen at one place if superior lights did not interfere. 2. The distance at which shooting stars are ordinarily seen, I take at one hundred miles. A few may be seen at a greater distance, but very many more are probably invisible at fifty miles, and some, according to Quetelet, are discerned only by the telescope. Let this area be taken at 32,000 sq. miles. 3. The earth’s surface con- tains at least 196,800,000 sq. miles, and there are consequently upon it 6150 such areas. ‘The latter number being multiplied into 480, we have 2,952,000 as the daily number for the whole earth. This is an average. ‘The actual number on any one day, (omitting the three yearly showers,) may be one fourth more or less than this. ‘The source of these meteors must be of vast extent, to be able to sustain for thousands of years such incessant and enormous drafts. It seems not unreasonable to suppose, that, in a long course of time, the amount of matter resulting from the combustion of these meteors must be very considerable.t Some may ask whether, if these bodies meet the earth advancing in a direction opposed to their motion, they must not deprive it of some small portion at least of its projectile force, and thus shorten the year? Past observation answers in the * More observations on this point, in all parts of the world, at all times of the night and of the year, are much needed. -Nine observers at one place are required to do full justice to the subject; yet four persons might probably see about three fourths of the whole visible number. +t Prof. Rafinesque’s ‘‘ Thoughts on Atmospheric Dust,” Vol. 1, p. 397 of this Journal, may be profitably consulted in this connection. See also Webster’s Hist. of Epidemic and Pestilential Diseases, Vol. 2, p. 91. On Meteoric Showers in August. 363 negative, and no one surely will suppose there is any ground for immediate apprehension. On the theory of Shooting Stars. In the present very imperfect state of knowledge concerning many of the phenomena of shooting stars, there is much hazard in proposing any hypothesis on the subject. Without further observa- tions, it is indeed impossible to state more than a small part of the conditions which a theory ought to fulfil. Besides accounting for the meteors of daily occurrence, it should explain the reasons for their appearance in unusually large but varying quantities every year, (or at least for many years in succession,) certainly at two pe= riods in the year, viz., about Aug. 9, and Nov. 12, and probably also at a third, viz., about the last of April. ‘The various charac- teristics of the November shower have been stated at large by Prof. Olmsted and Mr. A. C. Twining, in preceding volumes of this Journal ; those of the August shower, (so far as they are known,) are contained in the present volume. It is not impossible that these meteoric showers are derived from nebulous or cometary bodies with which, at stated times, the earth - fallsin. This hypothesis, however, does not satisfactorily account for the meteors of daily occurrence. M. Arago (Comptes Rendus, 1835, pp. 394, 395. 4to. Paris,) proposes the hypothesis of an immense zone or ring, composed of millions of small bodies or asteroids, revolving about the sun, whose orbits meet the plane of the ecliptic at that part of the path of the earth, which it occupies from 11th to 13th November. This hy- pothesis, in some shape, will probably be found adequate to account for all the phenomena. The facts at present known, seem to require that the earth should pass through some part of this zone in November and in April; and approach in August sufficiently near it, to receive an unusually large quantity of meteors. It is also necessary that the earth should con- stantly keep very near it, in order to obtain its daily supply. If however additional periodic showers should be discovered, it might be difficult to account for all by one such zone. This zone probably lies partly within and partly without the or- bit of the earth. When the earth is in that part of its orbit which is exterior to the zone, we might expect by the aid of the tele- scope, occasionally to detect these bodies passing across the disc of 364 On Meteoric Showers in August. the sun. Owing to their distance and comparatively small size, they might however, while in their celestial courses, be totally invisi- ble. Frequent observations of the sun, for the purpose of detect- ing these transits, are highly desirable. The only important facts known to me, which relate to this point are these :—on the 17th June, 1777, Messier saw myriads of small dark bodies passing over the sun; and at Geneva, May 19, 1880,* from 1 to 2 P. M., mul- titudes of “small luminous emanations” were discovered passing across the field of a meridian telescope. Both these facts are of great value and deserve attentive consideration. When the earth is in that part of its path which is interior, it might not be unreasonable to suppose that we should see the zone by reflected light; but while we are ignorant of the density, num- bers, size and distance of the bodies which constitute it, we cannot assert that it ought to be visible. The only known celestial appearance to which this zone can be referred is the Zodiacal Light. Our great distance from the equa- tor renders it impossible for us to make observations upon this light, which will determine whether its position at various periods of the year is such as to-permit us to consider it the source of shooting stars. Satisfactory observations can be made only at or near the equator. The limits which circumstances prescribe to this article, compel me to omit the consideration of many important particulars relating to this subject, and to speak of others with too much brevity. My thanks are due to Prof. B. F’. Joslin, for the important assist- ance which he has afforded me in relation to this inquiry ; and also to various friends in this city, especially to Messrs. A. B. Haile and J. D. Dana, for whose codperation and counsel I am under great obligations. New Haven, Conn. Nov. 29, 1837. P.S. Since the preceding article was written, I have, through the kindness of Mr. R. W. Haskins of Buffalo, N. Y., been furnished with his translation of M. Arago’s reports to the Academy of Sciences, at the sessions of August 14 and 28, 1837, concerning unusual numbers of shooting stars seen that month in various parts of Europe. The translation is published in the Buffalo Daily Commercial Advertiser, of Nov. 25, 1837. There is no room to quote it here. Witha single exception, its statements do not contravene any fact or conclusion contained in the foregoing paper. * The details are related by Gautier, at p. 206 of his account of the extensive meteoric shower of Nov. 13, 1832, Bib. Univ. de Genéve, 1832, Sci. et Arts, tome 3, pp. 189—207. These bodies may possibly have been in our atmosphere. On a New Thermoscopic Galvanometer. 365 Art. XXI.—On-a large and very sensible Thermoscopic Galva- nometer ; by Jonn Locxn, M. D., Professor of Chemistry in the Medical College of Ohio.* (From the London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine, and Journal of Science.) TO RICHARD TAYLOR, ESQ. Dear Sir—The announcement of a new galvanometer will, perhaps, scarcely attract attention. But as I have been kindly en- couraged by several eminent British philosophers to communicate some notice of my modification of the thermo-multiplier, I venture to send you the following sketch. Although a great labor has al- ready been performed in electricity and magnetism, yet the adepts are aware that much remains to be executed, and that among the numerous principles already clearly established, it is probable that those proportions and arrangements which will produce the maai- mum effect have been in few instances fully ascertained. The chief novelty of the instrument which I am about to describe, consists in its proportions and the resultant effects. ‘The object which I pro- posed in its invention was to construct a thermoscope so large that its indications might be conspicuously seen, on the lecture table, by a numerous assembly, and at the same time so delicate as to show extremely small changes of temperature. How far I have suc- ceeded will in some measure appear by a very popular, though not the most interesting experiment which may be performed with it. By means of the warmth of the finger applied to a single pair of bismuth and copper disks, there is transmitted a sufficient quantity of electricity to keep an eleven-inch needle, weighing an ounce and a half, in a continued revolution, the connexions and reversals being properly made at every half turn. The greater part of this effect is due to the massiveness of the coil, which is made of a copper fillet about fifty feet long, one fourth of an inch wide, and one eighth of an inch thick, weighing between four and five pounds. ‘This coil is not made in a pile at the diam- eter of the circle in which the needle is to revolve, but is spread out, the several turns lying side by side, and covering almost the whole * Through the kindness of Dr. Locke we have received the fine instrument de- scribed in this paper, and as far as we have had opportunity to examine it, we find it to justify the statements made by its ingenious inventor.—Eb. Vou. XXXIITL.—No. 2. AT 366 Ona New Thermoscopic Galvanometer. of that circle above and below. The best idea may be formed of the coil by the manner in which it is actually modeled by the work- man. It is wound closely and in parallel turns on a circular piece of board eleven and a half inches in diameter and half an inch in thickness, covering the whole of it except two small opposite ‘‘ seg- ments” of about 90 degrees each. ‘The board being extracted, leaves a cavity of its own shape to be occupied by the needle. The copper fillet is not covered by silk or otherwise coated for insulation, but the several turns of it are separated at their ends by veneers of wood just so far as to prevent contact throughout. In the spreading out and compression of the coil it is similar to Mel- loni’s elegant apparatus, though in my isolated situation in the in- terior of America I was not acquainted with the structure adopted in his prior invention. In the massiveness of the coil my instrument is perhaps peculiar, and by this means it affords a free passage to currents of the most ‘ feeble intensity,” enabling them to deflect a very heavy needle. The coil is supported on a wooden ring, fur- nished with brass feet and leveling screws, and surrounded by a brass hoop with a flat glass top or cover, in the center of which is insert- ed a brass tube for the suspension of the needle by a cocoon fila- ment. The needle is the double astatic one of Nobili, each part being about eleven inches long, one fourth wide, and one fortieth in thickness. The lower part plays within the coi] and the upper one above it, and the thin white dial placed upon it, thus performing the office of a conspicuous index underneath the glass.* I have not yet made any very extensive experiments with this in- strument, being only just now prepared to do so. It is very sensi- ble to a single pair of thermo-electric metals, to the action of which it seems peculiarly adapted; but the efficiency of such metals is increased by a repetition of the pairs, as in the thermo-pile of M. Melloni, especially if they be massive in proportion to the coil it- self. With a battery of five pairs of bismuth and antimony, the needle was sensibly moved by the radiation from a person at the distance of 12 feet, without a reflector, the air being at the tempe- rature of 72°. In a recent interview with M. Melloni, to whose politeness I am much indebted, he expressed his opinion that with a thermo-pile * This instrument has been made by Messrs. Watkins and Hill, Opticians and Philosophical Instrument Makers, No. 5, Charing Cross. On a New Thermoscopic Galvanometer. 367 massive in proportion to the coil, my galvanometer might be made te exhibit his thermo-experiments advantageously to a large class. Some idea may be formed of its fitness for this purpose from the re- sult of a single trial on “‘ transmission.” The heat from a small lamp with a reflector, at the distance of five feet, passed through a plate of alum, and falling on a battery or pile of five pairs of bis- muth and antimony, deflected the needle only a fraction of one de- gree, but on substituting a similar plate of common salt, the same heat produced, by impulse, an immediate deflection of 33 degrees. Although the instrument is finely adapted by its size for the pur- pose for which it was intended, class illustration, yet from the weight of the needle and the difficulty of bringing it to rest after it once acquires motion, it is not so suitable for experiments of research as the Mellonian galvanometer. When a massive thermo-pile, such as has lately been made by Messrs. Watkins and Hill of Charing Cross, is connected with the coil and excited by a heat of about 200°, the needle being withdrawn, a distinct spark is obtained on interrupting the circuit; in producing this effect it is less efficient however than the ribbon coil of Prof. Henry. The tube for sus- pension, placed over the center of the instrument, is so constructed as to admit of being turned round by means of an index, which ex- tends from it horizontally over the glass cover, and thus any degree of torsion may be given to the suspending filament or wire. A wire of any desired thickness may be easily substituted for the cocoon filament, when the instrument becomes adapted to measuring the deflecting forces of the galvanic battery. By using a thick wire it was ascertained that the calorimotor of Professor Hare, having 40 plates, each 18 inches square, acted on the needle with a force equal to 92 grains, applied at the distance of 6 inches from the center. In attempting to force the needle by torsion into a line parallel to the coil, where the deflecting current acts with the greatest strength, I accidentally carried it too far and reversed its position, when instantly it became reversed in polarity, that which had been the north pole becoming the south. This showed how unfit is the magnetic needle to measure such a quantity of electri- city as was then flowing through the massive conductor. ‘The in- strument was well adapted to show to a class the experiments upon radiating heat with Pictet’s conjugate reflectors, in which the differ- ential or air thermometer affords, to spectators at a distance, but an unsatisfactory indication. For this purpose the electrical element 368 Observations on a Hurricane in Ohio. necessary is merely a disk of bismuth as large as a shilling, soldered to a corresponding one of copper, blackened, and erected in the focus of the reflector, while conductors pass from each disk to the poles of the galvanometer. With this arrangement the heat of a non-luminous ball at the distance of 12 feet will impel the needle near 180°, and if the connexions and reversals are properly made will keep it in a continued revolution. I have thus given you a brief sketch of an instrument which seems to supply a desideratum on the lecture-table, when the com- mon thermometer is too small to afford to a class that direct and full satisfaction which, in a subject so important as that of heat, is very desirable to every professor. I have not so far attempted to use it extensively as an instrument of research, yet it shows evi- dently the importance of massiveness in conductors for feeble cur- rents, such as those produced by thermo-combinations; nor am I certain that I have arrived at a maximum in this particular, for so far as I have proceeded in using thicker conductors for the coil, the deflecting effects have been increased. Iam, &c. Joun Locke. London, Aug. 30, 1837. Arr. XXII.—Observations on a Hurricane which passed over Stow, an Ohio, October 20th, 1837; by Extas Loomis, Professor of Mathematics and Nat. Philosophy in Western Reserve College. On the morning of October 20th, 1837, a hurricane, of destruc- tive violence, passed over Stow, in Ohio. This town is situated about thirty miles south of Cleveland, in north latitude 41° 12’, and west longitude 81° 25’. As the hurricane occurred during the dark- ness of the night, we can collect little information respecting it, with the exception of the record which the wind has itself left of its pro- gress. During the night of the 19th and morning of the 20th of October, there was a thunder shower at Stow, which extended into some of the adjoining towns. ‘The lightning was rather vivid, the rain fell in torrents, and the wind blew fresh during most of the night. About three o’clock in the morning, a whirlwind formed near the center of Stow. It moved rapidly from west to east, over an extent of about three miles, its breadth varying from forty to sixty, and oc- easionally to eighty rods. For about a mile of its course, few objects Observations on a Hurricane in Ohio. 369 were found of sufficient strength to resist the shock. The trees were almost entirely blown down or broken off—the fences were completely scattered—the houses and barns were generally unroofed, and one house torn literally into pieces. For the purpose of render- ing my description more intelligible, I have drawn a plan of that part of the hurricane’s track where most of the injury was done. ou asnoy e ‘x $ peddoip sem ea sun prox yeyuoztoY oy, “posnf A1048-04} & ‘FAL $ pojoosun sureq “NY 1 ‘q spokoajsop Apajardmoo ‘projueg “AJM Jo -ulun sasnoy ‘g pue Q ‘yo ueyey Aroys 1oddn syr yyta asnoy-50[ pue "7 ‘ peyooiun sosnoy ‘q $ payooiun osnoy & sjuasaidat *V “y put [ * payooiun uteq e “Fy $¢paanfur yonu 4 peanful yeymowos Uieg at “UUSpUET 0} You sunt peor aepnoipuadsod oy} ‘ysoM pur ys asnoy ey} ‘q ‘peimfutun ssnoy e ‘OM ‘payoosun Apjred uieq e y1e9 9y} otaym jods ayy “yy ¢ 370 Observations on a Hurricane in Ohio. The hurricane commenced a little west of the house A. Its vio- lence rapidly increased as it advanced eastward, and throughout that whole part of the track which is represented in the diagram, a large proportion of the trees were leveled. Where no trees are repre- sented on the diagram, there were very few, if any, to be uprooted. Eight buildings were unroofed; three others were considerably in- jured, and the remainder of those on the diagram escaped with a few panes of broken glass. But it was the house D, upon which the storm poured its principal violence. This was a small frame house of one story, and had been built but two years. It was situated upon a slight eminence or knoll, and was not protected at all from the fury of the wind. The house was occupied by Mr. Frederick Sanford, his wife and mother, with three children. On the evening of the 19th, the family were absent from home to attend a wedding. They returned about midnight, and Mrs. Sanford states that it was then raining moderately, the lightning was somewhat vivid, and the wind fresh. ‘They retired to bed and were soon asleep. Mrs. S. re- lates that she was awakened from a sound sleep by a crash, which she presumes was occasioned by the falling chimney ; almost at the same instant she felt that the house was moving ; there was a tremendous roaring noise, and further than this she has no recollection. In the morning the neighbors found the house a perfect wreck. Not a tim- ber was left in its place. ‘The foundation stones were not disturbed, but the entire frame of the house was lifted up, and carried in the direction of the barn E. A portion of the foundation frame was dropped almost immediately, and lay but a few feet from the founda- tion walls. The bricks of the chimney were, most of them, carried but a short distance, and were scattered along precisely in the direc- tion of the barn. A considerable number of bricks, however, con- stituting, as is supposed, that part of the chimney which rose above the roof, were carried to a greater distance, and scattered mostly in a northeast direction. ‘The barn bore N. 29° E. from the house, as I determined it by a compass, and was distant from it twenty-five rods. This entire space was strewed with the small fragments of the furniture and timbers of the house. About half-way between the house and barn, were found three corpses horribly mangled, being the bodies of Mr. Sanford’s two sons and his mother. Mr. Sanford was still breathing, but died in about an hour. Mrs. Sanford and her daughter were unable to move in consequence of bruises and broken bones. They are, however, still living, and will probably re- Observations on a Hurricane in Ohio. 371 cover. Animals of various kinds were lying dead among the ruins. There were pigs, geese, hens and turkeys, in considerable numbers, and several of the fowls were picked almost clean of their feathers, as if it had been done carefully by hand. Neither Mrs. Sanford nor her daughter are able to give any satisfactory account of the hurri- cane, for they were both of them awakened from a sound sleep by the crash of the house, and the next instant they were dashed sense- less upon the ground. I have stated that the house was carried in the direction of the barn. About half of the roof and frame fell near the S. W. corner of the barn, and some of the timbers fell near the S. E. corner. Several heavy joists lay scattered forty or fifty rods beyond the barn, but all in nearly the same direction from the house. ‘There were several very remarkable facts, showing the power of the wind, which I should not have been prepared to credit had I not observed them for myself. I visited the spot the day after the hurricane, and have observed it once since that time. An ox- cart, before the storm, was standing close by, and in the rear of, Mr. Sanford’s house, and was loaded with potatoes. ‘The cart was lifted up by the wind; it soon turned a somerset, so as to empty out the potatoes upon the ground, and nearly all in aheap. The cart itself was dropped a few rods behind the barn, and at a distance of thirty rods from the house. If the cart moved in a straight line it must have passed directly over the barn. Indeed, it is quite probable that such was the case; for the cart struck flat upon one wheel which buried itself to a considerable depth in the earth. The spokes were all broken, apparently by the severity of this fall, and there is no ap- pearance of the cart’s having been injured previously to the fall, with the exception of the loss of the boards which lined the body. ‘There are no marks of the cart’s having been dragged along upon the ground, but on the other hand, the wheel imbedded in the earth shows that the cart fell nearly perpendicularly, and from a consider- able height. It is then probable that it passed directly over the barn. There was a heavy drag, moreover, taken from nearly the same spot with the cart, and which also fell by its side beyond the barn. ‘The roof of the barn was somewhat injured, losing some shingles and boards, and it is conjectured that the drag might have struck the roof in passing over it. I attach but little importance, however, to the question whether the cart and drag actually passed over the barn. It is at least certain, that they were transported by the wind about thirty rods, and fell from a considerable height. 372 Observations on a Hurricane in Ohio. A wagon before the storm was standing in front of the house by the road-side. ‘The next morning one wheel was found in the road about thirty rods east of the house; another wheel a little farther north over the fence; the two remaining wheels at a still greater distance from the house and in the direction of the barn H: The wagon box was found half a mile distant in a northeast direction. There is another fact which appears to my mind still more re- markable. A very heavy cast-iron plough was lying between the two houses C and D; a massive iron chain was attached to it, and there was little wood-work about it. ‘This plough was dragged along about four rods, and ploughed into the ground in several places. In one spot it appears to have been carried almost entirely around, removing all the turf from a space about four feet square, and throw- ing up the earth to the distance of six feet; the plough was broken so as to be worthless. Various light objects of clothing have been found in the neighboring towns ; a sheet was found in Franklin, three miles east in a straight line, and a silk frock witha bonnet was found in Streetsboro’, a distance of five miles in a direction east-northeast. My principal object in examining the ground has been to deter- mine the direction of the wind’s motion. This may be done tolera- bly well by observing the bearings of the fallen trees.. Trees will usually fall very nearly in the direction of the wind which uproots them. I have therefore measured with a compass the direction of a very large number of the trees throughout that part of the track where the wind was most violent. On the north side of the road and close by the barn B on the west side of it, one tree fell S. 7° E., another south, and another S.9° W. Back of the house C, the trees fell S. 42° E.; 8. 31° E.; and S. 12° E. A little farther east, between the houses C and D, several apple-trees fell in the direction S. 6° E.; S.12° E.; 8. 31° E.; S. 42° E.; S. 68° E. Those nearest the road were generally more inclined to the south than those near the borders of the track, but this rule was not without exceptions. Almost exactly north from the house D and at-the dis- tance of about thirty rods, a tree fell S. 49° W. A little farther east, an old tree but a stout one fell directly towards the barn E which bore $.16° E.; and still farther east, being directly north from the barn, and distant about twenty rods, an oak tree two feet in diameter but somewhat decayed fell S. 54° W. In this neigh- borhood, the whole number of trees was very small. Still further east near the house G but west of it, the trees fell S. 26° E.; S. 62° Wes Nebo. : Observations on a Hurricane in Ohio. 373 Passing over now to the south side of the road, a few rods beyond the barn B, the trees were generally turned northward, but some eastward. Opposite the houses D, G and J, was a white oak forest. Here the trees were not generally blown down, but broken off at an elevation from the ground of from twenty to forty feet. The stoutest white oaks of two feet diameter were snapped like a walking cane. I measured the bearings of a large number of the fallen trunks; they were N. 56° W.; N. 46° W.; N. 32° W.; N. 31° W.; N. 29° W.; N. 2° E.; and N. 14° E. Within these limits the bearings of nearly all the trees in this forest were embraced, if we except a few which lay very near the road. Here the trees were thrown down in much greater disorder; thus, directly opposite the house G and near the road, one tree of immense size fell N. 31° W. Only two rods distant were two others of about the same dimensions which fell S. 31° E., and then another N.31° W. ‘Thus here were four large trees side by side with their trunks as nearly parallel as they could well be laid, while the tops of two pointed northward and those of the others southward. The preceding observations will shew the direction of the fallen trees as compared with the track of the hurricane, for the latter was almost due east and west, not following absolutely a straight course, yet very nearly so. I have introduced the observations here for the sake of shewing how great variety there was in the bearings of the fallen trunks, and also to shew that these bearings were actually measured and not loosely estimated by the eye. A general idea of the direction of the trees will be best acquired from the diagram, in which I have attempted to represent their relative positions and bear- ings. It will then appear from an inspection of the diagram, that in’ the midst of some disorder there was a degree of uniformity. Thus upon either border of the track the trees all incline toward some point in the center of the track. ‘There is not an example of a tree being turned outward from the track, nor even one which lies in a direction parallel to it. I except from this remark those near the middle of the path, which were subject to a different law as will presently be seen. Of all the trees situated near the borders of the track, the bearing which approaches nearest to parallelism with the track was in the case of an apple tree about half way between the houses Cand D. This bore S. 68° E., differing 22° from parallel- ism. Thisisa striking result and clearly shews that the wind blew from both borders of the track towards some point in the center of the Vou. XXXITI.—No. 2. 48 374 Observations on-a Hurricane in Ohio. track. - This remark does not apply to one part of the track exclu- sively, but was a general characteristic of the hurricane. Moreover, there was one spot near the house A, where the fences on each side of the road were blown into the road. We have then I think established that there were two powerful currents of wind blowing from the opposite side of the track ; that is, within a few rods of each other, and with such violence that the stoutest oaks fell before it. What then became of the air thus accu- mulated inthe centre? It must have some escape. Was this escape in a horizontal or vertical direetion? The evidence I think is suffi- cient to decide this question ; that there was a powerful current up- ward from the surface of the earth near the middle of the track, is proved by the objects which were actually elevated into the air. The house D was lifted directly from its foundations. The cart which was standing near the house was raised thirty or forty feet at the least calculation into the air. The feather bed upon which Miss Sanford was sleeping, was found next morning lodged in a tree nearly between the house and the barn, and at an elevation of forty feet from the ground. A coat which belonged to one of the men of the house was lodged also in the same tree. ‘The light articles which have been found in the neighboring towns, prove not only a horizontal current, but an ascending one sufficient to counteract the effects of gravity during several minutes. We have now established by a fair induction, that there was a powerful current of air from the opposite sides of the track towards some point in the centre of the track, and that here there was alsoa powerful current upward. What was the nature of this ascending current? Was it accompanied by gyration? This question I think we are able to answer. The furniture of the house D, was scattered in very various directions. ‘The house itself and the more substan- tial part of the furniture were carried in the direction of the barn; portions of the wagon however, lay strewed in every direction from east to northeast; leaves of books were found attached to bushes by the road in an east direction; a tin pail and various light articles were found in the woods opposite the house G, and in a direction S. E. from D; and a piece of a clock was found in a N. W. direc- tion from D, in the apple orchard. ‘The plough which was between the houses C and D, was obviously carried round nearly an entire circumference, for it left clear marks of its course on the ground. We find the same evidence of a gyral motion in the directions of the Observations on a Hurricane in Ohio. 375 trees which fell near the middle of the track. Take the case of the four trees | have mentioned in front of the house G. They lie par- allel to each other, side by side, and fell nearly at right angles to the track of the hurricane. Yet the tops of two of them incline to the north, and those of the other two to the south. Here there were two winds which blew, we cannot suppose simultaneously, but sue- cessively, from opposite points of the compass at the very same spot, and the two winds must have succeeded each other at an interval not exceeding a minute, for the violence of the hurricane was past in about that time. ‘The preceding, moreover, is a phenomenon which occurred not in one spot merely, but all along the centre of the track. Every where there is the same evidence of two currents in xactly opposite directions, having passed over precisely the same spot. I know of but one supposition which will explain all these phe- nomena ; viz. that the air near the centre of the track had a whirl- ing motion. A tree then which was levelled as this whirl was ap- proaching it, would be turned to the right for example ; and another which fell as the whirl was receding would be inclined to the left; so that we might have trees side by side, lying parallel to each other, but with their tops turned in opposite directions conformably with the observations. It appears, however, that this whirl did not extend over the breadth of the entire track, for then trees must have every where fallen, occasionally at least, parallel to the track, a fact which has been observed only near the middle of the path. We are now I think, in a situation to explain nearly all the phe- nomena which have been observed. The wind blew from the op- posite sides of the track, and doubtless from every point of the com- pass, towards some point in the centre of the track; here the wind rose violently with a gyral motion. ‘This vortex itself had a rapid motion from west to east, sweeping along over the middle of the bur- ricane’s path. Trees then upon the borders of the track would every where fall towards this vortex. Those which were prostrated as the vortex was approaching, would have an inclination to the west; but those which fell as the vortex was receding, would be found inclined to the east, and we should no where find trees falling outward from the track or even parallel to it. All this is in exact conformity with the observations. We may now, moreover, explain a fact which at first view might have seemed quite anomalous, viz. that the house D was carried in the direction of the barn, while a tree behind the barn fell towards the house. At the surface of the earth the wind must have 376 Rotary Multiplier, or Astatic Galvanometer. blown at one ‘instant from the barn towards the house ; here however there was an upward and gyral current; the house was raised with it, and almost immediately thrown out of the vortex by its immense centrifugal force. Lighter objects which were carried up with it, were retained in the whirl a long time, and were finally thrown in very various and even opposite directions. The preceding results as to the character of the wind’s motion, are very similar to those which marked the New Brunswick hurricane of 1836. It is desirable that the leading features of every great hurri- cane should be faithfully recorded, that we may in time be enabled to decide whether the preceding characteristics pertain alike to all hurricanes ; or if otherwise, into how many classes they are to be divided. Art. XXIII.—Rotary Multiplier, or Astatic Galvanometer ; by Cuas. G. Paces, M. D. Fieures 1 and 2 represent two new pieces of galvanic appara- tus, completed in the beginning of September last. Fig. 1 repre- sents a rotary or astatic gal- Fig. 1. vanometer, with a single nee- _————_Z » dle. mis the multiplier, com- posed of a number of turns of insulated wire. At c, an open collar passes through the center of the wires, to pre- vent any friction against the stem supporting the bar mag- netns. The multiplier m is mounted for revolution on a slender shaft 6, and has the -ends of its wires soldered to semi-cylinders of silver at a, upon which the battery wires FTL | ss (iiMHAcaRoraTL FMM GRINSTEIN TUTTE ST Ten ster TET (ae eee COVED AAE THD CEA TNT AAs pn press with a slight spring. a The cylindrical segments are not correctly represented in the pa Their relation to the battery wires should be such that the direction of the current should change when the coil of wire is at right angles to the magnet. The magnet being stationary may be very large SE nee ——— Se Rotary Multiplier, or Astatic Galvanometer. 3TT and powerful, and the mode of suspending the wire allows it to be brought much nearer the magnet than is represented in the figure ; at the same time the friction is trivial. ‘The apparatus would be much improved by the addition of another bar magnet n‘ s’ above the coil. In that case the magnetism of both bars might be pre- served, by arming their opposite poles when not in use. This in- strument, though interesting, is not intended as a measurer of gal- vanic force. But the principle of making the conducting wires the indicators instead of the magnets, appears to be of value, for many reasons. ‘The conducting wires may be considered as perfectly as- tatic, and affording constant results. It is difficult to obtain, and much more so to preserve a perfectly astatic needle. ‘The needle of a galvanometer is readily disturbed by the approach of any ferru- ginous body. By substituting for the dissected cylinder at a two entire cylinders above and below, the rotary multiplier becomes a galvanoscope of considerable delicacy. In order to constitute an astatic galvanometer the whole should be inverted, the magnets sup- ported from below, the multiplier by a torsion thread from above, and the extremities of the wire turn in small mercury cups in the centre of motion.* Fig. 2, represents a new form of electrepeter. Its name purports a turner or changer of the electrical current. An ingenious appara- tus of this kind, by Mr. Clarke of London, is described and figured in the first No. of Sturgeon’s Annals ; but it is not so simple in con- struction, and the connecting wires in his machine being out of sight, it is not so easily understood as the one here figured. The drawing represents a double electrepeter, or one to be used with two separate batteries, and two or more pieces of electro-magnetic apparatus. Divide the machine at a, and bring up the wooden pillar r to the left hand division, and you have the single electre- peter, answering for most purposes. ‘The one | have constructed, was made for reversing the motion of an electro-magnetic engine, and has four parts. a ¢ is a cylinder of mahogany # inch diameter, mounted for semi-rotation between two wooden pillars. 6566 represent strips of silver passing each obliquely half round this cyl- inder, and fastened to it by pins of the same metal. 6’ 0’ b’ b’ repre- sent rectangular studs of silver, (copper will answer, but not so well,) connected metallically through the centre of the cylinder with * The wires here should be of silver, except the tips for the mercury connexion. 378 Rotary Multiplier, or Astatic Galvanometer. Dp TTT OVACARVEOVOU ORI HUUERACONUAAOQOCCOOUOCUCCORUGADOOONOTOAUATPOOONATOOOC PROT OSTLIAL corresponding studs directly opposite. ps, ns, are stiff springs of copper, with silver tips at s pressing firmly against the studs on the cylinder, and connected with the mercury cups below. ‘The back side of the instrument exactly corresponds to that exhibited in the drawing. ‘The modus operandi is seen at a glance. The two springs pn are connected by the mercury cups with the poles of a battery. ‘The corresponding springs of the other side, with the wires of an electro-magnet for instance. By turning the cylinder half round, it is obvious the battery current is crossed, and the poles of the magnet reversed. New form of interruptor or electrotome.—As it is desirable that every distinct form of apparatus of general use should have an ap- propriate name, I have selected the term electrotome (divider of the electrical current) as applicable to the several varieties of appa- ratus figured and described in the July No. (1837) of your Journal. It is hardly necessary to premise, that secondary currents of great intensity, are obtained from a single pair of plates in connexion with the dynamic multiplier, when the primitive current is divided in any part of its course. ‘The force of the secondary current so obtained, depends materially upon the mode of breaking the circuit of the primitive. The shocks and decompositions I have found to be greatest when the primitive circuit is broken by raising clean pen- cils of lead, zinc or copper, from the surface of mercury covered Meteoric Shower of November, 1837. 379 with water. ‘The sparks are best exhibited over clean mercury — with lead. ‘The mechanical electrotome I have contrived with a view to combine the above advantages, at the same time that it is a useful instrument, affords a most brilliant exhibition of galvanic power. The connexion is rapidly broken by a long series of leaden bars, raised from the surface of mercury in succession by pins ar- ranged at proper distances on a revolving metallic drum, similar to that of a barrel organ or musical box. ‘The lead bars, or wires, of large size, are supported in a wood frame by projecting shoulders, to take the pins of the drum as it revolves. Their lower ends just dip into the mercury of a long narrow cell with glass sides. The drum is connected with the battery by a strip of copper pressing firmly against its metallic axis. ‘The mercury in the cell is con- nected with the spiral by a wire. As the pins come round in suc- cessive order, they establish the battery connexion, and again break it by raising the piece of lead, and so each one in order. Revolved by a multiplying wheel the effect is exceedingly beautiful, while, in the dark, illuminated by its own light, the whole appears to be at rest. MISCELLANIES. DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN. 1. On the Meteoric Shower of November, 1837. By Denison OumsreD, Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy, in Yale College. 1: Observations made at Yale College. AutTHoueH, in conformity with a remark made in my account of the meteors of November, 1836,* I had little expectation of a rep- etition of the same phenomenon the present year, unless on a very limited scale, yet it was deemed proper to take such measures as would insure a full knowledge of the facts of the case, whatever they might be. Accordingly, 1 made early arrangements with a number of my young friends, who are conversant with the stars, deeply interested in the studies of nature, and much accustomed to astronomical observations, to maintain a strict watch during the whole of the night, between the 12th and 13th of November, and * American Journal, vol. xxxi, p. 386. 380 Meteoric Shower of November, 1837. to have an eye upon the stars, especially the latter half of each night, for several nights preceding and following that. In order that every part of the firmament might receive its due share of attention, our company, eight in number, divided itself into four parties, allotting two to each quarter of the heavens. ‘To Mr. R. B. Claxton and myself was assigned the southeastern quarter ; to Messrs. A. B. Haile and E. C. Herrick, the northeastern; to Messrs. E. Strong and D. T. Stoddard, the northwestern ; and to Messrs. H. L. Smith and E. P. Mason, the southwestern. Each party selected a separate station for itself, and arranged to keep an accurate record of its observations. The early part of the evening afforded some signals of promise. A copious rain which fell on the preceding night, attended by an easterly wind, had given place to a serene sky with the wind at the west ; from the setting sun diverged six large columns of a rose col- ored vapor; and, before six o’clock, an auroral pillar of a crimson hue presented itself in the northwest; but before seven o’clock, every unusual appearance had vanished and left an unclouded sky. The full moon, however, shone with so strong a light as almost to hide the stars, permitting none to be seen below the third magni- tude, and scarcely any indeed at so hasty a glance as the eye must take to observe the transient flash of ordinary shooting stars. Of course, no meteors but those of unusual brightness could be seen. _ From the early part of the evening, a constant watch was main- tained; but the several parties were not at their respective posts until about midnight. From this period, until broad day light, the observers were constantly in the open air, gazing, without intermis- sion, upon the quarter of the heavens respectively assigned to them.* No shooting stars were observed until five minutes past one o’clock, when they began to appear at considerable intervals. On collect- ing and comparing all the observations, we arrived at the following results. * We should not have thought it necessary to trouble the reader with the nar- ration of all these circumstances, except by way of apology for having seen more shooting stars than were seen in other places. To some who have averred that there were on that night few or none to be seen elsewhere, but have ascribed the favors so much more freely bestowed here to the courteous attention paid them on former visits, we would respectfully recommend, that hereafter they use thé ceremony to meet these celestial visitants out of doors, and in full dress. A con- stant gaze with the neck bent backwards, for six hours or more, in a frosty night, is the kind of etiquette they exact. Meteoric Shower of November, 1837. 381 1. Numper. SAE Chea slot Su. NEGEK N. W. Ss. Ww. Total. SF Se SPIER AT TS Gi tinier vue I NL aR MS TE Ans Oi ie lieaiaui es araaid or ae a eA a On | amas SOR 7 aly, SG ae AO a OGM EGE ol je br. che | made oe pee eG OO EO satin ASK. Mae ad 62 an eee ae Meee Cy Me os aa Si oe Sumptotaliel 90, SS 63 uel. 38 SO ie 80 Remarks. 1. On comparing notes, it was found that four meteors had been counted twice; these being deducted, the entire number is 226. 2. The greatest number were observed in the southeast, and the the least in the southwest, the former being more than three times as numerous as the latter. 3. Including all the observations, the maximum, or period of greatest frequency, occurred from 4 to 5 o’clock; but this was not uniformly the case in the several quarters taken separately. ‘Thus, in the southeast, the most productive hour was from 5 to 6; in the northeast, from 3 to 4; in the northwest and southwest, from 4 to 5 o’clock. ‘The maximum of the meteoric showers of November of previous years has been, always and in all places, about 4 o’clock. 4. In numerous instances, after a considerable interval, several meteors would start about the same time, from the same part of the heavens, falling in different directions. ‘Thus, at 3h. 47m., four started almost at the same instant from Jupiter, then situated a few degrees east of Regulus. II. Courses. 1. Of the 99 meteors which were observed in the S. E., 42 fell between E. and S., and 29 between E. and N., the remainder passed in different directions. 2. Seven were observed to rise. ‘The particulars are subjoined with the hope of instituting a comparison with observations made elsewhere. lh. 23m. from /Leonis, (very bright.) lh. 26m. “ breast of Leo, (observations not definite.) th:,39m., .¢.,, Pollux. Vou. XX XIII.—No. 2. A9 382 Meteoric Shower of November, 1837. 2h. 25m. from hind foot of Ursa Major. 3h. 35m. “ Leo, (very bright.) oh. 40m:, *, \Ditte: Ah. Wdima “SS Castor: 3. All the meteors, with the exception of ten or twelve, pro- ceeded in lines of direction which diverged from the constellation Leo. ‘Those which did not follow this regimen, were marked in our records as unconformable. ‘They were generally remarked as having a slower motion than the others, particularly when moving horizontally from west to east. Each of our four parties made a separate location of the apparent radiant, and, on comparing notes, it was found that all agreed in placing it somewhere between « and y Leonis. It was conceded, however, that those whose attention was constantly directed towards the eastern quarter of the heavens, had better opportunities than the others, for determining this point with accuracy. ‘The position of the radiant was at first near the star of the Lion, but afterwards moved southward and eastward a little, and soon after three o’clock, became stationary nearly equidistant from and «.* Position of the radiant in successive years. 1833, R. A. 150° 00’ Dec. 20° 00 tisaa Oe age 307) es 90.57 1836, “ 145° 00) “ 25° 00 18387, “ 146° 00’ .« 24° 30’ Ill. Maenirupes. 1. It must be recollected, that a full moon was shining with so strong a light as to extinguish all stars below the third magnitude, and consequently, that none but very bright meteors could be seen at all. About 40 were of such a size and splendor, that they might be compared to Venus and Jupiter. ‘These in a dark night must have been very splendid fire balls. The greatest part, however, were much smaller, and many were mere momentary flashes. 2. The major part of the meteors were followed by trains. These appeared to be, in most cases, merely the continued impression of light on the eye, resulting from the great velocity of the bodies; but * This change of the place of the radiant was, we learn, also noticed by Mr. F, A. P. Barnard, of New York. Meteoric Shower of November, 1837. 383 in several instances, the train remained visible so long as to leave no doubt of its being a deposit of luminous matter. It must evidently have required a train of singular brightness to have overcome a moon- light so strong, that a newspaper could easily be read by it: We will add, for the sake of comparison with other observers, the partic- ulars of a few of the meteors most remarkable for the length and splendor of their trains. - ih. 40m.—From near § Leonis, length 45°. 2h. 42m.—Origin, 3° N. of Capella, extinguished 6° N. of Alpha Arietis—as large as Jupiter—train writhed for 3 seconds and then faded away. 4h. 6m.—Origin‘in the head of Perseus—extinguished near Mi- rach—brilliant train of 20°—remained 3 seconds. 4h. 59m.—Course towards Procyon—train 6° and swelled out in the middle. 5h. 6m.—Origin 4° above y Leonis—extinguished 5° above 6 Ca- nis Majoris—length of train 16°—meteor as bright as Sirius. lV. Veuocities. The velocity of most of the shooting stars was surprisingly great, the time of flight being in many cases not more than a quarter of a second, and rarely exceeding a second. It has already been re- marked, that such as moved horizontally from west to east had a comparatively slow motion. On the evening of the 16th of Novem- ber, at 10h. 25m., I saw a large dull red meteor sailing along the southern sky from west to east, at an elevation of 20°, which occu- pied 10 seconds. 2. Observations made in various other places. I learn from abroad, that on the night preceding the 13th of No- vember, a careful watch was maintained in various parts of the Uni- ted States, both at literary institutions and by private individuals. Such results as I have been able to ascertain from the public papers, and from numerous communications obligingly made, either to my- self or to my friends, Prof. Silliman and Mr. E. C. Herrick, I pro- ceed to lay before the reader, regretting that the limits of this arti- cle do not permit the insertion at large of the copious documents in my possession. » In the city of New York, a strict watch was maintained by Mr. G. C. Schaeffer and Mr. F'. A. P. Barnard, both well known as 384 Meteoric Shower of November, 1837. men of science, and as skillful observers. Their observations were wholly independent of each other. Mr. Schaeffer saw none until 2 o'clock, but from this time until sunrise he counted 70, most of them in brilliancy equal or superior to the brightest fixed stars, many of them leaving trains of considerable length. ‘The point of radiation was nearly, if not quite, in the same place as in November, 1836. (New York American.) Mr. Barnard counted between 40 and 50 shooting stars, between 2 and 6 o’clock. Most of them left behind them trains of great. beauty. Many of the fainter kind were not included in this esti- mate. The meteors were most frequent from half past three to half past four. The first one that was observed, of very uncommon splendor, fell eastwardly, between Denebola in the tail of the Lion and the planet Jupiter, at about 20 minutes before four. But the brightest of all, and the most beautiful one he ever saw, occurred just about 5 o'clock, falling eastwardly also, near Theta Leonis. Its brightness was dazzling like that of the sun, and its size two or three times that of Jupiter. It left a magnificent train. ‘Two or three usually fell about the same time, after which there generally occurred an interval of from five to fifteen minutes, in which none were observed. The display continued until all the stars were swallowed up in the broad light of day. All the meteors, traced back by the eye, seemed to proceed from a radiant point due north of Regulus, and between Eta and Zeta Leonts. ‘They moved in all directions, but mostly on the east side of a meridian passing through the radiant point. To the west, however, the brightness of the moon was such as to extinguish nearly all the fixed stars. But one meteor out of the whole number was observed to be an ex- ception to the general law of radiation; and that one, apparently originating in the right foot of the Great Bear, crossed the lines of the radii to the east. Mr. Barnard adds; ‘‘On the whole this exhibition, though not of astonishing brilliancy, was one of a very satisfactory nature to the philosophie observer, It was such as to confirm in a very remark- able manner, the general inferences of Prof. Olmsted regarding the meteors of November. All the observations of Mr. O. regarding the distinctive appearances of these meteors to the eye, were abund- antly corroborated.”—(New York Commercial Advertiser.) There is some reason to believe that the splendid fire ball men- tioned by Mr. Barnard as occurring about 5 o’clock, was seen at Meteoric Shower of November, 1837. 385 several places remote from each other. A meteor answering nearly to this description, though somewhat less splendid, was observed here about the same time, allowing for the difference of longitude. I learn also by a letter from President Humphreys, of St. John’s College at Annapolis, Md., that, at the same time, “a very brilliant meteor was seen there, which fell from the direction of the zenith towards the east point.” The occurrence of a meteor, attended with similar circumstances in respect to time, splendor and direction, is also mentioned in a letter from Mr. Frederic Merrick, Preceptor of Amenia-Seminary, Dutchess Co., New York. Were these several observations accurately collected, they might perhaps afford suffi- cient data for determining the height of this meteor. At Mount St. Mary’s College, Emmittsburg, (Maryland,) as I learn by a communication from Mr. L. Obermeyer, several of the professors and students watched during the whole night. No me- teors were seen until twelve minutes past one ; from that time the number gradually increased until half past four, when they succeeded each other more rapidly than at any other time. My correspondent _himself commenced his observations at fifteen minutes before four, and continued them until five. During this period he counted 52 meteors. He adds: ‘“‘ A great many had been previously seen by Prof. Clark and others, and comparing notes, I find the same prin- ciples prevailing throughout, as far as relates to the point of emana- tion, courses, velocities and trains. With few exceptions they all radiated from the constellation Leo, diverging towards every point. The interval between them varied from half a minute to five min- utes. In one or two instances, two diverged from the same point at the same time, taking opposite directions.” At Buffalo, (New York,) a careful watch was kept up by Mr. Haskins, but dense clouds entirely covered the heavens. At Sf. Louis, (Missouri,) “a watch was maintained by a number of scien- tific gentlemen every night, from the 11th to the 14th, inclusive. On the 11th and 12th, the sky was constantly overcast. On the 13th and 14th, the sky was clear, but there was no appearance in- dicating a return of the phenomenon.” At Western Reserve College, (Ohio,) very seasonable and effi- cient arrangements for observation were made under the direction of Prof. Loomis. The company consisted of twelve, each quarter of the heavens being assigned to a separate observer, who watched two hours at atime. ‘The view was interrupted by clouds until a 386 Meteoric Shower of November, 1837. quarter before three, when it became perfectly clear, and remained so until half past four. At twenty three minutes before five, the sky had become so cloudy as to prevent further observations. In the clear interval they counted 74 meteors. ‘The greatest number were seen in the southeast, and the least in the northwest ; 29 being seen in the southeast, 23 in the northeast, 17 in the southwest, and 11 in the northwest. i It is granted that shooting stars occur in greater or less number at all seasons of the year, and that they are usually frequent in every clear night in the autumnal months; and before we are authorized to infer any remarkable exhibition of them on the morning of the 13th of November of the present year, it is necessary to compare the phenomena as observed on that morning with such as were observed on the mornings preceding and following that. For many days before and since the 13th, Messrs. Herrick and Haile have watched together in the open air, commencing usually as early as 4 o’clock. Many shooting stars have been seen on every favorable morning. ‘The greatest number seen in a single hour by the two observers, directing their attention different ways, was 32. There was then no moonlight; and the hour was at that period of the night usually most productive of shooting stars. On Saturday morning, November 11th, in the presence of the moon, then ap- proaching the full, the same observers saw but fowr ina half an hour. The night preceding the 12th was rainy ; but several of my young friends, determined to let no opportunity escape them to collect important facts on this interesting subject, sat up all night with the hope that they might at least catch a glimpse of the stars. But the following observations of Mr. E. Fitch, of the Senior class in Yale College, supply us with very useful materials for ma- king the comparison in question. I give them in his own words. “ 730 17 11.33 , 30/4 15 5 .10 16 17.45 10.13 |\Nov. 13. 00 5 15 38 16.88 7ABy = Gi) 5 00 18 12.00 3/3 30 e113) 29 16.57 413 30 5 15 33 18.85 8\4 15 4. 30 0) 20.00 9/4 00 4 15 4 16.00 15 600 5 1d 3 12.00 11/5 30 4 45 10 8.00 Moon fulls 12 d. 6h. 21m. M. 13/3 15 5 i5- | 34 “17.00 Moonlight, 1 day after full. - 15|)3 45 4 15 5 10.00 Ditto. 3 do. s\4 45 5 15 6 12.00 Ditto. do. 163 4d 5 15 6 4.00 Ditto. 4 do, 17/4 #15 5 15 9 9.00 Ditto. 5 do. 22)4 05 4 30 6 14.04 Ditto. 10 do. GS his) 9 11 6 00 11 13.75 Ditto. 10 do. 28\4 10 5 15 36 33.23 14.58 | New moon. iDec. 55. 00 530 13 26.06 75 00 5 30 il 22.00 24.00 “Tt has been already remarked, that when I commenced my ob- servations, the meteors appeared to diverge from the constellation Gemini. As to a definite point of divergence, I was unable to fix upon any with certainty ; the region of divergence however, mani- festly moved on through the constellation Cancer, and on the morn- ing of the 13th Nov. it was in the neck or breast of Leo. From the time when I commenced observing, the number of irregular me- teors (that is, of those whose direction was not from the region of general divergence) has increased in comparison with the whole number seen ; and since the 13th, it has been so great, that the most that can be said is, that the majority appear to come from the constellation Leo. ‘The time when I have found the meteors most numerous, is during the hour from half past three to half past four. As far as can be determined from what observations I have made since the 13th, as many as two thirds or three fourths of those that are visible in the absence of the moon, would be invisible in the light of the full moon.” At this place (New Haven) the night of the 13th was cloudy. It appears, as before mentioned, (see page 385,) that it was clear at St. Louis, in Missouri, but that the observers there could detect no unusual number of meteors. On Tuesday night, the 14th, oc- curred one of the most magnificent exhibitions of the Aurora Bo- realis, Mr. Barnard observed this with great attention in New 388 Meteoric Shower of November, 1837. York, being favored with a clear sky, while it was here partially or wholly covered with clouds. During the latter part of the night, after the aurora had disappeared, Mr. B. gave his attention to the shooting stars. He observes, “‘ I watched steadily for an hour and a quarter, and saw only three trifling ones. I had seen one before, early in the evening.” On the morning of the 5th of December, when the moonlight was gone, and the sky was in all respects favorable, I kept upa strict watch of the eastern part of the heavens from 3h. 20. to 4h. 20m., during which time I counted-21 meteors. 1 kept my record in two columns, placing such as appeared as bright as stars of the third magnitude, and which might have been seen on the morning of the 18th Nov. in one column, and such as were feebler than stars of the third magnitude in another column. The footing of the col- umns was respectively 7 and 14, indicating that two thirds of the whole number would not have been visible in full moonlight. Mr. Fitch observed on the same morning, and made a similar estimate entirely independent of mine, but with precisely the same result. Messrs. Herrick and Haile express the opinion, that of those meteors observed by them on dark nights, three fourths would have been invisible on the morning of the 13th November, Indeed, the most they could ever see in an hour in full moonlight were only eight, while in a corresponding hour in the absence of the moon, they counted 30. ‘The meteors seen by me on this occasion, nearly all proceeded from around the lower part of the constellation Leo. But the region of divergence, instead of being as on the 13th a defi- nite point, was a circular space of more than twenty degrees diam- eter. ‘The directions of the meteors were such also as frequently to cross each other’s paths. Such too, I am authorized to say, have been the appearances as observed by Messrs. Herrick and Haile. With the foregoing facts in view, we proceed to the inquiry, Whether on the morning of the 13th of November, of the year 1837, there was or was not an extraordinary exhibition of shooting stars, analogous to the ‘‘ Meteoric Shower,” which had occurred at the corresponding periods for six years before 2 The peculiar characteristics by which this phenomenon has been attended, have been heretofore enumerated as follows ;—(1.) a num- ber greater than usual—(2.) a radiation of nearly all from one cen- ter, situated in the constellation Leo—(3.) ¢razns more frequent and Meteorie Shower of November, 1837. 389 vivid than ordinary—and, (4.) a maximum, or period of greatest fre- quency, at 4 o’clock in the morning.* With regard to the period of greatest frequency, it appears by the observations of Mr. Fitch, (p. 387,) that on a number of mornings previous to the 13th, four o’clock seemed likewise to be the time of the maximum. A very unusual proportion of the meteors seen on ihe present occasion were accompanied by vivid trains; but as the light of the moon would have prevented many others not accompa- nied by such trains from being seen, we cannot, in the present in- stance, employ this characteristic to prove the analogy of this exhi- bition with the meteoric showers of previous years, although we have much reason to believe that this characteristic would have been very obvious, had it not been for the presence of the moon. But we allege the following arguments as decisive of the occurrence of the meteoric shower, on the morning of the 13th November. 1. The number of meteors actually seen on that night, in the two eastern quarters of the heavens, was in fact greater than on the corresponding hours of any other night before or since, notwithstand- ing the unusual brightness of the moon. 2. Still, at the lowest estimate made by any of the observers, two thirds of the whole number must have been lost in the moon- light, and therefore, we may safely estimate the entire number that would have been visible had the moon been away, at three times two hundred and twenty six, that is, at six hundred and seventy eight,—a number far greater than ordinary. The greatest number of shooting stars seen by any observer during the present sea- son, were counted by Mr. Fitch on the 28th of November, from 4h. 10m. to 5h. 15m., in which time he saw 36, being at the rate of 33 per hour. Yet on the morning of the 13th, [ counted in the same quarter of the heavens, between the hours of half past four and half past five, 32 meteors, which multiplied as before by 3, gives for the number that would have been seen in the absence of the moon 96,—a number almost three times as great as the greatest number observed at ‘any corresponding hour of other nights. We do not deem it fair to make the comparison with other seasons of the year, especially when the number with which the comparison is made was unusually large,—such, for example, as the number seen on the 9th or 10th of August, since there is reason to believe that * See the Report for 1836, in the 31st volume of this Journal, p. 386. Vou. XXXIII.—No. 2. 50 390 Meteoric Shower of November, 1837. that time constitutes one of the periods of the recurrence of the pbenomenon. 3. As in preceding years, nearly all the meteors moved in lines which radiated from the same centre; and the point of radiation was as heretofore in the constellation Leo, and almost precisely in the same part of Leo as the ‘ radiant” of last year. The fact noticed by Mr. Fitch, that, on the 16th of October, the radiant was in Gemini, and moved successively forward in the di- rection of the earth’s motion in its orbit, keeping nearly or exactly in the line of its tangent, is an observation of great interest and importance, and plainly indicates a connexion between the pheno- menon and the revolution of the earth around the sun, a connexion which bas been recognized from many other independent sources of evidence. It is also a fact of similar interest, that the radiant point of the shooting stars was always in the region occupied by the extreme visible portions of the Zodiacal Light, or rather a little westward of the visible parts of that light. This light has been very conspicuous in the east the present autumn. As early as Oc- tober 5th, it became distinctly visible in the east before the dawn of day, reaching as high at least as the Nebulaof Cancer. It trav- elled eastward nearly at the same pace with the sun, and, on the 2d of November terminated near Reculus, and had sensibly increased in brightness. On the morning of November 8th (the last time I saw it before the 13th) it was still brighter, and advancing at nearly the same rate as before. ‘The western sky had for some time been unfavorable for observations on this light, on account of the moon ; but on the 29th of October I searched for it diligently in the west- ern sky, after twilight, but could not detect the least trace of it. As soon after the 13th, as the absence of the moon and the state of the weather would permit, I began to renew the search in the west. Although very soon after the 13th, that part of the milky way where the Zodiacal Light usually crosses it, appeared more luminous than common, yet the illumination was ambiguous from the presence of Venus, and I could not fee! certain of seeing the Zodiacal Light until the evening of the 2\st, when, in company with three of my astronomical associates, I observed it under very favorable circumstances. At 7 o’clock in the evening, ( Venus being near the horizon, and hidden behind acloud,) we were severally able to define the boundaries of the Zodiacal Light. By fixing the right eye on the milky way near the Eagle, and the left eye near the Meteoric Shower of November, 1837. 391 head of Capricornus, we could discern a luminous pyramid less bright than the milky way, but still sufficiently distinct to say it was there, its upper edve grazing Alpha Capricorni, and the vertex reaching to the right shoulder of Aquarius. Its light was very feeble and diffuse, but the triangular space between it and the milky way, embracing the Dolphin, was perceptibly darker. On the 26th of November, the moon being away, I looked for the Zodiacal Light again in the morning sky, and was surprised to see it so bright,—much brighter I think than it has appeared for the several preceding years when I have watched it after the 13th of November. It was now, therefore, visible on both sides of the sun, having an elongation from that luminary, in the region of the eclip- tic, of 60° in the morning and 90° in the evening sky. From this time I could hardly discern any change of place in it in the morn- ing, reaching uniformly to near Virginis, nor any perceptible dimi- nution of brightness until December 5th, when the brightness evi- dently began to decline, and on the 9th (the last time I saw it in the east) the light was comparatively feeble, until just before day, although its visible dimensions were nearly as great as for some days before. in the evening sky, meanwhile, the Zodiacal Light increased rap- idly in brightness, and advanced along the ecliptic faster than the sun. On the 2d of December, after the moon was set, it could be seen, rising to the meridian, at an elongation from the sun of not less than 120°, while its elongation on the other side of the sun was nearly 60°. Its entire dimensions had therefore expanded since November 26th, being now 180° in Jength, while it was then only 150°. At the present time (December 12th) the moon pre- vents observations both morning and evening. Were it not for Ve- nus, (now of a dazzling splendor,) my previous observations would lead me to expect to see it become shortly very conspicuous in the west, while in a few days it would cease entirely to be seen in the east. Does not this great and sudden expansion, covering at the same time both sides of the sun, indicate something of the nature of an inferior conjunction? And would not such a position result, from the change of position which the earth would take with — respect to a nebulous body of great extent, lying over the earth’s orbit, through the skirts of which the earth passed on the 13th of November, but, moving more rapidly than that body, throwing the sun behind it, as seen in perspective? My meaning, perhaps, will be better comprehended by a diagram. 392 Meteoric Shower of osenber 1837. Let ~ § 1, &c. represent the zodiac, and Jet A be the place of the earth in its orbit on the 13th of November. Let c rep- ‘resent a nebulous body so situated with respect to the earth that the extreme portions nearest to the earth shall lie across the earth’s path. The sun being seen among the stars at S’, the body ce, sup- posed to consist of light nebulous matter, would be projected over a great space, rising to the westward of the sun towards Leo as rep- resented in the figure. Let B be the place of the earth after it has passed by the nebulous body, (the sun being at S’”) and let the body be at c’; it would be seen in the heavens on both sides of the sun, rising after sunset towards the constellations Aquarius and Pisces. The existence of such a nebulous body, which afforded the me- teoric shower of 1833, was inferred without the Jeast reference to the Zodiacal Light.* The inquiry now is, does that light answer to the conditions of the supposed body? if so, we infer that it is in fact the body itself, and its successive appearances will lend impor- tant aid to the theory suggested, as a source of evidence entirely independent of those from which the existence of the nebulous body was inferred. ' * See Vol. xxvi of this Journal, p. 162. Meteoric Shower of November, 1837. 393 Whether (as some have supposed) the Spots on the Sun have any connexion with the Zodiacal Light or not, it may not be im- proper to record the fact, that these spots have, for a few weeks past, been very remarkable for their number, magnitude and frequent changes. On the 13th of November, there were on the sun’s disk, eight distinct groups visible in the finder of Clarke’s Telescope, which, with a power of 55, were resolved into more than sixty distinct spots. By the 20th of November, some of the larger groups had moved off the disk, and the remaining spots were less remarkable than before. To-day, however, (Dec. 13th,) they are as numerous and striking as ever, presenting at 10 o’clock, A. M. an appearance like the following, the comparative dimensions of the spots being increased a little for the sake of distinctness.* On the night of the meteoric shower, the Magnetic Needle was earefully observed, at this place, by Mr. Herrick ; at St. John’s Col- lege in Maryland by President Humphreys; and at Mt. St. Mary’s College in the same state, by Mr. L. Obermeyer. At none of these places was any peculiar change in the needle detected. The Barometer and Thermometer were attentively watched by Mr. Charles Rich, but no remarkable changes either of pressure or of temperature were observed; and such is the testimony on this point of observers in other places. The night of the 14th of November, as already remarked, was sig- nalized by an Aurora Borealis of the most magnificent description. Through the kindness of my friends and correspondents, I am in possession of numerous papers relating to this phenomenon, which I had purposed to collate in a separate article; but my limits do not permit its publication ia the present number of this Journal. Yale College, December 13th, 1837. * I am indebted for this diagram to Mr. A.B. Haile, who has examined thesun daily since the 13th of November. 304 Miscellanies. 2. Extraordinary case of electrical excitement, with preliminary remarks by the Editor.—The facts stated below, were, by my re- quest, kindly communicated for this Journal by Dr. Willard Hos- ford, a respectable physician of Orford, New Hampshire, the place where the occurrence happened. Being in that place in Septem- ber, and finding the belief in the facts to be universal, particularly on the part of persons of judgment and science, (as at the neigh- boring University, Dartmouth, at Hanover, eighteen miles south,) I became desirous of preserving a record of them. Dr. Hosford remarks in the letter accompanying his communica- tion, that abundant evidence from the most intelligent persons is at hand for the support of every point in the case. He observes also, that the appearance of the aurora during which the electrical ex- citement of the lady took place, ‘“‘ was precisely the same as that described by some gentlemen at New Haven.” Speaking of it Dr. Hosford adds, that ‘‘ the heavens were lighted with a crimson aurora of such uncommon splendor, as to excite no ordinary emotions in every observer, and we had, he observes, in addition, an electrical exhibition much less dazzling, but more sin- gular and to the parties concerned more interesting.” A lady of great respectability, during the evening of the 25th of January, 1837, the time when the aurora occurred, became sud- denly and unconsciously charged with electricity, and she gave the first exhibition of this power in passing her hand over the face of her brother, when, to the astonishment. of both, vivid electrical sparks passed to it from the end of each finger. ‘The fact was immediately mentioned, but the company were so sceptical that each in succession required for conviction, both to see and feel the spark. On entering the room soon afterward, the com- bined testimony of the company was insufficient to convince me of the fact until a spark, three fourths of an inch long, passed from the lady’s knuckle to my nose causing an involuntary recoil. This power continued with augmented force from the 25th of January to the last of February, when it began to decline, and became extinct by the middle of May. The quantity of electricity manifested during some days was much more than on others, and different hours were often marked by a like variableness; but it is believed, that under favorable cir- cumstances, from the 25th of January to the first of the following April, there was no time when the lady was incapable of yielding electrical sparks. ; Miscellanies. 395 The most prominent circumstances which appeared to add to her electrical power, were an atmosphere of about 80° Fah., moderate exercise, tranquillity of mind, and social enjoyment ; these, severally or combined, added to her productive power, while the reverse diminished it precisely in the same ratio. Of these, a high tem- perature evidently had the greatest effect, while the excitement diminished as the mercury sunk, and disappeared before it reached zero. ‘The lady thinks fear alone would produce the same effect by its check on the vital action. We had no evidence that the barometrical condition of the atmos- phere exerted any influence, and the result was precisely the same whether it were humid or arid. It is not strange that the lady suffered a severe mental perturba- tion from the visitation of a power so unexpected and undesired, in addition to the vexation arising from her involuntarily giving sparks to every conducting body that came within the sphere of her elec- trical influence ; for whatever of the iron stove or its appurtenances, or the metallic utensils of her work box, such as needles, scissors, knife, pencil, &&c. &c. she had occasion to lay her hands upon, first received a spark, producing a consequent twinge at the point of contact. The imperfection of her insulator is to be regretted, as it was only the common Turkey carpet of her parlor, and it could sustain an electrical intensity only equal to giving sparks one and a half inch long; these were, however, amply sufficient to satisfy the most sceptical observer, of the existence in or about her system, of an active power that furnished an uninterrupted flow of the elec- trical fluid, of the amount of which, perhaps the reader may obtain a very definite idea by reflecting upon the following experiments. When her finger was brought within one sixteenth of an inch of a metallic body, a spark that was heard, seen, and felt, passed every second. When she was seated with ber feet on the stove-hearth (of iron) engaged with her books, with no motion but that of breath- ing and the turning of leaves, then three or more sparks per minute would pass to the stove, notwithstanding the insulation of her shoes and silk hosiery. Indeed, her easy chair was no protection from these inconveniences, for this subtle agent would often find its way through the stuffing and covering of its arms to its steel frame work. In a few moments she could charge other persons insulated like her- self, thus enabling the first individual to pass it on to a second, and the second to a third. 396 Miscellanies. When most favorably circumstanced, four sparks per minute, of one inch and a half, would pass from the end of her finger to a brass ball on the stove ; these were quite brilliant, distinctly seen and heard in any part of a large room, and sharply felt when they passed to another person. In order further to test the strength of this measure, it was passed to the balls by four persons forming a line; this, however, evidently diminished its intensity, yet the spark was bright.* The foregoing experiments, and others of a similar kind, were indefinitely repeated, we safely say hundreds of times, and to those who witnessed the exhibitions they were perfectly satisfactory, as much so as if they had been produced by an electrical machine and the electricity accumulated in a battery. The lady had no internal evidence of this faculty, a faculty sui generis ; it was manifest to her only in the phenomena of its leav- ing her by sparks, and its dissipation was imperceptible, while walk- ing her room or seated in a common chair, even after the intensity had previously arrived at the point, of affording one and a half inch sparks. Neither the lady’s hair or silk, so far as was noticed, was ever in a state of divergence; but without doubt this was owing to her dress being thick and heavy, and to her hair having been laid smooth at her toilet and firmly fixed before she appeared upon her insulator. As this case advanced, and supposing the electricity to have re- sulted from the friction of her silk, I directed (after a few days) an en- tire change of my patient’s apparel, believing that the substitution of one of cotton, flannel, &c. would relieve her from her electrical in- conveniences,} and at the same time a sister, then staying with her, by my request, assumed her dress or a precisely similar one ; but in both instances the experiment was an entire failure, for it neither abated the intensity of the electrical excitement in the former in- stance, or produced it in the latter. My next conjecture was, that the electricity resulted from the friction of her flannels on the surface, but this suggestion was soon * It is greatly to be regretted that the spark had not been received into a Ley- den bottle until it would accumulate no longer, and then transferred to a line of persons to receive the shock.—#Hd. + This could hardly have been expected from non-conductors; we are informed that the lady was relieved of the electricity by a free communication with the earth by a good conductor, in the manner of a lightning rod, as by touching the stove and its connection with the earth through the medium of the chimney.—£d. | Miscellanies. 397 destroyed when at my next visit I found my patient, although in a free perspiration, still highly charged with the electrical excitement. And now if it is difficult to believe that this is a product of the an- imal system, it is hoped that the sceptics will tell us from whence it came.* In addition to the ordinary appurtenances of a parlor, it may be proper to add, that the lady’s apartment contained a beautiful cab- inet of shells, minerals, and foreign curiosities. This lady is the wife of a very respectable yentleman of this place ; she is aged about thirty, of a delicate constitution, nervous temper- ament, sedentary habits, usually engaged with her books or needle- work, and generally enjoying a fine flow of spirits. She has, however, never been in sound health, but has seldom been confined to her bed by sickness even for a day. During the past two years she has suffered several attacks of acute rheumatism, of only a few days’ continuance, but during the au- tumn, and the part of winter preceding ber electrical development, she suffered much from unseated neuralgia in the various parts of her system, and was particularly affected in the cutis vera, in tsola- ted patches; the sensation produced being precisely like that caused by the application of water heated to the point a little short of pro- ducing vesication; in no instance, however, did it produce an appa- rent hyperemia, but about the last of December a retrocession took place of this peculiar irritation, to the mucous membranes of the fauces, cesophagus, and stomach, there producing a very ap- parent hyperemia, and attended, during the exacerbations, with burning sensations that were torturing indeed; and it was for the relief of these symptoms that medical means were used, but it was found no easy matter to overcome this train of morbid action. It was nearly immaterial what medicines were used; no perma- nent relief was obtained, and -no advantage resulted from the use of the alkalies, or their varied combinations. In a few instances, a dose of the acetate of morphine was given to secure a night’s rest, but she seldom made use of an anodyne. The effervescing soda draught being very acceptable was freely given—from which, in addition to a rigid system of dietetics, the * It appears to be Dr. Hosford’s opinion, that the electricity was not caused by the aurora that was coincident with its first appearance, but thal it was, in some way, an appendage of the animal system.—Ed. Vou. XX XII.—No. 2. ol 398 Miscellanies. influence of the opening spring, and the vis medicatrix nature, re- lief came of her electrical vexations, of most of her neuralgia, and other corporeal infirmities, and to this time, a much better state of health has been enjoyed than for many years. Orford, N. H., Nov. 16, 1837. 3. Impressions of feet in rocks.—Those who are acquainted with the earlier volumes of this work, may remember that in Vol V. at p- 223, there is a full account, with a drawing, of the famous copies of human feet found in limestone near St. Louis. In a letter to the editor, recently received from an eminent English geologist, dated September 9, 1837, are the following striking remarks : «Lest I should again neglect to call your attention to a subject to which I have long since intended to claim your particular regard, I will in this brief space allude to it. In the 5th volume of your Journal, (1822,) there are remarks on the prints of human feet ob- served in the secondary limestone of the valley of the Mississippi, by Mr. Schoolcraft and Mr. Benton, with a plate representing the impressions of two feet. Ever since my researches on the rippled sandstones, (published in Jameson’s Edinburgh Journal,) I felt per- suaded the prints alluded to were the genuine impressions of human feet, made in the limestone when wet. I! cannot now go on with the arguments that may be urged in proof of my opinion ; but rely apon it, those prints are certain evidence that man existed at the epoch of the deposition of that limestone, as that birds lived when the new red sandstone was formed. Pray get all the evidence on this head you can—rely upon it most important results will be the consequence. I am prepared to find man and the cotemporary ani- mals much lower down in the series than is generally supposed. My friend Sir Woodbine Parish, (the discoverer of the Megatherium,) tells me that similar impressions have been seen in South America ; and there was a dispute among the catholics whether they were the feet of the apostles! But truth often lies hid beneath such strange conceits. 1 can remember the tine when my explanation of the rippled sandstones was ridiculed, now no one doubts it.” To these remarks of our respected correspondent, we add the following fragment, dated Baltimore, Oct. 14, 1836, and addressed to the editor. ; ‘© Having lately read in your Journal the communication of Prof. Hitchcock concerning the impressions of birds’ feet on the sandstone Miscellanies. 399 in the Connecticut valley, I was reminded of having read something of an analogous kind many years ago concerning a locality in Ten- nessee, which I would beg leave to lay before you under the hope that some of your intelligent readers in that neighborhood may ex- amine into this subject more particularly. ‘‘ Extract from the American Encyclopedia, published by Dobson at Philadelphia, 1778 to 1803—Supplement, vol. 3, p.344. From a meagre account of Tennessee, I extract the following: ‘The enchanted mountain, about two miles south of Brass town, is famed for the curiosities on its rocks. ‘There are on several rocks a num- ber of impressions resembling the tracks of turkeys, bears, horses, and human beings, as visible and perfect as if they were made on snow or sand,’ &c. There are other particulars stated which seem to be loose guesses of ignorant people, &c.” We are not aware whether Dr. Troost, the learned and able geologist of ‘Tennessee, has investigated these facts, or whether they have fallen under his observation. If the alledged facts are real, we should be glad to know his opinion of them, and we should be greatly obliged, if in compliance with our English correspondent and with our own, any facts may be communicated relating to im- pressions on rocks.—Eb. - November 18, 1837. 4. New locality of Iolite, with other minerals assoctated.—About two years ago, I discovered a locality of zolite in this place. I have subsequently revisited it, and take this opportunity of communica- ting to you the result of my observations. The zolzte is found about one mile and a half N. E. of the vil- lage of Brimfield, on the road leading to Warren, and near the resi- dence of Samuel Patrick. It is of a violet blue color, sometimes with a shade of brown: fracture uneven: translucent: structure foliated. I have obtained no specimens which show the crystalline form. Externally, it differs very little from that found at Haddam, Conn., except that the hues are more vivid, and the tabular masses are not as large. I am not aware that other localities have been discovered in this country. ‘The accompanying rock is well char- acterized granite. In connexion with the zolzte, occurs adularia of a wine yellow and sometimes greenish tint. Some of the specimens possess the cha- toyant appearance. They display a strong pearly lustre, and are 400 Miscellanies. often nearly transparent. In some specimens the minute folie are perceptible, giving them a striated appearance. Few localities af- ford better specimens. Sulphuret of molybdenum,—in imperfect hexahedral prisms: struc- ture lamellar. Abundant, though disseminated in dots throughout the mass. Mica,—black : in six-sided tables. Good specimens can be obtained. Garnet,—occurs abundantly: crystallized imperfectly, and massive. This locality, as yet, has been but partially explored. J. W. Foster, of pepe Ohio. Brimfield, Mass., Dee. 7th, 1837. 5. Caoutchouc.—Much attention has been bestowed upon this article, with a view of discovering some solvent or mode of redu- cing it to a consistence capable of receiving any desirable form, or of being applied to the surface of cloth in the form of varnish, in order to render it water proof; but believing that no method has yet been made public by which it could be used with economy and facility, I am induced to offer the following, with the hope that it will be found both useful and interesting. I wish to premise, that all hitherto known solvents of caoutchouc are liable to objections. Ina trial which I once made, I found that oil of turpentine dissolved raw caoutchouc tardily; and on hav- ing been spread on calico and exposed to the atmosphere, it re- mained glutinous at the end of a year. About two years ago, I was induced to perform some experiments with caoutchouc, and I accidentally ascertained, that if it be pre- viously cut fine and immersed in common sul. ether or a solution of (some alkali? I used) carb. soda, 2 0z. to a pint of water, for a week, and then put into good new oil of turpentine, it dissolved with facility ; and when spread on cloth and exposed to a dry atmos- phere, it speedily dries and assumes its original Broneniaes usually in twenty four hours. i Calico, linen, or articles of clothing, may receive a coating with this solution, sufficient to render them water proof without materially altering their general appearance or injuring their pliability. When less elasticity and more body is required, I hazard a con- jecture, that this solution may economically be diluted or mixed with asphaltum, Venice turpentine, or some other articles soluble in oil of turpentine. Arza Anprews, M. D. Meriden, Ct., Nov. 29th, 1837. Miscellantes. 401 6. On meteoric showers in August; supplementary to Art. XX.- The facts below given, came to hand too late for insertion in their proper place. For those marked a. and 6.1 am indebted to the kind attention of my friend, Mr. Geo. C. Schaeffer, of New York. a. The following is the entire statement concerning the meteors seen in England, Aug. 10, 1833, an imperfect account of which was given at pp. 178, 179 of this volume. “‘ A very remarkable flight of falling stars was seen between 10 P. M. and mid- night, on the evening of Aug. 10, (1833,) about midway between Worcester and Great Malvern. They resembled the almost incessant discharge of sky-rockets in the upper regions of the atmosphere, and the trailing light they left upon the sky was particularly curious and beautiful. This appearance continued for a consider- able time; the velocity with which the meteors appeared to move was very great. Some of them were nearly in the zenith, but none approached the horizon. The general direction of their course was from Northwest to Southeast.’’—Lees: Ana- alyst, Aug. 1834. b. In a register of the weather, kept at Edmonton, near London, by Mr. C. H. Adams, published in the London Literary Gazette, in the report for the week Aug. 2-8, 1834, it is stated, ‘‘ the innumer- able meteors which are nightly seen, shooting in all directions, are worthy of notice, as were those especially from 9 to 11 on the eve- ning of the 9th inst.”—-Compare (5), p. 136. c. By No. 218 of L’ Institut, received here on the 11th Dec., it appears that M. Quetelet, at the session of the Royal Academy of Brussels, Dec. 3, 1836, stated his belief that shooting stars were unusually frequent about the middle of August, and more particular- ly on the 10th. In order to find facts in relation to this subject, he examined the Register of the Observatory of Brussels. The only observations there recorded of extraordinary appearances of these meteors, refer to Aug. 10, 1834, and Aug. 10, 1835. No special attention had, however, been given in the Register to observations of these phenomena.—L Institut, fol. Parts, No. 218, p. 256. Aout, 1837. At the time when the last number of this Journal was_ published, I was not aware that any person in Europe or elsewhere, had ever advanced the idea of a meteoric shower in August. The statement on p. 859 concerning the tangential region, is inaccurate in the unrestricted form there given. In our latitude, it is true only about the times of the solstices, but in the intertropical lat- itudes it would, without much variation, hold true, during the year, The general propriety of the conclusion there stated, viz. that the 402 Miscellanies. showers would have been found more abundant after midnight, re- mains however unaffected. If we assume the radiant of August 9 to be in the ecliptic, and 90° West from the sun’s place, it will be found to rise about 10h. 40m. P.M. This may account for the fact that about that time of the year, meteors have been seen so abun- antly before midnight. We have now an August meteoric shower, in five successive years, (1833 to 1837 inclusive,) and there seems to be little risk in pre- dicting its recurrence on or about the 9th of next August. For sev- eral reasons, and especially on account of our early dawn at that season, it is extremely important that persons who live near the equator, in all quarters of the globe, should make careful observa- tions on this interesting phenomenon. E. C. Herrick. New Haven, Dec. 15, 1837. : ; 7. Brilliant Meteor seen in the day time.—On Saturday, August 20, 1836, being in the state of Hlinois, on the road between Win- chester and Jacksonville, and about eight miles southwest from the latter place, (which is near N. lat. 39° 45’, and W. long. 89° 40’,) a brilliant meteor or globe of fire was seen both by myself and com- panion. — Its true bearing was about N. 15° E., nearly. Its apparent size was about fifteen minutes of a degree; or, the apparent disc was about one fourth that of the moon. When first seen it had an alti- tude of about 60°; it moved rapidly in a line nearly vertical, and became invisible at an altitude of about 40°. It would doubtless have been seen at a greater elevation had the eye at first been prop- erly directed. The sky at the time was entirely clear, and the sun shining bright ; it being about four o’clock in the afternoon. The meteor left behind a distinct train of smoke, which appeared like a small cloud and was visible for at least fifteen minutes. An explo- sion was noticed by several persons in the vicinity, which I failed to hear on account of the noise made by the wagon in which I was traveling. R. Gayuorp. 8. A Synopsis of the family of Navades; by Isaac Lea, Phil- adelphia, 1836.—This work deserved a notice at our hands long since, but it has been mislaid and overlooked. Mr. Lea’s reputa- tion is too well and too extensively known to need any encomium from us: his name is identified with American conchology, and no student sees the word Unio, without being reminded of our author and his distinguished services. In this synopsis are enumerated three hundred and fifty four species, recent and fossil. Miscellanies. 403 In his introduction, Mr. Lea justly remarks on the difficulty ex- perienced in attempting any correct and unobjectionable division of a family, in which the distinctive characters of species are so blended and run into each other, as scarcely to be separated by the most mi- nute care. In doing this he has certainly succeeded better than his predecessors, and the number of new species brought forward is quite remarkable. He divides the family into two genera, Marga- rita and Iridina, and the first into the sub-genera Unio, Margari- tana, Dipsas, Anodonta and Pleiodon. ere 2 big Pe i VOL. XXXII.——No. 2.—JANUARY, 1838. 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