ere ee ee + pawn ie ens hn De Be Re Ht = eee etme Sm a anh Piet ty eee eee eo ee ycen wren ve ne Lae pe TW er eter ee pavere worse, os et NNER ee AL oe - RA Oi Oe eaten atari Dt tet eens pa arerere te us ae ate ageirte gmyner seein = = deel . tee 3 oe =a tee - a so ee i Aiea ede as Sy Sy |g POR EAR ae EN etc es me | ee aula I Ce EE OI Fa Res 2 f5 fA ¢ A. a ki ¢ THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIMNGE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY PROFESSOR SILLIMAN AND BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Jr. VOL. XLV.—@@#OBER, 1843. NEW HAVEN: Sold by B. NOYES.—Boston, LITTLE & BROWN and W. H.S. JORDAN.— New York, WILEY & PUTNAM, C.S. FRANCIS & Co., and G. 8. SILLI- MAN.—Piuladelphia, CAREY & HART and J. S. LITTELL.— Baltimore, Md., N. HICKMAN.—London, WILEY & PUTNAM.—Paris, HECTOR BOSSANGE & Co.—Hamburgh, Messrs. NESTLER & MELLE. aN IN a EWAN TP NS YRS ON PRINTED BY B.L. HAMLEN,. CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLV. NUMBER I. Page Art. I. Notice of some Works, recently published, on the No- menclature of Zoology ; by Aucustus A. Gouzp, M.D., 1 II. A Statement of Elevations in Ohio, with reference to the Geological Formations, and also the Heights of various points in this State and elsewhere ; by Cuartes Wuir- TLESEY, Esq., - - - - - - 12 III. Tides in the North American ere! ; by Lieut. D. Rue- eves, U.S. A.—(with a chart,) - - - «o 18 IV. Observations on some interesting Plants of New England ; by Epwarp Tuckerman, Jun., - - - ee) V. Remarkable example of the Force of Expansion and Contraction, exerted by bodies when subjected to alter- nations of Temperature,—with a reference to the ques- tion whether the freezing point of liquids is influenced by differences in pressure; by Prof. Lewis C. Brcx, M.D., - - - - - - - . - 49 VI. An effort to refute the arguments advanced in favor of the Existence, in the Amphide salts, of Radicals con- sisting, like Cyanogen, of more than one element; by Prof. Ropert Hare, M.D.,~ - - - - - 52 VIL On the Rotary Action of Storms; by Cuartes Tracy, 65 VIIL. Corrections and Additions to the Monography of Cuscu- tine, in Vol. XLII. of this Journal; by Georce En- GELMANN, M.D.,_ - : 2 a - = a1 Oo IX. On the Ice Mountain of Hampshire County, Virginia, with a proposed explanation of its low temperature ; by C. B. Haypven, - - - - - : aS X. On the Errors of Chronometers, and explanation of a new construction of the Compensation-balance; by E. J. Dent, - - : ’ 7 : ; /? $87 0 7 7A & ’ lv CONTENTS. XI. Description of a Blind Fish, from a cave in Kentucky ; by Jerrrigs Wyman, M.D.,_ - - - - - XII. On the Adverbial Genitive Case in oe by Prof. J. W. GIBBs, - - - - - - - XIII. On Phosphate of Lime (Apatite), in the Virginia Mete- oric Stone; by Prof. CHartes UpHam Sueparp, M. D., XIV. On the Analogies between the Modern Igneous Rocks and the so-called Primary Formations, and the Meta- morphic changes produced by heat in the associated sedimentary deposits; by James D. Dana, - - XV. On the Temperature limiting the Distribution of Corals ; by James D. Dana, - - - - - - XVI. On the Areas of Subsidence in the Pacific, as indicated by the Distribution of Coral Islands; by James D. Dana,—(with a map,)— - - - - - - XVII. Abstract of the Proceedings of the Fourth Session of the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists, - XVIII. Description of a new species of Torpedo; by D. Hum- PHREYS STorER, M. D.—(with a plate,) —- - - XIX. Description of some New Species of Plants; by 8. B. Bucxiey, A.M., - - - - - - - XX. Ornithichnites of the Connecticut River Sandstones and the Dinornis of New Zealand, - - - - XXI. On the Great Comet of 1843; by Mr.S. C. ieee and Prof. EX. O. KeEnpALL, = - - - - - - XXII. Remarks on Mr. Owen’s Letter to the Editors on Dr. Harlan’s New Fossil Mammalia, - - - - XXIII. Bibliographical Notices :—Agassiz’s Histoire Naturelle des Poissons d’Eau Douce de Europe Centrale, and Vogt’s Embryologie des Salmones, 211.—Hooker’s Ico- nes Plantarum, 214.—Tuckerman’s Enumeratio Method- ica Caricum quarundam, 216.—Endlicher and Martius’s Flora Brasiliensis, 217.—Chauvenet’s Binomial Theorem and Logarithms, 218.—Transactions of the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists, 1840-42, 220. Miscettanies.—Notice of certain siliceous tubes (Fulgurites) ’ formed in the earth, 220.—Supplementary notice of the Ce- raurus crosotus, 222.—Cambridge Observatory, 224.—Notices of Botanical collections, 225.—Iodine in Phanerogamic Plants and Mosses: Disengagement of Carbonic Acid by the Roots a a | 102 104 130 131 135 165 170 177 188 208 CONTENTS. of Plants, 227.—Filariz in the Blood ofa living Dog: Experi- ments of Karsten, relative to the formation of the ‘ images of Moser,”’ 228.—Great Comet of 1843, 229.—Second Comet of 1843: Meteoric Observations of April 20, 1843, 230.— Hundredth Anniversary of the American Philosophical Soci- ety, 231. NUMBER II. Art. I. On a New Form of Mountain or other Barometer; by J. H. Avexanver, Esq.—(with a plate,) - - - Il. Notice of ‘* Molluskite,” or the fossilized remains of the soft parts of Mollusca; by Gip—on ALGERNON Man- Reniesd.. Lis. DF. R.S.; G.S., we!) - - III. An effort to refute the arguments advanced in favor of the Existence in the Amphide Salts, of Radicals con- sisting, like Cyanogen, of more than one element ; by Prof. Ropert Hare, M.D., — - - - - - IV. A New Instrument for estimating the quantity of Car- bonate of Lime present in Caleareous Substances; by J. Lawrence Suita, M.D.,~ - - - - - V. On the Method of Drs. Varrentrapp and Will for estima- ting the Nitrogen in Organic Compounds; by J. Law- RENCE Situ, M. D., - - - - - - VI. Remarks on the First Principles of the Differential Cal- culus, together with a new investigation of Taylor’s Theorem; by Prof. THEopoRE Strone, - - - VII. Notice of a portion of Dr. Dekay’s Report on the Fishes of New York; by D. Humpureys Storer, M.D.,_ - VIII. On Greek Verbal Roots in English; by Prof. J. W. GIBBS, - i) a - = < - - - IX. Remarks on Tides and the Prevailing Currents of the Ocean and Atmosphere ; by W. C. REDFIELD, - - X. Abstract of the Proceedings of the Fourth Session of the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists, XI. On the upright Fossil Trees found at different levels in the Coal Strata of Cumberland, Nova Scotia; by Cuares Lyett, Esq., F.G.8., F.R.S., &e., - - XII. On the Coal Formation of Nova Scotia, and on the Age and Relative Position of the Gypsum and accompany- ing Marine Limestones ; by C. Lett, Esq., F. G.S., &c. Page. 233 243 247 262 267 269 275 284 293 310 353 356 vi CONTENTS. XIII. On the Microscopic Structure of the Teeth of the Lepi- dostei, and their Analogies with those of the Labyrin- thodonts ; by Jerrries Wyman, M. D.—(with a plate,) XIV. On Vibrating Dams; by Prof. Ex1as Loomis, - - XV. Reply of J. P. CoutHovy, to the accusations of J. D. Dana, Geologist to the Exploring Expedition, contained on pp. 130 and 145 of this Volume, - - - XVI. Experiments made with one hundred pairs of Grove’s Battery, passing through one hundred and sixty miles of insulated wire; by Prof. S. F. B. Morse, — - - XVII. On the Fossil Foot-prints of Birds and Impressions of Rain-drops in the Valley of the Connecticut ; by Cuas. LvEtu, Esq., V. P. G.S., - - - - - XVIII. Bibliographical Notices :—Dr. De Kay’s Report on the Zoology of New York, 397.—Agassiz’s Monographies D’Echinodermes Vivans et Fossiles, 399.—Lea’s De- scription of New Fresh-water and Land Shells: Gra- ham’s Chemistry, 401. MiscEttanies.—Fossil Fruits described by Dr. Gideon Algernon Mantell, 401.—Eremite, 402.—Meeting of the British Asso- ciation at Dublin: Animal of the Belemnite: Meteoric Epoch of August: Death of Mr. Bakewell, 403.—Death of Prof. Hall: Death of Mr. J. N. Nicollet, 404. Page. 350 363 378 390 394 ERRATA. Page 135, line 6, for southwest read southeast. Semeooead cul ee sleat “6 slate. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. Art. I.— Notice of some Works, recently published, on the No- menclature of Zoology ; by Aucustus A. Goutp, M. D. Report of a Committee (of the British Association ) appointed “to consider the rules by which the Nomenclature of Zoology may be established on a uniform and permanent basis.” pp. 17, 8vo., Lond. 1842. Nomenclator Zoologicus, continens Nomina Systematica Gene- rum Animalium tam viventium quam fossilium, etc. ; auctore L. Agassiz. Ato. Soloduri, 1842. Tue British Association for the Advancement of Science has undertaken one task, for which it will receive the hearty thanks of zoologists. It has undertaken to interpose the weight of its authority in arrest of the growing abuses in nomenclature, and of the injustice which some zoologists have allowed themselves to practice towards their predecessors. None need this legislation, and none will have more cause to be grateful for it, than Ameri- can zoologists. We have now a host of naturalists rising up, none of them having made any great advances in science, con- scious that in this new country they must be surrounded with un- described objects, and each eager to attach his name to as many species as he may, as though this would indicate the measure of his attainments. rom an impatience at investigation, and from having no large libraries or standard collections of objects, by reference to which doubts might be readily solved, there has already arisen among us such a burden of synonyms as to be Vol. xtv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 1 2 Nomenclature of Zoology. quite perplexing ; and it is even now difficult to settle the claims of priority among the various names so recently imposed. Our best zoologists have been awake to the necessity of hav- ing among themselves some laws, either statute or upon honor, which shall ensure respect and justice to each other’s labors, and render the nomenclature of our zoology such as shall bear the test of enlightened criticism. Not a little correspondence has been carried on, among the leading scientific men in the different cities, as to how this desirable object might be best secured. As one effective means, it has been conceded to those who have been engaged upon monographs, that they should settle the synonymy of the objects coming within their province, and that others should abide by their conclusions, unless they were manifestly wrong, the writer being allowed the benefit of all suspicions. It was deemed to be no difficult thing to establish a code of honor among ourselves; but then the thought arose, of what avail will all this be to us, if the great masters in zoology across the water, shall choose to trample upon us as they have hitherto done? It is indeed discouraging, after having, by a tedious and thorough investigation, determined the novelty of a species, to find, in some subsequent transatlantic journal, the same thing described under a different name, and with such authority as to give the prior de- scriber a very slight chance of regaining his own prior name. With this exercise of the right of the strongest, Americans are familiar. It must be acknowledged that, in very many instances, there is an adequate excuse for this, from the very obscure chan- nels through which the original descriptions have been conveyed to the public, and the very limited circulation such works have had. But this is not always the case; and now, there are scien- tific publications among us which no naturalist, whether native or foreign, should neglect to consult. Indeed, such works as the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia, the Boston Journal of Natural History, not omitting this Journal, have become as indispensable to the zoological writer who would keep up with the level of science, as the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, or the Annales d’Histoire Naturelle, or Revue Zoologique. It is but too apparent, however, that courtesy and justice are not meted out where the plea above allowed cannot be made. If we look at the French, for instance, we find by their writings Nomenclature of Zoology. 3 that most of them are, or affect to be, as ignorant of what their neighbors the English are doing in science, as though sucha people did not exist. Very seldom do we find a French writer referring to English books, splendid and accessible as they are, though honorable exceptions might be named. We have been sometimes disposed to think that the distinguished professors in Paris, being placed at the head of the magnificent collections and institutions of the French capital, had come to think that noth- ing in science could be known, which they did not know; that it would therefore be superfluous for them to spend time in cull- ing over the works of others; and finally, that whatever pre- sented itself as new to them, must be actually new, of course. It was suggested a year or two since, that a paper should be drawn up and signed by the principal zoologists in America, re- questing the British Association to take the subject of the laws of nomenclature into consideration, and propose a series of rules for general use. It was thought that rules emanating from such a source, ‘would be invested with an authority which no indi- vidual zoologist, however eminent, could confer on them,” sufii- cient indeed to ensure their observance. ‘The Association has anticipated our wishes, and has proposed a series of rules cover- ing the whole ground of difficulty, just and honorable in their character, and with which no original naturalist author will find much reason to complain. They are drawn up in so concise a style, that we believe a republication of them, in this connection, will be judicious. They ought to be at once disseminated throughout the scientific public, to be duly reflected upon, and modifications suggested, before the code is finally enacted ; for the committee, in the caption of their report, invoke us —‘* si quid novisti rectius istis, Candidus imperti; si non, his utere mecum.” The subject is divided into two parts; the first, of rudes for the rectification of the present nomenclature, and the second for ats improvement in future. The law of priority is laid down as the only effectual and just one, as a basis of procedure, and gives rise to the first and fundamental maxim: 1. The name given by the founder of a group, or the describer of a species, should be permanently retained, to the exclusion of all subse- quent synonyms, (with the exceptions about to be noticed.) 4 Nomenclature of Zoology. 2. The binomial nomenclature having originated with Linnzus, the law of priority, in respect of that nomenclature, is not to extend to the writings of antecedent authors. 3. A generic name, when once established, should never be cancelled in any subsequent subdivision of the group, but retained in a restricted sense, for one of the constituent portions. 4. The generic name should always be retained for that portion of the original genus which was considered typical by the author. 5. When the evidence as to the original type of a genus is not perfect- ly clear and indisputable, then the person who first subdivides the genus, may affix the original name to any portion of it, at his discretion, and no later author has a right to transfer that name to any other part of the original genus. 6. When two authors define and name the same genus, both making it of exactly the same extent, the latter name should be cancelled iz toto, and not retained in a modified sense. 7. Provided, however, that if these authors select their respective types from different sections of the genus, and these sections be after- wards raised into genera, then both these names may be retained in a re- stricted sense, for the new genera respectively. 8. If a later name be so defined as to be equal in extent to two or more previously published genera, it must be cancelled zn toto. 9. In compounding a genus out of several smaller ones, the earliest of them, if otherwise unobjectionable, should be selected, and its former generic name be extended over the new genus so compounded. 10. A name should be changed, which has before been proposed for some other genus in zoology or botany, or for some other species in the same genus, when still retained for such genus or species. 11. A name may be changed, when it implies a false proposition, which Is likely to propagate important errors, e. g. Picus cafer, for a Mex- ican bird. 12. A name which has never been clearly defined in some published work, should be changed for the earliest name by which the object shall have been so defined. 13. A new specific name must be given to a species, when its old name has been adopted for a genus which includes that species. 14. In writing zoological names, the rules of Latin orthography must be adhered to. On the first nine propositions we have no comments to make. Section 10, seems to us somewhat questionable. The different branches of natural history, botany and zoology, and indeed the different departments of zoology, have now become so extensive, and are pursued by students so much to the exclusion of each Nomenclature of Zoology. 5 other, that if a genus in one department bears a name in common with a genus in some other department, the student is very un- likely to meet with it; or if he does, he meets it under such cir- cumstances as to cause him no embarrassment. While, therefore, it is manifestly improper that widely different objects should bear the same name, we are rather disposed to regard this rule as of prospective, rather than of retrospective, application. Section 11, seems to us liable to still stronger objections. Sad indeed would be the havoc in the nomenclature of American ob- jects, if all the species named Virginicus and Canadensis, were to receive new names because they are likely to propagate im- portant errors, as they frequently would at the present day. And would it not be as well to allow names of this character, already imposed, to remain, until they become so current that they may be retained with as much propriety as Caprimulgus, Monoculus, &ec., which it is conceded may remain unchanged. It is but proper to say, however, that the committee propose that this rule should be “applied only to extreme cases, and with great caution.” : The twelfth proposition seems to us the most important of all, after the fundamental one. It is indeed the very gist of the matter; the point which, if properly maintained, will command all the others. Until lately, the right of priority has been claimed where a man could but show, that, at some anterior period, he had given a name toa specimen in his cabinet, or had read a paper upon the object, and perhaps circulated specimens among his friends. 'The consequence has been, a superficial acquaint- ance with the works of naturalists, and an indifference to publi- cation. It was much easier for a man to sit down and attach a ticket to every object in his cabinet which his ignorance sug- gested might be new, and await his chance of claiming his names for such of them as some patient and thorough student should prove to be actually new, than to undertake the task of conning all the published works in which it were likely to find such objects noticed. In this country, we have indeed, from the destitution of books on natural history, been compelled, per force, to risk something, or do nothing. But this should have rendered us doubly cautious in imposing names, and ever ready to retract them when they are proved to be but synonyms, rather than be tempted by the idea, that no one is so likely to be 6 Nomenclature of Zoology. acquainted with the objects at our door as we ourselves, espe- cially when we happen to live in a district which has sustained no naturalist before us. ‘The actual fact is, that as a general thing, the natural objects peculiar to this country have been bet- ter known and better described abroad than at home. Certainly we may say this, if we except the last twenty years. Nor need we think that our territory has never been explored. ‘There are collectors constantly employed in this country by foreign natu- ralists, who, in a quiet way, send across the water immense stores of all kinds of natural objects; and one is surprised when he sees the flood of such objects, collected at our doors and without our knowledge, in the public and private collections abroad. But things are now come toa different pass. A stop will now be put to all baseless aspirations for notoriety by attaching nobis to the names of species, even when new, though not adequately substantiated; and more especially, by appending it to species created by others, in consequence of removing them to other genera. Two things are now insisted upon in order to give authen- ticity to a genus or species, viz. perspicuous definition and publi- cation. For want of the first requisite, some of our most accom- plished naturalists have forfeited their claims to the adoption of names given by them. I need only mention the name of the eccentric but learned Rafinesque, to convey an idea of what I mean, to American zoologists. Some of the earlier descriptions of the lamented Say, too, are so brief and indiscriminating, that it has been impossible, without figures or authentic specimens, to identify the objects intended. A rule which we have some- where seen, that a writer should always describe an object just as if he expected something almost exactly like it would be found next day, would be all that is necessary to ensure a satisfac- tory compliance with the first requisition. Nor would we be un- derstood to say that all the works of such men are to be forfeited, because, in some instances, they have failed to give diagnostic characters sufficiently perspicuous in view of subsequent discov- eries. In regard to the species instituted by Mr. Say, such has been the almost uniform respect of American naturalists for him, that they have striven to perpetuate all his specific names; and where the object intended could not be indisputably determined, they have conventionally fixed upon some species which should Nomenclature of Zoology. 7 bear the name proposed by him. Neither would we justify the wholesale rejection of M. Rafinesque’s names, which some have advocated ; because it is certain, that many of his species may be satisfactorily made out, and these, beyond all question, should be adopted. The other requisite is publication. And now the question arises, what shall be considered publication. In the words of the committee, ‘to constitute publication, nothing short of the insertion of the above particulars (the essential characters) im a printed book, can be held sufficient.” ‘The French Academy of Sciences has also decided that nothing can constitute publication, but the rendering one’s labors public, through the press.* 'These two authorities are the highest to which we could possibly have recourse, and their dicta ought to be conclusive on this point. The definition of the Academy, it will be perceived, is broader than that of the British Association, inasmuch as the former merely requires that a definition should be given to the public in print, while the latter requires that it should be given in a printed book. We are ready to adopt the most rigid of these requisitions. When descriptions are published, as many of Mr. Say’s were, in such a paper as the New Harmony Disseminator, it could not be expected that another naturalist, who might pub- lish descriptions of the same objects, in some widely current scientific work, justifiably ignorant of his predecessor’s labors, should forfeit his claim to the names imposed by him. It cer- tainly cannot be expected, that every fugitive newspaper br ephemeral literary periodical, is to be ransacked, before a man may be permitted to name an object. In the case of Mr. Say, however, thanks to the assiduity of his friends, his fugitive pub- lications have been collected, embodied, and given to the public, in books which cannot be set aside. At the present day, every facility which can be asked, is given to authors, for bringing their discoveries before the public as soon as they please, in such a manner as to secure all their rights. It is the custom to print, at short intervals, works in which the essential characters of objects may be given, in anticipation of figures and more ex- * « Ajnsi il est bien établi par |’Academie des Sciences, que les communications faites par MM. Le Guillou, &c., ne sauraient constituer une publication, et que leurs travaux resteront inédits, 4 l'état de manuscrit, jusqu’a ce qu’ils azent été rendus publics, par la vote de V’impression.’”’—Revue Zoologique, 1841, p. 331. 8 Nomenclature of Zoology. tended descriptions; thus giving date and publicity to a discov- ery, and allowing ample time for a more satisfactory development of it. Such are the “ Annals and Magazine of Natural History,” and the ‘“ Zoological Proceedings,” in London; the ‘“ Revue Zoologique,” in Paris; and the ‘ Proceedings” of the American Philosophical Society, of the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia ; and of the Boston Society of Natural History, in this country. It will be perceived that this rule disallows any authority to manuscript names, whether merely attached to specimens in a museum, or even when descriptions are accurately written out in full. In the words of the report, “many birds in the Paris and other continental museums, shells in the British Museum, and fossils in the Scarborough and other public collections, have received MS. names, which will be of no authority until they are published. Nor can any unpublished descriptions, however exact, claim any right of priority till published, and then only from the date of their publication.”” One who is publishing may, from courtesy, adopt names which he knows have been applied by some other person; but in that case he must append his own cognomen to it, and not that of his friend, for he alone will be responsible to the scientific world for it, and his publication alone can be referred to as authority. If another has given a name and written a description, which the publisher chooses to adopt in toto, stating the fact, there can then be no objection that such name should stand, with its author’s cognomen appended. Many works of recent date exemplify the force of the objections above made, and have justly incurred unqualified reprobation. Perhaps no case is more glaring than that of M. Kiener, in his beautiful work on Shells, where he has been in the habit of adopting the names imposed by M. Valenciennes, in the museum of the Gar- den of Plants, and appending M. V.’s name as authority, while Kiener alone describes the shells, and his work is the only one that can be referred to as authority. Now, as many errors are found to exist in the work, a writer very pertinentiy inquires, who is to be responsible, he who names without describing, or he who describes without naming ? But we proceed to the second part of the Report, in which are offered recommendations for improving the nomenclature in future. ‘They are briefly comprised under the seven following rules. Nomenclature of Zoology. 9 A. “The best zoological names are those which are derived from the Latin and Greek, and express some distinguishing characteristic of the object to which they are applied.” B. “It is recommended that the assemblages of genera termed fami- lies, should be uniformly named by adding the termination zd@, to the name of the earliest known, or most typically characterized genus in them ; and that their subdivisions, termed swb-families, should be similarly constructed, with the termination zne.” C. “Specific names should always be written with a small initial let- ter, even when derived from persons and places, and generic names should be always written with a capital.” D. “It is recommended that the authority for a specific name, when not applying to the generic name also, should be followed by the aieuae tive expression, (sp.)” E. “It is recommended that new genera or epecies be amply defined and extensively circulated, in the first instance.” i F. “It is recommended that in subdividing an old genus, in future, the names given to the subdivisions should agree in gender with that of the original group.” G. “It is recommended that in defining new genera, the etymology of the name should be always stated, and that one species should be inva- riably selected, as a type or standard of reference.” Under rule A, certain classes of words are specified as objec- tionable: as, a. Geographical names ; because, though a name may indicate that an object may be found in such a country, it may also be found equally common in other countries, and there- fore the name does not tell the whole truth. 6. Barbarous names; by giving Latin terminations to local, native names. c. Technical names ; names expressive of trades or professions, unless carefully chosen. d. Mythological names. e. Compar- ative names; aS maximus, minimus, &c. f£ Generic names, compounded from other genera; this supposes such an alli- ance between two genera that no other can intervene. g. Spe- cific names derived from persons. h. Generic names derived JSrom persons. %. Names of harsh and inelegant pronunciation. k. Ancient names of animals applied in a wrong sense. When the original animal to which they were applied can be ascer- tained, such names are most desirable. 7. Adjective generic names. m. Hybrid names; i.e. words compounded of two languages. mn. Names closely resembling other names already used. o. Corrupted words ; those which are ie naeery Vol. xiv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843, 2 10 Nomenclature of Zoology. compounded. p. Nonsense names ; words without any deriva- tion or meaning whatever. gq. Names previously cancelled by the operation of rule 6. r. Specific names raised to generic. Some of these might be regarded as undesirable, rather than as objectionable ; such as those under classes b, c, d, h. "To class d, we can see very little objection. 'To class g, we feel very strong objections; not simply because complimentary designa- tions, unless ‘restricted to persons of high eminence as scientific geologists,” are in very bad taste, but because of the awkward- ness there is in attempting to pronounce names belonging to a nation whose language we are unacquainted with. What person acquainted with the English language only, or we may add with Latin and Greek also, would venture upon such words as M- chaudi, Dupetit Thouarsii, Le Guillouti, Entrecastauct, Ghets- breghtti, E'schscholtzii. 'This difficulty is not all on the part of the Englishman; on the contrary, the names of Englishmen and Americans are more formidable and forbidding to all the na- tions of southern Europe, than their names are to us. Few of us would be likely to recognize our own names when articulated in French or Italian. With rules A and B, and with the first more especially, would we fully concur; but from the next we should decidedly dissent. The reason given for beginning a specific name, when derived from a proper name, with a small initial, “that when used alone, it is liable to be occasionally mistaken for the title of a genus,” seems to us to be too trivial. Persons who are so little experienced as to be misled thus, would be misled by almost any thing. Besides, that the contrary custom is an ancient and almost universal one, we think that few persons would covet the compliment of seeing their cognomen degraded from a proper to a common name. Per- haps, however, this rule is intended to bear more especially upon the practice sometimes pursued, of commencing common nouns used in the genitive form as specific names, with a capital. If so, we would adopt it thus far. We believe that the following rule would be both more proper and more acceptable. All spe- cific names, except such as are derived from persons or places, should begin with a small initial; and generic names should always begin with a capital. The method recommended in rule D, is worthy of strict atten- tion. Another mode which we like still better is, to append the ‘ Nomenclature of Zoology. 11 name of the author of both the genus and the species, where they are different, thus, Cyprina Islandica, Lin., Lam., the name of the person who instituted the species being always kept in close proximity to the specific name, as being more important than the generic name, inasmuch asit is to be unchanged. ‘The only difficulty in the way is, that the means for ascertaining the au- thor of a generic term are not always at hand, and it could hardly be expected that memory would serve for both genus and species. Whoever cannot adopt the latter method, should not fail to apply the former, as recommended. Any one who has observed the indiscriminate coupling of ge- neric and specific names of incongruous genders, induced by the removal of species from one genus to another, will see the pro- priety of the precaution proposed in rule F. These remarks are all that need be offered at this time. The Report itself is fully illustrated throughout, and cannot but do good. Wecannot but hope that some method will be taken to give it to the American scientific public in an entire form. vothing could have been more timely, in furtherance of the movement so simultaneously made at all the principal foci of science, than the Nomenclator Zoologicus of Agassiz. Nor is it probable that any man living is better qualified than he, to undertake a work of the kind. His plan is as follows. He first gives an alphabetical list of every genus which has been instituted, whether adopted or not, in each of the classes of zoology; he gives its author, the work in which it originally appeared, and the date of publication of that work; then the derivation of the name; and finally, the family to which the genus belongs. ‘Then there is to be a gen- eral register combining all the classes, thus bringing side by side, the names which have a double use, and showing where priority belongs. ‘The different items are so printed, in various type, upon the same line, as to be easily distinguished. We sincerely wish he had added one other item, which would have tended greatly to banish from among scientific men, sounds repulsive to classic ears—we mean the accentuation. So far as genera are concerned then, no zoologist will hereafter be excusable for using, for any new genus, a word already in use; nor for being ignorant of all the genera which have been 12 Elevations in Ohio and the adjacent States. instituted in any particular family; nor for employing any but the anterior name, when two or more names have been imposed upon the same genus of animals. This may be thought, at first glance, but a small work; and yet the author has already catalogued, upon the above plan, up- wards of seventeen thousand names. Doubtless, many more will be hereafter found, in works to which he has not yet had access. No unpublished names have been introduced. M. Agassiz has expressed his views, in his introduction, with regard to some of the laws of nomenclature, which, when com- pared with those laid down in the Report just noticed, accord in the main with our own. For instance, he says he does not think it judicious to discard barbarous names, now in use; as in. that case nearly a thousand would come to be rejected, and as many others substituted. Nor would he reject all words doubly em- ployed. 'To show the absurdity of too great strictness in the laws of nomenclature he states, that he knows of more thana thousand names, common to genera in botany and zoology ; and says he prefers that some one more solicitous for such eclat than himself, should undertake to substitute other names and aflix their superbus MII. It is the first grand step towards extrication from future con- fusion in nomenclature, that we have the generic appellations thus before us under one glance; the next will be to construct tables of specific names upon the same plan, and this we hope will ere long be attempted, in some of the classes at least. We agree with the publishers of the ‘‘Nomenclator Zoologicus,” that this is a work indispensable to all zoologists and paleontologists. Arr. Il.—A Statement of Elevations in Ohio, with reference to the Geological Formations, and also the Heights of various points in this State and elsewhere; by Cuartes WHITTLESEY, Esq. of Cleveland, Ohio. In giving the levels for Ohio, it should be understood that they have been taken with reference to Lake Erie, as a zero. The sur- face of Lake Erie has generally been considered as five hundred and sixty four feet above tide-water at Albany; see the Report for Michigan, 1839-40. The topographer of that State, S. W. Elevations in Ohio and the adjacent States. 13 Higgins, Esq., puts it at 565.333 feet. If this last number repre- sents the levelage of the Erie Canal, it is probably good for the surface of the Lake, as it was when the surveys were made for that work, twenty five years since. The surface, however, fluc- tuates in the extreme about six feet, thus rendering all measure- ments based upon the Lake as a starting point, liable to an error of that amount. The Ohio Canal was explored in 1824—5, and of course its elevations are noted with regard to the stage of water at that time. ‘The difference between 1816 and 1824 in the sur- face of the Lake, will render all our levels along the Ohio Canal, when referred to the ocean, inaccurate by that amount. Jn the latter part of the year 1815, and all of the year 1816, the Lake was iigh, about four feet above the point of greatest known de- pression. From 1819 to 1822 it was dow, and in 1825 was still but about two feet above the lowest known point. The error in adopting the Lake surface, in 1824, as a starting point, may there- fore be two feet, making its general surface above the tide-water at Albany, in 1824—5, 563 feet, and at the time of the great rise in June, 1838, 567 feet. In estimating the heights given below, Ihave used the commonly received number of 564, to express the surface of the Lake. Both upon the Erie and the Ohio canals and other works, the slopes sometimes given to the bottom are rejected, because unknown: where there is more than one sum- mit they counteract each other in some degree. Where there are fractional feet they are rejected. In some cases there are short intervals not measured, or the minutes of a portion of the heights are wanting, or the authorities are contradictory ; these are desig- nated by an interrogation, and will go for what they are worth. Information derived from so many sources, and transcribed many times from one note-book to another by different persons, must of course be subject to errors. But it has been drawn from the best authorities, viz. the profiles and reports of the engineers in the public employ. ‘ For location of points I have adopted Columbus, the capital of Ohio, in latitude 39° 57’ north, longitude 83° 3’ west, as the cen- tre of reference. The general course and distance from Colum- bus being given, the courses and distances of the different places among themselves may easily be found. The order of stratification in Ohio is as follows, beginning at the lowest of our explored rocks, the limestone. 14 Elevations in Ohio and the adjacent States. 1. Limestone; thickness unknown, not exceeding 1000 feet ; subdivided as follows. by Dr. Locke: (1.) Blue limestone and blue limestone marls, over 500 feet in thickness; (2.) Marl, 25 feet; (3.) Flinty limestone, 52 feet; (4.) Marl, 106 feet; (5.) Cliff limestone, 89 feet. ‘This limestone is the surface rock over about two fifths of the western part of Ohio, and extending into Indiana. 2. Bituminous slate, or black shale, 250 to 350 feet. 3. Fine-grained or Waverley sandstone, 25 to 350 feet. 4. Conglomerate or pebbled sand-rock, 100 to 600 feet. 5. Coal measures, say 2000 feet. Formation No. I.—Elevation of some points at the surface of the limestone forma- tion and at the bottom of the slate. Course and distance {Height above Place. from Columbus. the ocean. Local dip per mile. Columbus, 761 feet |S.81°52! E., 223 feet. Bloomingville, Erie Co. ; ee é Pee eaieendas: : N.8}°E.,100miles| 7247: Dublin, Franklin Co., N.36°W. 11 * 831“ Bainbridge, Ross Co., S. 123° W. 52“ 744 + West Union, Adams €o., |S.154°W. 80 “ | 934 “ |S.803°E., 37.4 feet. Three miles S. E. of Day- ton, bottom of cliff lime- + S. 763° W. 62 * 868 ‘“ IN. 14°E., 6 feet. stone, With the exception of Dayton, these locations are at or near the outcrop of the overlapping slate, and consequently in or near the line of bearing. No. I1.—Points on the surface of the black shale and under face of the fine-grained sandstone. Place. Course and distance. | Height. Dip. ae iene eon, } N.41°E., 154 miles,| 764 feet./S.8.E., very slight. Sandusky township,Craw- Deal b Bde, Gaatlitgy RIN: AcE: 62 «| 9482" |S. E. and slight Big Walnut Creek, Na- 2) S nearly E.,—about tional Road, tN. ge oe ; 30 feet per mile. Head of Paint Creek Ca- . sly Hess Co, bsouth, 43 «| 81d * |S. 83° E. 31.99 feet rse mill, on canal, near Bee ail i's. SPE, 63). |' SB) & The last station is about fifteen miles east of the outcrop, which accounts for its being lower in natural level than the others. ‘This formation occupies a narrow belt of about twenty miles in width along the Scioto valley, widening as it extends northward to the Lake. It is here about sixty miles in breadth, east and west, and extends eastward in form of a narrow strip along the southern shore, to and beyond the State line. Elevations in Ohio and the adjacent States. 15 No. Il].—Points on the surface of the fine-grained sandstone, corresponding with the inferior face of the conglomerate. Place. Course and distance. |Elevation. Old Forge, Portage township, Summit County, |N. 453° E., 110 miles.| yUs teet. Near Chagrin Falls, Cuyahoga County, N. 392° B. 153 | 804° Newton Falls, Trumbull County, — N.513°ER. 140 “ {898 * Narrows of Licking, Ohio Canal, N.77°R. 44 “ 1764 * Jackson township, Jackson Co., near J. Stinson’s, |S. 163° E. 55 |785 & The fine-grained sandstone region immediately succeeds the slate, and occupies a tract similar in form, though not quite as extensive. Next to it, on the east, the conglomerate is the sur- face rock, and from a narrow strip at the south, enlarges, after passing the line of the Reserve,* to a width of fifty miles, spread- ing over the northeastern counties. No. V.—Some points in the lowest bed of coal. ; Place. Bearing from Columbus} Elevation. Dip. Brookfield, ‘Trumbull! Coun- EG : Nearly 8.,—about ty, near State line, N. 553° E., 164 miles) 990 feet. 20 feet. Tallmadge, Summit County, |N.453°R. 112 “ |1069 “ |S, 333° R., 183 feet. National Road, between FO T S. 87° E.—about Jacktown and Gratiot, N65 Sek il 30 feet per mile. Lick township, Jackson Co. |S. 223°E. 59 “ | 760?‘ |E.’ly and variable. A line drawn from the Portage summit northeasterly, and par- allel to the Lake shore, will be a general boundary of the coal region on the north in Ohio; and continued from this summit to the Licking summit, and thence south to the River, it will form the western limit of this great field, extending to the Alleghanies. Elevation of places in Ohio. Place. Elevation—feet. Surface rock. Little Mountain, Lake Co., 1164 Conglomerate. Mantua, Portage Co., sum-) mit of Chagrin and Cuya- 1140 “ hoga Rivers, Mahoning summit, oe 908 pion, Trumbull County, Brookfield, Trumbull Co., 1154 Coal measures. Portage Summit Lake, 958 ‘Top of conglomerate. High land adjacent, 1150? Ravenna summit, ae 1068 and Ohio Canal, Hanover, Columbiana Co., } Sandy and Brown Canal t 1123 a summit, j Fine-grained sandstone. Coal measures. * The Reserve is the eastern part of Ohio. 16 Elevations in Ohio and the adjacent States. Place. Elevation—feet. Surface rock. Huron summit, swamp, S 978 oie junction of slate E. corner of county, and limestone. Harrisville, Medina County, Kilbuck summit, Tyamochtee summit, T. 5, S:,) B.15, E.; Marion Co., ; 901 Conglomerate, Blanchard fore of ‘| 898 Limestone. glaise, 22 miles E. of Fort 1052 at Bindi! Hancock Co. Loraine’s summit, Miami 942 7 extension canal, Somerset, Perry Co., 1159 _Border of coal measures.: Zanesville—river, at bridge, 679 Ks hill, E. of town, 801 Coal measures. Hillsborough, Highland Co., 1124 Limestone. Greenville, Darke Co., 1044 ‘ie Summit between Scioto and} Mad rivers, near Mechan- 1007 « icsburg, Champagne Co., j Summit of Great Miami and Scioto, Logan Co., Tee x Height of places in Michigan, above the ocean. Head waters of Belle River, Lapeer County, - 992 feet. Summit between waters of Saginaw Bay and Lake Mich. 673 “ Pontiac summit, Clinton and Kalamazoo Canal, - 914 * Hillsdale County, seven miles east of Jonesville, 1211 “ Summit of Central Railroad, on the line between Jack- son and Washtenaw Counties, - - - 1015 « Fort Holmes, Mackinaw, - - - - ~ TOG oR Height of Lakes. Ontario, - - - - - - - - 232 feet. Erie, - - - - - = - - 565.333 St’ Clair, - - - - - - - - 570.005 Huron and Michigan, Sec Si aes - 578.008 Superior, ~ > - - - - - - 596.180 Height of points on the Ohio. Pittsburg, - - - Fe Galhctm - - - 705 feet. Marietta, - - - - - - - - Sot Portsmouth, - - - - - - - ATO. at Cincinnati, - - ee a z c A382, « Elevations in Ohio and the adjacent States. 17 Summit of Wabash and Erie Canal, near Fort Wayne, Indiana, - - - - - - - 810 feet. Summit of Chicago Creek and Illinois River, - 595 Portage, Fox and Wiskonsan Rivers, Fort Winnebago, 699 ‘“ Elevations in Pennsylvania. Conneaut Lake, - - - - - - 1074 feet. Alleghany summit, northern route of Schlatter’s sur- veys, - - - - - - - 2002 % Sugar Run summit, two miles north of Portage Rail- road summit, - - - - - 2183 “ Chestnut Ridge, National Road. - - - 3612 Keyser’s “ OO 1 - - - 2843 * West Alexandria, - ° - - - - - WOU Washington, - - - - - - - 1400 “« Elevations in New York. Chatauque Lake, - - - - - - 1291 feet. Franklinville, Chatauque County, (in a valley,) 1588 ‘ Summit between Elm Creek and Little Valley Creek, Cattaraugus County, - - - - - 1725 Summit between Big and Little Valley Creeks, - 2180 “ ee eS Cayuga Lake and Susquehanna River, 981 “ ie ce Seneca Lake and Chemung River, 890 “ ai a the sources of the Alleghany and the waters of Lake Erie, at the lowest pass, - - 1200 “ The ledge of Niagara limestone causing the cataracts of Niagara, Genesee, Oswego and Black Rivers, a we Height of land between Buffalo and Lewiston, 640 “ Hs “between Buffalo and Lockport, - 590 “ Mohawk, at Little Falls, - - - - - 385 * Hills adjacent, - - - - - - OSTA Round Top, Catskill Mountains, - - - 3804 “ Summit on Welland Canal, - - - - 624? ‘ This collection of altitudes is now published with a desire to bring out similar statements from other quarters. ‘Topographical geology is of the highest value in reducing the science from a state of general calculation to the exactness of mathematical rules. But such results require great labor, and make little show on pa- per. If the engineers and geologists of the United States would Vol. xtv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 3 18 Tides in the North American Lakes. combine and assist each other by publications similar to the above, (excepting its errors,) the difficulty of collecting such facts would be done away with at once. ‘This Journal appears to be the most convenient organ for such publications. When tables can be formed showing the elevation, extent, thickness and dip of the great formations in the individual States, topo- graphical and geological models may be constructed, which shall be miniature copies of each. Arr. Il.—T%des in the North American Lakes ; by D. Rueeues, Ist Lieut. 5th Regt. U.S. Infantry. Fatuer Louis Hennepin, during his voyage of discovery in ~ 1679, observed singular currents and fluctuations in the Straits of Michillimackinac, for which he was unable to give satisfactory explanations. More recently the subject has attracted the atten- tion of scientific observers, without producing satisfactory results. The Hon. Lewis Cass, while governor of Michigan Territory, caused observations to be made during the months of July and August, 1828, at Green Bay, then within the jurisdiction of Mich- igan, which have been generally received as conclusive evidence of the non-existence of tides in the great North American lakes. On examination of the table of the Governor’s observations, in 1836, I was led to believe that an erroneous view of the subject had been entertained throughout the investigation. I find the Governor’s tabular statement, published in a small volume entitled ‘Historical and Scientific Sketches of Michi- gan,” embodied in an able article from the pen of Colonel Henry Whiting of the Army, and as I am unable to satisfy myself whether the tabular statement has ever appeared in the Journal of Science, I have considered it necessary to transcribe it, (see table A,) reserving also the liberty of occasional reference to Col. Whiting’s communication. I now propose to make a preliminary examination of this table, with the view of ascertaining the results, premising that satisfac- tory precautions were apparently taken to guard against local in- equalities and fluctuations. Taking as an example, the 16th of July, we find that observa- _ tions were made at 6% and 8 o’clock, A. M., and at 1, 4, and 74 (CQ) tWerserparmnqey, ie clas | uF Mi 0G | OG de ae | g 4 1 ae | G | le A qe Ue eee ; | i “al \V0 | | — —— f--- —_} — j | - ++ 7 10 OE If one fale < He IS ; : aa | | ae ae a NG a9 ata OF TLD wl \170 +. et SAY IU 4 | “ob. 9 i We ob Re ae 4 . @ eee zie Wi? i dr Ary | Sart a (EE I wil | Ng 4 g | | ] aw I | | a | | 3- | | | | | | | | | a) | H 7 a dc a oie | é OZ Od GT Kia i pue 4 “ on a a GE] [ i | ; aL | 47d. i} | | Is | Ok ae. oe Oe qos ANT | SEAL 4 ie = a CEN ENN <2 ed 4 fen : — See wy) ‘ a BOER = TO val 7 val TO ce “CRST ADIL “AIX TOA “og “MO pay” Tides in the North American Lakes. 19 P.M. The question at once arises, as to the time of high water. Was it high water between 8 and 1 o’clock? Was it low water at 1 or 40’clock? We observe that embarrassment meets us at the very threshold, and it is therefore unnecessary to quote largely from this table, as observations were, in no instance, taken more | than six times during twenty four hours. Bearing this fact in mind, a bare inspection of the table unfolds its true characteris- tics; and were I to adopt it as conclusive evidence, I should be led to concur in the opinion of its distinguished author, “ that the changes in the elevation of the water are entirely too variable to be traced to any regular permanent cause.” Reflection satisfied me, however, that an error in this tabular statement may have arisen from the absence of rapid consecutive observations, which alone enable us to grasp a principle clothed in subtle and fluctuating indications. The accompanying table B, is the result of observations made under my superintendence, during the months of September and October, 1836, at Green Bay, Wisconsin Territory, with the view of elucidating the subject, and ascertaining, as far as practicable, the nature of these fluctuations. They were made at Fort Howard, on the left bank of the Fox River, and about one mile above the expansion of the river into Green Bay. It is to be observed, however, that the river still winds some four or five miles through an extensive alluvial de- posit, before it is lost in deep water. The river is about half a mile wide, and is between fifteen and forty feet in depth. The station taken for Gov. Cass’ observations is two miles above Fort Howard, on the right bank of the river, and about two miles below where the current ceases to be perceptible. My observations were made by a vertical rod, protected from local inequalities by two perforated concentric enclosures, and graduated in inches referring to a zero plain above high-water mark. The station was near a sentinel’s post, and under the im- mediate and constant supervision of the sergeant of the guard, and may therefore, I think, be considered as entirely free from any accidental inequalities or irregularities of importance. It will be observed, that the general direction of the winds was also noted; but as I regard them only as a modifying cause, in- creasing or diminishing results according to their direction, I shall not comprehend their influence in this discussion, and especially as they constitute an element susceptible of future examination. 20 Tides in the North American Lakes. Tasue A. Table of observations on the rise and fall of the Lake at Green Bay, made by Gov. Cass in 1828. Day of the month. |Time of the day.|Course of the wind.|Strength of the wind.| Height of water. July 15. 9 N. Moderate. 66 66 Noon. 66 66 8 BOG A ce 6 54 CC NCC 74 ce 73 11 eet k es 64 W. Light 10 BB NGG 8 66 vc 104 gouges 1 6c 66 6 Gcminuc A 6 ¢ 6 (BCG 74 66 66 64 he 6 S. W. « 6 CC 6 8 66 6c 8} conn 06 Noon. 6 cc 6 Cle 265 A ce & 54 Ca 74 6 &¢ 8 “ 18, 6 Cc e 1 Ba 3 8 6c 66 4 cue tt Noon. cf Strong. 7 66 66 A 3 66 4 6G. ae 74 ‘ rT 7 «19, 6 |W.ofS.W.| — Light. a Con Gs 8 66 66 5 China (6 9 66 6¢ 11 OR EGR Noon. 66 66 54 cee 106 4 a Ts 77 BGG 74 13 6 63 tee 20. 8 No wind. None. 6 bes ca Noon. N. W. Light. 8 66 bE A 66 66 10 Comme ice 74 66 66 54 «Qt 8 S. W t 94 66 66 2 66 66 10 58183 4 66 6¢ ake (6; N. Violent. 18 «99. i S. W. Light. 10 Comic Noon 6 « 0 GCawec 4 6c 6 14 G88 74 G 7 al inweos 8 Moderate. od ce 66 Noon 66 66 1$ (6 Cer 4 66 66 114 a3 66 74 66 4 1l Light. (1 Tides in the North American Lakes. 21 Taste A.—ContTINvED. Day of the month. |Time of the day.|Course of the wind./Strength of the wind.| Height of water. “6 ¢ 74 cs 66 10 Oe 25 8 S. W Moderate. 54 6¢ 66 Noon. 66 66 54 6c 66 4 66 66 94 a4 66 74 ée 66 124 2p 8 ks Light 11 66 66 Noon. 66 66 10 66 6c 4 66 66 84 73 66 74 66 66 7 we 27 8 W. : 104 14 66 Noon. 66 66 66 66 4 66 66 2 66 66 74 66 4 12 G40) 8 N Fresh 4 66 43 Noon. 66 66 11 66 66 A 66 (6 2 66 66 74 6C 66 85 «29 8 8. W. Light 11 66 66 Noon. ¢c 66 63 66 66 4 66 13 4 73 66 74 66 te 8 « 30 8 N. W rs 9 74 66 Noon 74 66 5 ce 4 6c 66 9 Bil 8 Ss. W ff 7 66 66 Noon 66 66 my cc ke A 6 6 8 66 66 74 a4 66 73 Aug. 1. 8 N. re 13 66 66 Noon 66 66 9 66 66 4 66 66 7 66 66 74 66 &¢ 8 « 2 8 N.E e 7 a4 14 Noon 66 74 11 66 66 4 ce 66 1 74 66 74 66 66 11 a4 3 8 S, W 66 4 FAP. * Noon 6 KK 10 74 6c A 4 66 7 a4 6c 74 43 6e 9 re, ce 9 Ts 66 id «4 8 N. W cf 7 74 66 Noon. 66 (3 8 66 66 4 66 73 12 6c 66 74 66 43 5 22 Tides in the North American Lakes. Tasie A. Be ees PN NI STE REE pS SE Aug. 5 8 S. W. Tighe” 6 ce Noon. 66 3 64 6G 4 66 66 12 BE NG 73 G3 3 Tis “ 66 8 66 66 6 bo Noon 66 ce 9 co 4 66 66 8 co 7s 66 66 10 3 Ss 66 66 8 CONC Noon 66 6c 6 66" eG ve 66 be 9 G8 Noon N 4 6 co 4 66 « 7. 1 74 66 6c vi. oe 9 8 S. W. Strong 2 bob Noon. 66 6c @) 6 Rs 4 tt 3 13 6G 33 74 66 66 6 4 10. 8 N. BK. | Pretty fresh. 13 G6 EBs Noon 66 3 9 66 A 66 66 - 10 calc 74 “ & 16 © UL, 8 e Light. 10 CONN Noon 66 6s 8 66 4 a3 6G 6 3 74 66 6c if © 12 8 S.W 4 8 CSCS Noon 66 66 2, be OG 4 bs (c 5 6k 74 66 ¢ 9 « 13, 8 66 cipuee 0 (GC Noon « 3 5 CoG A 66 t¢ As Cos Ce 74 66 13 58) 14 8 Kt Moderate 4 CORnNG Noon 66 5 6G A 66 66 6 oS 73 66 66 5 P16 8 N Fresh 10 GG ts Noon 66 6 CG eG 4 66 a3 3 co OE 74 66 3 4 © 16 8 S. W. Light 6 {es Noon 66 6 3 A 66 66 5 ane (3 74 a3 6 v6 Tides in the North American Lakes. Taste A.—ConTInvuED. 23 Day of the month. |Time of the day.|Course of the wind.[Strength of the wind.|Height of water. Aug. 17. 66 6c 6c 6c 13 66 Hr, 66 (74 14 be 6 (74 poe es 6c 6 74 6 & 66 “* 20 66 66 66 74 be 66 eZ (14 6¢ 6 66 66 6¢ 2a. 19 66 ce 66 73 14 ego 6c ¢ 66 74 66 66 & 2A, ce 6 ce 66 14 74 ae 20. if 3 66 6c 66 {6 14 = 20. 4 4 6c 66 6¢ 6 BG uitok « cc 66 6 66 74 6¢ © 28: hiadagee 8 Noon. N. 13 6e 66 N. W. 66 Light. 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As the observations are referred to a superior plane, as zero, the proper algebraical sign would be minus ; but I have used the sign minus to represent depression, and plus ele- vation, indicating the relation in which they succeed each other. | Example L—Sept. 29th, at 2 o’clock, P. M. 28 inches, wind S. W. high, and at 9 o’clock, P. M. 314 inches, wind S. mid- dling, = —34 inches, time 7 hours. Sept. 30th, at 4o’clock, A. M. 25 inches, wind 8. high, = +63 inches, time 7 hours; at 64 o’clock, A. M. 30 inches, wind 8. W. high, = —5 inches, time 24 hours; at 12 M. 21 inches, wind N. E. high, =+-9 inches, time 53 hours. Result, 2 elevations, 154 inches, and 2 depressions of 84 inch- es, in 22 hours. Ex. Il —Oct. 2nd, 3 A. M. 33 inches, wind S. high; 6 A. M. 25 inches, wind S. W. high, =+8 inches, time 3 hours. At 11 A.M. 344 inches, wind N. W. high, = — 94 inches, time 5 hours; at 7 P. M. 25 inches, wind W. middling, =+9 inches, time 8 hours; at 10 P. M. 353 inches, wind S. W. middling, = — 10 inches, time 3 hours. Result, 2 elevations +8+9=17 inches, and 2 depressions — 94 — 10= — 194 inches, in 19 hours. Ex. U1.—Oct. 4th, 1 A. M. 13 inches, wind N. high, and at 6 A.M. 30 inches, wind N. high, = — 17 inches, time 5 hours. At 113 A.M. Oin., wind N. strong, =+30 inches, time 53 hours; at 5 P. M. 32 inches, = —32 inches, wind N. W. high, time 54 hours; and at 11 P.M. 14 inches, wind N. W. high, =-+14 inches, time 6 hours. Result, 2 elevations +30+14=44 inches, and 2 depressions —17-—32= —A9 inches, time 22 hours. It is believed that these examples illustrate the principles in- volved, in such a manner as to induce continued and minute in- vestigation, and the employment of instruments to comprehend all of the elements entering into the calculation. Colonel Whiting remarks, that “in speculating on the supposed tides of the North American lakes, it has been natural to regard Vol. xty, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 4 26 Tides in the North American Lakes. the head of Green Bay as the point where they would show themselves in the greatest fullness. ‘The course of planetary at- traction, operating on a line from east to west, would traverse a space of from four hundred and fifty to five hundred miles.” And further, he remarks, that ‘the configuration of the coasts too, through which the line passes, would appear to lend much extraneous aid, to give whatever wave might be formed an un- due elevation.” j I fully concur in the opinion advanced respecting the position at Green Bay, as one favorable for observations, but an inspection of the outline of the lakes and straits operated on, convinces me that the phenomenon would be retarded and diminished by the irregularities and sharp projections, instead of being increased, as inferred by the gentleman quoted. It has been, I believe, satisfactorily demonstrated, that certain periodical undulations, induced by planetary influence, constitute tides, attended, of course, with local superficial translation. It is to be observed, that when the sun and moon act in conjunction, or opposition, the attractive force, being then most powerful, the result must be the most evident; and when the moon is in quad- rature, that attractive force becomes the least possible, yet never so slight as to induce the belief, that the phenomenon has ceased ; still possessing, therefore, the characteristics of a tide. Now, in continuation of this view, we observe that the variable and often cramped configuration of the coast, united with the alternate deep and shallow water, and also the islands which so strongly guard the entrance to Green Bay, tend manifestly to impede undulation, as well as to limit the influence of local translation; therefore these fixed and permanent modifying causes, being a constant quantity, the variable influence of planetary attraction, must, when slight, be almost neutralized, with great irregularities at- tending the results; and only when great present the most satis- factory evidence of cause and effect. The low specific gravity of lake water, varying very little from unity, renders it less subject to planetary influence than sea water, and more liable to the action of the winds; moreover the majestic current of the whole body of lake water, collected from innumerable rivers, is diametrically opposed to the course of plan- etary attraction, having a direct tendency to modify results. Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New Engiand. 27 I have observed constant elevation and depression of the ice, three or four feet in thickness, during winter, at Green Bay, with crevices uniformly broken, along shore, through which the water overflowed extensive portions of the surface, indicating those un- dulations observable during every other period of the year. I have also the concurrent testimony of several gentlemen of intelligence, that undulations are observed, almost uniformly, throughout most of the great northern lakes. Detroit, Michigan, Jan. 1, 1843. Arr. IV.—Observations on some interesting Plants of New England ; by Evwarp Tuckerman, Jun. CampanuLa RoTunpDIFOLIA, (L.)—Hab. («.) Moist rocks, Notch of the White Mountains. (¢.) Var. alpina: caule 3-6-poll. unifloro, foliis caulinis nunc linearibus, radicalibus cordatis ova- tisve crenatis s. integris. White Mountains; stony alpine moor on Mount Monroe.—Our plant of the Notch is a little dwarf- ed, but differs apparently in no other respect from the form of the low country. I have found this very state in wet places in the alpine regions. ‘The plant above noticed as a variety, is very distinct in its ordinary habit, but the examination of more than thirty excellent specimens, has led me to doubt every char- acter by which I had supposed it might be distinguished. The stem-leaves, often regularly linear, vary to lanceolate wherever the plant attains to an inch or two more of height; the radical leaves occur cordate, cordato-ovate, and ovate; crenate, crenu- late, and entire. The length of the segments of the calyx does not seem in our plant to afford any character, since in some of my specimens of the alpine variety, this is all but twice as great as in others —The Campanula linifolia of DC. Prodr. 7, 471, Hook. Bor. Amer. 2, 27, I have not seen; but if the above ob- servations are, as I believe, correct, its claims to rank as a species, would hardly seem to be greater than those of our variety. Is not this what Pursh saw in Peck’s herbarium, and after- wards described as ‘‘Swertia pusilla,” from ‘specimens from Labrador, in the Banksian herbarium,” the New England station being no doubt given from memory. I refer only to the White Mountain Swertia, to which our Campanula makes the nearest 28 Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. approach of any thing that has been found. ‘To continue this enquiry for a moment, is there reason to admit that Alchemilla alpina and Sibbaldia procumbens are inhabitants of the New England mountains, as Pursh has said? On the one hand, all our botanists have been unable to find them; while, if memory was the authority, we might conjecture that the Alchemilla was Potentilla tridentata, and the Sibbaldia, P. minima. These are found. On the other hand, the recent discovery of Aspidium aculeatum, after it had been lost almost forty years, in the very mountains where Pursh gathered it,* seems to encourage us to further search for these interesting plants. Dryas integrifolia may also be mentioned, which, though found by Peck, and also seen by Bigelow, FY. Bost., edit. 3, p. 219, and by Pursh, has never since occurred to any botanist. So remarkable a plant could hardly, it would seem, be mistaken by any one, much less by the eminent botanists who have given it a station in our Flora. If any where, this may possibly grow on some part of the high- est rocky region of Mount Washington, all of which is gone over by the way which Peck and the earlier botanists took, while but a small part, and that the least promising, is traversed by the new path. Some alpine plants are singularly local and rare ; as is Arbutus alpina at the White Mountains, found by Dr. Rob- bins in 1829, but since that time only by Dr. Gray and myself in September last. In 1840, I ascended the great spur of Mount Washington by the old way, with Dryas in mind, but was un- successful in finding it. This region is so vast, barren, and diffi- cult of examination, and the plant doubtless so local, that it may be very long before we can pronounce positively whether it is yet an inhabitant of our mountains. Urricutaria InTERMEDIA, (Hayne): foliis distichis dichotome multipartitis ambitu reniformibus, laciniis setaceis spinuloso-denti- culatis, caleare conico, labio superiore integro palato duplo longi- ore, pedunculis fructiferis erectis. Koch, Syn. p. 579, Richards. App. p. 2, Gray in Ann. Lyc. N. Y., Hook. Bor. Amer. 2, 118. U. Millefolium, Nutt. MSS. in herb. Greene. Hab. Tewksbury, B. D. Greene, Esq.; Plymouth, in an inun- dated swamp near the West Pond, with Zizania.—I found only *The Aspidium was found on the lower part of the Chin of Mansfield. Carex saxatilis grows about three thousand feet higher up. It is improbable that we shall ever come any nearer to the “* hemlock woods,’’ where Pursh found the Ca- rex of his Flora. Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. 29 the leaves, which at once distinguish this from every other spe- cies which has yet been found in Massachusetts. Scapes 6-8 inches high, with two or three flowers, which are much smaller than those of U. vulgaris. The leaves somewhat resemble those of yarrow, whence the specific name proposed by Mr. Nuttall for the American plant. They are many-cleft, with the segments linear and spinulose-denticulate. 'The bladders grow separately from the leaves, on branched stalks. ‘The specimens seem to agree with the European; and the Tewksbury plant is pronoun- ced to be U. intermedia, by Hooker, |. c. U. srriata, (Le Conte): foliis dichotomis capillaceis, calcare breviusculo subconico obtuso, labio superiore rotundato-ovato sub- emarginato margine undulato, inferiore trilobo margine reflexo, pedunculis ereetis 2-6-floris. Torr. Fl. 1, 20. (p. m.) Hab. Tewksbury, Mr. Greene ; (v. s. ex herb. Greene sine nom.) Agrees with the New Jersey plant in every respect, but that in the latter the flowers are somewhat larger. Leaves capil- lary at the extremities, but apparently analogous with the seta- ceous true leaves of U. intermedia. Bladders few, among the leaves. Flowers somewhat numerous; in my specimen six. Spur short, obtuse. The Flora of New England is very rich in this curious and elegant genus. With these, eight species are now known to be inhabitants of our waters; while in the recent New York catalogue of Dr. Torrey, only five are mentioned. One or two others will most probably be added to our list; and Iam almost certain that [ have the true U. minor from Plymouth. Oxyria renirormis, 2. Br., Oakes, Pl. N. Eng. (in Hovey’s Mag.) p. 16.—Hab. White Mountains; moist ravines in the most alpine regions, Pickering and Oakes, 1825; E. T. 1840. I believe this plant has been found by no others, and it is one of the rarer forms of our alpine regions. I found it growing on rocks in a very secluded alpine gully, with Cardamine bellidi- folia. Betuta.—Having been led to examine several small-leafed Birches in my collection, I arrived at some results which seemed worthy of being mentioned, especially as there is some confusion in regard to our species. B. puma, (L.): humilis, foliis orbiculato-obovatis serratis sub- tus ramulisque pubescentibus, amentis foemineis cylindricis. Willd. Sp. 4, 467, L. Mant. 124, Kalm, Itin. 1, 108, (sub B. nana.) B. glandulosa, Sulliv. (ex spec.) . 30 Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. Hab. “In several low places towards the hills,”’ Pennsylvania, Bartram, (ex Kalm.) High Mountains of New York and Penn- sylvania, Pursh. Cedar Swamps, Columbus, Ohio, Sullivant. The plant from the last station, is the only one that I have seen. It seems to be the B. pumila of Willdenow, and is distinguished from B. glandulosa by the entire want of the resinous dots found on that species, as well as by its dense soft pubescence, mostly broad-ovate leaves and larger aments. ‘The present is possibly the more southern, and B. glandulosa the more northern of these allied species. Although it is enumerated in the Flora Boreali- Americana of Sir William Hooker, it would seem that the dis- tinguished author refers his own specimens rather to B. glandu- losa. ‘The citation ‘Canada, (Linn.)” I have not been able to identify ; our species being established on Kalm’s specimens, in the first Mantissa, where the habitat mentioned is ‘ America Septentrionalis.” B. euanpuLosa, (Michx.): humilis, ramis glanduloso-punctatis glabris, foliis obovatis basi integerrimis obtuse serratis glabris, amentis foemineis breviusculis lato-cylindraceis, squamis trifidis lobis oblongo-subovatis subeequalibus. E. T.—Michz. Fl. 2, 180, Pursh, Fl. 2, 622, Hook. Bor. Amer. 2, 156, and B. pumila, Hook. 1. ¢. ‘ Hab. ‘Circa lacus a sinu Hudsonis ad Mistassins,’’? Michaux. “ Canada,” Masson, in herb. Lambert. (White Mountains?) My specimen is that from the Lambertian herbarium, and a very beautiful one. ‘The species seems to be distinguished by its very glabrous habit, and its leaves (all in my specimen) cuneate and very entire at the base ; thus somewhat resembling small leaves of Crategus parvifolia. By the former character it is separated from B. pumila, and by the latter from the succeeding species. Among my White Mountain specimens are two, that may possi- bly belong to this species. B. Lirretxiana (mihi): humilis glabra, ramis resinoso-punctatis, foliis subrotundis grosse serratis petiolis nunc 4 lin. longis, amen- tis feemineis oblongo-cylindraceis, squamis trifidis lobis oblongo- obovatis intermedio longiori. Hab. White Mountains, in Oakes’s Gulf, between Mount Wash- ington and Monroe, and elsewhere in the alpine regions. A some- what erect shrub, with leaves which are from two to four times as large as those of B. nana. ‘To this last, which occurs on our Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. 31 mountains in a state undistinguishable from the Swedish and Scottish plants, our specimens cannot properly be referred. And from the B. glandulosa of Michx., with whose description my Canada specimen collected by Masson, perfectly agrees, they Seem quite distinct. J have, however, seen many more speci- mens of B. Littelliana than of the former plant, the characters of which may possibly vary. 2 D. in honorem b. Henrici Little, M. D., Montium Alborum scrutatoris acerrimi. B. wana (L.): humillima glaberrima, ramis levigatis s. resinoso- punctatis, foliis saborbicularibus grosse dentatis, amentis feemineis brevibus cylindraceis, squamis profunde trifidis laciniis oblongis subeequalibus. Hook. Bor. Amer. 2, 156, (p. m.) Michz. Fl. 2, 180, Pursh, Fl. 2, 622, Bigel. Fl. Bost. 356. Hab. White Mountains, alpine regions; Cutler, Peck, Bigelow, Boott, Oakes, etc. A very low, often prostrate shrub, with very small, more or less orbicular leaves, and short cylindrical aments. ‘The leaves are generally about five lines each way in dimension : those of B. Litteiliana occur often nine lines in length, by more than an inch in breadth, the petioles being longer in proportion. The aments also in the latter are twice as large as in B. nana. B. papyracea, ?. minor, (mihi): foliis minoribus ovatis acutius- culis aliquandoque subrotundatis obtusis glaberrimis. Hab. White Mountains, alpine regions. From a shrub of the size, and much the habit of B. Littelliana, this attains some- times in sheltered spots to the height of nine feet and over, and a circumference of sixteen inches. ‘These were the dimensions of one measured by me on Mount Pleasant. It is a well-marked — form, and in its most alpine and smallest states, may always be recognized by its ovate, more or less acutish leaves. Rounded leaves also frequently occur among the others. It was perhaps the discovery of such leaves upon northern forms of B. alba, which led some botanists to deny (F¥. Lapp. 275, ) the distinct- ness of B. nana. If cold has this effect on the leaves of these shrubs, the character loses some of its value, though it is a very striking one, All the four last mentioned Betule, (if B. glandulosa really occurs,) approach each other very nearly in their smallest forms, but may with care be distinguished. 'Fhe smallest shrub, with suborbicular leaves, is B. nana; the large one, with rounded leaves, B. Littelliana; that with ovate acutish leaves, B. papy- racea, 3. minor, and B. glandulosa has rather large cuneate leaves. 32 Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. Aunus.—Instead of one, there are three very different Alders in New England. The following account of them will, it is hoped, be found accurate. A. incana, (Willd.): foliis submembranaceis oblongis acutius- culis basi obtusis s. cordatis margine sublobatis argute serratis sub- tus glaucis pubescentibus venis hirsutis axillis venarnm nudis, amentis foemineis ovalibus, stipulis oblongo-lanceolatis. KE. 'T.— Betula incana, L. Suppl. A\7. Alnus incana, Willd. Sp. 4, 335, Muhl. Catal. p. 89, Hook. Bor. Amer. 2, 157, ( part.) —A. glau- ca, Michx. f. Sylv. 1,379, Oakes, Catal. Verm. p.25. A. crispa, Pursh, Fl. 2, 623. (part., non Miche. nec Gray.) | Hab. ‘‘ New Hampshire and Vermont. Unknown in the South- ern, and rare in the Middle States,” Michaux f. Pokono Mountain, Pennsylvania, Pursh, in herb. Lambert. . Pennsylvania, Muhlen- berg. Massachusetts, and northern parts of New England, as at Cambridge, Woburn, Framingham, Ipswich; and exceedingly abundant about the White Mountains; Oakes, E. T. The Alnus glauca of Michaux’s Sylva, though a very abundant spe- cies at the north, seems to have been neglected by botanists, and is hardly to be found mentioned in our manuals. By the leaves it is easily distinguishable from A. serrulata, and is besides commonly taller, so as sometimes to become asmall tree. Ihave a specimen from the Lambertian herbarium, ticketed by Pursh “ Alnus crispa, July 25, 1808, Pokono,”* which is perhaps the A. incana of Muhlenberg’s catalogue, and is certainly only a stunted form of the present species. ‘The shrub is rare, according to Michaux, in the Middle States, and possibly is there found only on the mountains. Our species seems too near to A. incana to be kept separate. The leaves agree perfectly well with those of my foreign speci- mens of the latter, while that has been recognized as American by Muhlenberg and by Hooker. A. rnuBra, (Marsh.): foliis subcoriaceis obovatis acutis argute serratis venis axillisque venarum villosis, amentis foemineis ova- to-oblongiusculis, stipulis ovalibus obtusis. E. T.—Betula Al nus, Clayt. §* Gronov. Fl. Virg. edit. 1, p. 115. B. peduncu- lis ramosis, Sc. Clayt. § Gironov. Virg. edit. 2, p. 146. Betula- *It appears that ‘ incana’’ had originally been written on this ticket, but it is crossed out, and crispa written over. And Michaux, after the description of his Alnus glauca, adds the synonym, “ A. incana, Willd.” Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. 33 Alnus rubra, Marsh. Arb. p. 20, (ex Darlingt., descr. que.) Betula serrulata, Ait. Kew. edit. 1, 3, 338. Betula-Alnus serru- lata, Michx. Fl. 2, 181. Alnus serrulata, Willd. Sp. 4, 336, auctique. B.incana, 6. Hook. Bor. Amer. 2, 157. Hab. Northern, Middle, and Western States, Michx. f. New England to Carolina. A straggling shrub, 6-15 feet high, grow- ing in close thickets. Leaves obovate, acute at base, thick and somewhat coriaceous, and rough-veined beneath. Appears very different from A. incana. Is it not possible that Hooker’s arrange- ment above cited, was founded upon specimens of our A. incana, incorrectly referred to the present species? It is a well known fact that the two have long been confounded in this country. The name of our own botanist should have the priority: his description, though short, notices the most striking features of the species, and cannot be mistaken. ‘The A. rubra of Bongard, is many years later. Add to this, that Marshall’s name is far more expressive and apt than that of Aiton. A. crispa, (Michx.): foliis ovalibus acutis basi obtusiusculis duplicato-serratis, pubescentia molli glutinosa indutis s. glabrius- culis venis axillisque villosis, amentis foemineis longe pedicellatis ovalibus, stipulis late ovatis. E. 'T.—Betula crispa, Ait. Kew. edit. 1, 3, 339, (ex Gray, N. Carol. 43.) Betula-Alnus crispa, Michz. Fl. 2,181. Alnus undulata, Willd. Sp. 4, 336, Muh. Catal. 89. Hab. Newfoundland and Hudson’s Bay, Aiton; Canada, Mi- chaux; New England, (ex Cutler, forsan,) Muhlenberg. White Mountains, sides of the Notch hills, and on the plain of the Am- monoosuck. Also in the alpine regions, E. 'T'.; high peaks of the Green Mountains, Vermont, Dr. Robbins, ( Oakes, Catal. Verm. 25;) mountains of Essex, N. Y., Mr. Macrae. Aiton’s description, though less perfect than that of Michaux, seems to answer to our plant, and is considered as belonging to it, by Dr. Gray, (I. c.) It is our handsomest species, and remarkable, except in the alpine state, for the soft pubescence of its leaves, which are also, and particularly on the lower surface, besprinkled with glutinous particles. From oval, the characteristical form, the leaves vary, occasionally, to broad ovate and even cordate. The aments are on somewhat long pedicels, and add much to the elegance of the shrub. ‘The alpine state has smaller and more glabrous leaves. ‘To this last, Alnus Mitchelliana, Curt. Vol. xtv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 5 34 Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. MSS., from the mountains of North Carolina, with a specimen of which I have been favored by the author, seems to approach, perhaps too near. ‘The erroneous station given by Pursh for this species, (there is, I believe, no evidence that he was acquainted with the true plant, his own specimen belonging to A. incana,) has perhaps contributed to the uncertainty with which it has been regarded. It was probably known to Cutler, but seems to have escaped our other botanists, until recently. SALIX MYRTILLOIDES, (L.): foliis oblongo-ellipticis acutis s. obtusis basi obtusiusculis integerrimis utrinque glaberrimis subtus reticulato-venosis glaucescentibus, amentis pedunculatis capsulis ovato-conicis glabris longe pedicellatis, squamis brevibus obtusis pilosiusculis, stylo perbrevi, stigmatis lobis fissis. E. 'T.—Wah- lenb. Fl. Lapp. p. 266, Fries, Mantiss. p.71, Koch, Comment. in Sal. p. 52. S. pedicellaris, Pursh, Fl. 2, 611, and Auctt. Amer. Hab. Swamps, New England; Ipswich, Oakes; Cambridge, Framingham, &c. E.'T. A low shrub, with a somewhat vir- gate habit, and remarkable for its entire smoothness. 'The leaves are elliptical, with a base more or less obtuse, the margin reflexed, and the under side commonly glaucescent. The fertile aments are rather loosely flowered, the capsules on long pedicels, the stigma almost sessile. No one can compare Pursh’s description of his S. pedicellaris with that given by Wahlenberg of S. myr- tilloides, without noticing a remarkable agreement in the princi- pal characters of the species. Mr. Oakes long ago suspected that the plants were the same; and a careful study of our S. pedicel- laris as compared with Lapland specimens of 8. myrtilloides, re- ceived from the illustrious Wahlenberg, have satisfied me of their identity. The Lapland species is less inclined to be glaucous, as Pursh described his specimens; but this is believed to bea variable character in this genus. The foreign plant is better dis- tinguished by the broad, often cordate base of the leaves, a habit which I have never observed in ours. But Koch remarks of the species, (Comm. p. 52,) “foliorum forma valde variabilis, occur- runt scil. subrotundo-ovata, basi subcordata apice obtusissima, ovata, oblonga, acuminata, et lanceolata utrinque acuta.” I can- not discern any differences in the inflorescence of the two plants. Wahlenberg remarks that there is hardly any Willow so entirely smooth and so very distinct as this. Fries truly calls it elegant ; noticing also, as does Wahlenberg, its resemblance in habit to Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. 35 Vaccinium uliginosum. It being a very northern and remarka- bly broad-leafed state of the species, which suggests this com- parison, it is not surprising that our much larger and narrower- leafed form should not so well compare with our exclusively alpine and small-leafed form of the Vaccinium. Fries remarks upon S. myrtilloides, that its leaves do not easily blacken in dry- ing: this is also true of our plant, which preserves all its beauty | in the herbarium. It should be added, that according to Fries and Koch, this is not the 8. myrtilloides of Willdenow, nor of Smith. S. ampicua, (Ehrh.}: amentis sessilibus fructiferis breviter pe- dunculatis, pedunculo minute foliato, capsulis ex ovata basi lan- ceolatis tomentosis longe pedicellatis, pedicello nectarium ter qua- terve superante, stylo brevi, stigmatibus ovatis emarginatis, foliis ellipticis obovatis lanceolatisve recurvato-apiculatis integerrimis vel remote denticulatis, subtus rugoso-venesis adpresse villosis subsericeis postremo glabratis, stipulis semi-ovatis rectis. och, Syn. p. 655, Comment. p. 49. S. plicata, Fries, Novit.p.284. 8S. incubacea, Fries, Mantiss. 1, p.66. WS. repens? Bigel. Fl. Bost. edit. 3, p. 392. WS. fusca, Oakes, Pl. N. Eng. (1. c.) p. 7. Hab. White Mountains, in moist alpine ravines; abundant about the outlet of the Lake of the Clouds, and in Oakes’s Gulf. Our White Mountain Willow was pronounced by Prof. Fries to be the S. incubacea of his first Mantissa, which I follow Koch in arranging as above. Leaves elliptical, acute or somewhat obtuse, commonly about an inch and a half in length by about half an inch in breadth, glaucous on the under surface, which is more or less covered with silvery silky hairs. Aments rather short, and the style exceedingly so. Our plant occurs with the leaves almost glabrous, and again with somewhat smaller gla- brous leaves with the margins reflexed. S. puyxiciroiia, (L.): foliis ovatis lanceolatisve remote re- pando-serratis glabratis, subtus glaucescentibus, stipulis semi- cordatis apice obliquo, amentis bracteatis masculis sessilibus, cap- sulis pedicellatis conico-elongatis subsericeis stylo longo. Fries, Mantiss. 1, p. 50. Hab. White Mountains, in moist alpine ravines; Lake of the Clouds; Great Gulf, (called Gulf of Mexico.) A handsome, low, spreading shrub, with rather large generally broad-elliptical very smooth leaves, which are remotely repand-serrate, and glau- 36 Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. cous on the under side. I have never found the aments. Spe- cimens of this were examined by Prof. Fries, and pronounced to be the 8. phylicifolia of his Mantissa. S. Gurtert, (mihi): foliis ellipticis acutis obovatisve obtusis basi semper acutis glanduloso-denticulatis supra levibus subtus glaucis glabriusculis, (junioribus sericeo-villosis,) amentis pe- dunculatis elongato-cylindraceis compactis, capsulis ovato-conicis breviter pedicellatis glabris, squamis obovatis atris sericeis, stylo mediocri stigmate bifido lobisque demum fissis. EH. 'T.—/S. pros- trata, Muhl. Catal. p. 95? (forsan ex Cutler.) WS. retusa, Oakes, herb. S. Uva Ursi, Pursh? Torr. Catal. N. Y., 1840, p. 170, Oakes, Pl. N. Eng. (1. c.) p. 7, Barratt in Notes of a Tour, &c. p. 8, Oakes, Catal. Verm. p. 25, (non Pursh.) Hab. White Mountains; abundant about rocks in the mica- ceous soil of Mount F'ranklin, Mount Pleasant, Mount Monroe, é&c.; Cutler, Oakes, E. T. Also on the Great Haystack, (var. infra laudat,) and mountains of Essex, New York, Mr. Macrae.— A much depressed, commonly almost prostrate alpine shrub, variable in some respects, but always distinguished by the glossi- ness and glaucous under side of its elliptical or obovate leaves. These are by no means constant in size, and sometimes occur an inch and a quarter long by half an inch in breadth. I have gathered a curious form on the Great Haystack, all the leaves being small and very narrow, averaging indeed little more than a third of an inch in length by a line and a half in breadth. ‘The description of 8. Uva Ursi of Pursh, does not agree with our Willow: nor do there appear to be any characters given by that author which will distinguish his species from S. retusa. I have two specimens without fruit, from the Lambertian herbarium, ticketed S. Uva Ursi, which also seem to me to be undistinguish- able from S. retusa, with a fine set of specimens of which, from Switzerland, I have compared them. Our plant differs from this species in the acute habit of its leaves, which are also thicker, and its much elongated compact aments, the capsules being only half the size of those of S. retusa. It is very distinct. Hooker admits 8. Uva Ursi doubtfully, in his Flora, while he enumerates S. retusa as belonging to our northern regions. D. in honorem primi inventoris, b. Manassis Cutler, S. T. D., A. A. 8., Botanicorum Novee Anglize seec. xvii facile Principis, Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. 37 qui Montes Albos sedule explorans, species alpinarum nostrarum multas detexit, Floraque sua mscr. elaborate et optime descripsit.* Poruuus canpicans, (Ait.): Hort. Kew. edit. 1, 3, p. 406, Willd. Sp.4, 806, Pursh, Fl. 2,618, Miche. f. Sylv. Amer., Oakes, Pl. N. Eng. (l.c.) p. 6, ejusd. Catal. Verm. p.25.—Hab. Many parts of Vermont, native; Oakes. Also in the Notch of the White Moun- tains, EK. T. P. sarsamirera, (L.): Miche. Fl. 2, 244, Willd. Sp. 4, 805, Pursh, Fl. 2, 618, Hook. Bor. Amer. 2, 153, Oakes, Pl. N. Eing. (1. c.) p. 6, ejusd. Catal. Verm. p. 25.—Hab. Vermont, Oakes; St. Johnsbury, Vt., a very fine large tree, HK. T. Juncus Greenet, (Oakes and 'Tuckerm.): culmo erecto stricto rigido subcompresso striato nudo basi foliorum vaginis incluso, foliis linearibus canaliculatis rigidis apice subulatis erectis culmi medium vix superantibus, anthela terminali composita pauci-ra- diata bractea culmum superante suffulta, radiis erectis ramis corymbosis multifloris, sepalis acutis mucronatis scariosis oblongo- ovatis capsulam ovato-ellipticam mucronatam haud equanti- bus. E. T. Hab. Sands, Tewksbury, B. D. Greene, Esq. ; Ipswich, Plymouth, W. Oakes, Esq.; Cambridge, Needham, Dover, é&c. eT. This handsome rush resembles the foreign J. squarrosus in many respects, and is perhaps the species so named by Muhlen- berg in his Catalogue. At the same time it seems to differ from J. squarrosus in some of its most striking features. In our plant the leaves are erect and not spreading; the anthela is shorter and more corymbose, with an elongated bract. In J. squarro- sus the brags and margins of the sepals are white, giving a marked character to the plant; in J. Greenei all these parts are brown. ‘The two species differ also in their capsules; those of J. squarrosus being slightly obovate, and nearly double the size of those of our plant. This can hardly be confounded with any other of our Junci. The more naked culm at once distin- euishes it from the other allied species. * In 1789 Cutler had distinguished and described Microstylis and Comandra as new genera; Orchis fimbriata is referred by him to O. psycodes, L., to which Dr. Gray has recently shown it to belong. An account of the labors of this botanist will be attempted on some future occasion. 38 Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. In honorem cl. inventoris, Flore Novanglicane jam diu illus tratoris et fautoris D. . PoramoGrTON PULCHER, (mihi): foliis omnibus petiolatis, sub- mersis lanceolatis natantibus ovatis oblongo-ovatisve cordatis pe- tiolis sepius longioribus, seminibus ventricosis lunatis dorso acute carinatis. P. natans, Bigel. Fl. Bost. Hab. Ponds and slow streams, Medford, Stoneham. With the floating leaves of P. natans, this species possesses the lunate and ventricose fruit of P. lucens and P. prelongus. From these species, both of which inhabit Fresh Pond, in Cambridge, it is distinguished by its much larger seeds, and its beautifully cordate broad-ovate coriaceous floating leaves, often on very short peti- oles. From P. natans the structure of the fruit at once separates it; that of the former being not lunate, obtuse at the margins, shining and finely linear-punctulate; while in ours, besides the difference of shape, the surface is dull and somewhat roughened by elevated anastomosing veins. Conf. Koch, Syn. P. Cuayroni, (mihi): foliis submersis membranaceis anguste linearibus longis acutis margine undulatis sparsimque minutis- sime spinuloso-scabris versus basim vix attenuatis sessilibus, natantibus petiolatis (petiolis nune breviusculis) oblongis lanceo- latisve vix coriaceis (nervis non nisi versus lucem conspicuis,) caule ramoso.—P. foliis lanceolato-oblongis, etcett., Clayt. &§ Gronov. Fl. Virg. edit. 2, p. 23, ex parte certe. P. fiuitans, Pursh, Fl. 1, 120, Bigel. Fl. Bost. p. 63, Torr. Fl. 1, 196. Hab. Ponds and slow streams, Roxbury, Cambridge. Very different from P. fluitans. From P. heterophyllus, to which it has been latterly referred by our authors, though apparently with doubt by Dr. Torrey, it seems to me to differ as @auch as from P. natans. Ina large set of the European Potamogetons, I have not found any which agree with our plant in the peculiar features of its submersed leaves. The P. heterophyllus of Pursh, col- lected by him at ‘“‘ Walker’s meadows,” seems to be also the P. hybridus, ¢. of Michaux, and to differ but little from this species. It may perhaps be proper to consider it a variety: @. foliis sub- mersis numerosioribus angustissimis. But it is possible that this latter plant will be found to be a distinct species. P. tucens, (L.) Bagel. Fl. Bost. This agrees in every re- Spect with the foreign plant, and is easily distinguished by its leaves, which in P. prelongus are ovate and amplexicaul at base, Mr. Tuckerman, omftsome Plants of New England. 39 while in P. lucens they are oval or lanceolate, and petiolate. I have found both species in Fresh Pond. P. Rogsinsn, (Oakes.) This very curious species is quite abundant in Fresh Pond, Cambridge, and will, probably, as Mr. Oakes has suggested, be found by no means rare in New Eng- land. Carex panicuLata, (L.) Ina cold swamp between Concord and Lexington, on the turnpike, with C. exilis, and Eriophorum alpinum. ‘This is the true plant, an opinion sustained by Dr. Gray when he examined my specimens. ‘The eztrene regularly paniculate form did not occur; nor is this uniformly found in Europe. It seems quite possible that this state may yet be found at our station. C. aLorecomEa, (mihi): spica composita oblonga, spiculis 8-10 ovatis aggregatis superne masculis, stigmatibus 2, perigyniis ovatis plano-convexis fere enerviis in rostrum mediocrem bifidum mar- gine serrulato-scabrum acuminatis, sqaumis ovatis mucronatis fruc- tum subzequantibus, culmo triquetro age scabro.—C. cephalo- phora, var. maxima, Dew. Hab. Penn Yan, New York, Dr. Sartwell Resembling C. cephalophora, but quite diersnt in the fruit. It seems to me more difficult to distinguish it from C. vulpina. In that species and. C. stipata, the fruit is ovate and scarcely margined. But in C. cephalophora it is somewhat tapering towards the base, and conspicuously margined. By this character, perhaps, C. cephalo- phora, C. Muhlenbergii, C. sparganioides, and C. rosea, may be separated to form a distinct group; for which the name Muhlen- bergianee is not inappropriate, especially as most if not all the species were discovered by Muhlenberg. From the Multifloree of Kunth these seem to differ as much as from the Vulpine. C. canescens, (L.)—#. alpicola, (Wahlenb.): spiculis superiori- bus aggregatis, capsulis patentibus acutis convexo-planiusculis subacutangulis. Wahl. Monogr. Car. no. 49, (1803,) ejusd. Fl. Suec. p. 595. C.curta, 6. brunnescens, Pers. Syn., Koch Syn. C. Gebhardi, Hopp. non Schk.—y. spherostachya, (mihi): spic- ulis 3-4 subrotundis paucifloris, perigyniis oblongioribus in ros- trum conspicuum acuminatis. Hab. («.) Mountains; White Mountains, Great Haystack, Grand Monadnoc, Green Mountains, Aschutney. Spikelets ap- proximated, shorter. Glumes brown witha white margin. F'ruit 40 Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plant of New England. commonly also brown. Our plant agrees with original specimens of Wahlenberg’s variety, and of the C. Gebhardi of Hoppe. Koch adopts Persoon’s name, citing for Wahlenberg’s only the Flora Suecica, but this last was first published in the Monograph of the illustrious Swede, which appeared before the Synopsis of Persoon.—(7.) Mountains; White Mountains, Green Mountains, &c. Also in swamps, Phippsburg, Me., Nuttall; Penn Yan, New York, Dr. Sartwell. This differs still more from the true C. canescens than even the variety 6. ‘The form and important characters of the fruit seem however to forbid a separation of either. In 7. I have observed the color of the fruit to be always sreen. "The latter variety does not probably occur in Kurope ; but I think it passes into the former on our mountains. ‘That this species is the true C. canescens of Linnzeus, independently of the descriptions, is the opinion of Wahlenberg, Fries, Koch, and Torrey & Gray. The unanimous opinion of the great bota- nists of Sweden, with respect to a Linnean Swedish plant, would seem perhaps to be of more weight than even the Lin- neean herbarium ; a contrary opinion has however prevailed. C. necuecra, (mihi): spica composita, spiculis 3-4 subrotundis remotiusculis paucifloris inferne masculis, stigmatibus 2, perigyniis oblongo-lanceolatis plano-convexiusculis enerviis in rostrum con- spicuum scabriusculum margine ciliato-serratum integrum acu- minatis squama acuta hyalina $ longioribus, culmo tenui erec- tiusculo scabro. Hab. Rocky hills, near Montpelier, Vt., 1839. ‘This plant has the peculiar habit of inflorescence of C. trisperma, by which it is distinguished from the variety of C. canescens. In the fruit it differs very much from C. trisperma. ‘he stem in my speci- mens is very scabrous. —C. riciwa, (Gooden.): spica mascula solitaria, foemineis 2—4 erectis inferiore pedunculata oblongis, stigmatibus 3 abortu seepius 2, perigyniis ellipticis obtusis nervosis obscure trigonis punctulis minutis conspersis rostro brevi tereti integro mucronatis, culmo angulis scabriusculo s. glabro. E. 'T.—C. rigida, Gooden. im Linn. Tr. 2,193, Koch. Syn. p. 755, Boott. in Hook. Bor. Amer. 2,217. C.saxatilis, Willd. Sp. 4, 275, Wahlenb. Lapp. p. 247, Torr. Cyp. p. 397, Kunth, Cyp. p. 411, Drej. Rev. p. Al, (non Linnei, test. Hartman in Koch, Goodenough, et Boott ; descriptioneque Linneana (in Fl. Lapp.) ut mihi videtur, ipsa. )— Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. Al 6. Bigelovii, (mihi): spicis feemineis 2-5 elongatis remotius- culis laxis inferioribus patentibus longe pedunculatis. C. Bige- lowti, Torr. in Schwein. Anal. Tab. C. Washingtoniana, Dew. Car. in Sill. Jour. 10, 262, C. saxatilis, 8. Torr. Cyp. ex parte. ‘Hab. («.) Greenland, Vahl; Arctic America, Drummond ; Lab- rador, Schlechtendal; White Mountains, and Great Haystack, N. H.; Chin of Mansfield, Camel’s Rump, and other high peaks of the Green Mountains, Vt. Also on the mountains of Essex County, N. Y., Mr. Macrae. (8.) Mount Washington, and other of the White Mountains; Chin of Mansfield. It seems probable that the normal state of Carex rigida is tri- stigmatical. In ten mature achenia from the Lapland plant, from a Norwegian specimen, and from the Scottish C. rigida, I have observed in all the same approximation to a three-angled shape, which is noticeable in our plant, and in it becomes at last con- spicuous, and the angles quite distinct. It is worthy of note, moreover, that this Carex very often fails to perfect its fruit. In the greater part of my specimens, from Scotland, Lapland, Germany, Greenland, and New Hampshire, the perigynia are shrivelled, and without apparent vestiges of any achenium. These observations are confirmed by Koch, who introduces the character “subtrigonis” in his diagnosis of the species; and by Drejer, (1. c.) who inserts “stigmata 2, rarius 3,” in his descrip- tion of it. The variety @. is distinguished as being perhaps the most luxuriant and developed state of the species known, and is probably confined to this continent. It attains to a height of 18 inches, with spikes often an inch and a half long, which are commonly loosely flowered; the lower ones somewhat remote, and on spreading peduncles from half to more than an inch long. The fruit of C. rigida seems to vary considerably. A perigynium of the Scottish plant agreed so nearly with one of ours, as to be almost undistinguishable under the microscope, while neither perfectly agreed with the fruit of the Lapland and Norwegian forms. In the last the perigynium is conspicuously nerved; in the Scottish and ours much less so, and sometimes not at all; in the Norwegian, the whole surface is covered with dark reddish points; in the Scottish these are nearly, but not wholly (as Schkuhr would seem to intimate, 1, 55,) wanting, or rather their color is more or less wanting, which is also the case in ours. The achenia also differ considerably, which is in a measure Vol. xtv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 6 42 Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. owing to the difference in size and shape of the perigynium. Our plant, particularly in 6, runs into variations. The spikes are sometimes wholly female, with only a few male flowers at the top of the highest; and again they are almost entirely male. Sometimes the long spreading spikes are crowded toward the top, with a somewhat paniculate aspect. All this seems to show that the species is with us in a peculiarly developed and luxuriant state. Acrostis Prcxerineu, (mihi): culmo erecto, foliis planis line- aribus, panicula ovata diffusa ramis verticillatis erectiusculis sca- bris, glumis subzequalibus subbidentatis, carina inferioris apice mucronata superiori acuta glabriuscula, palea inferiori ovato-lan- ceolata acuta s. erosa punctatula nervata, superiori exacte ovata obtusa enervi, arista e medio dorsi tortili scabra florem bis super- ante.—é. rupicola, (mihi): minor panicula contracta glabrius- cula, floribus plerumque albo-purpurascentibus. A. canina, var. alpina, Oakes, Catal. Verm. p. 32. Hab. White Mountains, Great Haystack. (8.) White Moun- tains, Pickering and Oakes; Camel’s Rump, Vt. What seems the typical state of this plant is a rather tall alpine grass with an elegant diffuse panicle.* The variety is a much smaller plant, frequently not over three inches high, when it much resembles in habit such specimens as I have seen of the European A. rupestris. The characters of our plant will not, however, be found to agree with those of A. rupestris. It seems even more different from A. canina, of which I have good foreign specimens, and which is well marked in its habit. D. in honorem cl. inventoris, Flore nostree eximii illustratoris. A. concernna, (mihi): culmo humili erecto, foliis filiformi-seta- ceis, panicula ovata patente glabra, glumis haud zqualibus, infe- riori acuta mucronata versus apicem scabriuscula, superiori acuta glabra, palea superiori vix ulla, inferiori glabra infra medium arista tortili scabra florem superante basique pilis paucissimis in- structa. Hab. White Mountains; stony alpine moor on Mount Monroe, with Carex scirpoidea and Potentilla minima. Somewhat resem- bling A. alpina in habit, but that is remarkable for the two bris- * T have gathered this on the sandy plain of the Ammonoosuck, where indeed Arenaria Greenlandica may also be found; both being doubtless brought down from the mountains by the spring freshets. . Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. 43 tles at the top of the inferior palea, and the awn at its base. It is quite different from A. rupestris and A. canina. Tricnopium, Auctt. Amer. The following species constitute, I believe, all of those grasses which have in this country been referred to the genus Trichodium. Wishing to ascertain several New England plants, and finding that I possessed all the species mentioned in our books, I resolved to study the whole. ‘The result of no little labor is given below, where it will be found, I hope, that the arrangement and synonymy of the species is im- proved, however little the characters. ‘The genus T'richodium is wholly disallowed by Hooker, (Brit. FU. 1, 33,) and by Koch, (Syn. 780,) and seems, (now that more is known,) to be not only artificial, but even founded on an incomplete analysis. Still it may be said, that the two species which form the genus as constituted by Michaux, are distinguished by a habit almost as striking as that of A. Spica venti, which is separated from Agrostis by Trinius and Lindley ; and by characters which seem, perhaps, to vary less in the original species, than in those other forms which have since been connected with them. A. uaxirtora, (Richards.): culmis erectiusculis basi purpuras- centibus striatis glabris, foliis linearibus inferioribus angustioribus involutis breviusculis suberectis striatis utrinque scabris vaginis scabriusculis, panicula tenuissime capillari laxissima ramis verti- cillatis scabris summitatibus pauciter floridis, glumis ineequalibus vix lineam longis lanceolatis inferioris, carina scabra superiorisque versus apicem palea semilineam longa acuta glabra. E. 'T.—Tr- chodium laxiflorum, Michz. Fl. 1, 142, Muhl. Gram. p. 60, Torr. Fi. 1, 83, Darlingt. Cest. p. 54. Agrostis laxiflora, Richards. App. Frankl. Narr. p.731. A. Michausii, Trin. A. Michausi, var. laxiflora, Gray, Gram. & Cyp. (cit. Darlingt.)—. mon- tana, (mihi): ceespitosa, panicula ovata patente demumque di- varicata, palea arista tortili exserta e medio dorsi proveniente predita.—Trichodium montanum, Torr. (fide ips.) Torr. Fl. ese Hab. («.) Dried up swamps and pastures. Plymouth, Ips- wich, Cambridge, Burlington, Vt. (¢.) Dry rocky precipices of the Notch of the White Mountains. The last seems almost a distinct species, and differs in the size at least of its flowers from «. It is not, however, now considered distinct by Dr. Torrey. 44. Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. A. PERENNANS: culmis fere decumbentibus basi geniculatis ramosis glabris, foliis vage patulis planis glabriusculis s. scabris vaginis levibus, panicula tenui-elliptica laxiuscula ramis verticil- latis erectis scabriusculis, glumis haud zequalibus acutissimis ca- rinis scabris circiter lineam longis, palea glabra vix lineam longa. KB. T.—Cornucopie ? perennans, Walt. Fl. Carol. p. 74. Agros- tis anomala, Willd. Sp. 1, 370. Trichodium decumbens, Michr. Fil. 1, 42, Muhl. Gram. p. 60. T. perennans, Ell. Sk. 1, 99, (Icon.) T. scabrum, Darlingt. Cest. 1, 54, (non: Willd.) Hab. Carolina, Walter, Fraser, Elliott, Curtis ; Pennsylvania, - Darlington ; Columbus, Ohio, Sullivant. The habit of this spe- cies is very marked, and it is pronounced “ quite distinct” by Dr. Darlington. It is probable that it does not occur very far to the north. A. aLtissima: culmis erectis duris rigidis crassiusculis, foliis longis lato-linearibus scaberrimis vaginis vix glabris, panicula coarctata ramis verticillatis erectis rigidiusculis scabris summitati- bus dense floridis, glumis magnis subeequalibus lanceolatis acu- minatis carinis scabris circiter sesquilineam longis, palea glumam superiorem fere sequanti tenuissime pubescenti carina scabra. KB. T.—Cornucopie ? altissima, Walt. Fl. Carol. p. 74. Agros- tis dispar, Micha. Fl. 1, 51. Trichodium elatum, Pursh, Fl. 1, 61, ZT. n. 4, (anon.) Muhl. Gram. p. 62, (fide Torr.) T’. elatum, Torr. Fl. 1,83.—%. lava, (mihi): panicula laxiori ramis longiori- bus viridi—A. Nove Anglia, (mihi MSS.) : Hab. («.) Carolina, Walter, Curtis; New Jersey, Pursh, 'Tor- rey.—(?.) White Mountains ; about brooks in the Notch. The description of Walter can hardly be improved as respects the prominent features of this very distinct species. Michaux has apparently described it under the name of Agrostis dispar; hav- ing detected (it would seem) two pale. I have observed in the New Hampshire plant, in a single instance, a membranaceous development at the inner base of the (inferior) palea, from which the bristles usually found on each side of the orifice of the palea, seemed to arise. These bristles, it may be remarked, occur in every American Trichodium ; though from the generic character of Michaux, and the silence of other authors, we might suppose they were wanting. The variety ?. above mentioned, is perhaps a distinct species, but I could not distinguish its florets from those of «. under the microscope. It is a coarse, green scabrous, rather Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. 45 erect grass, with somewhat broad leaves and large florets. The name given by Walter, the discoverer of this species, is the old- est, and, it would seem, very appropriate. | A. scasra, (Willd.): culmis erectis basi geniculatis glabris, foliis planis linearibus longiusculis striatis scabris vaginis glabris, panicula diffusa ramosa, ramis 4-6 verticillatis brevibus flexuosis patentibus divaricatis, glumis inzequalibus acutis inferiore carina scabra superiore glabra margine scariosis % lin. longis, palea lon- giuscula glumam superiorem vix haud equante glabra. E. T.— Agrostis scabra, Willd. Sp. 1,370, (fide Muhl.) Trichodium scabrum, Muhl. Gram. p. 61, Torr. Fl. 1, 83, non Darlingt. Cest. 1. c.—8. tenuis, (mihi): vaginis scabris panicula tenui ramis erectis. Hab. («.) Pennsylvania, ‘ubique in sylvis,’ Muhlenberg ; New York, in woods, common, Torrey; New Hampshire, in moun- tain forests ; (6. a small delicate form with a very slender pani- cle,) rocks of the Flume, Lincoln, N. H. This and the last were not considered by Michaux as belonging to Trichodium ; and Willdenow describes the present species as possessing two paleze. Our plant is always distinguishable by its elegantly flex- uous and spreading many-branched panicle, and erect habit. CaLaMaGRostTis PuRPURASCENS, ft. Br., Hook. Bor. Amer. 2, 240.—Hab. White Mountains; moist alpine grassy places ; Sep- tember. I observed this grass for the first time the present sea- son. It agrees in all respects with the description, and was pro- nounced to be the plant, at the time, by my excellent friend, Dr. Gray. Poa movesta, (mihi): culmo spithameeo basi geniculato ratho- so compresso glabro, foliis linearibus tenuiter striatis rigidiusculis supra scabris 3—4 pollicariis circ. semilineam latis, vaginis striatis glabriusculis, ligula conspicua membranacea truncata erosa de- mumque irregulariter laciniata, panicula stricta vix demum ob- longa 6-9 pollicari ramis solitariis filiformibus ramulisque ramo- sis rhachique scabris, spiculis sparsis breviter pedicellatis (pedicellis 1-3 lin. longis) bifloris, glumis ineequalibus oblongo-lanceolatis tenuissime striatis obtusis erosis glabris, flore inferiori majori ses- sili lanceolato enervi carina inferiori versus apicem scabriuscula eroso glabro ad basim interiorem pedicello florem alterum mino- rem fulcienti instructo, caryopsi ovato fusco, HE. T.—Poa? uni- flora, Muhl. Gram. p. 151, (ex. descr.) 46 Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. Hab. Cambridge; wet margins of Fresh Pond brook. Muh- lenberg mentions that his plant above mentioned, was sent him from New England; and it seems almost certain that it was a branch of this Poa, from which part of the florets had fallen off. He compares it with P. capillaris, but it seems very distinct from that species. In a large number of specimens of the plant, in several states of development, I observe no variation from the above characters. Aspipium acuLEatum, (Sw.) Hook. Brit. FV. edit. 1, 1, 443, Hook. Bor. Amer. 2, 26. A. aculeatum, Pursh, Fl. 2, 662. Hab. Green Mountains, Vermont, Pursh, 1806. Moist rocky mountain forest, near the base of the Chin of Mansfield, the highest of the Green Mountains, Vt., Macrae and Tuckerman, 1840. Also at Indian Pass, in the highlands near Mount Marcy, New York, Mr. Macrae. The New York specimens were pro- nounced by Sir William Hooker to be exactly the plant of the British Flora. It is an interesting and very beautiful addition to the New England Ferns, and seems to have been lost since Pursh’s time ; having escaped the notice of Boott and Robbins, being wholly omitted by Bigelow and Torrey, and referred, as a doubtful synonym, to A. spinulosum by Beck. Lycopopium annorinow, (L.): caule repente ramosissimo ramis adscendentibus bi-tri-partitis, ramulis simplicibus in spicas solita- rias sessiles terminantibus, foliis quinquefariis lineari-lanceolatis mucronatis apice serrulatis patentibus acerosis ad incrementa an- nuacontractis. Wallr. Fl. Crypt. 1,33, Micha. Fl. 2,283, Torr. Comp. p. 388.—8. montanum, (mihi): nanum quadrifolium. LZ. sabinefolium, Beck, Bot. p. 461, (non Michz. nec Hook. ) Hab. (c.) Rocky and mountain forests; Manchester, Oakes; White Mountains. ((.) Alpine districts; White Mountains, Green Mountains. The leaves of my low country specimens from Scotland and Bavaria, as well as those from the base of the White Mountains, and from Manchester, are regularly, so far as I have examined, in fives. In $, on the contrary, they occur only in fours. In an alpine Scottish specimen, which seems to be marked by the same habit as our American plant, they are also disposed in fours. It is possible this character is not found to be constant in Britain, for the alpine form is not distin- suished by British writers. 'That, however, it is not unknown to occur there, will appear from Hooker, (Brit. Fl. 1, 452,) who Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. 47 changes the specific character “ quinquefariis” to “about five rows.” In this view there is nothing to distinguish our variety but aslightly dwarf habit, which is just as noticeable in L. den- droideum, when it occurs in alpine situations, and indeed in most plants. I have not, however, as yet observed our plants to vary in this respect. It seems impossible that our Lycopodium should be the L. sabinzefolium of Willdenow, for that was referred by its discoverer, as well as by its describer, to the different group which includes L. complanatum. And it does not seem probable that Michaux, recognizing as he did L. annotinum asa Canada plant, would have referred a plant, wholly undistinguishable from it, to a different species of another section of the genus. The figure of Dillenius, cited. by Michaux, seems also inapplica- ble to our plant in every respect. All my American specimens are noticeable for a cartilaginous mucre at the tip of the leaves, which is much less conspicuous in the alpine Scottish plant. But Wallroth mentions this in his specific character given above. ‘The scale seems also to vary in the length of its acumination, and the serrulation of the leaves is more or less evident. L. rnunpatum, (L.): caule subramoso repente, ramis simplicibus solitariis erectis apice monostachyis, foliis linearibus sparsis acutis integerrimis supra curvis, spica sessili foliosa. Willd. Sp. 5, 25, Torr. Comp. p. 388.—$. Bigelovit, (mihi): majus, ramis subra- mosis elongatis, foliis acuminatis sparsim denticulatis s. integris. L. Carolinianum, Bigel. Fl. Bost. p. 384.—y. alopecuroides, (mihi): caule ramisque ut (. foliis lineari-subulatis basi sparsim- que ciliato-dentatis. £. alopecuroides, L. Sp. p. 1565, Dill. Muse. p. 454, (6 Ic.) Clayt. § Gronov. Fl. Virg. edit. 2, p. 168. Hab. («.) Swamps; Plainfield, Dr. Porter; Topsfield, Oakes ; New York, Macrae.—(3.) Wet sandy margins of ponds; Plymouth, Oakes and Tuckerman ; (also New Jersey ?)—(y.) Florida, Tor- rey. ‘The two species, L. inundatum and L. alopecuroides, seem to have been originally distinguished by Linnzeus, mainly on ac- count of the ciliate-denticulation of the leaves in the one plant, the other being considered to possess leaves integerrima, as entire as possible. With respect to this character, it appears that many other botanists have not taken the same view as Linneus, though the word in question is retained by most of our authorities. Vail- lant, Dillenius, Haller, Necker, Weber, and Hooker, (Brit. FJ. 1, A5z,) all either omit to notice this character, or have particularly 48 Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. altered in this respect the Linnzan phrase. In like manner, Michaux and Torrey have substituted ‘“integris” in their descrip- tions. I have also observed in our plant, and in French speci- mens, a very marked approach to denticulation, and in several Bavarian specimens, regular teeth. A. alopecuroides is a much larger plant, and the teeth seem to be always present and con- spicuous, as Dillenius remarks, to the naked eye. The plant here considered the variety 6. is sometimes as large as that just mentioned, but the leaves are less subulate, with but few teeth, or often all quite entire. The variety alopecuroides, if this view be correct, is the extreme southern American form of the species, the variety Bigelovii intermediate, and perhaps not occurring - north of Massachusetts, and «. the extreme northern state, com- mon to us with Europe. L. Sevaco, (L.): foliis sparsis octofariis lineari-lanceolatis acu- minatis integerrimis imbricato-patulis rigidis lepidotis, caule dicho- tomo erecto, ramis fastigiatis summis fertilibus. Wadllr. Crypt. Fl. \, 32.—«. densuwm, (Wallr.): foliis omnibus adpressis. L. densum, Lam. L. Selago, E'ngl. Bot. t. 233, Bigel. Bost. p. 386, Torr. Comp. p. 389.—?. recurvum, (Wallr.) : foliis omnibus patenti-squarrosis ramisque subrecurvis. Wadllr.Crypt. Fl. (1831,) Hook. Fl. Bor. Amer. 2, 266. L. recurvum, Kitaib. m Willd. Sp. 550. Hab. («.) Alpine summits of high mountains ; White Moun- tains, Green Mountains, in Vermont; also in the Notch of the White Mountains, near the road. (f.) In the alpine regions of the White Mountains; also beautifully distinct on rocks at the Flume, in Lincoln, N. H., where it was first found by J. Brad- ford, Esq., in 1839, and afterwards by myself, at the same spot, in 1840. This last is quite different in aspect, especially the Lincoln plant, and is distinguished by Hooker, in his Flora Bor. Americana. The leaves are narrower than in «, and all more or less patent, squarrose or recurved. The branches are also some- what recurved. Cerraria Tuckermantl, (Oakes): thallo albo-virescente reticu- lato-lacunoso glabro subtus nigro fibrillis sparsis, laciniis compli- catis adscendentibus sinuato-lobatis marginibus crispis, apophysi- bus minutis nigris punctiformibus instructis, apotheciis elevatis spadiceis margine thallode evanescente cinctis demum perforatis. C. lacunosa, Hals. Syn. View, Hitchcock, Catal. Mass. p. 124, Tuckerman, Lich. N. Eng. in Jour. Bost. p. 9, (non Ach.) Influence of Pressure on the Density of Liquids. A9 Hab. Trunks of trees and old rails; New England. The Cetraria lacunosa of Acharius, was a lichen discovered by the late Mr. Menzies, on the North West Coast. Having received from that venerable botanist a specimen of his plant, I find it is quite distinct from what has commonly passed for it here. 'The plant of Menzies and Acharius is well represented in the figure given of it by the latter author, in his Methodus. ‘The thallus is broad and expanded, very deeply cellulose and reticulate, and very rigid; the apothecia large. Ours is noticeable for its com- plicated ascending lobes, which are crisped and beset with black grains at the margins, the apothecia becoming at length perforate. It has several points of resemblance to C. ciliaris, its constant companion, and also a lichen peculiar to this continent, but can- not be confounded with that species, which is always remarkable for its dark brown or bronze hue, and much shorter laciniz. The under surface is most commonly white in the specimens of our plant, but I believe this is an accidental and atypical state. Sotorina saccara, (Ach.): thallo membranaceo appresso lobato cinereo-virescente lobis obtusis, subtus albo avenio fibrilloso, apotheciis lamine frondis primum applanatis mox saccato-depres- sis nigro-fuscis. DC., Fries, Lichenogr. p. 49. Hab. Trenton, N. Y., Mr. Greene. This curious genus is new to the United States; and the species has not before been pub- lished as American. 'The plant is distinguishable by its rounded black apothecia, more or less sunk in the surface of the cinereous- virescent thallus. Art. V.—Remarkable example of the Force of Expansion and Contraction, exerted by bodies when subjected to alternations of Temperature,—with a reference to the question whether the Jreezing point of liquids is influenced by differences in pres- sure; by Lewis C. Breck, M. D., Professor of Chemistry, é&c. in Rutgers College, N. J. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN, At one of the docks in the city of New York, ships are raised from the water, for the purpose of being repaired, by hydraulic presses consisting of cylinders with pistons or rams, having cross bars or arms at the ends. ‘'T’o these arms are attached the iron Vol. xtv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 7 50 Prof. Beck on the Influence of Pressure chains which raise the vessel and the frame upon which it is sup- ported. By forcing water, or a mixture of alcohol and water, (used in winter,) into the cylinder, the piston is forced outward, and thus the vessel, with necessary machinery, is brought to the required height. During the month of December, 1834, a curious fact was no- ticed in regard to one of these presses, by Mr. Ring, the super- intendent of the establishment, who had the kindness to apprise me of the occurrence, and to furnish me with all the particulars. I have delayed the publication, in the hope that some additional information might be obtained. But this expectation has not been realized, and I now send you the following note, nearly in the form in which it was prepared about eight, years since. On Saturday, the 13th of December, 1834, the ship Orleans, of six hundred tons admeasurement, was raised out of the water by means of two hydraulic presses, each of which contained a column of liquid, (common whiskey,) fourteen feet in length, and fourteen inches in diameter. Mr. Ring supposed that after making the proper allowance for friction, each press must have~ raised three hundred tons. ‘The thermometer during the day ranged at about 40° F. A change in the weather occurred on Sunday, and on Monday, the 15th, the mercury fell as low as 7° F. On Tuesday, the 16th, when the presses were examined, it was found that in one of them the ram had been forced outward one inch and three quarters, raising with it the ship, and the cra- dle, which weighed about one hundred tons. The following are the exact dimensions of the apparatus in which this change was observed. Length of the cylinder, - - 17 feet, 10 inches. Diameter, = - - - ah Bunt, . neem Length of the column of spirits, - MAS ict Diameter, - - - - synch: Mey Ceri wines Entire length of the ram, - - PG tinh Bid 6 Diameter, - - - - sy ilioltis wilyis Weight of the cylinder, - - 16 tons, 5 cwt. As the effect above described, was at once supposed to be due to the reduction of temperature which had taken place, the engi- heer was directed to make a moderate fire on each side of the cylinder throughout its whole length. Under this treatment the ram soon commenced a retrograde movement, which continued on the Maximum Density of Liquids. 51 until it had receded an inch and three quarters, when the ship again rested on her pawls, where she was placed on the Saturday previous. It may be added that the liquor used in the presses at this time was found, upon analysis, to contain about 43 per cent. of alco- hol of the specific gravity of .825. Now it is well known that the rate of contraction of such a liquid, by the reduction of tem- perature which occurred in this case, at least at the ordinary pressure, is greater than that of iron. In order to satisfy myself of the correctness of this statement in the present instance, I took a two ounce bottle, to which a tube of about a foot in length, with a bore of one eighth of an inch, was attached, and filled the bottle and tube with the liquor employed in the press. The whole was then placed in a freezing mixture, and the tem- perature gradually reduced to 0° F.., supposing that to be the lowest degree to which it had been exposed in the cylinder. With the reduction of temperature, the liquor constantly descend- ed in the tube, as I had anticipated. What then was the cause of the outward movement of the ram, by which such an enormous force was exerted, as to raise the whole of this vessel and the cradle which supported it? The column of liquid was certainly increased in length by an inch and three quarters. If the liquid had remained of the same bulk, the apparent increase might be ascribed to the contraction of the iron. But this view seems to be inadmissible, for the con- traction of the iron would, under ordinary pressures at least, have been less than that of the Naud, as has been shown by re- peated experiments. The explanation which I would offer is, that the mixture of alcohol and water, under the enormous pressure to which it was subjected in the hydraulic press, reached its point of maximum density at a higher temperature than under the ordinary pressure. The liquor in the cylinder during the time above mentioned, was either congealed or was near the point of congelation, and thus increased in bulk. Hence the outward movement of the ram, and the raising of the ship. In the discussions which were had in regard to the present mode of graduating thermometers, I know it was suggested that the freezing point of water varies with the latitude; which, how- ever, was proved not to be the case. But Iam not aware that 52 Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. any detailed and accurate experiments have been performed, to determine whether it is influenced by the pressure of the atmos- phere; that is, whether water is frozen, or ice liquefied, at the same temperature on the summits of the Alps or Andes, as in the lowest valleys. The known effect of pressure on several of the gases which are thus condensed, would seem to lead us to the conclusion that the congelation of liquids, and the liquefaction of solids, must also be influenced by this cause. If this is so, the occurrence which I have now described, will probably be consid- ered as a remarkable illustration. I will only add, in conclusion, that the force of expansion and contraction, as measured by the raising and lowering of this ship and its cradle, is more strikingly exhibited, than by any experi- ment with which I am acquainted. Rutgers College, March 1, 1843. Art. VI.—An effort to refute the arguments advanced in favor of the Existence, in the Amphide Nalts,* of Radicals consist- ing, like Cyanogen, of more than one element; by Rosrrt Hare, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Penn- sylvania. [Republished from a pamphlet printed by the author to accompany his ‘‘ Compen- dium of Chemistry,” and for distribution.] Tue following isa summary of the opinions, which it is the object of the subsequent reasoning to justify. (a.) The community of effect, as respects the extrication of hydrogen by contact of certain metals with aqueous solutions of sulphuric and chlorohydric acid, is not an adequate ground for an inferred analogy of composition, since it must inevitably arise that any radical will, from any compound, displace any other radical, when the forces favoring its substitution, preponderate over the quiescent affinities. (6.) But if, nevertheless, it be held that the evolution of hy- drogen from any combination, by contact with a metal, isa suffi- * An amphide salt is one consisting of an acid and a base, each containing an amphigen body, either oxygen, sulphur, selenium, or tellurium, as its electro- negative ingredient. Eizistence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. 53 cient proof of the existence of a halogen* body, simple or com- pound, in the combination, the evolution of hydrogen from water, by the contact with any metal of the alkalies, must prove oxy- gen to be a halogen body; also the evolution of hydrogen from sulphydric, selenhydric, or telluhydric acids, by similar means, would justify an inference that sulphur, selenium, or tellurium, as well as oxygen, belong to the halogen, or “salt radical” class. (c.) The amphigen bodies being thus proved to belong to the halogen class, oxides, sulphides, selenides, and tellurides, would be haloid salts, and their compounds double salts, instead of con- sisting of a compound radical and a metal. (d.) The argument in favor of similarity of composition in the haloid and amphide salts, founded on a limited resemblance of properties in some instances, is more than counterbalanced by the extreme dissimilitude in many others. (e.) As, in either class, almost every property may be found which is observed in any chemical compound, the existence of a similitude, in some cases, might be naturally expected. (f.) As it is evident that many salts, perfectly analogous in composition, are extremely dissimilar in properties, it is not rea- sonable to consider resemblance in properties, as a proof of analo- sy in composition. (g.) No line of distinction, as respects either properties or com- position, can be drawn between the binary compounds of the am- phigen and halogen bodies, which justifies that separate classifi- cation which the doctrine requires; so that it must be untenable as respects the one, or be extended to the other. (h.) The great diversity, both as respects properties and com- position of the bodies called salts, rendering it impossible to define the meaning of the word, any attempt to vary the language and theory of chemistry, in reference to the idea of a salt, must be disadvantageous. (z.) There is at least as much mystery in the fact, that the ad- dition of an atom of oxygen to an oxacid, should confer an aflin- ity for a simple radical, as that the addition of an atom of this element to such a radical, should create an aflinity between it, and an oxacid. * The epithet halogen, is applied to bodies whose binary compounds with metals are deemed salts, and which are consequently called haloid salts. 54 Hvistence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. (j.) If one atom of oxygen confer upon the base into which it enters, the power to combine with one atom of acid, it is quite consistent that the affinity should be augmented, proportionably, by a further accession of oxygen. (k.) It were quite as anomalous, mysterious, and improbable, that there should be three oxyphosphions, severally requiring for saturation one, two, and three atoms of hydrogen, as that three isomeric states of phosphoric acid should exist, requiring as many different equivalents of basic water. (Z.) The attributes of acidity alleged to be due altogether to the presence of basic water, are not seen in hydrated acids, when holding water in that form only; nor in such as are, like the oily acids, incapable of uniting with water as a solvent. Further, these attributes are admitted to belong to salts which, not hold- ing water as a base, cannot be hydrurets or hydracids of any salt radical; and while such attributes are found in compounds which, like chromic, or carbonic acid, cannot be considered as hydrurets, they do not exist in all that merit this appellation, as is evident in the case of prussic acid, or oil of bitter almonds. (m.) It seems to have escaped attention, that if SO* be the oxysulphion of sulphates, SO*, anhydrous sulphuric acid, must be the oxysulphion of the sulphites; and that there must, in the hyposulphites and hyposulphates, be two other oxysulphions. (n.) The electrolytic experiments of Daniell have been erro- neously interpreted, since the electrolysis of the base of sulphate of soda would so cause the separation of sodium, and oxygen, that the oxygen would be attracted to the anode, the hydrogen and soda being indirectly evolved by the reaction of sodium with water; while the acid, deprived of its alkaline base, would be found at the anode in combination with basic water, without having been made to act in the capacity of an anion. (o.) The copper in the case of a solution of the sulphate of this metal and a solution of potash, separated by a membrane, would, by electrolyzation, be evolved by the same process as so- dium, so long as there should be copper to perform the office of a cathion; and when there should no longer be any copper to act in this capacity, the metal of the alkali, or hydrogen of water, on the other side of the membrane, would act as a cathion; the oxygen acting as an anion from one electrode to the other, first to the copper, and then to the potassium. Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. 55 (p.) The allegation that the copper was deposited from the want of an anion (oxysulphion) to combine with, is manifestly an error, since, had there been no anion, there could have been no discharge, as alleged, to hydrogen as a cathion, nor any elec- trolysis. (q-) The hydrated oxide precipitated on the membrane, came from the reaction of the alkali with the sulphate of copper; the precipitated oxide of this metal from the oxygen of the soda act- ing as an anion; and the deposit of metallic copper from the so- lutions performing, feebly, the part of electrodes, while them- selves the subjects of electrolyzation. (r.) The so called principles of Liebig,* by which his theory of organic acids is preceded, are mainly an inversion of the truth, since they make the capacity of saturation of hydrated acids de- pendent on the quantity of hydrogen in their basic water, instead of making both the quantity of water, and, of course, the quan- tity of hydrogen therein, depend on their capacity. (s.) All that is truly said of hydrogen, would be equally true of any other radical, while the language employed would lead the student to suppose that there is a peculiar association between capacity of saturation, and presence of hydrogen. 1. Some of the most distinguished European chemists, en- couraged by the number of instances in which the existence of. hypothetical radicals has been rendered probable, have lately in- ferred the existence of a large number of such radicals in a most important class of bodies, heretofore considered as compounds of acids and bases. It has been inferred, for instance, that sulphur, with four atoms of oxygen (SO*) constitutes a compound radi- cal, which performs in hydrous sulphuric acid, the same part as chlorine in chlorohydric acid. 2. Graham has proposed sulphatoxygen as a name for this radical, and sulphatoxide for any of its compounds. Daniell has proposed oxysulphion and oxysulphionide for the same pur- poses. In reasoning on the subject I shall use the nomenclature last mentioned, not, however, with a view to sanction it, as I dis- approve altogether of this innovation, and deny the sufficiency of * Traité de Chimie Organique, tom. 1, page 7, 56 Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. the grounds upon which it has been justified. Consistently with the language suggested by Daniell, hydrous sulphuric acid, con- stituted of one atom of acid and one of basic water, (SO?+HO) is a compound of oxysulphion and hydrogen (SO*+H.) Nitric acid (NO°+HO) is a compound of oxynitrion and hydrogen (NO°+H.) In like manner we should have oxyphosphion in phosphoric acid, oxyarsenion in arsenic acid, and in all acids, hitherto called hydrated, whether organic or inorganic, we should have radicals designated by names made after the same plan. Their salts having corresponding appellations, would be oxysul- phionides, oxynitrionides, &c. Also, in any salt in which any other of the amphigen class of Berzelius is the electro-negative ingredient, whether sulphur, selenium, or tellurium, all the ingre- dients excepting the electro-positive radical, would be considered as constituting a compound electro-negative radical.* 3. It may be expedient to take this opportunity of mentioning that the advocates of this new view, disadvantageously, as I think, employ the word radical, to designate the electro-negative, as well as the electro-positive ingredient. Agreeably to the nomen- clature of Berzelius, the former would be a compound halogen * The conception of the existence of salt radicals seems to have originated with Davy. It was suggested by Berzelius, in his letter in reply to some strictures which I published on his nomenclature, in the following language :— “Tf, for instance, the true electro-chemical composition of the sulphate of potash should not be KO-+S0O3, as is generally supposed, but K+-SO4, and it appears very natural that atoms, so eminently electro-negative as sulphur and oxygen, should be associated, we have, in the salt in question, potassium combined with a compound body, which, like cyanogen in K+C2N, imitates simple halogen bodies, and gives a salt with potassium and other metals. The hydrated oxacids, agreeably to this view, would be then hydracids of a compound halogen body, from which metals may displace hydrogen, as in the hydracids of simple halogen bodies. Thus we know that SO3, that is to say, anhydrous sulphuric acid, is a body whose properties, as respects acidity, differ from those which we should ex- pect in the active principle of hydrous sulphuric acid. “‘ The difference between the oxysalts and the halosalts is very easily illustrated by formule. In KFF (fluoride of potassium,) there is but one single line of sub- stitution, that is to say, that of K\{FF; whilst in KOOOOS (sulphate of potash,) there are two, KJ|OOOOS and KO|OQOOS, of which we use the first in replacing one metal by another, for instance, copper by iron; and the second in replacing one oxide by another. “‘¥ do not know what value you may attach to this development of the constitu- tion of the oxysalts, (which applies equally to the sulphosalts and others ;) but as to myself, I have a thorough conviction that there is therein something more than a vague speculation, since it unfolds to us an internal analogy in phenomena, which, agreeably to the perception of our senses, are extremely analogous.” Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. 57 body. Cyanogen being analogous, is by him placed in the halo- gen class. I shall, therefore, in speaking of “salt radicals,” im- properly so called, employ the appellation contrived by the great Swedish chemist. 4, Nevertheless it seems to be conceded, that however plausi- ble may be the reasons for inferring the existence of halogen bodies in the amphide salts, it would be inexpedient to make a corresponding change in nomenclature, on account of the great inconvenience which must arise from the consequent change of names. 5. Under these circumstances, it may be well to consider how far there is any necessity for adopting hypothetical views, to which it would be so disadvantageous to accommodate the re- ceived language of chemists. In the strictures on the Berzelian nomenclature, which drew from Berzelius the suggestions con- tained in the quotation at the foot of the preceding page, I stated it to be my impression that water should be considered as acting in some cases as an oxybase, in others as an oxacid ; and, in my examination of his reply,* I observed that hydrous sulphuric acid might be considered as a sulphate of hydrogen, and that when this acid reacts with zinc or iron, the proneness of hydrogen to the aériform state enables either metal to take tts place, agreeably to the established laws of affinity. 6. There appears to have been a coincidence of opinion be- tween Kane, Graham, Gregory, and myself, as respects the elec- tro-positive relation of hydrogen to the amphigen and halogen elements, which I have designated collectively as the basacigen class; also in the impression that hydrogen acts like a metallic radical, its oxide, water, performing the part of a base. I agree perfectly with Gregory in considering that hydrated acids may be considered as “hydrogen salts.” But when the learned editor proceeds to allege that “acids and salts, as respects their consti- tution, will form one class,” I consider him, and those who. sanc- tion this allegation, as founding an error upon an oversight. Be- cause the salts of hydrogen, or such as have water for their base, have heretofore been erroneously called acids, we are henceforth to confound salts with acids, and, instead of correcting one wrong name, cause all others to conform thereto ! *Silliman’s Journal, for 1835, Vol. xxvu, page 61. Vol. xtv, No. 1.—April-June, 2843. 8 58 Huistence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. 7. I fully concur with Gregory and Kane, in considering that water in hydrous sulphuric acid, in nitrie acid, chloric acid, and in organic acids, generally acts as a base; also, that in this basic water hydrogen performs a part perfectly analogous to that of a metallic radical; but, agreeably to this view, I cannot perceive any difficulty in accounting for the evolution of hydrogen, as suggested in the quotation above made, (6,) agreeably to which, when diluted sulphuric acid reacts with zine or iron, the libera- tion of hydrogen results from the superiority of the forces which tend to insert either of these metals in the place occupied by the hydrogen, over those which tend to retain it 77 statu quo. 8. When oxide of copper is presented to chlorohydric acid, it is inferred that the hydrogen unites with oxygen, and the chlo- rine with the metal; and hence it seems to be presumed, that when oxide of copper is combined with sulphuric acid, a similar play of affinities should ensue: but would it be reasonable to make this a ground for assuming the existence of a compound radical, when the phenomena admit of another explanation quite as simple and consistent with the laws of chemical affinity ? 9. Whether hydrogen be replaced by zinc, or oxide of hydro- gen by oxide of copper, cannot make any material difference. In the one case, a radical expels another radical, and takes its place ; in the other, a base expels another base, and takes its place. 10. There can be no difficulty, then, in understanding where- fore, from the compound of sulphur and three atoms of oxygen, and an atom of basic water, hydrogen should be expelled and re- placed by zine, or that water should be expelled and replaced by oxide of copper; the only mystery is in the fact, that SO?, as an- hydrous sulphuric acid, will not combine with hydrogen, copper, or any other radical, unless oxidized. But this mystery equally exists on assuming that an additional atom of oxygen converts SO? into oxysulphion, endowed with an energetic affinity for metallic radicals, to which SO® is quite indifferent. 1L. In either case, an inexplicable mystery exists; but it is, in the one case, associated with an hypothetical change, in the other, with one which is known to take place. 12. But if hydrous sulphuric acid is to be assumed to be a hy- druret of a compound halogen body, (oxysulphion, ) because it evolves hydrogen on contact with zinc, wherefore is not water, which evolves hydrogen on contact with potassium, sodium, ba- Evvistence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. 59 rium, strontium, or calcium, to be considered as a hydruret of oxygen, making oxygen a halogen body ? 13. Boldly begging the question, Graham reasons thus: “ the chlorides themselves being salts, their compounds must be double salts.” 14, But if the chlorides are salts, the chloride of hydrogen is a salt; and if so, wherefore is not the oxide of hydrogen a salt, which, in its susceptibility of the crystalline form, has a salt at- tribute which the aériform ¢hloride does not possess ? 15. Further, if the oxide of hydrogen be a salt, every oxide is a salt, as well as every chloride. Now, controverting the argu- ment above quoted, by analogous reasoning, it may be said, “the oxides themselves being salts, their compounds are double salts.” Of course sulphate of potash is not a sulphatoxide, as Graham’s ingenious nomenclature would make it, but must be a double salt, since it consists of two oxides in “themselves salts.” 16. I trust that sufficient reasons have been adduced, to make it evident that the common result of the extrication of hydrogen, during the reaction of zine or iron with sulphuric or chlorohydrie acid, is not a competent ground for assuming that there are, in amphide salts, “compound radicals” playing the same part as halogen bodies. 17. Let us, in the next place, consider the argument in favor of the existence of such radicals, founded on the similitude of the haloid and amphide salts, which is stated by Dr. Kane in the following words :— “Tt had long been remarked as curious, that bodies so different in composition as the compound of chlorine with a metal, on one hand, and of an oxygen acid with the oxide of the metal on the other, should be so similar in properties, that both must be classed as salts, and should give rise to a series of basic and acid compounds, for the most part completely parallel.”— Elements, p. 681. 18. Upon the similitude and complete parallelism of the am- phide and haloid salts, thus erroneously alleged, the author pro- ceeds to argue in favor of the existence in the former, of com- pound halogen bodies, analogous in their mode of combination to chlorine or iodine. 19. I presume it will be granted, that if similitude in proper- ties be a sufficient ground for inferring an analogy in composi- tion, dissimilitude ought to justify an opposite inference. And 60 Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. that if, as the author alleges, certain bodies have been classed as salts, on account of their similarity in this respect, when dissimi- lar they ought not to be so classed. Under this view of the question, I propose to examine how far any similitude in proper- ties exists between the bodies designated as salts by the author, or any other chemist. 20. The salts, hitherto considered as compounds of acids and bases, are by Berzelius called amphide salts, being produced sev- erally by the union with one or other of his amphigen class, com- prising oxygen, sulphur, selenium, and tellurium, with two radi- cals, with one of which an acid is formed, with the other a base. The binary compounds of his halogen class, comprising chlorine, bromine, iodine, fluorine, and cyanogen, are called by him haloid salts. I shall use the names thus suggested. 21. Among the haloid salts we have common salt and Derby- shire spar; the gaseous fluorides and chlorides of hydrogen, sili- con or boron ; the fuming liquor of Libavius; the acrid butyra- ceous chlorides of zinc, bismuth, and antimony; the volatile chlorides of magnesium, iron, chromium, and mercury, and the fixed chlorides of calcium, barium, strontium, silver, and lead; the volatile poison prussic acid, and solid poisonous bicyanide of mercury, with various inert cyanides like those of Prussian blue ; likewise a great number of ethereal compounds. 22. Among the amphide salts are the very soluble sulphates of zinc, iron, copper, soda, magnesia, &c., and the insoluble stony sulphates of baryta and strontia; also ceruse and sugar of lead; alabaster, marble, soaps, ethers, and innumerable stony silicates, and aluminates. Last, but not among the least discordant, are the hydrated acids, and alkaline and earthy hydrates. 23. When the various sets of bodies, above enumerated, as comprised in the two classes under consideration, are contempla- ted, is it not evident that, not only between several sets of haloid and amphide salts, but also between several sets in either class, there is an extreme discordancy in properties; so that making properties the test, would involve not only that various sets in one class could not be coupled with certain sets in the other, but, also, that in neither class could any one set be selected as exem- plifying the characteristics of a salt, without depriving a majority of those similarly constituted, of all pretensions to the saline char- acter ? Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. 61 24. Now, if among the bodies above enumerated, some pairs of amphide and haloid salts can be selected, which make a tolera- ble match with respect to their properties, as in the case of sul- phate of soda, and chloride of sodium, while in other cases there is the greatest discordancy, (as in the stony silicate felspar, and the gaseous fluoride fluosilicic acid gas; as in soap and Derby- shire spar; as in marble and the fuming liquor of Libavius, the sour protochloride of tin, and sweet acetate of lead,) is it reason- able to found an argument in favor of a hypothetical similitude in composition, on the resemblance of the two classes in proper- ties? Does not the extreme dissimilitude in some cases, more than countervail the limited resemblance in others? And when the great variety of properties displayed both by the amphide and haloid salts is considered, is it a cause for wonder. or perplex- ity, that in some instances, amphide salts should be found to re- semble those of the other kind ? 25. Again, admitting that there was any cause for perplexity agreeably to the old doctrine, is there less, agreeably to that which is now recommended? Is there no ground for wonder that oxygen or sulphur cannot act as simple halogen bodies? By what rule are their binary compounds to be excluded from the class of haloid salts? Wherefore should chlorides, bromides, iodides, and fluorides, however antisaline in their properties, be considered as salts, while in no case is an oxide, a sulphide, se- lenide or telluride to be deemed worthy of that name. 26. I challenge any chemist to assign any good reason where- fore the red iodide of mercury is any more a salt than the red oxide, or the protochloride is more saline than the sulphide: or why the volatile oxides of osmium or of arsenic are less saline than horn silver or horn lead ; or the volatile chloride of arsenic, than the comparatively fixed sulphides of the same metal: why gaseous chlorohydric acid is more saline than steam or gaseous oxhydric acid. 27. It much surprises me, that when so much stress is laid upon the idea of a salt, the impossibility of defining the mean- ing of the word escapes attention. How is a salt to be distin- guished from any other binary compound? When the discord- ant group of substances which have been enumerated under this name is contemplated, is it not evident that no definition of them 62 Evistence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. can be founded on community of properties? and, by the advo- eates of the new doctrine, composition has been made the object of definition, instead of being the basis; thus, agreeably to them, a compound is not a salt, because it is made of certain elements ; but, on the contrary, an element, whether simple or compound, belongs to the class of salt radicals, because it produces a salt. Since sulphur, with four atoms of oxygen, SO‘, produces a salt with a metal, it must be deemed a salt radical. 28. In proof that the double chlorides are not united in a way to justify the opinion adopted by Bonsdorff, Thomson, myself, and others, it is alleged by Graham, “that in such compounds the characters of the constituent salts are very little affected by their state of union.” 29. This allegation being, in the next page, admitted to be inapplicable in the case of the double cyanides ; an effort is made to get over this obstacle, by suggesting the existence of another compound radical. But the allegation of the author is erroneous as respects various double haloid salts, especially the fluosilicates, the fluoborates, fluozirconiates, the chloroplatinates, chloroiridi- ates, chloroosmiates, chloropalladiates, &c., all of them compounds in which the constituent fluorides and chlorides exist in a state of energetic combination, by which they are materially altered as to their state of existence. 30. Evidently the word salt has been so used, or rather so abused, that it is impossible to define it, either by a resort to properties or composition; and I conceive, therefore, that to make it a ground of abandoning terms which are susceptible of definition, and which have long been tacitly used by chemists in general, in obedience to such definition, would be a “ retro- grade movement in the science.” I hope Dr. Kane will pardon me for employing the language to which he has resorted, in speaking of the opinions of Bonsdorff. 31. If this doctrine, as it has been stated, is to prevail, I do not perceive how it is to be prevented from claiming an incon- venient extension. ‘The hydrates, as well as the sulphates, must have pretensions to contain salt radicals. Hence in the hydrated alkalies and alkaline earths, there would be a compound radical, consisting of hydrogen, with two atoms of oxygen, hydroxion, and these compounds would be hydroxionides; nor can I con- Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. 63 ceive that the haloid compounds, erroneously called double salts, but more correctly considered as single salts, can be exempted. 32. Between the reaction of fluoboric acid with fluobases, and sulphuric acid with oxybases, is there not a great resemblance ? 33. Iam unable to understand how, if the existence of salt radicals in oxysalts be inferred, the other salts of the amphigen class can be exempted from a corresponding inference. But if the existence of salt radicals in the double sulphides be admitted, can it be consistently denied that they exist also in double chlo- rides, iodides, &c.? Is there not the greatest analogy between the habitudes of sulphur, selenium, and tellurium, with metals, and those of the halogen bodies: 34. Would not the modification of the ethereal oxysalts, to comport with the new hypothesis, be disadvantageous, both as re- spects our mental conception of those compounds, and the names which would be rendered appropriate? Would not the transfer of the oxygen from the ethereal oxide to the acid, and the crea- tion, thus, of new salt radicals for the organic acid salts, be ob- jectionable ; such as oxyoxalion for oxalates, oxytartarion for tartrates, oxyacetion for acetates; while, for their compounds, we should have oxyoxalionides, oxytartarionides, oxyacetion- ides, &c. ? 35. If sulphates are to be considered as oxysulphionides, by what names are we to designate the sulphites, hyposulphites, and hyposulphates, SO?, S*02, S20%?. SO? may, perhaps, with more propriety be considered as consisting of a compound radical, . SO?, and oxygen, forming an oxide of sulphurous acid; but ina sulphite, anhydrous sulphuric acid, SO? becomes a species of oxysulphion itself, being as much the oxysulphion of the sul- phites, as SO* is of the sulphates. Of course SO? should have a direct affinity for radicals, contrary to fact. I presume that sul- phites would have to be trioxysulphionides ; hyposulphites, ses- quioxysulphionides ; sulphates, quadroxysulphionides ; while the hyposulphates would, I suppose, be demiquintoxysulphionides !!! 36. Analogous complication in nomenclature would arise in respect to the nitrites and nitrates, phosphites and phosphates, arsenites and arseniates ; also as respects the carbonic and oxalic acids. 37. It is true that nature has not so made her bodies as that they can be separated into classes, between which any distinct line 64 Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. can be drawn, still it has been found advantageous to classify them to the best of our power. Accordingly it appears to me expedient, in the first place, to distinguish elements (or those compounds which act like them) according to their electro-chem- ical relations to each other, or their habitudes with the voltaic electrodes. Consistently, chemists have tacitly adopted the plan of treating the compounds formed by electro-negative elements with anions, as acids; those formed with cathions, as bases ; while the combinations formed by the union of such acids and bases have been considered as simple salts. ‘Thus four classes are constituted, consisting of electro-negative elements, of acids, bases, and single salts, while, by the union of the latter, a fifth class of double salts is formed. Whether the words acid, base, and salt, be adhered to, objectionable as they are in some re- spects, and especially the latter, or some others be contrived, it would seem to me disadvantageous to merge them in one name, pursuant to the views of the advocates of salt radicals, as stated by Gregory in his edition of 'Turner’s Chemistry, 572. 38. The objection, that not being electrolytes the relation of acids and bases to the voltaic electrodes cannot be discovered, is easily remedied; since, on the union of a common ingredient with an anion and a cathion, there cannot be any doubt that the resulting compounds will have the same electro-chemical relation as their respective heterogeneous ingredients; so that, with the anion, an acid or electro-negative body will be formed ; with the cathion, a base or electro-positive body. Moreover, as respects organic compounds which cannot be subjected to the electrolytic test, whatever saturates an inorganic acid must be a base, and whatever saturates an inorganic base must be an acid. 39. The word salt, I have shown, is almost destitute of utility, from the impossibility of defining it, and the amplitude of its meaning. A word that means every thing, is nearly as useless as that which means nothing. 40. As respects the three phosphates of water, PO*+HO, PO*+2HO, PO’-+3HO, the argument used by Dr. Kane cuts both ways; although, by its employer, only that edge is noticed which suits his own purpose. It is alleged that the difference of properties, in these phosphates, is totally inexplicable upon the idea of three degrees of ‘hydration ;” but that all difficulty van- ishes, When they are considered as three different compound salt On the Rotary Action of Storms. 65 radicals, oxyphosphionides of hydrogen, PO®*+H, PO’+-2H, PO*+3H. Al. 'To me the formation of three compound elements, by the reiterated addition of an atom, of which five of the same kind were previously in the mass to which the addition is made, seems more anomalous, mysterious, and improbable, than the existence of three compounds of phosphoric acid with water, in which the presence of the different proportions of water is the consequence of some change in the constitution of the elements, which is re- ferred to isomerism. A2. No reason can be given why the addition of one, two, and three atoms of oxygen, to the “radical,” should convey a power to hold a proportional number of atoms of hydrogen. Such an acquisition of power is an anomaly. 43. In the case of radicals formed with hydrogen i in different proportions, as in acetyl and ethyl, formyl and methyl, the num- ber of atoms of oxygen in the peroxides, is the inverse of the hydrogen in the radical. 44. Ethyl, C+, H*, unites, at most, with one atom of oxygen, while acetyle, C+, H?, takes three atoms to form acetic acid, C4, H?,O?. Methyl, C?, H3, forms, in like manner, only a protox- ide, while formyl, C*, H, takes three atoms to constitute formic acid. 45. Besides the three oxyphosphions, of which the formulas are above stated, there would have to be another in the phos- phites ; so that instead of the hydrated acid, or phosphite of wa- ter, being PO?+HO0, it would have to be PO‘+-H, a fourth oxyphosphionide of hydrogen. (To be concluded.) Art. VII.—On the Rotary Action of Storms; by Cuaries Tracy. (Read before the Utica Natural History Society.) THE investigations of Mr. Redfield and Col. Reid have accu- mulated a vast amount of evidence in favor of the propositions they maintain. ‘The tendency of this evidence is to demonstrate, that in the large storms which affect extensive districts, and also in the violent tornadoes which devastate a brief path, there are two motions, the rotary and the progressive; and that the Vol. xiv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843, 9 66 On the Rotary Action of Storms. rotary is by far the most violent, and has an uniform direction of revolution, being from right to left if the storm is in the northern hemisphere, and the reverse if it is in the southern hemisphere. That is to say, on our side of the equator the rotation is about the centre through the points of compass, in the order of N. W. S. E., or contrary to the movement of the hands of a watch lying on its back; and south of the equator the rotation is through the points in the order of N. BE. S. W., or conformable to that of the hands of a watch. These propositions, although authorized by induction, have encountered doubts or gained a feeble faith in many minds, for the want of a good cause to assign for the production of the alleged phenomena. Hence the occurrence of rotary storms, and the uniformity of direction of revolution, have been too readily attributed to mere accident; and the notion that a whirlwind, once started by mere chance, contains the elements of growth and stability of motion, has been too easily admitted. An active whirlwind, great or small, undergoes a constant change of sub- stance. As the central portions waste into the ascending column, supplies from the adjacent tranquil air must be drawn into the vortex and set in motion; and if the fresh air is neutral to the circular movement and must acquire velocity from the whirling mass itself, then since “action and reaction are equal and in op- posite directions,” the whirling mass itself must lose just so much velocity as the fresh supply gains. By such a process the forces of the whirlwind would be rapidly exhausted, and its existence must speedily cease. A stable source of momentum, adapted to originate and sustain the uniform rotary movement, is still re- quired : and it is now proposed to develop such a source of mo- mentum in the forces generated by the earth’s diurnal revo- lution. The velocity of the earth’s surface in the daily revolution being at the equator more than one thousand miles an hour, in latitude 60° half as much, at the pole nothing, and varying in interme- diate places as their perpendicular distances from the earth’s axis, and the atmosphere near the ground every where taking in part or wholly the motion of the surface it rests on, important conse- quences upon aerial currents must follow. A body of air set in motion from the equator northward maintains the equatorial east- ward velocity, and when it passes over regions of slower rotation On the Rotary Action of Storms. 67 deviates eastward from the meridian, and ultimately describes over the earth’s surface a curved line bearing towards the east. A current of air from latitude 45° north, having a due south di- rection, soon reaches regions moving faster to the east, falls behind them and describes a curve. to the west. Winds oblique to the meridian are similarly affected. ‘These familiar matters are re- ferred to here, and illustrated by figure 1, to elucidate what fol- lows. The influence of the figure and revolution of the earth upon east and west winds, must also be considered. A parallel of lat- itude, being a lesser circle of the globe, and at all points equally distant from the pole, necessarily describes upon the earth’s sur- face a curved line. But a direct course, due east at the com- mencement, follows a great circle, and parting from the parallel reaches a lower latitude. ‘The due east course continued ina right line describes a tangent to the curve of the latitude. The velocity of the earth’s surface at any place, by virtue of the di- urnal revolution, has for its direction the line of that tangent ; and when the air reposing over any spot is transferred to a region of diverse motion, the direction, as well as the degree, of its pre- vious force is to be taken from that of the soil on which it pre- viously rested. Hence a wind from due west, if in our hemi- sphere, will soon be found pursuing a southeasterly course, and crossing successive parallels of latitude. The labors of Mr. Espy have been directed to the hypothesis of a central ascending column of rarefied air, and centripetal cur- rents from every side rushing towards its base. Without pursu- ing his reasoning, it will be safe to assume that his collection of facts established the existence of a qualified central tendency of the air, in both the general storms and the smaller tornadoes. 68 On the Rotary Action of Storms. He presents a theory to account for such motion, which it is not necessary now to examine. Dr. Hare has proposed another me- thod of accounting for tornadoes—a truly brilliant suggestion— of which it is only to be remarked, at present, that it proceeds on the assumption of a rush of air from all quarters to a central point. It has been attested also, that at large clearing fires in calm weather, creating centripetal currents, the whirlwind and mimic tornado have been produced. In accounting for the whirl- ing motion therefore, the central tendency of the air will be pre- supposed. In the case of a large fire kindled in an open plain on a calm day, a small circle about the fire is first acted on by the abate- ment of pressure on the side next the fire, and thus receives an impulse towards the common centre. As this moves in, the next outer circle loses support and begins to move. Each particle of air is moved at first by an impulse towards the centre, and during its approach to the central region it receives fresh impulses of the same direction; and if it comes from some distance its velocity is in this way accelerated, until it reaches the space where the horizontal is broken by the upward motion. It is obvious that particles propelled by such impulses would seek the common centre in the lines of its radii, and their horizontal forces would be neutralized by impact, if no cause for deviation was at hand. But the great law of deflection which affects the course of the winds, applies to the movements of these particles. The parti- cles which seek the centre from the northern points are deflected west, while those from southern points are deflected east. The whole rush of air from the northern side of the centre, coming like a breeze, bears west of the centre, while an equal breeze from the southern side bears east of the centre. ‘The consequence is that the central body of air, including the fire, is acted upon by two forces which combine to make it turn round to the left. These forces are aided by the deviation of the currents from the east- erly and westerly parts of the circle. 'The breeze from the west extreme inclines to the tangent of the parallel of latitude at its original place of repose, and therefore strikes south of the centre, into which the impulses it receives would otherwise carry it. The air from the east side also inclines toward the tangent of the parallel of latitude there, which is oblique to the north from the On the Rotary Action of Storms. 69 radius, and therefore is deflected northwards and strikes north of the centre. ‘The breezes from all quarters thus co-operate to pro- duce the result; and all their forces are constant, and act with precision and at great advantage to cause and maintain.a whirl- wind. A diagram presenting the lines of approach of the parti- cles or streams of air, will explain this result. 'The black lines in figure 2, show the deviating currents, from the cardinal points alone, when the area affected by the fire is so small as to require no perceptible curve in those lines. Fig. 2. Upon the same principle, the tornado, the typhoon, and the wide-spread storm of the Atlantic, if their currents move towards a central spot, must have a rotary character. The circular mo- tion in the outer portions may be slight, but it is stronger near the centre. In every such case the incoming air may be regarded as a succession of rings taken off the surrounding atmosphere, and moving slowly at first, but swifter as. they proceed towards the centre. Each such ring is affected by the law of deviation during its passage. The particles are veering from the radii, in its northern quarter westward, in its southern quarter eastward, in its eastern quarter northward, and in its western quarter south- ward; and hence the ring begins to revolve when far from the centre, turns more and more as it draws near it, and finally as it gathers about the central spot all its forces are resolved into a simple whirl. Ring after ring succeeds, and the whirling action is permanent. © 70 On the Rotary Action of Storms. The deflecting power thus applied is not small. The rotary motion of the earth varies as the cosine of latitude, and the dif- ferences of velocity for any differences of latitude are easily com- puted. The following are samples; being differences of velocity for 1° or 694 miles of latitude. Between lat. 2° and 3° diff. of velocity 0.79 miles per hour. 6¢ 66 3° 66 4° 66 66 1.11 6¢ 66 66 66 10° 66 11° 13 6¢ 3.31 6¢ 79 66 66 939 66 QAC 66 66 7.25 6c 66 73 66 42° 66 A3° 66 66 12.28 66 43 The differences of velocity for one mile, or 51.84” of latitude, are as follows. Latitude. Difference of velocity for one mile north. 10° A feet per minute. 23° 9 a “ 42° 15.4 * ef A3° Mids ee ce 45° LB Fs Me The deflection of easterly and westerly breezes by reason of the spherical form of the earth, also, can be computed ; and it is obviously no less important than the deflection produced in me- ridional winds. ‘The angle between the courses north and east, at any point, is a right angle; and if two points in the same lati- tude are taken, it is evident that the obliquity of the north courses from the two points, equals the obliquity of the east courses from the same points. These results show that in the northern states a fire large enough to affect the atmosphere over a few acres may possess the essential force for generating a whirlwind, and may produce it in fact if the day be caim. A large storm, covering the whole country with its centripetal currents, must produce a vortex about the centre, which will combine the principal energies of the storm. The tornado and water spout must revolve with terrific violence. The necessary condition, centripetal motion, may arise when- ever a central spot subjected to intense heat is surrounded by a cool atmosphere. This state of things, on a small scale, may occur in a summer’s day, upon a ploughed field surrounded by On the Rotary Action of Storms. 71 extensive pastures; upon a black and charred clearing in the midst of a cool forest; or at a large clearing fire. Upon a great scale—if an island beneath the tropical sun received upon rocks and sands the intense radiance of a succession of clear, calm, and hot days, and consequent sea breezes from the deep and cool ocean pressed in upon all its shores with the violence of a high wind, it should not cause surprise if these various breezes com- bined to generate a vast whirlwind; nor if the lofty revolving column should at last leave the place of its origin and traverse the sea, a hurricane. ‘The cause which first excited the centrip- etal tendencies of the storm, might be renewed as the upper cur- rent of the atmosphere bore it over other heated spots; and the law of deflection will inevitably transform the central into circu- lar motion. 'The destructive storms of our sea-coast may have such an origin among the eastern islands of the West Indies, from which they appear to proceed. Fig. 3. In the southern hemisphere the same law of deflection pro- duces contrary results. ‘There the wind which first moves north bends to the west, and the wind which moves south at first turns towards the east, that from the east turns south, and that from the west turns north. Figure 3 represents these effects. Hence south of the equator storms revolve from left to right, or con- 72 On the Rotary Action of Storms. formably to the movement of watch hands. Figure 4 exhibits the rotary action of a storm in the northern hemisphere; figure 5 the same in the southern hemisphere. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. enh Sie . = The relative motions of the parts of a small circular space on the earth’s surface, by reason of the diurnal revolution, are pre- cisely what they would be if the same circular space revolved upon an axis passing through its centre parallel to the axis of the globe. If such space be regarded as a plane revolving about such supposed axis, then the relative motions of its parts are the same as if the plane revolved about its centre upon an axis perpendic- ular to the plane itself; with this modification, that an entire revolution on the axis perpendicular to the plane, would not be accomplished in twenty four hours. Such plane daily performs such part of a full revolution about such perpendicular axis, as the sine of the latitude of its centre is of radius. The plane itself—the field over which a storm or a tornado or a water-spout is forming—is in the condition of a whirling table. Hence the tendency to rotary action in every quarter of the storm is equal, and all the forces which propel the air towards the centre coop- erate in harmony to cause the revolution. Water discharging from a broad basin through a central orifice, is subject tothe same law. It forms a vortex which in our hem- isphere turns to the left, or against the sun, and in the southern hemisphere must turn to the right or contrary to the sun there. These rotations of the atmosphere and of water, being from west to east about lines inclined to parallelism with the earth’s axis, are singularly coincident in direction with the rotation of the globe, and harmonize with the general mechanism of the heavens. Utica, Feb. 27, 1843. Monography of the North American Cuscutinee. 73 Arr. VIII.—Corrections and Additions to the Monography of Cuscutinea, in Vol. XLITI. of this Journal; by GroreE Eneeitmann, M. D.* A GaREFUL re-examination of this tribe during the past season, as well as the increased opportunity of examining specimens from different parts of North America, have discovered some errors, and made some corrections and additions necessary, which I should, indeed, prefer to withhold for the present, and subject to the test of another season’s study, if it were not important to correct such errors as soon as possible. A fuller description of the new spe- cies, with figures, I defer to another time. Tam now convinced, that, although many Cuscute prefer some plants to others, yet there is no constancy in this respect, but the same species often grows upon a great variety of widely different plants. I did wrong, therefore, to name them from the genera upon which they grew; and I should much prefer to see the names of C. Cephalanthi changed into C. tenuiflora, C. Corylt into C. incurva, C. Saururi into C. umbrosa, Beyr.? C. Polygo- norum into C. chlorocarpa, and Lepidanche Compositarum into EL. squarrosa, if they had not yet been published. I. Cuscuta, Linn. 1. Cuscura CepHatantut.—Mostly 4-parted ; frequently only 3-parted. 2. Cuscuta Coryvit.—F ound in many places n near St. Louis, on Hazel, Willow, Desmodium, Teucrium, Solidago, ete. ‘The long styles observed in some dried specimens of this as well as other species, are the consequence of a continued vegetation in the plant-press!' The variety @. must therefore be stricken out. Flowers frequently 5-parted. 3. Cuscura vuLervaca.—Certainly the most common species. The stylopodium is very remarkable in the living specimens which I have examined; and the capsule is oval, even a little pointed, less globose than any other of our Cuscute; but I am not prepared to say that this is the case with all varieties of this * The characters of the new species, é&c. here described, have been published in the London Journal of Botany for April, 1843, as an appendix to the original mo- nograph, there reproduced.—Eps. Vol. xiv, No. 1.—April—-June, 1843. 10 74 Monography of the North American Cuscutinee. very variable species. 'The stamens and pistils are as long, or rather a little shorter than the corolla, but the latter are elongated after flowering. (Cuscwta Americana, Hooker?) 4. Cuscuta Saururi.—lt is very probable that Cuscuta wmbro- sa, Beyrich, ex Hooker, is the same ; which name must therefore be substituted for mine, though not quite appropriate. ‘This plant is very nearly related to the former species, but can always be dis- tinguished by the more open, campanulate corolla, which in C. vulgivaga is globose-campanulate, the thinner texture of calyx and corolla, which is destitute of the pellucid dots, and the oblong lobes of calyx and corolla, which are always more or less orbicu- lar in C. vulgivaga. Large, overgrown specimens of C. vulgz- vaga have sometimes the lobes of calyx and corolla as long as the tube, but can always be recognized by the above characteris- tics. Such specimens are those from Alabama and Texas, men- tioned in this Journal, Vol. xu, p. 340. The true C. Saururi I have only received from western New York, and from this neighborhood ; where it grows in abundance on Polygonum, Sau- rurus, etc. in a few localities. I must mention here two specimens of a Cuscuta received from Mr. M. A. Curtis, collected, one in Massachusetts, the other in North Carolina. In their principal characters they agree with C. Saururi, but the flowers are much smaller and frequently 4-part- ed; the linear oblong, obtuse lobes of calyx and corolla are rather longer than the tube; the filaments subulate, shorter than the limb ; ovary with a stylopodium; styles short and thick; capsule ? An examination of more complete specimens and the living plants must show whether there is a constant difference between this eastern plant and the western C. Saururi. But I may here remark, that the eastern form of C. vulgivaga is also mnch smaller than our western form, and from Connecticut I have also received a tetramerous C. vulgivaga ! 5. CuscutTa verrucosa.—Under this name I have confounded two Texan species: the description is chiefly taken from the fol- lowing species, but the figure refers to this one, which was first collected by Drummond and afterwards by Mr. Lindheimer, both times on Petalostemon multifiorum. The description must be altered :—C. verrucosa, cymes umbelliform, compound ; flowers peduncled (small), 5-parted; calyx campanulate, verrucose ; seg- ments ovate, somewhat obtuse, shorter than the globose-campa- Monography of the North American Cuscutinee. 75 nulate tube of the corolla; lobes of the corolla long acuminate, somewhat longer than the tube; stamens half as long as the limb; scales ovate fimbriate, rather larger than the tube; ovary globose, depressed, without stylopodium ; capsule depressed.—The tissue of the corolla is composed of large irregular cells. 6. Cuscura HISPIDULA, 2. sp.—Stem low; cymes loose, few flowered, hairy or nearly smooth; flowers very long peduncled (small), 5-parted; tube of the corolla turbinate-campanulate, twice the length of the ovate subacute segments of the calyx, shorter than the long acuminate somewhat crenulate spreading lobes; stamens half as long as the limb; scales ovate, fimbriate, nearly equaling the tube; ovary with a stylopodium and short styles. Texas, in dry and sterile prairies west of Houston. Flowering in April and May. Compare the remarks made in Vol. xii, p. 341, under C. verrucosa. 7. CuscUTA NEUROPETALA, 7. sp.—Cymes umbelliform, smooth, flowers pedunculate (large), 5-parted ; tube of the corolla campa- nulate, nearly equal in length to the ovate-lanceolate acute cari- nate segments of the calyx, and the ovate short-acuminate one- nerved crenulate spreading lobes; stamens rather shorter than the limb; scales ovate, fimbriate, incurved, as long as the tube; styles rather longer than the ovary with the stylopodium. Texas, in wet prairies near Houston; on different Composite, such as Liatris, Solidago, Helianthus, Rudbeckia, and on Myrica cerifera; flowering in August; FE’. Lindheimer. Flowers rather large, but variable in size; segments of calyx always very acute, ovate or ovate-lanceolate, somewhat shorter or a little longer than the tube of the corolla. Anthers yellow or purple; stigmas purple. This and the last species resemble in the structure of the corolla the more northern C. Coryli; they have the same crenulated margin, the same fleshy cellular texture, similar incurved tips of the acute lobes, and the same white color, which is not altered in well-dried specimens. C. neuropetala is distinguished from C. hispidula by, its per- fect smoothness, its flowers being twice or three times as large, its more compact, umbelliform cymes; the whole plant is taller, (in my specimens twelve to eighteen inches high.) The calyx segments, at least the three outer ones, are carinate; the lobes of ‘4 76 Monography of the North American Cuscutinee. the corolla are broader, shorter, composed of small linear cells, which are contracted in the middle into a distinct nerve. Stylo- podium large in proportion to the ovary. Capsule not seen. The purple anthers and stigmas in the white flowers, give this species a very pretty appearance. 8. Cuscura PentaGgona.—Capsule globose, somewhat depressed, without a stylopodium. The description is taken from the Virginia ‘ehigs the forms from Illinois and Texas constitute two distinct varieties. 6. microcatyx: flowers shorter peduncled ; calyx not remarka- bly 5-angled, much shorter than the tube of the corolla.—Illinois. y. cALYcINA: flowers shorter peduncled ; calyx not remarkably 5-angled, longer than the tube of the corolla, which is equal to the acute lobes.—Texas. This species bears some resemblance to C. Polygonorum on one side, and to the three foregoing species on the other; to these by the acuminate lobes of the corolla, to the first by the depressed ovary and pale greenish-yellow capsule ;* but it is dis- tinguished from both by the orbicular lobes of the generally large and more or less pentagonal calyx. ‘The inflorescence represents little umbels in 7, or approaches the glomerules of C. Polygono- rum in 8. andy. 'The lobes of the corolla are acute, resembling in shape those of the following species, in the ae er variety ; or longer and finely acuminate, (similar to C. verrucosa and C. his- pidula,) in the more northern forms. Stamens short, only half the length of the limb; anthers nearly globose. Scales large, ovate, fimbriate, sometimes exceeding the tube. Ovary and cap- sule depressed. This is probably the earliest species in North America; in Texas it has been found in bloom in April and May, and near Bardstown early in July ; while here, one hundred miles further south, hardly any other species begins to open its flowers before the last days of that month. 9. Cuscuta PoLtyconorum.—Segments of calyx generally’ as long as the tube of the corolla, mostly subacute, but occasionally also somewhat obtuse; the corolla is thin, membranaceous, com- posed of a very fine cellular tissue; stamens broad at base, sub- ulate ; scales smaller than in any other species, except C. Coryli. * In all other species which are here mentioned, it is of a brown color, except perhaps in C. Cephalanthi, where it is also light-colored. Monography of the North American Cuscutinee. 77 II. LepiwancuHe. ‘Last autumn I discovered a second species of this genus, which imposes the necessity of altering the generic character. It must now read: Capsule 2-celled, 1—4-seeded. The facies of the genus refers principally to the first species ; the second has more the appearance of a Cuscuta, but the flowers are also closely sessile. 1. Leripancue Composirarum.—sStems before flowering orange colored, soon decaying. (Cuscuta glomerata, Choisy, Mem. Soc. Nat. Hist. Genev., ex adnot. A. Gray.) 2. LePIDANCHE ADPRESSA, 7. sp.—E lowers sessile, glomerate, 5-parted ; calycine scales seven to nine, imbricated, appressed, ovate or orbiculate, slightly crenulate, the outer ones the largest ; tube of the corolla cylindric, a little longer than the calyx, twice as long as the oblong obtuse spreading lobes; stamens shorter than the limb; scales laciniately pinnatifid, convergent, covering the ovary; ovary with the stylopodium equaling the styles; cap- sule globose, shortly acuminate, covered by the marcescent co- rolla; 2-4-seeded. (Cuscuia compacta, Choisy, l.c., ex adnot. A. Gray. C. coronata, Beyr. ap. Hook. ?) I discovered this species last autumn, in the fertile shady woods on the banks of the Mississippi, amongst a most luxuriant growth of vines and underbrush, on Bignonia radicans, Rhus toxicodendron, Laurus Benzoin, Vitis, Cornus, etc. Choisy describes it from spe- cimens ccllected in Alabama. The flowers are closely sessile, but distinct, and not in such dense clusters asin L. Compositarum. 'The glomerules either form a continuous line round the stem of the parent plant, or they are separate, consisting of from five to ten or more greenish white flowers. The filiform stout stems are whitish, and do not en- tirely disappear at the flowering time. ‘The capsules are gener- aily 2-seeded; but as they are not so crowded as in the other species, they are also found 3—4-seeded. Plate VI, Vol. xumr.—The tube of the flower, fig. 4, ought to be alittle shorter. The lobes of the corolla, fig. 18, are tgp wide at base; they should be more oblong. ‘The ovary, fig. 24 should be depressed like that in fig. 28. The calyx-segments ought to ‘be marked in fig. 25. 78 On the Ice Mountain of Hampshire County, Va. Arr. IX.—On the Ice Mountain of Hampshire County, Vir- ginia, with a proposed explanation of its low temperature ; by C. B. Haypen. A MOUNTAIN possessing a temperature so independent of all ex- ternal causes, as to permanently preserve ice, within a few inches of its surface, unaffected by the vicissitudes of the seasons, or the diurnal variations of temperature, was too singular and striking a phenomenon, not to have early attracted observation. The Ice Mountain has hence received frequent notice, but of so indefi- nite and frequently exaggerated a character, as to fail to pro- duce a general belief in its existence, or to secure it that in- terest which this rare curiosity so richly merits. "The Ice Moun- tain is one of the subordinate ridges of the Cacasson Mountains, and is a continuation of the North River Mountain; the latter consists chiefly of sandstones, and constitutes the western portion of an anticlinal axis, which at its commencement, many miles south of the Ice Mountain, is low and symmetrical. As this axis proceeds north it becomes more developed, and loses its symme- try, the rocks on the western side having a much greater inclina- tion than the corresponding oneson the eastern. ‘This inclination of the rocks, constituting the western side of the axis, rapidly increases with its development, until they become perpendic- ular, and form a distinct ridge, which in its continuation forms the Ice Mountain. It rises to the height of seven or eight hun- dred feet, forming a mural precipice, whose cragged summits split and rent, shoot suddenly up into sharp turreted spires, or jagged pinnacles, resembling the battlements of a Gothic cas- tle, or the minarets of a mosque. At other times, losing this wildness, it is as remarkable for its singular symmetry, as before for its fantastic irregularity. Still retaining its precipitousness, it rises to the height of several hundred feet; its uniform summit, and rude massive symmetry, its steep rocky sides, devoid of veg- etation, save where some stinted pine has “cast anchor in the rifted ngck,” all combine to give it the character of a huge Cyclo- pean + This singular structure has been thus minutely described, both from the unique and imposing scenery to which it gives rise, and from the connexion it is supposed to have with the phenomenon of the Ice Mountain. At the Ice Mountain, the On the Ice Mountain of Hampshire County, Va. 79 steepness and walled structure is retained, and the mountain forms an abutment or support to an enormous glacis or bank of rocks, which is thrown up against it on its western side. The following section, without pretending to topographical accuracy, will show the structure of the mountain and the relative position of the talus heap containing the ice. rt WES ie Ice Mountain. This natural glacis lies along the direction of the mountain, reaching high up towards its summit, and extending laterally several hundred feet from its base; the debris consists of frag- ments of sandstone, varying in size from a few inches to many feet in diameter, loosely heaped together, and from their irregular angular shape generally separated by large interstices. ‘The main ridge seen in the section is known as the Ice Mountain, though it is only in the interstitial cavities of the talus, that the ice is formed and preserved. The Ice Mountain was visited by the writer in the summer of 1838, a season memorable in the annals of western Virginia for its long and distressing drought, so fatal to the crops. The heat of this season, though unparalleled in that region for duration and intensity, but slightly affected the temperature of the Ice Mountain, as ice was found in great abundance by the writer, by removing the rocks to the depth of a few inches. A thermom- eter on being introduced into one of the cavities between the rocks, so as to be exposed to the air without being in contact with the rock, rapidly sunk to below 40°, and would doubtless have been still further depressed had it been permitted to remain. The general low temperature of the rocks was evinced by the moisture which either bedewed their surface, or trickled from their sides; the result of the condensation of the atmospheric va- por by the low temperature of the rocks, although at the time, the dew point must have been extremely low. During the pre- vious winter, the rocks had been removed from a portion of the heap, to the depth of three or four feet, and the cavity thus 80 On the Ice Mountain of Hampshire County, Va. formed filled with snow, and loosely covered with planks, but so slightly that the snow could be seen through the crevices of the covering ; but though so imperfectly protected from atmospheric agencies, the snow exhibited not the slightest traces of the heat of the past summer, and was as dry, friable, and crystalline, as if new fallen. The dairy mentioned by Kerchival,* has three of its sides surrounded by the heap of rocks, and hence partakes of the low temperature of the mass. ‘The sides of the dairy were not however, as in ordinary seasons, encrusted with ice, nor were icicles pendent from its roof, but its temperature was still suffi- ciently low to subserve all the purposes of a dairy and refrigerator. The temperature of the spring which issues from the base of the talus is unaffected by the temperature of the overlyig mass, and though reputed to be but slightly above the freezing point, is in reality but one degree lower than the springs of the vicinity, and no lower than some others in the same county, which vary from 51° to 52°. The scene, as viewed from the base of the moun- tain, was as interesting as paradoxical. On the one hand was the North River converted into a stagnant pool, its indurated bot- tom exposed at short intervals—the drooping foliage of the forest, the blighted grain, tinged not with autumn’s golden yellow, but a sickly hue, denoting that it had prematurely fallen into ‘the sere and yellow leaf’’—all too plainly indicating the long contin- ued action of summer’s heat. On the other hand was a mass of rocks below the freezing point, enclosing in its cavities snow and ice, while the spectator himself enjoyed an atmosphere whose bland, spring-like softness formed an agreeable contrast to the distressingly hot one, (96°,)+ for which it had a few minutes before been exchanged. Having thus given a detailed description of the Ice Mountain, it may not be uninteresting to inquire into the causes which give it a temperature so singularly independent of all those influences which usually determine the temperature of terrestrial bodies—a temperature upon which the summevr’s heat, neither in ordinary, nor in unusually long, and intensely hot seasons, exerts the slight- est influence. The solution, I conceive, is to be found in the large and unusual collection of rocks, which from their porous * Kerchival’s History of the Valley of Virginia. | The temperature a few moments before ascending the mountain, at 23 P. M., was 96° in the shade. On the Ice Mountain of Hampshire County, Va. 81 homogeneous texture are extremely poor conductors of heat. “By reference to the description and section, it will be seen that on one side is the mountain, consisting of a massive wall many hundred feet in thickness, and heaped up against this as an abutment, a mass of rocks containing several thousand cubic feet. As the mountain has a general direction from N. EB. to S. W., the talus heap containing the ice has a N. W. exposure. The cavernous nature of this heap would admit the free entrance of atmospheric waters, which during the winter would form ice in the interior of the mass. The ice thus situated would be pro- tected from external heat by the surrounding rocks, as ice ina refrigerator is isolated and protected from the external temperature, by the non-conducting sides of the refrigerator. The Ice Moun- tain only requires for the explanation of its phenomenon, the application of the familiar principle upon which is constructed — the common refrigerator, which temporarily effects what the Ice Mountain permanently does—a temperature independent of ex- ternal causes. The Ice Mountain is in fact a huge sandstone refrigerator, whose increased and unusual effects beyond those of the ordinary refrigerator, are due to the increased and unusual collection of poor conducting materials which form its sides. Similar, though inferior accumulations to that of the Ice Moun- tain, from geological causes, frequently occur in Hampshire, and the adjoining counties. Observation showed them in every in- stance to have a temperature far below that of the atmosphere. That this low temperature is permanent, is proved by the univer- sal custom of individuals residing in their vicinity so constructing their dairies, that three of their sides are enclosed by the rocks, in the same manner as the one already described at the Ice Moun- tain. Evena thin layer of poor conducting materials, affords a much greater protection than would be anticipated by those whose attention has not been given to the subject. ‘The means resorted to by the shepherds of Mount Etna, for supplying their flocks with water, exhibits the protecting influence of a bad con- ductor. The shepherds during the winter, cover the snow with a layer of volcanic sand and ashes, a few inches in thickness, which protects it from the sun, and preserves it throughout the summer, thus affording them an abundant supply of water for their flocks, where it could be obtained from no other source. Vol. xtv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. il 82 On the Ice Mountain of Hampshire County, Va. A still more interesting and striking proof of the perfect isolation from external causes, by a poor conducting covering, is attested by the fact, that a large glacier of ice and snow was overflowed by a stream of hot lava from Mount Etna, without being destroy- ed.* The ice thus covered by the lava, was protected by it from the summer’s heat, and continues thus preserved to the present day. ‘This can only be explained by supposing that the lower portion of the lava current, immediately upon its contact with the ice, was reduced to the temperature of the glacier, and that this reduced stratum, from its imperfect power of conducting heat, protected the ice from the hot lava above. Whatever may be the explanation of it, or however paradoxical it may appear, the fact is attested by too high authorities to be doubted. Public atten- tion was first called to this interesting fact in 1828, when the discovery was made by Signor Gemmellaro, in searching after ice. It has been subsequently examined by Lyell and other dis- tinguished geologists, who confirm the report of Signor Gemmel- laro. Excavations made for removing the ice, have exposed the _ lava for several yards, overlying the glacier, and so superimposed, that the relative position of the lava and glacier can only be ac- counted for by supposing that the latter was overflowed by the former in a melted state. Monte Testaceo may be instanced as presenting a phenomenon more strictly parallel with that of the Ice Mountain, and as affording a happy illustration of the principle so frequently alluded to. Monte Testaceo is situated in one of the suburban riom? of Rome. It is merely a large mound, com- posed of fragments of earthenware vases and urns, and is supposed to mark the site of an extensive ancient pottery. This accumu- lation of bad conducting materials preserves a uniform temperature, many degrees below the main temperature of Rome, and on this account artificial cavities formed by digging in the sides of the mound, are used as wine vaults. In July, 1773, Prof. Pictet found by observation, the temperature of one of the caves to be A4A°, while that of the external atmosphere was 78°.+ If thiscom- paratively small accumulation produces so great a depression in Rome, where the mean temperature is 60°, it can be readily con- ceived that the still greater accumulation at the Ice Mountain, ** Lyell’s Principles of Geology, London edition, Vol II, p. 124. + Edinburgh Philosophical Journal. Dent's new Compensation Balance for Chronometers. 83 would reduce the temperature to 32°, in a climate where the mean temperature is but 52° or 53°.* In endeavoring to explain the low temperature of the Ice Moun- tain, the effect resulting from the bad conducting nature of the mass, and its protection by similar materials on all sides except the N. W., have alone been considered. ‘The nature of the rocks as absorbents of heat should also be estimated, as from their dull white color, most of the heat would be reflected, leaving but a small portion to be absorbed. It should also be borne in mind, that the air immediately in contact with the ice would be, from its lower temperature, specifically heavier than the external at- mosphere, except in midwinter, and could only be replaced by an atmosphere heavier than itself, and therefore colder. It hence follows that the ice could only be affected by the hot air of sum- mer, so far as its heat is conducted by the surrounding rocks, which, as will appear from the foregoing explanations, must be very inconsiderable. Arr. X.—On the E’rrors of Chronometers, and explanation of a new construction of the Compensation-balance ; by BK. J. Denr.+ Ir must, doubtless, be interesting to the public in general to have the opportunity afforded them of noticing the various state- ments of reported improvements in chronometers, that are, from time to time, set forth by their respective inventors. Such ac- counts moreover answer the desirable and double purpose of registering the several ingenious contrivances, as well as of ex- hibiting in a clear light the nature of the difficulties usually encountered in this important branch of the mechanical arts. By such a work, too, the public obtain a more distinct knowledge of the subject, and at the same time receive a more attractive idea of human ingenuity striving to attain mechanical perfection. It must be confessed, however, that the result of the skill, labor, and expense which have been bestowed within the last fifty years on the improvement of chronometers, affords but little room for congratulation, and must convince every one acquainted * Deduced from observations on the temperature of the springs of that region. t Communicated by the author. 84 Dent's new Compensation Balance for Chronometers. with the historical details of the subject, that the road to perfec- tion in the art of chronometer-making is, as in most other arts, a wearisome one, more frequently leading to profitless trouble, than contributing either to the interest of the contriver or the benefit of the public. Nevertheless, by such investigations has been obtained the knowledge of a curious fact, which has lately exci- ted the attention and ingenuity of various persons engaged in the manufacture of chronometers. The fact alluded to is this—that if chronometers, as generally constructed, be regulated to mean time at mean temperature, the chronometer will Jose at the extremes of heat and cold; or, if ad- justed to keep mean time at the extremes, they will have a ten- dency to gain at the intermediate temperatures. This fact, although in all probability known to others, was _ first pointed out by myself in No. 14 of the Nautical Magazine, in the year 1833, but I am not aware that the slightest hint has ever yet been given as toits ¢rue cause. In order to explain it, we must bear in mind, that no chronometer can keep a uniform rate, unless the tension, or moving force of the balance-spring, has an invariable ratio to the resistance of the inertia. Now in chronometers, as usually constructed, this ratio cannot, from the nature of the construction of the balance, be maintained at differ- ent temperatures; since the tension of the balance-spring, when influenced by a change of temperature, varies according toa law different from that observed in the simultaneous variation of the inertia. We cannot, indeed, assign with any great precision the law which connects the tension of the balance-spring with the temperature. ‘That the force of tension, however, varies very nearly as the temperature, within ordinary limits, may be seen from the following experiments made with a chronometer having a glass disc for the balance, and a balance-spring of hardened and tempered steel. Thermometer. | Hourly rate. Number of vibrations in one hour. 32 + 5.74 3605.74 66 — 1.80 3598.20 100 — 10.30 3589.70 Now since the force of tension of the balance-spring (the inertia and friction remaining the same) varies as the square of the num- ber of vibrations made in the same period, we have the following results from the above, taking the force of tension at 32° to be unity. Deni’s new Compensation Balance for Chronometers. 85 32 1.0000 66 0.9958 100: 0.9911 Thus the experimental tension at the mean temperature of 66° Fahrenheit is 0.9958; and the tension computed upon the sup- position that it varies as the temperature, is 0.9956; differing only by the quantity .0002th part of the whole force, correspond- ing to about 2° of the thermometer, which, considering the diffi- culty experienced in maintaining an equality of temperature, in the individual experiments, is not a greater difference than might be reasonably expected, in all probability therefore the tension varies nearly as the temperature, within ordinary limits; but with regard to the variation in the inertia, we know that the effect produced by the compensating weights, by their approach and recession from the centre of the balance, varies as the square of the central distance; and therefore it is not to be wondered at, that the required ratio betwen the tension and inertia should occur only at two temperatures: nor is it surprising that when chronometers are regulated for mean temperatures only, they should lose at the extreme ones; since in the case of an éncrease of temperature, the approach of the weights to the centre is not sufficiently great to effect the compensation, and in the case of a decrease of temperature their recession from the centre is too great to compensate for the increased rigidity of the balance-spring. It is true, that this law of variation in the inertia applies only to each particle of the balance in reference to its distance from the centre of motion, and not to a mass, unless referred to the centre of gyration; and as the whole inertia of the balance is made up of the inertia of the fixed arms, as well as the movable compen- sating weights and rim, it is plain that any attempt to exhibit by computation the variation of the whole inertia due toa change of temperature, would involve not only a consideration of the figure of the balance, but also a knowledge of the law of varia- tion in the central distance (as depending upon temperature) of the weights and rim, of which we are at present more in igno- ranee than of the law that exists between the temperature and the tension of the balance-spring. The inertia of the balance is amore complicated function of the temperature than the tension of the balance-spring, and involves a higher power of it: and this is still a souyce of difficulty. 86 Dent's new Compensation Balance for Chronometers. Another circumstance that tends to aggravate the error arising from the defect of compensation for the diminished tension of the balance-spring at high temperature, and the excess of compensa- tion for the increased tension at low ones,—is, the unfolding or straightening of the circular rim of the balance at reduced tem- peratures, and the contrary action at high ones. By this action of the rim, the compensating weights are made to describe por- tions of a spiral curve, whereby the variations in the central distance, due toa given change of temperature, are greater at the low than at the high temperature, which is the reverse of what is required in order to effect the compensation; and although such deviations from the required law of approach of the com- pensating weights may be rendered less apparent by increasing the weights, yet, in this case, other errors are introduced (which it will be needless here to allude to) that render this mode of proceeding inadmissible without much limitation. In the con- struction of the balance I shall here describe, it is not pretended, indeed, that the law of approach is mathematically what it ought to be, in order that the proper ratio may be obtained at all tem- peratures between the tension of the balance-spring and the inertia of the balance,—yet it may be safely affirmed that, in this construction, the variations in the central distance of the weights increase at the higher and diminish at the lower temperatures ; which is exactly the reverse of what has hitherto generally taken place in chronometers, and therefore will doubtless afford a much nearer approximation to the truth than heretofore attained. More- over, the correction of the error alluded to, will be a continuous correction ; an object of no little importance, and which is not effected in the contrivances lately put forth to remedy the defect by means of supplementary weights, which weights are brought into contact with the balance rim at amean temperature. In these contrivances by contact, although chronometers may be adjusted to equal rates at one of the extremes, and also at a mean temperature, yet between these limits, they are obviously subject to an error of the same nature as before, though of one half the amount only; and in the other half of the range of temperature, when the supplementary weights are brought into contact with the rim of the balance, the law of approach is the reverse of what it ought to be. Besides, the friction at the point of contact is highly objectionable in this mode of correction, and will not only Dent's new Compensation Balance for Chronometers. 87 destroy all confidence in the performance of such chronometers at mean temperatures, (the very temperatures at which their ser- vices are most required, ) but it is also a gross violation of the law of continuity, upon the maintainance of which, the correct per- formance of chronometers must depend. Tn order that what I have stated with respect to chronometers of the usual construction may be the more apparent, we will, for the sake of illustration, suppose the tension of the balance-spring to be in proportion to the temperature ; then in the accompanying figure, let BB’ B” be a scale of equal parts, and representing the scale of a thermometer. Fig. 1. B B B’ 100° 66° 32° At the extreme temperatures, B and B”, suppose a chronometer to be regulated to mean time; then since at these temperatures, the tension of the balance-spring must have the same ratio to the inertia of the balance, take BD and B” D” at right angles to B B”, in proportion to the inertia at these temperatures ; and also the parts BG and B’ G”, in proportion to the corresponding tensions of the balance-spring. Join DD” and GG”. Since the tension is proportional to the temperature, the locus of G will be the straight line GG", and from the relation which exists between the inertia and the temperature, the locus of D will be a curve line, as DD’ D”. Let B’ D’ be another ordinate to the curve, at an intermediate temperature, which produced meets D D” in the point m, and cuts GG” in G’. Now in order that the chronome- 88 Dent's new Compensation Balance for Chronometers. ter may go mean time at the mean temperature, as in the extreme temperatures, the tensions of the balance-spring, which are here represented by the lines BG, B’G’, and B’ G”, should be in pro- portion to the ordinates BD, B’ D’, and B’ D”, which cannot be the case unless B’ D’ is equal to B’ m, or unless the point D/ coin- cide with the point m, or the curve DD’ D” coincide with the straight line Dm D’—which is impossible. 'The quantity mm D’ or difference between the inertia of the balance and what if ought to be, for the chronometer to go mean time, is seen in the diagram to be the greatest at the intermediate temperatures, which in the actual performance of the chronometer is the case—and as they are found to gain at these temperatures, it is clear that B/ D’ is less than B’m, or the curve is convex towards the axis BB”. If the chronometer, instead of being adjusted to the extreme tem- peratures, be adjusted to the mean, and one of the extreme tem- peratures, (as the highest for instance,) join DD’ and produce it until it meets D” B” in the point x; then since D’ B” is greater than n B” by the difference D’ n ; the inertia will be greater than ut ought to be, to an increased amount, corresponding to a dimin- ished gaining, or an increased losing rate of the chronometer, which is also found to be the case. I shall now proceed to show the mode of construction of the balance which I have adopted in order to obviate the error; and I have accomplished this, not by supplementary weights, but by effecting a more perfect conform- ity with the proper law of approach in the compensating weights themselves; the correction being, thereby, both continuous and simultaneous. Before entering on a description of my improvements, I will ex- plain, from the following diagram, the defects in the construction of the ordinary compensation-balance, and show its inadequacy to accom- plish the required correction for the varying tension of. the balance- spring. Ficure 2.—The ordinary compensation- balance: a, the balance; 6, two segments of compensating lamine of brass and steel, brass being on the outside of the segments, and steel on the inside ; c, compen- sating weights. Dent's new Compensation Balance for Chronometers. 89 On an increase of temperature, the movable extremities of the segments approach the centre of motion, as represented by the dotted inner curve lines, and the reverse effect takes place on a decrease of temperature. Now, that the inertia may correspond with the tension, the compensation-weights, c, upon an increase of temperature, should approach the centre of the balance with an accelerated motion, and, upon a decrease of temperature, with a retarded one. On examination of this ordinary balance, it is evident that its action is directly opposed to the above requisition. And before further investigation of the subject, it is important to remember, that when metals of unequal expansion, such as brass and steel, are united, (as in the compensation-balance,) the ex- tremities of the lamine move in a spiral curve, on being influ- enced by change of temperature. I will now proceed to the explanation :—If we connect, by means of the dotted straight line d, the centre of gravity of the compensation-weight, with the junction of the lamine, at the arm of the compensation-bal- ance, and suppose a change of temperature from heat to cold to take place, the result will be, that the brass, which is on the out- side of the segments, contracts more by the increase of cold than the steel on the inside; hence the distance between the centre of gravity of the compensation-weights, and the junction of the laminee at the arm, is increased: in other words, the length of the chord of the arc, or dotted line, is, by the unfolding or straightening of the segment, augmented. Under such circum- stances the radius of motion and the increment of distance are increased, whilst from an increase of temperature the converse takes place, which is the very reverse of what should occur. For, by an increase of cold, the chord of the are d should be shortened, and lengthened by an increase of heat; a result which my present invention is designed to eflect by applying to the or- dinary compensation, which may be termed primary compensa- tion, the addition of a secondary continuous compensation, which will move the compensation-weights over a space more calcula- ted to accommodate the force of the inertia to the varying ten- sion of the balance-spring. In the drawings annexed, are representations of different modi- fications of my invention, given as exemplifications of the prin- ciples upon which my improvements are effected. Vol. xtv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 12 a 90 Dent's new Compensation Balance for Chronometers. Fig. 3, represents the plan of a compensation-balance, in which the two com- pensation-weights are each carried by a primary and a continuous secondary com- pensation-piece, which pieces are shown straight, in order to facilitate the clear understanding of the principles of my invention: although, in practice, I frequent- ly use a curved figure for the pieces, or make the primary and continuous second- ary compensations in one curved piece. a, is a simple balance-bar, made of Fig, 3. brass or other non-magnetic metal or metallic compound. b, two primary compensation-pieces of brass and steel, or other suitable met- als, which pieces are firmly fixed on the balance-bar a, nearly at the extrem- ities, and run parallel with it towards the centre. ¢, two continuous secondary compen- sation-pieces attached to the free ends of the primary pieces b, and proceeding in a direction from the centre; the brass of these pieces is, in both cases, at the inside of the angle, and the steel at the outside. d, the compensation-weights. e, the timing-weights. The pieces 6 I term the primary compensation, because their action is to vary the inertia by bringing the compensation-weights d nearer to the centre of motion for an increase of temperature, and the reverse for a decrease; and it is to be distinctly under- stood, that this may be fairly considered as the only adjustment which the ordinary chronometer possesses, to correct the errors of the balance-spring. I have before remarked, that the com- pensation-weights, in the usual construction, do not go suffi- ciently in towards the centre of motion, on an increase of tem- perature ; while they come out too far ona decrease. I will now explain how the correction of this fault is to be accomplished by my invention. The secondary compensation-pieces c move the compensation- weights d on a change of temperature, in a direction nearly con- centric with the centre of motion, and thus produce but little va- riation as regards the times of vibration. 'These pieces I denom- inate the “ secondary compensation-pieces,”’ and their position is such, that the variation in the central distance of the compensa- tion-weights, due to a given change of temperature, is a max- imum ; that is, the variation which causes the secondary com- pensation only. For example ; on an increase of temperature, the weight d is moved further from the junction of the primary compensation- Dent's new Compensation Balance for Chronometers. 91 piece 6 with the bar; and as the length of the dotted line /, drawn from the centre of gravity of the compensation-weight d, to the junction with the bar,—as the length of this line, I say, is augmented by increase of temperature, the compensation-weight d makes a quicker and nearer approach to the centre of motion than in the old compensation-balance ; whereas, on a decrease, the contrary takes place. Fig. 4, shows the plan of a balance, in which the primary and continuous secon- dary compensation is obtained by means of one curved piece on each side of the balance. g, the balance, made of brass or other non-magnetic metal. h, two blocks or studs raised above the face of the balance, to form the sup- ports of the compensation. k, l,m, two lamine, each curved in such a manner as to combine the joint effect produced by the primary and sec- ondary compensation-pieces shown at and ¢ of Fig. 3, the part from & to 1 (Fig. 4) corresponding to the primary compensation-piece, and that from / to m corresponding to the secondary com- pensation-piece of Fig. 3. n, two prolongations from the ends of the compensation-pieces ; of steel only. p, two compensation-weights, screwed to the prolongations z. q, four timing-weights. Having thus fully explained the principle of my primary and secondary compensation, I would remark that my invention em- braces every modification of this principle, by which the com- pensation shall diminish the distance of the compensation-weights from the junction of the laminze with the arm upon a decrease of temperature, and produce the converse upon an increase ; which is the reverse of what has generally been done in the ordinary construction of the balance. In order to adjust this balance, as regards the secondary com- pensation, if the chronometer gains at the extremes of tempera- ture, compared with the mean, the secondary compensation-piece must be shortened and the time restored, by adding to the nuts at the ends of the bar; if the chronometer loses at the extremes of temperature, the reverse operations must be resorted to. ‘The ordinary adjustments for temperature are made by sliding the weights p along the prolongations 7. 92 Dent's new Compensation Balance for Chronometers. In figures 3 and 4, the compensation-weights are represented as moving in the plane of the balance ; but I produce a similar effect by causing the compensation-weights to move in a plane passing through the axis of motion; the mode of accomplishing which may be seen in the subjoined explanations. Fig. 5, represents a balance formed according to this mode. 7, a compensation diameter bar, fixed on the balance axis; it is composed of brass and steel, the latter being nearest the compensa- tion-weights. This bar carrying a weight upon an upright rigid support, is the only compen- sating power hitherto employed in chronome- ters. s, two blocks attached to the ends of the bar, to receive the secondary compensation-pieces. t, two secondary compensation-pieces, each constituted of two pair of laminz bent into the form of staples and riveted together, with the bows lying in opposite directions, one end of the laminz being fixed upon the block s, the brass being in the insides of the sta- ples, and the steel on the outsides. _ u, two pillars fixed on the end of the upper pieces of these lamine ; to carry the weights, these pillars are furnished with screws, on which the weights turn for adjusting their heights. v, the two adjustable weights. By this arrangement the weight always moves in a line nearly parallel to the axis of the balance. On elevation of temperature, the distance between each staple is increased in height, and by this means the compensation- weight is raised from the balance-bar ; under these circumstan- ces, the augmentation thus effected by my secondary compensa- tion enables the primary compensation to carry the weight over a greater space and with accelerated velocity, towards the centre of motion; the reverse effect of course taking place on a decrease of temperature. ‘This variation of velocity to and from the centre of motion, could not possibly be brought about if the weights were placed on the before-mentioned rigid immovable supports, at the extremities of the balance-bar, as is usually done in the or- dinary balances of this construction. It may be remarked, that the bows of the secondary compen- sation-pieces may stand across the length of the bar 7, obliquely, or at any angle, without varying the perpendicularity of the mo- tion of the weights. Dent's new Compensation Balance for Chronometers. 93 Fig. 6, is a perspective view of a balance of the same kind as Fig. 5, but in this case, the continuous secondary compensation- pieces, each made in the form of one staple only, stand across the primary compensa- tion-bar at right angles; which is an essen- tial condition of this construction, because a single staple compensation will not raise the weight perpendicularly from the end of the bar; therefore the bow of the staple should be placed in a position which will raise the weight, without producing more variation in the time than is unavoidable. In order to adjust the secondary compen- sation of the balances shown in figures 4 and 5, if in excess, the staples must be shortened or thickened; and the reverse must be done, if in defect: the primary compensa- tion is adjusted, by varying the height of the weight v, on the screw wu, according to the usual practice. My patent further consists in the introduction of a remontoire- escapement into a chronometer or other portable timekeeper. ‘The remontoire-spring being wound up at regular intervals by the main-spring through the train of wheels, gives an invariable im- pulse to the balance by means of an impulse-escape-wheel. The principle of this escapement, now introduced into a chro- nometer, may be considered the same as that lately invented by G. B. Airy, Esq., Astronomer Royal, who furnished me with the drawings from which I recently constructed the first astro- nomical clock containing his escapement. Mr. Airy having generously given his invention to the public, I have adopted those parts of it which were applicable to a chro- nometer ; and have succeeded in preserving the ordinary detach- ed escapement, (which has so long and so deservedly maintained its undisputed preéminence, ) and uniting in conjunction with it such adaptations as to convert it into a remontoire-escapement for a chronometer. The result of this combination is, that a constant impulse is given to the balance by the impulse-escape-wheel, without its re- ceiving any lateral pressure from the usual train of wheels; for that of the remontoire-spring can hardly, with justice, be so called. London, Nov. 1, 1842. 94 Description of a Blind Fish from Kentucky. Arr. XI.—Description of a “ Blind Fish,” from a cave in Ken- tucky ; by Jerrries Wyman, M. D., Member of the Boston So- ciety of Natural History. THE specimen from which the following description is drawn, was presented to the Boston Society of Natural History by J. G. Anthony, Esq. of Cincinnati. It corresponds for the most part with the description of the Amblyopsis speleus, described by Dr. Dekay in the Fauna of New York, but in some particulars it differs. The specimen here described was 4; inches long, and charac- terized by a broad vertically compressed head, covered with a whitish integument entirely destitute of scales, but on it are seen numerous elevations or ridges, most abundant on the lateral por- tions ; some of them intersecting each other at right angles. The lower jaw is more prominent than the upper; no appearance of eyes; nostrils double, the anterior ones tubular, the posterior nearly circular; about ;', inch behind the preceding. Both jaws are provided with folds of skin, or lips; intermaxillaries and lower jaw armed with minute slender and slightly recurved teeth, most abundant at a short distance from median line—a group of teeth on palatines on each side; also two groups in pharynx above, and four below. Upper maxillaries concealed by integuments, and destitute of teeth. Intermaxillaries form the borders of mouth above, and extend nearly to its angles. Branchial aperture large, branchiostegous rays 6 on each side. Body covered with circular scales which terminate abruptly at the posterior limit of the head; the scales are smaller on back than on the sides, and are so enveloped in the cuticle as not to present free edges. Lateral line occupies the middle of the late- ral region, commencing under the anterior extremity of the dorsal fin, passes directly backwards. First ray of dorsal, a little poste- rior to the middle of body; anal commences a little behind the dorsal ; abdominals very small. Fin rays. Pectoral, 10; dorsal, 10, first very minute ; caudal, 17 or 18; anal, 9; abdominal, 4. Anus very far forwards, about 2, inch behind the angle form- ed by the union of branchial membranes. Description of a Blind Fish from Kentucky. 95 Alimentary canal; entire length less than that of the body. (Esophagus very short; stomach cylindrical, terminating posterior- ly in a short triangular cul de sac, the point of which reaches the posterior limit of the cavity of the abdomen. Stomach contract- ed, and mucous membrane thrown into longitudinal folds. Py- lorus situated near posterior extremity of stomach; has a distinct valve which projects into cavity of duodenum; two short pyri- form cecal appendages, open by distinct orifices on opposite sides of intestine. Mucous membrane of small intestine arranged in reticulated cells, which become less distinct towards termina- tion. Length of small intestine 14 inches; of large intestine $ inch ; the two separated by a distinct valve. Liver consists of two lobes; left extending nearly whole length of abdominal cavity, right very short. Gall-bladder distinct. Air bladder cordiform, deeply cleft anteriorly. Brain ; from anterior extremity of olfactory lobes to posterior portion of cerebellum, 0.24 inch. Olfactory lobes in contact with and just in front of cerebral hemisphere, of slightly pyri- form shape, and giving off large olfactory nerves. Cerebral lobes, nearly spherical, slightly compressed on median line, where the right and left unite. Optic lobes much smaller than preceding, and partly concealed by the cerebellum. Cerebellum nearly spherical, slightly divided on median line, giving it a somewhat cordiform appearance. Fourth ventricle completely exposed, and widely open. Posterior pyramidal bodies distinct, projecting over the cavity of the ventricle near its middle. External to these last arise the branchio-gastric nerves. Auditory sacs large; ampulle of semicircular canals containing otolites, one of which is of a trapezoidal shape, and nearly equalling in size one of the cerebral hemispheres. 'The inferior optic lobes, “lobi inferiores,” very small, not larger than a pin’s head; in front of them rests the pituitary body. No optic nerve was found. Branchio-gastric and fifth pairs of nerves of the usual size. Internally the nostrils consist of an ovoidal cavity, , inch in longest diameter; olfactory membrane arranged in seven folds or digitations of unequal length, and radiating from a point in the anterior portion of the cavity. At the anterior extremity of this cavity is a small orifice opening into a blind sac or canal, which passes at first directly backwards and then ascends upon the up- 96 On the Adverbial G'enitive Case in English. per surface of the cranium. On the most careful dissection no traces of eyes were found. From the above description it appears that this fish, inhabiting a dark cavern, is reduced, as regards its organs of vision, to a much more imperfect condition than the Proteus anguinus, inhabiting the subterranean caverns of Illyria, or the common mole, in both of which eyes exist, although of a microscopic size. Dr. — Dekay has placed this fish among the Siluride; though, as he distinctly states, only provisionally. ‘The presence of scales and cecal appendages to the pylorus, as well as the absence of cirrhi about the mouth, would seem to indicate feeble affinities with the Siluride. The parts entering into the composition of the brain, when compared with those of the Pimelodus, present many differences in the size and proportions. Its true affinities cannot be well determined until an opportunity shall be afforded by fu- ture dissections for the examination of its osteology. Art. XII.—On the Adverbial Genitive Case in English; by Prof. J. W. Guess. THE genitive case in English is usually regarded as altogether adnominal, i. e. as used only in connection with a noun. Hence the only rule in our common grammars concerning this ease is, that it is governed by a substantive, either expressed, or implied by the context. In the other Teutonic dialects, however, this case is also used adverbially, i. e. in connection with a verb, and that to indicate various relations. This adverbial use of the gen- itive, although generally overlooked, and often misunderstood, may be shown to exist also in English in several classes of words. I. This genitive is found in a few substantives, and that with- out any preposition preceding. 1. Needs, (Old Eng. nedes, needes;) of or from necessity. Thus, 7 Soche thinges muste nedes be.— Tyndale, 1534. Mark 13: 7. I must needes goe forth and see it.—Ahemish Version: Luke 14: 18. | He will needs be a judge.—Gen. 19: 9. Needs here is the genitive-of need. Comp. Anglo-Sax. nedes or nydes, of necessity, composed of ned or nyd, necessity, and es, the termination of the genitive singular masculine. On the Adverbial Genitive Case in English. oe 2. Ways, in noways, straightways, otherways, longways, side- ways. Ways here is the genitive of way. Comp. Germ. keines weges, noways, genitive of keiner weg; gerades weges, straightways, genitive of gerader weg. Note.—Ways in always is probably plural. Comp. Anglo-Sax. ealle wega, in all ways, the adjective ealle and the substantive wega being both in the accusative plural. 3. Gates, in Old English othergates, in another manner. Thus, If Sir Toby had not been in drink, he would have tickled you othergates than he did.—Shaksp. Gates here is the genitive of gate, 1. q. gait, way, manner. Comp. Scott. thus gatis, after this manner, both words being in the genitive singular. Note.— Gates in algates is probably plural. Comp. Anglo-Sax. algeats ; also Scott. mony gatis, in various ways; also always supra. A. Times in sometimes, at one time. Here dimes is the genitive of ¢zme. Note.— Times in sometimes, at some times or intervals, is plural. II. This genitive is found in some substantives with a prepo- sition preceding. 1. Adays, (Old Eng. adayes, alates ,) in or on day, 1. e. by day. ‘Thus, Aday when hyt is lygt.—Syr Launfal. So in the phrase now adays. Days here is the genitive of day. Comp. Anglo-Sax. deges, by day, genitive of deg, day ; Germ. dags, by day, genitive of dag, day. Note.—The idea that days is plural, seems sometimes to have affected its use. Thus, : What men of spirit now adays, Come to give sober judgment of new plays ?— Garrick. 2. Anights, in or on night, i. e. at night. ‘Thus, I bid him take that for coming anights.—Shaksp. Such as sleepe anights.—Shaksp. Nights here is the genitive of night. Comp. Anglo-Sax. nihtes, Germ. nachts, by night, where s, or es, is the termination of the genitive singular masculine. 3. Besides, (Old Eng. bisidis,) by the side, over and above. Thus, In that dai Jhesus ghede out of the hous, and sate bisidis the see.— Wiclif: Mat. 13: 1. Vol. xtv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 13 98 On the Adverbial Genitive Case in English. Sides here is the genitive of side. Comp. Germ. beiseits, aside, where s is the termination of the genitive singular masculine. A, Ships, in midships, amidships, thwartships, athwartships, is the genitive of shzp. III. This genitive is found in a few adjectives, either with or without a preposition preceding. 1. Askance, obliquely. Comp. Dutch schwins, obliquely, where s is the genitive termination. 2. Soons in Old English eftsones or eftsoons, soon afterwards, compounded of Anglo-Sax. eft, afterwards, and sones, soon. ‘Thus, Moyses eftsones resorting to Damascus.— Grower. Crying eftsoons alowd.—Holland. Fiftsoons the father of the silver flood.— Thompson. Soons here is the genitive of soon. Comp. Anglo-Sax. sones, with the termination of the genitive. 3. Unawares, or at unawares, (Old Eng. unwares ;) unexpect- edly. ‘Thus, That daye come on you wnwares.— Tyndale: Luke 21: 34. Jacob stole away unawares to Laban.—Gen. 31: 10. Let destruction come upon him at wnawares.—Ps. 35: 8. Unawares here is the genitive of unaware. Comp. Anglo- Sax. wnawares, which is in the genitive. 4. Wards, in inwards, outwards, towards, fromwards, onwards, upwards, downwards, forwards, backwards, afterwards, side- wards, hitherwards, homewards. Wards here is the genitive of ward, Lat. versus. Comp. Goth. andvairthis, jaindvairths, vithravairths. Old Germ. inwertes, uzwertes, anawertes, heimwartes. Germ. einwarts, auswarts, ab- warts, aufwarts, unterwarts, niederwarts, vorwarts, ruckwirts, seitwarts, herwarts, thalwarts. Anglo-Sax. wteweardes, towardes or Zoweardes, upweardes, fromweardes, hameweardes. The termination s in these examples from the kindred dialects is evidently the sign of the genitive case. IV. This genitive is found in some numerals. 1. Once, (Old Eng. onys, oonys, onis ;) one time, formerly. Thus, For and thy wyfe may onys aspye.—Poem in the time of Hen- ry I. He was deed oonys.— Wiclif: Rom. 6: 10. Once here is the genitive of one. Comp. Dutch eens, once, On the Adverlial Genitive Case in English. 99 genitive of een, one; Old Germ. eines, genitive of ein, one ; Germ. einst, (for eines, ) formerly. 2. Twice, (Old Eng. twies, twyes,) two times. Thus, As presente twies— Wiclif: 2 Cor. 13: 2. Twyes is somer in that lond.—Kyng Alisaunder. Twice here is the genitive of two. 3. Thrice, (Old Eng. thries, thryse,) three times. Thus, Thries 1 was betun.— Wiclif: 2 Cor. 11: 25. ‘Thou shalte denye me thryse.— Bible, 1551. Thrice here is the genitive of three. VY. This genitive is found in some pronouns. 1. Else, (Old Eng. elles, ellys, ellis, els ; Scott. ellis ;) otherwise. Elles wyder.—R. Gloucester. Let honge me edlys.—Piers Plouhman. Ellis ye schuln have no mede at youre fadir that is in hev- enes.— Wiclif: Mat. 6: 1. Or els ye get no rewarde of youre father which is in heven.— Tyndale: Mat. 6: 1. All that els I saw.— Spenser. Hilse here is the genitive of the root of Gr. didoc, Lat. alius, Goth. as. Comp. Anglo-Sax. elles, Old Germ. alies, clies, alles, allas, ellies, Dan. ellers ; in all which forms s is the termination of the genitive. 2. Hence, (Old Eng. hennes, hennis, hens ; also han, henne ;) from this place. Holynesse and love han ben longe hennes.—Piers Plouhman. Passe thou hennes.— Wiclif: Mat. 17 : 20. Ye schulen not se me fro hennes forthe.— Wiclif : Mat. 23: 39. Hens over a mile.—Chaucer. lence here probably has the termination of the genitive. Comp. Anglo-Sax. heona, (Lat. hinc, Provence. hereance ;) Germ. hinnen. 3. Thence, (Old Eng. thennes, thennis, thens ;) from that place. And he ghede out fro thennes.— Wiclif: Mark 6: 1. They thennes went.—Chaucer. From thensforth.—Chaucer. Thence here probably has the termination of the genitive. Comp. Anglo-Sax. thanan ; Germ. dannen ; Proveng. thereance. 4. Whence, (Old Eng. whennes, whethence ;) from what place. Of whennes to this, alle these thingis—Wiclif: Mark 6: 2. 100 On the Adverbial Genitive Case in English. From whens hath he these thinges ?— T'yndale : Mark 6: 2. Whens that she came.— Gower. Whence here probably has the termination of the genitive. Comp. Anglo-Sax. hwonan, hwanon, Old Germ. hwanan, Germ. wannen. 5. Since, (Old Eng. sens, sence, sithence, sithens ;) from the time. How longe is it a goo, sens this hath happened him ?—Tyn- dale: Mark 9: 21. For sence the fathers dyed, all thinges continue.— Tyndale : 2 Retys: 4: And therefore sithence the bishop of Rome will now adaies be so called.—Jewell. For sithens shootinge was neglected.— Ascham. Sithence the verie apostles owne times.— Hooker. Before or sithence.— Hooker. Since here probably has the termination of the genitive. Comp. Anglo-Sax. sithen, siththan, syththan ; Dutch sinds ; Germ. seit. 6. Thus, (Old Eng. this ;) in this manner. He hath lain this long at great costes and charges and canne not have hys matter come to the hearynge.—Latimer, 1562. “ Thus much” for “this much.”— Webster. Thus here is the genitive of the or that. Compare Anglo-Sax. thus, thes; Dutch dus. The Anglo-Sax. thes, this, is the gen- itive singular masculine and neuter of se, theo, that. VI. This genitive is found in some words, in which s the sign of the genitive is now hardened into st. 1. Against, (Old Eng. agens, ageins ;) in opposition to. He that is not with me: is agens me.—Wiclif: Mat. 12: 30. Ageins nature.—Chaucer. Against here is probably the genitive case of an old noun, whose meaning cannot be exactly defined. Comp. Anglo-Sax. to-geanes, to-genes, to-gegnes, to-gegnes, Dutch tegens. ‘These Anglo-Saxon and Dutch forms commence with a different prefix, but have the genitive termination. Note.—The convenient distinction made in English between again and against does not exist in the other dialects. 2. Alongst, (obsolete, see Dr. Webster; Old Eng. alongest ; Scott. dangis ;) by the length. To sayle alongest by the lande.—Nicolls : Thucyd. 1550. On the Adverbial Genitive Case in English. 101 Alongst the sea-coast.—Knolles. Langis the ryvere of Anien.— Douglas: Virgil. Alongst here is the genitive case of long. Comp. Germ. lings, along; Old Germ. danges, and Germ. lingst,a long time; Dutch onlangs, recently, Jangs, along; Swed. lengs, along. 3. Amidst, in the midst or middle-—See Midst. 4. Amongst, (Old Eng. amanges, amonges, amongest ; Scott. amangis, amangys ;) in the crowd. To halden amanges yeu ine hord.—Old English Letter of the year 1258. Amonges other of his honest thinges.—Chaucer. I stonde as one amongest all.— Gower. Amangys thame.—WScott. Acts, 1567. Amongst here is probably the genitive case of an old noun, denoting a crowd or multitude. 5. Atwizt, (obsolete, see Dr. Webster, ) between.—See Betwizt. Great love was atwizt hem two.—Chaucer. With dreadful thunder and lightning atwirt.—Spenser. 6. Awhilst, (not in Webster, nor in Richardson.) See Whilst. 7. Betwixt, (Old Eng. bituer, bytwizxe, betwix, bitwixen, by- twyx, byiwyt, betwyx ; Scott. betweesh ;) between. Bituer them.—R. Brunne. Bytwize us and you.— Wichf: Luke 16: 26. Betwiz all maner folk.—Chaucer. This was the forward pleinly t’ endite, Bitwizen Theseus and him Arcite.— Chaucer. Betwizt here is the genitive case of an old noun signifying two. Compare. Anglo-Sax. betweohs, betweox, betwux, betwucxt, betwizt. 8. Midst, in the phrases amidst, about the midst, from the midst, in the midst, into the midst, of the midst, out of the midst, through the midst, etc. (Old Eng. myddes, myddest, myds, middes, middest, mids ; Scott. myddis ;) the middle. In the myddes of the world.—R. Gloucester. Yet was he caught amiddes all his pride.-—Chaucer. And the vayle of the temple dyd rent even thorow the myddes. —Tyndale: Luke 23: 45. Which is in the myddes of the paradice of God.— Tyndale : Rev. 2: 7. The shippe was now in the mddes of the see.— Tyndale : Mat. 14: 24. 102 Phosphate of Lime in the Virginia Meteoric Stone. For lykewise as God is in the myds of the good counsayle, so in the myddest of an evyl counsayl, is ther undoutedly the dyvel.—Sir T. Moore. When Calidora ‘ Him overtook in mzddest of his race.—Spenser : Faerie Queene. Among the maddest crowd.—WSpenser. And the vaile of the temple was rent in the mids.— Original - Edition of King James’s Bible: Luke 23: 45. Which is in the mddest of the paradise of God.—Original Edition of King James’s Bible: Rev. 2: 7. In myddis of the land.— Wyntown. Midst is rarely used as a nominative, or as an accusative with- out a preposition. Midst here is the genitive case of mid, the middle. Comp. Anglo-Sax. to-middes, where middes is the genitive of Anglo- Sax. midd, the middle; Germ. mttelst, by means of, for mites, the genitive of Germ. mttel, the middle or means. Note.—Dr. Webster supposes st in midst to be the sign of the superlative degree. So Sir John Stoddart, art. Grammar, in Encyc. Metrop. p. 129. 9. Whilst, awhilst ; (Old Eng. whiles, whilest ; Scott. quhiles, whiles ;) while. Wat sholde we women, worche the whiles.— Piers Plouhman. Whuilest good men wanted it.—Beaumont and Fletcher. Whiles he tasted the wine.—Some Editions of King James’s Bible: Daniel 5: 2. Quhiles wandering, quhiles dandring.—Burel’s Pilg. Whulst here is the genitive case of while, time. Note.—On the st generally, comp. Germ. nebst, (from neben, nebens ;) anders and anderst ; selbst, (Old Germ. selbs, Dutch zelfs.) Arr. XIII.—On Phosphate of Lime (Apatite), in the Virginia Meteoric Stone; by CHartes UrHam Sueparp, M. D., Prof. of Chemistry in the Medical College of the State of S. Carolina. M. Rumuer, in a recent number of Poccenporrr,* in enume- rating certain ingredients in meteorites, after the mention of phos- * Ueber die bei Jwan, in Oedenburger Comitate Ungarns,.am 10. August Abends zwischen 9 und 10 Uhr aus der Luft gefallenen und fiir Meteorsteine ganz neuer Art. ausgegebenen Korner: von Karl Rumler, Kustos-Adjuncten am k. k. Hof-Mineralien-Kabinette zu Wien, s. 279. Annalen der Physik und Chemie von Poggendorff, Band tiv, Stuck 2, 1841. Phosphate of Lime in the Virginia Meteoric Stone. 103 phoric acid, adds, ‘‘for Sueparn’s discovery of this acid in the meteoric stone of Richmond, is still doubtful, (denn SuHEeparn’s Entdeckung dieser Satire in Meteorsteine von Richmond ist noch zweifelhaft).” Although this observation occasioned in me no surprise, since I had stated at the conclusion of my remarks on the mineral,* my regret “that the smallness of the quantity, pre- vented me from making still further experiments by means of which my conclusion concerning its nature might have been ren- dered certain,” still it determined me to make new trials for pla- cing the subject if possible, beyond dispute. Through the kindness of Prof. Sirtiman, who possesses nearly the whole of the Richmond stone, I was permitted to detach a fresh fragment which brought into view several points of the yellow mineral in question. 'The most perfect of these, having the size of half of a pin’s head, was crushed to powder on a small piece of clean platinum foil, previously fitted to the bottom of an agate mortar. ‘The foil with the crushed mineral thereon, was then shaped into a little cup, and a freshly cut piece of potassium pressed into it, so as to be in immediate contact with the powder. The platinum cup and its contents were then forced to the bottom of atest tube (4 of an inch in diameter and 24 long); and after heating the tube in contact with a live coal, untila slight flash of light was witnessed in the platinum cup, a few drops of water were let fall into the tube. On holding the open end of the tube beneath the nose, a distinct odor of phosphuretted hydrogen was recognized. A few drops of dilute nitric acid were subsequently added; and after digestion for a few moments and neutralization by ammonia, oxalate of ammonia threw down an evident precipitate. The foregoing experiment clearly establishes the presence of phosphoric acid in the mineral; and the precipitate with oxa- late of ammonia, taken with all the circumstances detailed in my mineralogical account of the substance, leave scarcely a doubt of its being combined with lime, in the form of phosphate of lime. Charleston, S. C., March 18, 1843. * See Vol. xvi, p. 199, of this Journal. 104 Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the Art. XIV.—On the Analogies between the Modern Igneous Rocks and the so-called Primary Formations, and the Meta- morphic changes produced by heat in the associated sedimen- tary deposits ; by James D. Dana, Geologist of the late U. 8. Exploring Expedition. [Read before the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists at Albany, April 26th, 1843, and published by their authority.] Tux conclusions to which I arrive in the remarks that follow, are the result of observations made by me in the course of the cruise of the Exploring Expedition. In illustrating the subject, I have drawn but little upon the facts of the Expedition, as these are by authority reserved for the government publications now in process of preparation. I would however state, to justify myself against the imputation of haste in my generalization, that the regions offered for examination during the cruise, were of varied charac- ter and unusual interest; that the Andes of Chili and Peru, the mountains and plains of Oregon, the coral, basaltic and volcanic islands of the Pacific, and the regions of sandstone, coal and ba- salt in New South Wales, and portions of New Zealand, have all contributed to these results, offering rocks for examination of all ages from the burning lavas and forming coral rocks to the deep- seated granite and the associated schists; and there are scarcely any of these different formations which do not furnish something in elucidation of the subject under discussion. 'This may possi- bly be deemed sufficient to acquit me of presumption if I dare to differ from some names high in authority. I would disclaim ever having been actuated by a desire to seek out novel facts or novel principles, being satisfied that the common things which meet the eye, are more replete with instruction than the unusual and strange which only create surprise. The principles in view bear upon the metamorphic theory of Mr. Lyell, and they have been deduced by comparing the Pluto- nic rocks—the various granites and associated schistose forma- tions—with igneous rocks of all ages down to the modern lavas, together with their effects upon sedimentary strata. It will hence appear that although I may dissent from some of Mr. Lyell’s views, I am still carrying out his grand fundamental canon, that existing causes explain past. phenomena, than which nothing has done more to advance and elevate the science of geology. Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 105 I shall endeavor to establish Ist, That the schistose structure of gneiss and mica slate, is no satisfactory evidence of a sedimentary origin ; 2d, That some granites with no trace of a schistose structure, may have had a sedimentary origin ; 3d, That heat producing the changes that are termed metamor- phic, was not applied from beneath by conduction from some in- ternal source-of heat; on the contrary it was applied through the waters of the ocean, covering and permeating the deposits which received their high temperature from the eruption itself. In other words, the metamorphic rocks so called are not hypogene, as explained by Mr. Lyell, but—to use corresponding phraseol- ogy—epigene, or analogous to other rock formations, deposited and solidified on the surface of the earth. The argument for the sedimentary origin of gneiss, mica slate, etc., is based upon the assumption that known igneous rocks do not assume a schistose structure. But this is far from true, for the descriptions of most volcanic regions mention the occurrence of laminated trachytes, basalts and porphyries. It is by no means unusual to find basalts and basaltic lavas with parallel lines of lamination, sometimes appearing only after being weathered, and at others so distinct as to admit of easy cleavage. ‘This takes place both in massive and columnar basalt. At the Cape Verds, on the shores just below the town of St. Jago, the columns are gradually falling to pieces, owing to an exfoliation of the summit, from which curved plates separate easily, usually from a fourth to half an inch thick. Such instances, which are not uncommon, are imputed to a concentric structure. ‘This is no doubt true, but the concentric structure is but one mode of crystallization, and erys- tallization as we believe, is the cause of the schistose structure in all igneous rocks. Massive basaltic lavas splitting into straight laminee an inch or so thick, are met with at the Sandwich Islands. Laminated or slaty trachytes are too well known to require more than a mere allusion to them. The structure is far more thinly schistose than any gneiss, and often nearly as much so as many mica schists. Laminated porphyry is described by Prof. Em- mons as occurring at Cannon’s Point in northern New York, which splits into plates from a fourth to an inch in thickness. A schistose structure then is certainly no evidence that the rock was not originally igneous; and if we consider how exactly this Vol. xtv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 14 106) Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the structure corresponds with the constitution of the rock and pro- ceeds from its mineral composition, we shall see farther reason for rejecting this assumption. The general principle upon which this structure depends, appears to be simply this:—An igneous rock is in general more or less schistose or slaty, according to the cleavability of its constituent minerals. It is one of the general principles of crystallography, that when crystals of any mineral, form simultaneously, they tend to assume parallel positions. Faces of like cleavage lie in the same direction. No one can have glanced his eye over a druse of crystals, without being struck with the successive flashes of light that sparkle over the surface as its position is changed; and if he has observed attentively, he has perceived that a similar face in each of the crystals reflects simul- taneously, and thus produces this beautiful effect. ‘This is an instance of that parallelism in the position of crystals to which I have alluded. ‘The same parallelism takes place in mineral aggre- gates, such as basalt or granite. Basalt is often described as hav- ing a regular cleavage and its columns as crystals. There is no proper analogy between the forms assumed by mineral ageregates and crystals; for such mixed compounds cannot crystallize as a whole. Each constituent mineral of basalt or granite crystallizes independently, and one or the other, according to that which pre- dominates, impresses its cleavage upon the rock, or at least gov- ers it to some extent in its fractures. ‘The common cleavage of granite illustrates these facts. ‘The rock consists of quartz, feld- spar and mica—the first has no cleavage and the last yields in quantity to the feldspar, which is therefore the mineral upon which the cleavage of, the rock depends. The unequal rectangular planes of fracture in granite rock known by every quarryman, correspond therefore, as has been before suggested, with the cleav- ages of the contained feldspar. If we examine the various igneous rocks with reference to this principle, we shall find them supporting it throughout. Basalt consisting of feldspar and augite, and generally more or less chry- solite, is usually like granite, one of the uncleavable igneous rocks, or possesses it but indistinctly. Hither of these minerals may determine the lines of fracture producing the columnar structure. In New South Wales, my attention was directed to a bed of what was called mica slate, overlying basalt. In hand-specimens it could hardly be distinguished from a rusty decomposing mica Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 107 slate, but on examination at the locality, it proved to be nothing but decomposed basalt. The chrysolite, which was very indis- tinctly seen in the basalt itself, had become stained with iron through partial decomposition, and was split into thin scales, and the whole deposit had received, in consequence, the foliated struc- ture of mica slate. ‘This foliation had taken place parallel with the top of the bed of basalt—a semicolumnar variety —and seemed to evince that the crystals of chrysolite, while forming, assumed parallel positions as above explained, with the face of most perfect cleavage horizontal. ‘The compact basalt could be chipped off with the hammer more easily at right angles with the columns than in other directions. ‘The chrysolite therefore, was in this case the mineral on which the cleavage depended. In instances of what are called concentric structure, the cause is the same. ‘The mineral upon which the concentric lamination depends, lies with its plane of most perfect cleavage, coincident with the plane of lamination. In slaty trachytes, the lamination may often be distinctly traced to the feldspar or crystals of hornblende or mica. Large crystals of glassy feldspar, often lie in the plane of lamination, beautifully illustrating these principles. ‘The hexagonal tables of mica have the same position, and when abundant, it produces the most slaty irachytes that are known. A fine illustration of the whole series of rocks from granite to mica slate, is presented by an extinct vol- cano in the Sacramento Plains, in Upper California. Much of the rock resembles granite or gneiss—although properly a trachytic porphyry. It consists of large crystals of glassy feldspar, dissem- inated thickly through a greyish base, which is speckled with small black crystals of hornblende and mica. In another part of this extinct voleano, the rock breaks into laminz a third of an inch thick, and contains tables of mica lying as usual in the plane of fracture, while the feldspar is in very small crystals, imbedded in a compact feldspathic base. We might cite examples from the volcanic regions of Europe, but what has been already said, appears sufficient to establish the fact that modern igneous rocks are laminated, and in general, more or less so according to the quantity and cleavability of the cleavable minerals they contain. Mica, the most perfectly foliated mineral, produces when abundant, and when not overruled by the other constituents, the most perfectly laminated rock. 108 Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the If these principles are applied to granitic or ancient Plutonic rocks, including the associated schists, we may explain all their peculiarities of structure without other aid. In common granite the feldspar predominates much over the mica, and fixes the di- rection of its cleavage planes. Gneiss which contains more mica, has both the cleavage of mica and feldspar, the former at right angles with the latter. ‘The mica was so abundant that the form- ing crystals felt that mutual influence, which causes them to take _ parallel or homologous positions, and so by arranging itself in planes, gave rise to that appearance of stratification which distin- guishes gneiss from granite. In mica slate, the feldspar is whol- ly subordinate to the mica, and the structure is very distinctly foliated, almost like mica itself. A very little mica with quartz in grains, produces a rock with a micaceous structure, because quartz has no cleavage of its own. Hornblende rocks, from syenite to hornblende slate, form a par- allel series to the above, explained on the same principles. But as hornblende is less easily cleavable than mica, so hornblende slate is just so much less cleavable than mica slate. We hence conclude, and not without reason, that the schistose structure of these rocks results from their constitution, and that a fine-grained granite with the amount of mica in mica slate, could no more exist without a foliated structure, than mica itself could crystallize in blocks like feldspar. We may derive another argument on this subject from the metamorphic theory itself, which supposes that gneiss and mica slate were once beds of clay or argillaceous sandstone. Judging from the nature of such deposits—say, for example, those of the carbonaceous era—we should never believe that the elements of mica contained in them, lie in alternating layers, and in so thin alternations as mica presents in micaceous rocks. It is far more probable, if the rock be considered an altered clay, that the mica, when crystallizing, sought out its own positions upon the crystal- lographic principles already explained, and the same result would — take place, and a rock equally foliaceous be formed, whether the beds of clay were stratified or compact. Not to delay longer on this branch of the subject, I proceed with my second proposition, that some granites may have had a metamorphic origin. Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 109 In the remarks which have been made, I have no where deni- ed that gneiss and mica slate may not sometimes be metamorphic, but have endeavored to show merely that their stratiform struc- ture is no evidence of it. ‘There is reason to believe that some of them are altered sedimentary deposits, and to these we may add, with as much reason, some granites. It has been shown that the foliated structure of mica slate is the result of crystallization, whether metamorphic in its origin or not. If then certain clayey deposits are so constituted as to form, when heated, a large amount of mica, and give rise to mica slate— others to form less and produce a gneiss—may there not have been other deposits which should have assumed under the trans- forming heat the irregular structure of granite? But without lay- ing much stress on this kind of reasoning, let us appeal to modern igneous formations for analogies. In basaltic, porphyritic, trachytic and recent volcanic regions, there often occur deposits of argillaceous sandrocks of great extent, which have been derived from these igneous formations. ‘The basaltic sandrock—called wacke or tufa—frequently so resembles basalt in structure and appearance, that the observer hesitates long before he decides upon its nature, and is not fully satisfied, till he ean discern in some part of the formation, an imbedded pebble to assure him of its derivative origin. ‘The only peculiarity it pre- sents is a more earthy texture, but this belongs to some true ba- salts. I have met with such a rock in Oregon. ‘The Andes are full of similar deposits, both of basaltic, greenstone and porphyri- tic origin, and often the closest examination is required to distin- cuish these sedimentary formations. They consist solely of earth or sand, of basaltic or porphyritic origin, which has been rehard~ ened through volcanic action, and thus made to resume the com- pactness that belonged to the parent rock. Much of the so-called porphyry of the Andes is a porphyry sandrock, or a sedimentary rock of porphyry origin. It is as hard and firm in its texture as true porphyry, atrachytic variety of which it much resem- bles; moreover small crystals of feldspar are thickly disseminated through it, and aid in the deception. Were it not that an occa- sional pebble may be detected on the weathered surface, no one could doubt its being actually an igneous rock. If sedimentary rocks of porphyry and basaltic origin may be so remodeled or rehardened by heat, as to be scarcely distinguishable 110 Mr. Dana on the Analosies between the from the parent rock, may not the same be true of sedimentary deposits of granitic origin? Does not analogy therefore author- ize the conclusion that granite rocks may be metamorphic as well as gneiss and mica slate ? The nodules of syenite, granite, &c., found in granite, Rents long been a puzzle to geologists. ‘They are imputed to the pow- er of segregation, and many are no doubt due to this cause—at least those which by their concentric structure, show that they. were formed by crystallization around a centre. But there are others without a trace of a concentric structure, of rounded and cobble-stone shapes, like the stones or boulders of the roads and fields. Why are they not imbedded stones or boulders? and why do they not prove that the granite which contains them is as much a metamorphic granite, as'the pebbles in a porphyry bed prove it to be a metamorphic porphyry? ‘The proof is at least more sat- isfactory than can be derived from a stratiform structure. The granitic materials have been subjected to a higher heat than the porphyritic, and to this we impute the more perfect re- sumption of the features belonging to the parent igneous rock. It may be remarked that a running lava stream sometimes in- cludes pebbles or boulders that may lie in its course. But these are rare and there is no danger of being led astray by such isola- ted cases. Our argument thus far appears to have established these princi- ples: that mica slate, gneiss and granite may be igneous rocks or they may be metamorphic rocks, and that the action of heat pro- ducing the metamorphic changes has been so effectual in some instances as to disguise entirely their derivative origin. 'T’o the rocks enumerated, the associated formations of syenite, protogine, talcose rock, argillite, 6c. should be added, as they are part of one and the same series and come under the same general laws. It has always been difficult to determine what place should be assigned to gneissoid granite—whether with granite as a purely igneous rock, or with gneiss as a metamorphic rock. But these views if true, show that the gneissoid or stratiform structure is no evidence of a deposit origin, and the question can no longer be, whether it should be associated with gneiss or granite. ‘The na- ture of each is to be settled independently. It may be said that we place things in more doubt than they were before. It is ad- mitted. 'The more reason for doubt we know, the better, if they Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 111 actually exist, for there is little satisfaction and little profit in arriving at conclusions that are false. But before my remarks are closed, I shall hope that some of these doubts may be removed. I proceed next to the third point before us—that the heat pro- ducing metamorphic changes, has been applied through the wa- ters heated by the eruption itself. It isa little surprising that this cause of change in rocks should have been so generally dis- regarded or rejected, by the geologists of the day. It bears a slight tinge of Wernerism, and this may be its repulsive feature. One of our own most distinguished geologists, Prof. Silliman, first brought forward its claims, and urged them with conclusive arguments in the geological discourse appended to the American edition of Bakewell’s Geology. Prof. Silliman has drawn his ar- guments from what is believed to have been the condition of the globe while the granite rocks were forming. I shall pursue far- ther the same mode of reasoning, and deduce other evidences from the analogies which may be found in regions of acknowl- edged igneous action. Mr. Lyell in his metamorphic theory, treating of formations remote in origin from our own era and the present order of things, has necessarily indulged more freely in hypothesis than is to be found elsewhere in his geological writings. If any well-ascer- tained facts could be pointed to as a basis for his hypothesis, it might be received with less caution than it now demands. But in truth there are no changes Ixnown to be in progress of the char- acter supposed, and although possible, analogies do not authorize us to consider them by any means probable. How is it in active volcanoes? Lavas may be heated to a red heat within a yard of the surface and still be so cool above, that the bare foot may walk upon them. ‘'T'o produce metamorphic changes in a deposit a hundred feet thick, the whole must consequently be in a state of fusion, or the upper crust will not be done through. We all know how small a thickness of fire-brick it requires to confine the heat of the hottest furnace. And if, as we believe, the heat attending granite eruptions far exceeded common volcanic temperature, our conclusions are still the same. The excessive heat in a furnace first fuses the inner surface, or the inner bricks, and thus by melt- ing its way along, slowly commences a change on the outer row, and. three inches only may intervene, between the heat of fusion and the temperature which does not pain the hand. 1 . Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the These views are further sustained by the action of heat on the walls of dykes. In subaerial eruptions of recent volcanic regions, the effect is usually slight; sometimes none is apparent, and at the most only for a few feet. When streams of lava have over- flowed. tufas, it has baked them only for one or two feet and per- haps altered the color to red, for one or two feet more; but be- yond this, it is seldom that any effect is perceived. Clay will in- sulate the fused rock as completely in nature as when moulded into the shape of a furnace. ‘The same effect must take place under water, except such modifications as may arise from heating the ocean itself, and the waters transfused through the stratified deposits; but these belong to the theory which I shall endeavor to sustain. ‘The pressure of an ocean upon the erupted lavas, will not vary the result. Heat cannot be conducted to any extent except by fusing its way along, and in order to bake the rocks for twenty yards from a dyke by conduction alone, the first fifteen at least must be in a state of complete fusion. ‘There are numer- ous examples of alterations in rocks to a greater distance than this; but how few of them give indications that the walls of the dyke, have been in fusion even for one yard? But if the surrounding and permeating waters are heated at the time of a submarine eruption the heat may then be conveyed to great distances, and rocks may be discolored, baked or recrystal- lized, according to the temperature or extent and depth of the eruption. That waters are heated by submarine eruptions, is a matter of observation. Dead fishes thrown up on the shores after eruptions are proofs of it. But it is needless to waste words upon this point, for we know that water and fire cannot come in contact without this effect. It isevident too that the amount of heat imparted to the waters, will depend on the extent of the eruption, on the time of its continuance, and more especially on the pressure of the ocean above. For the dense waters at great depths require a high temperature for ebullition. To produce boiling the superincumbent waters must be so rais- ed in temperature, that the vapor formed below, may pass up through it and escape ; or in other words, ebullition will not take place till the heat be so raised, throughout the whole by commu- nication from below, that the surface shall stand at 212° Fahr. At no very great depth, hence, the waters might be raised to the Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 113 heat of ignition before ebullition will begin, and if the leaden waters of a deep ocean—for experiment as well as theory assures us of its great density—are for days in contact with the opened fires of submarine volcanoes, we can scarcely fix a limit to the temperature which they would necessarily receive. Why may they not be open for days and weeks? Why not hot springs in incessant action at the bottom of an ocean, as well as on our con- tinents; and in the early times of violent igneous action might they not have poured out floods in intense ignition, exceeding by no little in extent and temperature the bubbling fountains of the present day? And if, as is believed, the ocean had in early times a higher temperature than now, the effects supposed would be the more easily produced. We cannot doubt then, that here is heat sufficient to produce all the changes presented by the metamorphic rocks—heat enough to remould granite itself. In the words of Prof. Silliman, “we can see no reason for excluding water and other dissolving agents, acting with intense energy under vast pressure, and at the heat of even high ignition, from playing a very important part in erys- tallization ;” and he continues by remarking that the metamor- phic rocks of Lyell may thus have been crystallized. The facts observed in the vicinity of dykes are well accounted for on these principles. Numerous instances of altered rocks might be cited from foreign publications; but our own country furnishes them in great numbers and of unusual interest. Remarkable changes are described by Prof. H. D. Rogers, (Rep. N. J. p. 149,) as occurring at Rocky Hill, New Jersey, adjoining an extensive dyke of trap. The effects of heat in baking or hardening the intersected sandstone are distinct for a fourth of a mile from the dyke, beyond which the rock resumes its soft slaty structure and deep red color. Fifty feet from the trap, the sand- stone is filled with various crystalline matters, which render it very unequal in texture and hardness. About one hundred feet off, the rock is a compact reddish or purplish sandstone, somewhat argil- laceous, and is full of dark kernels or nodules of the size of a pea or less; one thin bed in the stratum contains small irregular cav- ities studded with crystals of tourmaline. The upper part of the same stratum is less altered in appearance but contains kernels of pure epidote, which continue to characterize the rock for a quarter of a mile, and at a quarry this distance off, besides the epidotic Vol. xiv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 15 114 Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the kernels there is a narrow band of nearly pure epidote about an inch and a half thick. Many other similar examples are minutely described by Prof. Rogers in the same highly interesting report. In one, where the sandstone was altered to the same distance—about one fourth of a mile—the altered rock within fifty yards of the dyke, contained thickly disseminated crystals of tourmaline, some of them half an inch in diameter. It is surely impossible that by conduction alone the heat of the ejected dyke should have been conveyed to so great a distance from the dyke, and in such a degree as to produce crystals of tourmaline and epidote, the latter one fourth of a mile from the source of heat. These effects must be imputed to the heated waters rendered hot by the eruption. The compact structure of the trap leaves no doubt that the eruption was submarine. A moment’s consideration of the circumstances attending such an eruption will place the subject ina clearer light. ‘The sub- marine sedimentary deposit, whether a bed of sand or clay, is soaked with water; and between its layers, or in the cavities or caverns interspersed through or between these submarine beds, the waters are collected in large quantities. As the fissure opens, the melted rock flows up from below to fill it; the interspersed or permeating waters are heated by its sides and convey the heat far into the rock. ‘The ocean’s waters too enter the fissure as soon as opened, and meet the liquid fires on their ascent; hot, and in commotion from the ignition and violent ejection of the fluid rock, the waters are thrown into any open cavities in the walls, and thus aid in diffusing the volcanic heat. 'The superincumbent waters are next heated, and currents intensely hot spread around by the attendant convulsions, diffuse the heat far and wide over the surrounding sedimentary deposits, which are thus permeated and buried in the fluid heat. ‘Through such influences, we may account for all the alterations and crystallizations above described. The effects of the hot waters may probably be seen beyond the hardened portion of the rock, in the red color of the sand- stone. We know that this is a common effect in modern volca- nic regions, and can detect the same in many more ancient. The blue and purple colors which the altered rocks assume near the dyke, arise, as in the common burning of bricks, from the excessive heat, which in part deoxydizes the iron or enables Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 115 it to enter into new combinations. ‘Tourmaline is one of the combinations which in the cases cited may have absorbed, or rather, have used up the iron, and as this mineral contains iron in the state of a protoxyd, we perceive that this deoxydation must actually have taken place. Other examples might be cited from the sandstone and trap region of Massachusetts and Connecticut, but they illustrate no new principles. Besides tourmaline and epidote, garnets have been observed adjoining some foreign dykes. i have purposely avoided mentioning facts collected during the cruise of the Expedition, but will cite one example in farther illustration of the principles here supported—the one which first suggested these views to my mind. It occurs on a small island at the mouth of Hunter River in New South Wales. A dyke of basalt, only eight feet wide, cuts vertically through the coal, clays and sandstone of the coal formation. The coal for six or eight feet is deprived of its bitumen, and as some of the layers contain considerable clay, it is baked to a hard black rock, con- taining masses of coal resembling charcoal. Beyond this distance it is unaltered. The soft clays are changed toa bluish chert, like flint in hardness and fracture, as far as the extremity of the island, which is about eighty yards from the dyke. ‘The sand- stones are also baked and hardened, but less distinctly at this dis- tance than the clays. Such are the facts, and do we need other evidence that heated waters can and actually do alter rocks? Were the heat of the dyke conducted through the rocks from the dyke, to such an extent as to turn clays into flint eighty yards off, the coal surely ought to have been burnt or deprived of its bitu- men toa greater distance than two or three yards? Moreover the clays show no evidence of fusion even in the vicinity of the dyke. Instead of the very intense ignition required to bake rocks so far from its source by conduction alone, without the in- tervention of water, a comparatively low temperature will heat the mobile waters sufficiently to produce the same effect. Before applying these principles to granitic rocks, and the as- sociated schists, I would request your attention to another mode in which heated waters modify the rocks that come under their influence. We know that water intensely heated, will dissolve various earths and earthy compounds that are untouched by it when cold, 116 Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the especially salt water, which contains so largely of alkaline salts. The siliceous waters of the Iceland Geysers are examples of such effects at the present time; and judging from the deposit around these boiling springs, silica is here in solution and not siliceous compounds. ‘The dissolving of silica must therefore be one of the first effects of the heated waters, and this petrifying or solidi- fying earth, as well as heat, is distributed through the adjoining rocks. In regions of eruptions, numerous quartz veins or silici- fied fossils often occur that may be imputed to this source, and the hardening of the sandstone or clay may depend to as great an extent upon the distributed silica as upon the heat. ‘The silica is not all introduced from the external waters;—that in the clays themselves becomes partially dissolved and is redeposited as the water cools; in the same manner as the common waters of the ocean by washing through a bed of coral sand on the shores will after a while dissolve and deposit lime enough to cement it into a compact limestone. Why are the more ancient sandstones and erit rocks of our globe so much harder and so much more thickly intersected by quartz veins, if it be not due to the heated sili- ceous waters to which they have been for so many ages at various eruptions exposed? and at a period—that of their formation— when probably volcanic eruptions were more violent and nume- rous than now ? The heated waters at an eruption of greenstone, holding silica in solution which they have taken from the siliceous materials at hand, are ina favorable state also for the formation of the many zeolites and other trap minerals. In some amygdaloidal cavities the waters, as they cool, deposit silica alone. From a dense gela- tinous solution layer is deposited on layer, and a coating of chal- cedony or agate formed ; afterwards the remaining silica, now in less dense solution, enters more slowly into regular crystals. ‘The waters that penetrate to other cavities contain compounds of sil- ica. Percolating through the rock it takes up lime, soda, potash, alumina, iron, &c. or the elements of the constituent minerals, and the solution thus formed fills the open amygdaloidal cavities, which finally on evaporation yield the various crystallized mine- rals common in these cavities. Ido not attribute these crystalli- zations in all instances to the same period in which the eruption of the containing amygdaloid took place, and they may have been formed at a much later period. At some subsequent erup- Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 117 tion in the vicinity, they may have been buried and permeated anew with hot siliceous waters, which thus gave rise to the amyg- daloidal minerals. Some of these minerals are believed to be formed by the percolation of cold water through the rock, pro- ducing slow decompositions and forming new compounds. It should however be remarked that basalt or trap while still sub- merged undergoes but little change from cold water, except from abrasion. It is not until exposed to the atmosphere as well as moisture that they suffer much alteration or degradation from the processes of decomposition. It is now very generally admitted that these amygdaloidal min- erals are not of igneous origin cotemporaneous with that of the rock, and therefore no labored proof is required in this place. It is sufficient proof of this, that the cavities, which are inflations from steam or gas, must have been made before they could have been filled. As has been stated, we suppose these trap minerals to be formed from the rock that contains them, while the hot waters are pen- etrating, and not to be taken or compounded from its surface ; neither were they contained in the external currents of heated siliceous waters. ‘The same minerals sometimes fill cavities in the adjoining sandstone, but to so short a distance from the trap, that we must believe them deposited from the waters that ex- uded from the sides of the dyke, and not from external currents. Silica once received into solution will be held far below the temperature necessary for dissolving it. We might expect there- fore various changes from the introduction of silica, where no evidence of heat can be detected. Some siliceous limestones may have been thus formed, without a crystallization of the lime ; and cavities like those in the calcareous sandstone of cen- tral New York may have been filled in the same manner with quartz crystals, without any evidence of concomitant igneous action. I do not claim that heated waters are the only means by which sedimentary rocks have been supplied with silica. 'The discov- erles of fossil animalcules have opened a new source of silex, and this, as suggested, may possibly have been the origin of the flint in chalk. On the principles explained we may account for the metamor- phic porphyries and basalts of the Andes. They lie in a region 118 Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the of the most extensive volcanic action in the world, and while below the ocean—which was the case, as the tertiary rocks of the summit seemed to indicate, till the tertiary period had somewhat advanced—every eruption produced a heated sea around and through them, which hardened the porphyry conglomerates and sandrocks, till they were almost porphyry again. And it may be that the feldspar crystals imbedded in the metamorphic rock, instead of being the refuse from porphyry eruptions or porphyry degradations, were crystallized by the metamorphic heat. Having discussed the action of heated waters on the various secondary rocks, and shown that the changes the structure of these rocks has undergone is attributable to this cause, we pass by a natural transition to granitic formations, and would endeavor to prove that no new cause is required for similar effects in them. With the knowledge of a power so eflicient and so capable, so essentially connected with submarine eruptions and so frequent in its action, we need no other theory to account for any meta- morphic changes. ‘The same that holds good for red sandstone and will account for crystallizations of epidote and tourmaline, the same that accounts for metamorphic porphyry, is as good for metamorphic gneiss or granite. 'The structure of granitic rocks, their uniform compactness without an air-cell the world over— has often been urged as proof that they were formed under some- thing more than atmospheric pressure. Beneath this pressure, whatever it may have been, we are safe in saying that the ocean was raised to a temperature far beyond that producing the crys- tallizations in the red sandstone. Mica and feldspar were also crystallized, and the sedimentary deposit was changed back to granite or to some of the associated rocks. To explain this subject more completely, I will trace out some of the analogies that exist between the ancient granitic rocks, and the more modern igneous rocks and deposits. A sedimentary basaltic sandrock or conglomerate is often so associated with basalt, as to make it obvious that they were formed together—the former arising from the sand or fragments carried off from the ejected basalt by the action of the water on the heated rock. An instance of this kind in Illawarra, New South Wales, is too plain to be mistaken. The basalt occurs in layers alternating with sandstone, the sandstone having been formed in the interval between different basaltic eruptions. The Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 119 basalt is covered in places with a baked basaltic tufa or conglom- erate, in some parts red and jaspery, and containing ragged masses of basalt, just as they were torn from the melted rock by the agi- tated waters. The material of the metamorphic porphyries in the Andes was never clay like common clay deposits: it is merely fragmented or pulverized porphyry or basalt, either thrown out as a sand. eruption, which is barely possible ; or secondly, shivered from the rock while in fusion by contact with water; or thirdly, produced by subsequent abrasion. They underwent little if any decom- position before they were rehardened into rock, for as remarked, such decompositions go on but slowly if at all in cold water. Let us now turn to the granitic series of rocks, and follow where analogy leads. Granite like porphyry is an igneous rock. In its era, granite sands were formed like porphyry sands, and restored by heat to metamorphic granite like metamorphic por- phyry. Such are our conclusions. I use the word granite here, as a general term for this and the associated rocks, gneiss and mica slate, syenite and hornblende slate, &c. which I have shown may also be of igneous origin. ‘These granite sands, like porphyry sands, were formed about the region of eruption in one of the modes pointed out, and in all probability were never clays, like the alluvial deposits of the present day. It has been too much the effort to make these schists out of common clays, and Boase, in his valuable work on Primary Geology, derives an ar- sument against the metamorphic origin of the schists, from the fact that common argillaceous shales contain no soda or potash. But this argument will not hold if the view proposed be correct. But let us trace out some of the changes which we may show to have thus taken place in the rocks now crystalline. The change of deposited limestones to granular limestones has occurred in all ages of the globe, and is attributable, as in other metamorphic changes to heated waters, except in some instances where the alteration is confined to within a few feet of an igne- ous rock. With regard to primary limestones, a general survey of the facts, seems to evince that some of these were of igneous origin, like granite. If this were the case there must have been others of a sedimentary character formed at the same time with the deposits of granitic sand, and through the action of the same causes. These were recrystallized by the next discharge of heat- ed waters. 120 Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the The vaporization or exudation of magnesia from porphyries, as Von Buch supposes, in order to produce magnesian limestones, is a less satisfactory hypothesis than to suppose this earth intro- duced through heated waters containing magnesia in solution. Magnesia is one of the elements of sea-water, and when heated the water may have contained or received a much larger than the usual supply. But this and other theories are to a great extent if not entirely set aside by the discovery that recent coral rock in the Pacific often contains a large amount of magnesia. I sus- pected this fact when among the islands, both from their hard- ness and specific gravity ; and having put some specimens into the hands of Mr. B. Silliman, Jr. for analysis, he has obtained the very interesting result, that carbonate of magnesia occurs in large _ proportions in some of these rocks. 'These analyses will be car- ried on with the different varieties of coral, and the conclusions which must necessarily be important, will appear in the Expedi- tion publications. ‘These facts will account for the occurrence of magnesia in limestones not crystalline, which is wholly unex- plained by any theory of dolomization heretofore proposed. | But the coral rock examined and most compact magnesian limestones do not generally contain as large a proportion of mag- nesia as dolomite, in which there is about 45 per cent. of the car- bonate. We may be compelled therefore to fall back upon a heat- ed ocean—the same cause that crystallizes—for the source of the added magnesia. A strong argument in favor of the metamorphic origin of much ‘of the primary limestone and its dolomization by the method proposed is found in some of its associated minerals, and espe- cially in the beds of serpentine or interspersed grains of this mineral. Serpentine appears to be a deposit from the ancient ocean, con- nected with or proceeding from the granitic eruptions, and altered through the action of heated magnesian waters. Some evidence of this is seen in its position in beds.and not in dykes; in its being so often associated with granitic and syenitic rocks, yet containing none of the elements of these rocks or but in small proportions, which should not be expected if they proceeded from simultaneous eruptions in the same regions; in its not altering the adjoining rocks like igneous ejections :—and more strongly still in its containing so large a proportion of water. It is a fact Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 121 of much interest that rocks known to be igneous appear to con- tain no hydrated minerals except such as we may believe to shave been introduced since their formation. The origin of the zeolites and associated species has been shown to be subsequent to the ejection of.the rocks containing them: that the same is true of the metallic salts is not doubted. Talc and chlorite may be suggested as exceptions; but there is reason to believe these minerals metamorphic. Von Buch sug- gested some years since that tale was mica altered by magnesian vapors; and in his account of the rocks of Norway and Lapland, as quoted by Lyell, gives several instances of the passage of mica slate into magnesian or talcose slate, and supposed to have been produced by the change of mica into tale. It is an interesting fact that chlorite is common in amygdaloids, filling cavities, where like other trap minerals it was deposited after the cavities were made, that is, after the ejection of the amygdaloid: and like zeolites it may be set down as one of the products resulting from the action of heated waters on the containing rock. It is therefore probable that in the granitic series it had the same ori- gin. The chlorophyllite of Dr. Jackson, or hydrous iolite, is ano- ther hydrated mineral in the ancient rocks. Here the evidence, derived from its frequent association with iolite, is quite satisfac- tory that it has resulted from the alteration or the hydration of this mineral. It has been argued that the water in hydrous minerals may be retained, under heavy pressure, in the same manner as carbonic acid is retained. But the analogy is false. Hot waters will not combine with carbonic acid; they even dissolve less than cold water. But water will combine with water or aqueous vapor none the less for being hot. ‘There is no power in the pressure of an ocean to prevent one particle of water from combining with another. Any mineral species therefore, which in our fur- naces may be deprived of its water, will be the sooner deprived of it in the same heat under a hot and heavy ocean. - The minerals in serpentine are mostly hydrous, and thus sup- port the view of its hydro-metamorphic origin. These are Schil- ler spar, hydrate of magnesia, talc, nemalite, kerolite, Clintonite, é&c. As both hydrous and anhydrous crystals are formed from aqueous solution we could not expect that all should be hy- drous. Vol. xiv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 16 122 Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the By the application of these views we may possibly discover hereafter, the cause of the peculiar distribution of specular and magnetic iron in New York, and of the hydrous oxyd of iron, or hematite, in New England, and why chromic iron is so com- mon a serpentine mineral, while it is not found at all in other rocks. Indeed may we not now explain the occurrence of this chromic iron? Is it not for the reason that the green oxyd of chromium will not stand the dry fire, and cannot be formed, there- fore, except through the agency of heated waters? There is much reason, therefore, to believe that serpentine is — a metamorphic rock, altered by heated waters containing magne- sia and silica in solution. ‘This rock has been compared to cer- tain greenstones. ‘Trap and the allied rocks have been shown by late analyses to consist of feldspar, augite or hornblende, and sometimes chrysolite and iron, together with one or more zeolites. The same hydrous minerals that fill amygdaloidal cavities, should be expected to fill all the pores or interstices in the rock itself, and this is what is now proved by analysis. The deposition of chlorite in the same cavities, shows that this mineral may also be disseminated through trap or basalt, and also that the basalt may possibly be more or less altered, and rendered more magnesian than is usual with this rock; and in this way we may conceive how either of these rocks should assume a serpentine character. I met with dykes of greenstone in Chili which could scarcely be distinguished from some serpentine. It follows necessarily from these views that the granular lime- stone associated with serpentine must also be an altered or meta- morphic rock. Ido not mean that it was ever a compact lime- stone, like those of secondary formations; it may have been so or it may have been an aggregate arising from the wear or degra- dation of the igneous limestones. In either case it has been changed in its structure or recrystallized. Among the minerals in these rocks, the few hydrous species, are probably of aqueous origin. The rest may be either igneous or aqueous; more facts must be known before they can be distinguished. There is evidence that some limestones after crystallization and the formation of some or all the imbedded minerals, were sub- jected anew to heat. ‘The fused quartz, and rounded apatites of St. Lawrence Co., N. Y., have been so explained by Prof. Em- mons, and I would only suggest as an addition to Prof. Emmons’s Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 123 explanation, that the heat was applied here through the waters heated by some eruption. As quartz is more soluble than feldspar, we may perhaps understand why we should find fused or round- ed quartz enveloping unaltered feldspar. Steatitic pseudomorphs of spinel, hornblende, pyroxene, &c. may perhaps be attributed to the same cause, that is, to heated magnesian waters, acting on spinels, &c. previously existing in the limestone. The steatitic spineis of Crange Co., N. Y.—which have a spinel skeleton, although mostly steatite—may have aris- en either from a large intermixture of steatite with the material ’ of spinel while in the act of crystallization, or from an incomplete alteration of the spinel into steatite; I suspect the latter to be the true explanation. ‘The Rensselaerite of Prof. Emmons, appears © to be a steatitic pyroxene, as suggested by Beck, or rather a py- roxene changed nearly to a compact steatite. Its crystals, which are often distinct, have the form and angles of pyroxene, and leave little doubt that such was its origin, although it constitutes rock deposits of great extent in northern New York.* It is probably perceived that these views lead us to class the large family of taleose and chlorite rock, and steatite, among those that have been altered, like serpentine, by heated waters holding in solution magnesia, as well as silica. Excepting protogine, they are, in general, stratified rocks, and are classed by geologists in the metamorphic series. We do no violence therefore to ex- isting theories in supposing them to have been altered by heat ; and none we believe to reason or facts in supposing that this heat was administered in salt water. ‘The granitic structure of proto- gine as has been shown is no evidence that it is not metamorphic. In a protogine in Northern California, I observed distinct clayey fragments, appearing to have been derived from some compact feldspathic rock, which had undergone partial decomposition. The fragments could not be mistaken, and marked the rock as undoubtedly of fragmentary origin, although I was but half wil- ling to believe it at the time. The rock closely resembled gran- ite, yet was more disposed to crumble down. Protogines gener- ally undergo decomposition more readily than true granites. We find it difficult to account for this from their constitution, and may it not be owing to their metamorphic origin? * See Prof. Emmons’s Geological Report. 124 Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the Thus far in our argument, I have endeavored to show that as in those igneous regions where porphyries were formed, there are metamorphic phorphyries, so in those igneous regions where gran- ites and the associated rocks were formed, there are metamorphic granites, gneiss, &c.; and we have considered the evidences that some granites, as well as some of the schistose associates, were originally of sedimentary origin, and have proved as we believe, that all taleose and chlorite rocks, steatites and serpentines, are undoubtedly metamorphic, and also some granular limestones. We have also argued, and may I not say proved, that heated. waters, both the transfused and superincumbent, set in motion by the eruption, have produced changes in rocks at all ages of the world, and in the same manner as sandstones have been altered and filled with crystals, and porphyries remade, so the primary rocks have been recrystallized. Thus one and the same cause ex- plains all igneous changes, and Lyell’s grand principle, that exist- ing causes explain past phenomena, is carried out almost to the very letter. We can no longer say in the words of Lyell, speaking of these early rocks, that ‘part of the living language of nature has passed away, which we cannot learn by our daily intercourse with what passes on the habitable surface.” ‘The language still lives—it is seen in every bed of once molten rock, that courses hill or plain throughout our globe ; it is read in the many traces of fire, im- pressed in crystal characters on limestone, sandrock or shale ; and is it not heard in those thunderings, muttered forth with the deep heavings of a hemisphere, which seem to tell of submarine erup- tions, of ejected lavas beneath an unfathomed sea, of ignited fountains opened and waters in commotion, hot with lava fires, rushing through the rocks and over the regions around ? In drawing the last analogy between volcanic rocks and gra- nitic, to which I would beg your attention at this time, Iam venturing still farther and more deeply into the dark ages of our globe. Yet there isa ray of light penetrating even this obscu- rity :—at least, the light of volcanic fires, by which midnight views may be taken, and some glimpses caught of the operations that moulded a forming world. In the volcanic regions of these modern days, as well as those of times past, when the fires now extinct were burning, the outer limits of the region of igneous action are more generally strati- fied, and more abound in tufas or sedimentary deposits than the Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 125 centre, where the rocks are commonly igneous. Volcanic sands are blown by the winds to a greater distance from the centre of eruption than the lavas flow, or if submarine, are diffused farther by the waters. 'The centre, when exposed to view by subsequent convulsions and rents of the mountain, is sometimes pure solid basalt, with no trace of stratification, or division into lava beds. I was particularly struck with this fact in the island of Tahiti, which is a type of many others in the ocean. ‘The island has been so altered by convulsions and denudation, that no trace re- mains of an ancient crater. It is but a mass of sharp ridges and mountain peaks, the central about eight thousand feet high, and I never suspected its true nature till months afterwards, the mod- ern and ancient igneous formations of the Sandwich Islands were examined. For six or eight miles towards the interior, the island consists of alternating basaltic conglomerates and tufas, dipping outward towards the shores at a small angle; beyond this, the basaltic layers are of great thickness—one hundred to two hun- dred feet being not. uncommon ; and the central peaks are solid to their summits without a trace of stratification—one solid mass of semicolumnar basalt—apparently the cooled interior of the vol- canic mountain. I would refer to my forthcoming reports for a particular account of this interesting island. In the Andes the same is every where exemplified. Ascending them, the traveller passes over conglomerates and pseudo-porphy- ries and allied rocks, till he nears the summit, where stand at in- tervals lofty mountain turrets of basalt, and rude crests of por-— phyry, acknowledged centres of the ancient volcanoes of this immense chain. Occasional dykes and subordinate crests are met with on the ascent, but the most magnificent views of moun- tain architecture are seen about the loftier portions of this range. How is it now with granitic regions?. When granite, gneiss, and the schists are associated, does not the grand central mass consist of granite or gneiss, and do not the schists occupy the more distant or outer portions of these regions? ‘The exceptions to this prove the point we have established, that the schists may be either primitive or derivative rocks. But the general fact is too apparent not to have been noticed and described in all geolo- gical treatises, even the earliest. Argillite is commonly exterior to mica slate, and the talcose rocks and serpentine generally out- side of the syenites, if they occur together. We should not 126 Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the however expect greater regularity than exists in acknowledged volcanic regions, and granites may be found inserted among all the schists, as dykes or mountains of trap and basalt are intruded among stratified deposits. This subject is finely illustrated in Northern California. After passing twice from talcose rocks over syenite to granite, and in one instance back again to uncrystalline talcose or hornblende rocks, we made the same transition a third time. ‘The features of the country were quite mountainous, and the mountains abrupt throughout the region of talcose and syenitic rocks; but the eranite at the centres stood out in bold contrast with these serra- ted ridges, its lofty needle summits, white almost like snow from its albitic rock, peering above the green foliage of the forest about us, forming one of the grandest scenes I ever witnessed. 'The features of the region were too much like Tahiti not to be at once reminded of that island. From the granite, the route led over syenites and hypersthene rocks to talcose slate and a com- pact greenish rock resembling nephrite; from them to a stratified jasper of red and yellow colors covering large areas. ‘The jasper rock is composed of layers two or three inches thick, which con- stantly coalesce and subdivide ; it was obviously an aqueous de- posit. Itis associated very closely with talcose slate containing beds of serpentine, and not far off occurs the protogine to which T have alluded, and shown to be of derivative origin. May we not safely set this down asa vast region of igneous action; the talcose rocks and slates and the jasper forming its outer border, and the granite the centre—analogous in some de- gree to the stratified circumference and compact basaltic centre of Tahiti? Does not the absence of crystallization in the outer rocks correspond precisely with this theory? Is not this jasper the final deposition of the silica into beds of ferruginous clay, where the waters had spread and cooled far from the centre of heat? and the talcose slates and serpentine associated with the jasper, do they not, by evincing the action of heated waters, bear us out in this supposition ? I would not be understood as implying that here was once a voleanic cone and a crater, for it is too well known that eruptions take place on a grand scale without forming cones; and indeed throughout the Pacific all the larger volcanic mountains are more like domes than cones, rising gradually at an angle of ten to four- Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 127 teen degrees. But the inclination may have been still more gradual from the centre outward. The only point which I would sustain, is that the region in Northern California alluded to is a region of granitic eruptions, the granite peaks its centre, the jasper its outer borders. 'There may be many other centres in the same mountains, as volcanoes are sometimes crowded together, but in a hasty jaunt this could not be ascertained. Passing in only a single devious course through the region, it is impossible to esti- mate its extent. ‘The jaspers were first met with about eighty miles from the granite. The facts that have been presented lead us in conclusion to the following general views with reference to the earlier condition of our globe. I enter into no speculations with regard to the come- tary nebula which .has been supposed its condition when it first begun its revolutions in space: neither would I go back to the time when, according to some, it was a fluid mass resting beneath heavy vapors ready to settle upon its cooling surface—a supposi- tion, by the way, no more hypothetical than that assuming the earlier rocks to be the remoulded material of another world—I come down to the era when the ocean existed. Igneous action was no doubt rife in those times, for however much we may wish to disbelieve it, there is evidence in almost every volcanic region, and especially such immense tracts as those of the East Indies and the Andes, that the present are comparatively quiet times. In the early age to which allusion is made, igneous action ex- ceeded beyond doubt any thing of later date. "These were times of extensive granitic eruption. Centres of igneous action were scattered over the earth or arranged in lines the sites of former fissures ; for in almost all modern igneous regions a linear arrange- ment may be distinguished. From these centres or central re- gions, granite was poured out along with gneiss, syenite or some of the allied rocks; the ocean was agitated with repeated shocks, and heated by the opened fires; sands were shivered or worn from the ejected rocks and scattered far and wide around the place of eruption by the troubled sea; and after deposition, the permeating and superincumbent waters heated from the same or a subsequent eruption, finally recrystallized the deposits and studded them with new gems, or modified their composition through the magnesia, silica and other substances held in so- lution. ) ‘ 128 Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the We cannot assert that there was ever a period after the ocean first covered the earth, in which no land appeared above its sur- face. Whether so or not, the lands, at a later period, had emerged, and in the shallower waters, but still under some pres- sure, porphyry and greenstone were ejected, taking the place of the granite or deepsea rock. Sedimentary deposits like those of the older fossiliferous rocks may have been in progress. Granite was in some parts still thrown out, and not till a very late period _ have these eruptions entirely ceased; indeed they may now be going on in the ocean’s depths. But on the emerging lands, the granitic regions either ceased action entirely, or became porphy- ritic or basaltic. ‘These rocks have continued to the present day, changing only by becoming more cellular where the eruptions were subaerial. : Thus we may believe that all the igneous rocks from granite to modern lava belong to one series, and were formed by one mode of action. Partly in elucidation of this subject, and partly:to suggest a doubt as to some accredited opinions with regard to the origin of certain mountain chains, I will conclude by presenting for con- sideration a few hints with regard to the great chain of mountains in western America. The Andes and Rocky Mountains may be looked upon as ori- ginally a grand scene of granitic eruptions. It may have been an immense fissure, or much more probably a series of fissures ranging in general north and south, over which various granitic vents poured forth their granite floods. Granite peaks were thus formed, some of which still stand among the highest in northern America. 'The Wind River chain, according to the late surveys of Lieut. Fremont, is about thirteen thousand feet in eleva- tion, and consists of this rock. As the land rose, granites were succeeded by eruptions of porphyry, trachyte, greenstone, &c. These continued the elevation of the submarine land, by adding new streams of molten rock and new beds of porphyry, sand and conglomerate ; and together with sandstones and shales of gran- ite origin, and limestones of different kinds, they continued building up the Andes while still submerged, or with the sum- mits only above the waves. Sandstones, shales, salt deposits, beds of gypsum, limestones of Silurian and secondary ages, occur in the mountains, as on the plains of our continents; and they & Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 129 form in some parts, plains of immense extent, underlaid by hori- zontal strata. ‘The depositions then took place in the same man- ner as on the low lands of other regions. The reason why a submarine mountain chain was formed, and not a flat continent, is the very simple one that the sources of all the material of the mountains lay nearly in one and the same line; for igneous erup- tions threw out the material and piled up the mountain. ‘There are two peculiarities in the structure of the mountain regions— the first is the great predominance of sandstones of porphyry ori- gin, and which are not common in our plains; but this should be expected from the nature of the source where the material of the mountains was derived. 'The second is the broken character of the mountain heights. 'This is much less than is commonly be- lieved, fora considerable portion of the range is covered with ele- vated plains. Yet there are gorges and valleys of great depth, and heights lofty and abrupt ; yet nothing more than should be ex- pected in a region of the most extensive igneous action in the world. There are variously displaced and tilted strata, attributa- ble to local convulsions in the range. In this manner we may suppose the Andes to have been mostly formed below the sea. Next, by gradual expansion below, or some other cause, an elevation commenced in the latter part of the tertia- ry era, if we may rely on the occurrence of tertiary rocks on the summit. Igneous eruption continued, but diminished with the ele- vation. ‘The mountains slowly emerged, and continued raising their heads aloft till the continent at its foot had also appeared. During this elevation it was subjected to a tearing ocean, and thus its shattered sides were still farther gorged out. 'The eleva- tion may not have been equal over the entire continent, and in all probability the eastern side participated but little comparatively in the motion, and was early dry land. These views with regard to this chain of mountains are thrown out merely as general hints, and as thoughts to be hereafter tested by observation, rather than truths worthy of immediate confi- dence. Vol. xiv, No. ].—April-June, 1843. 17 130 On the Temperature limiting the Distribution of Corals. Art. XV.—On the Temperature limiting the Distribution of Corals; by James D. Dana, Geologist of the United States Exploring Expedition. [Read before the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists, at Albany, April 29, 1843.] I nave before stated to the Association, that the temperature limiting the distribution of corals in the ocean is not far from 66° F’. On ascertaining the influence of temperature on the growth of corals, I was at once enabled to explain the singular fact that no coral occurs at the Gallapagos although under the equator, while crowing reefs have formed the Bermudas in latitude 33°, four or five degrees beyond the usual coral limits. In justice to myself I may state here, that this explanation, which was published some two years since by another, was originally derived from my man- uscripts, which were laid open most confidingly for his perusal, while at the Sandwich Islands in 1840.* The anomalies which the Gallapagos and Bermudas seemed to present, were dwelt upon at some length in the manuscript, and attributed in the latter case to the influence of the warm waters of the Gulf Stream ; in the former to the southern current up the South American coast, whose cold waters reduce the ocean temperature about the Gal- lapagos to 60° F. during some seasons, although twenty degrees to the west, the waters stand at 84° F. EH’ xtratropical currents, like that which flows by the Gallapagos, are found on the west- ern coasts of both continents, both north and south of the equa- tor, and intratropical currents are as distinctly traceable on the eastern coasts.t In consequence of these currents, the coral zone is contracted on the western coasts and expanded on the eastern ; it is reduced to a width of sixteen degrees on the western coast of America, and of but twelve degrees on the east coast of Amer- ica; while in mid-ocean it is at least fifty-six degrees wide, and about sixty-four degrees on the east coast of Asia and New Hol- * The publication here alluded to we understand refers to an article by Mr. J. P. Couthouy, which appeared last year in the Boston Journal of Natural History.—Eps. t The existence of these great oceanic currents was first pointed out to me by our distinguished meteorologist, Mr. Wm. C. Redfield, who kindly furnished me with charts of the same before the sailing of the Expedition. _ Mr. Dana on Areas of Subsidence in the Pacific, §c. 131 land. The peculiar trend of the east coast of South America carries off to the northward much of the usual south intratropical current, and it is therefore less distinct in its effects, than the northern intratropical or Gulf Stream. We have hence the remarkable fact, that the coral zone is fifty degrees wider on the eastern than on the western coasts of our continents. Such is the effect of the ocean currents in limiting the distribution of marine animals. ‘These facts will be brought out more fully in the reports of the Exploring Expedition. 'The important bearing of these facts upon the distribution of fossil species is too apparent to require more than a passing remark. The many anomalies which have called out speculations as to our globe’s passing through areas in space of unequal tempera- tures are explained without such an hypothesis. Instead of look- ing to space for a cause, we need not extend our vision beyond the coasts of our continents. Arr. XVI.—On the Areas of Subsidence in the Pacific, as indi- cated by the Distribution of Coral Islands ; by James D. Dana, Geologist of the United States Exploring Expedition,—with a map.* » [Read before the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists, at Albany, April 29, 1843.] Tue theory of Mr. Darwin with regard to the formation of atolls, or annular coral islands, has been fully confirmed by the investigations of the Exploring Expedition; but his regions of subsidence and elevation, and the conclusion that these changes are now in progress, appear to have been deduced without suffi- cient examination. Observations at a single point of time can- not determine whether such changes are in progress; they can only assure us with regard to the past. A series of examinations for years in succession is necessary to enable us to arrive at the grand deduction that the land in any part of our globe is now undergoing a gradual change of elevation. The views of. Mr. Darwin respecting the rise of the South American coast, as well * This map contains the track of the Exploring Squadron, and was intended to illustrate the article on the Exploring Expedition, published in our last number, but was unavoidably postponed.—Eps. 1382 Mr. Dana on Areas of Subsidence in the Pacific, as that of the Pacific and East Indies, may well be received with some hesitation. According to my own observations, regions in which his theory would require a subsidence, have actually expe- rienced an elevation at some recent period. I might instance several examples of this elevation in various parts of the Pacific. Suffice it to say here, that I found nothing to support the princi- ple laid down by him, that islands with a barrier reef are subsi- ding, while those with only a fringing reef are rising; indeed facts most stubbornly deny it. Without entering upon the dis- cussion of these facts, which, as they will appear in the Govern- ment publications, I am not at liberty to dwell upon here, I pro- pose to point out what are the regions of subsidence which the coral islands in the Pacific indicate as having been in progress during their formation. Before proceeding, I may be excused for adding here a few words in explanation of Mr. Darwin’s theory with regard to the formation of coral islands. He rejects the unfounded hypothesis that coral islands are built upon the craters of extinct volcanoes, and proposes the following theory in its stead, which is supported by a minute as well as general survey of the facts. The coral belt or atoll, he supposes to have been originally a barrier reef around a high island, like the reef around many is- lands in the Pacific. When the reef commenced, it could not have been extended to a lower depth than one hundred or one hundred and twenty feet, for this is the limit of the reef-forming corals. But if the island gradually subsided—so gradually that the corals could by their growth, keep themselves at the surface, the reef might finally attain any thickness, according to the ex- tent of the subsidence. In this manner, subsidence might finally submerge the whole island, and leave nothing but the reef at the surface. Mr. Darwin points to instances in which only the mountain tops now remain above the ocean. Carry the process a little farther, and we have the coral belt surrounding its little sea—the usual condition of the coral island. This theory, as is seen, supposes extensive subsidence. And so we remark must every theory: for without it, we could only have reefs one hundred and twenty feet in depth, instead of the great thickness they are believed to possess. It is my present object to fix the area of this subsidence, and suggest something with regard to the extent of it in different parts of the ocean. ery he ie oy 3 a i with the track of the EXPLORING EXPEDITION. Track of the Expedition or of the Vincennes when the vessels were separited| Track of the Peacocle.. Track of the Porporse. Ri: . Ny Hal hi i / ~ = aes ay 1 1 ch TF fees Ona 3 (FE ee Ie = +! lin bin Be, aa \ Sian Puiecnerela > RPoacocte \ closed | ‘Valpaihise Sh \ V+ Sel Cooks tithes t ist Peacock Pring Bish NO} PLATH 2. 2 ee ad te tient Bp Sor & OES | . a Se epee a cabernet as indicated by the Distribution of Coral Islands. 133 On examining a map of the Pacific, between the Sandwich Islands and the Society group, we find a large area just north of the equator with scarcely an island. 'T’o the south, the islands increase in number, and off Tahiti, to the northward and east- ward, they become so numerous, and are so crowded together, as to form a true archipelago. They are all, too, coral islands, throughout this interval. This then is a rather remarkable fact in the distribution of these islands. But let us look farther. If we draw a line running nearly E. 8. E. from New Treland, near New Guinea, just by Rotumah, Wallis’s Island, Samoa or the Navigators, the Society Islands, and thence bending south- ward a little, to the Gambier group, (see map,) we shall have all the islands to the north of it, with two or three exceptions, purely coral, while those to the south, are very generally, high basaltic islands. ‘These basaltic islands are bordered by reefs, and these reefs are most extensive about the islands nearest this line. In the Feejees, the northeastern part of the group contains some coral rings, while the southwestern consists of large basaltic isl- ands with barrier reefs. Again, to the north of this boundary line, the islands farthest from it, are usually small, in many instances mere points of reef, a fraction of a mile in diameter, while some of the coral islands near the same line are thirty or forty miles in length. Now a growing coral island or atoll, will gradually become smaller in diameter as subsidence goes on, and by the same pro- cess must finally be reduced to a mere spot of reef, or, if the sub- sidence is too rapid, that is, more rapid than the growth of the coral, the island will become wholly submerged and leave noth- ing at the surface. On these principles, I base my conclusions. Along the equa- tor, as explained, there is a large area containing few islands, and these small, while farther south, the coral islands are numerous and large: Is this not evidence, that the subsidence was either more rapid or carried on for a longer period in the former region than in the latter, where they are numerous and large? Near the boundary line pointed out, stand some of these coral rings enclosing mountain tops, as islets,—as at the Gambier group. Does not this indicate that the subsidence was less here than among the islands purely coral to the north? and greater, than south of the line, where the reefs are more contracted and the high islands larger and more elevated ? 134 Mr. Dana on Areas of Subsidence in the Pacific, &c. Washington Island, (coral,) in lat. 5° N., is the last spot of land as we recede from our boundary line to the north-northeast. Beyond isa bare sea, to the Sandwich Islands. Is not this an area where the subsidence was too rapid for the corals to keep the islands at the surface ? It appears then that during this era, the Pacific from 30° N. to 30° S.—and perhaps beyond—was one vast region of subsidence: that subsidence took place most rapidly over the bare area be- tween the Sandwich Islands and the equator, and less and less so as we go from this, to the south-southwest. At the boundary line pointed out, it was not sufficient to submerge many of the mountain summits, and south of this, the effect was still less. This area covers at least five thousand miles in longitude and three thousand in latitude. ‘The seas about the northwest coast of New Holland, show by their reefs, a contemporaneous subsi- dence, and they should probably be included, as well as some parts of the Hast Indies. Fifteen millions of square miles is not then an overestimate of the extent of the region that participated in this subsidence. The region of greatest subsidence lies nearly in a west-north- west line, for we may trace it along by Washington Island far towards the arctic coast. 'The whole broad area of subsidence has nearly the same direction ; for this is the course of the boun- dary line we have laid down as separating the high basaltic and the low coral islands. It is highly interesting to observe that the trend of the principal groups of islands in the Pacific, corresponds nearly with this course. ‘The Low or coral Archipelago, the Soci- ety Islands, the Navigators, and the Sandwich Islands, lie in the same general direction, nearly west-northwest and east-southeast. It should be remarked that the Sandwich group, does not contain merely the seven or eight islands usually so called; eight or ten others stretch off the line to the north; some, small rocky islets, and others, coral, and the whole belong evidently to one series. I will not say that there isa connection between the trend of these groups and the area of subsidence; yet it looks much like it. A further point may be worthy of consideration. 'The Sand- wich group consists of basaltic islands of various ages. ‘The isl- and at the northwest extremity, Tauai, is evidently more ancient than the others, as its rocks, its gorges and broken mountains, indicate. By the same kind of evidence it is placed beyond Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 135 doubt, that igneous eruptions on these islands continued to be more and more recent, as we go from the northwest to the south- east: at the present time the great active volcano, is at the south- east extremity of Hawaii, the southeast island. ‘The fires have gradually become extinct from the northwestward, and now burn only on the southwest point of the group. At the Navigators, and I believe also at the Society group, the reverse was true ; the northwest island was last extinct. Is there any connection between this, and the fact that low islands are numerous north- northwest of the Sandwich Islands and south-southeast of the Society? Does it indicate any thing with regard to the charac- ter of the subsidence in these regions ? The time of these changes we cannot definitely ascertain ; nei- ther when the subsidence ceased, for it appears to be no longer in progress. 'The latter part of the tertiary and the succeeding ages may have witnessed it. Although Iam by no means con- fident of any connection, yet for those who would find a balance motion in the changes, I would suggest that the tertiary rocks of the Andes and North America, indicate great elevation since their deposition; and possibly during this great Pacific subsidence, America, the other scale of the balance, was in part undergoing as great or greater elevation. But why if the western American coast was rising, do we find no corals on its tropical shores to indicate it? 'The cold extra- tropical currents of the ocean furnish us with a satisfactory reply. Arr. X VII.— Abstract of the Proceedings of the Fourth Session of the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. Tue fourth annual session of this Association was held, pur- suant to the adjournment of last year, at the New Yorx Srate GxoLocicaL Museum in Albany, during the week succeeding the 25th of April, 1843. The next meeting will be at Wash- ington City, on the LOth of May, 1844. The Chairman of the next meeting is Dr. John Locke, of Cincinnati; the Secretary, Dr. D. D. Owen, of New Harmony, Indiana. Wednesday, April 26th, 10 A. M.—The Chairman of the meet- ing, Prof. H. D. Rogers, called the Association to order. The Secretary appointed at the last meeting, (Prof. O. P. Hubbard, ) 136 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. being unable to attend, on motion of Prof. J. W. Bailey, Mr. B. Silliman, Jr. was elected Secretary. So much of the proceedings of last year were read as referred to the committees appointed to report on specified subjects at the present meeting. No busiriess being ready at the moment for the consideration of members, Prof. ZH. Emmons, by request, furnished the meet- ing with a general account of the principles of arrangement adopted in the great cabinet of geological specimens, collected during the geological survey of the state of New York, and in the midst of which the meeting was convened. He said the intention had been to make the arrangement as far as possible an expression of the natural order of succession observed in the vari- ous rock masses in the state; and as such it was both stratigraph- ical and sectional. No attempt had been made to combine with the stratigraphical a geographical arrangement.* Mr. Emmons answered in reply to a query from the Chair, that he thought it was possible in a collection, to some extent to express both the geological and geographical distribution, while Mr. Vanuxem gave the opinion that any attempt to combine the two objects, would be productive only of confusion and diffi- culty. Inthe New York State Museum, the gallery had been set apart for a geographical arrangement. Dr. Beck stated in reply to an enquiry from Dr. Houghton, that he had found it impossible to preserve a strictly chemical arrangement in the state mineralogical collection, although he had given up his attempts to this end very unwillingly. This led to a discussion between Messrs. Beck, Houghton, Emerson, Silliman, and others, on the general principles of mineralogical nomenclature and arrangement. Dr. Owen then read a paper “on Geological Paintings and Hlustrations. * By Art. XIII. of the Constitution, ‘‘ All communications to the Association shall be presented in writing, and upon them discussions may take place which shall not be reported, but the facts presented in such discussions may be reduced to writing by the persons communicating them, and they may then be handed in at a subsequent session, when they may be entered on the records.’’—The Secre- tary has felt himself bound by this article to refrain from giving any fullness to the remarks of members who have not furnished abstracts of their observations, and the oral communications, as given in this abstract, are therefore necessarily much abridged, although contributing very greatly to the interest of the meet- ings.—B. 8. Jr. Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 137 He called the attention of the meeting to a style of painting in dis- temper water colors, somewhat similar to scene painting, as particularly adapted for geological subjects. The charts, sections, and representa- tions of fossils before the Association, were executed in this style ; also the beautiful landscapes of Mr. Russel Smith, so that its capabilities could be judged of. This kind of painting was recommended on the score of cheapness, distinctness, the rapidity with which subjects may be executed, the ease with which corrections may be made, because it admits of execution on a large scale ; because it looks equally well by candlelight and daylight, without even requiring any particular disposi- tion or arrangement of lights; and, finally, because the paintings can be easily transported. The materials employed were unbleached cotton, whiting, the com- monest colors, and a little glue to fix them. The canvass was primed by whitewashing it with a mixture of water and whiting, to which about sly of dissolved glue was added. When the canvass was dry, a mere outline of the subject was sketched with a pencil, and the general tint and whole effect of light and shade brought out before any details were introduced. When the dead coloring was well executed, the finishing was easy. When the ground tint was dry, the details could be marked with pencil and put in with shadow tint. ‘Then a few judicious touches with shade tint finished the design. If a clear and distinct effect was re- quired, the color should be laid on a dry ground; if it was desired that the tints should blend together, they should be laid on damp ground. Any degree of contrast of light and shade could be effected in this style. As a proof of the rapidity with which subjects might be executed in this way Dr. O. stated to the meeting, that he had in four months painted nearly eight hundred figures of organic remains, inclusive of lettering and stratification, and two large geological charts besides. Dr. O. considered this distemper painting much easier than either oil painting or water colors on paper. The only objection to the style was its hability to injury by wet. After the reading of Dr. Owen’s paper, the subject of minera- logical classification was again introduced. Mr. J. D. Dana at the request of the Chair, stated that he had preferred the natural history arrangement, as being best calculated for instruction, and giving the most satisfactory view of the relationship of the several species and families. "The arrangement adopted by him in his ’ work on mineralogy, was based on the classification of Mohs, and was in truth mainly a chemical system, in which either the acid or the bie was selected as the characterizing feature, accor- Vol. xtv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 18 138 Association of American Greologists and Naturalists. ding as one or the other most abounded. Dr. Houghton, Mr. 8. S. Haldeman, Dr. Beck, and Geo. B. Emerson, E'sq., continued the discussion of the subject until the hour of adjournment. The hours of session were fixed from 9 A. M. to 14 P. M., and from 3 to 6 P. M. . Afternoon session, 3 P. M.— Mr. J. D. Dana read a paper “on the analogies between the modern igneous rocks and the so-called primary formations, and the metamorphic changes produced by heat in the associated sedimentary deposits.” ‘The points attempted to be established in this paper were—Ist. ‘That the schistose struc- - ture of gneiss and mica slate is no satisfactory evidence of a sed- imentary origin, and is to be attributed solely to crystallization. 2d. ‘hat some granites with no trace of a schistose structure may still have a sedimentary origin. 3d. That the heat producing the changes that are termed metamorphic, was not applied from be- neath by conduction from some internal source of heat; on the contrary it was through the heated waters of a surrounding ocean, which received their high temperature from the eruption itself. In other words, the metamorphic rocks so called are not hypo- gene, as explained by Mr. Lyell, but, to use corresponding phra- seology, epigene, or analogous to other rock formations, deposited and solidified on the surface of the earth. [As this paper by Mr. Dana is published entire in the present number of this Journal, (p. 104,) it is unnecessary to offer any abstract here. | Mr. Dana’s paper gave rise to much oral discussion, among sev- eral members, as to the possibility of heating a stratum of water at the bottom of the ocean, without at the same time giving rise to powerful upward currents which diffuse and dissipate the heat. Prof. E'spy said he had great difficulty in conceiving how the ocean could be heated to any extent in the way proposed by Mr. Dana, because of the disturbance of statical equilibrium in the ocean, giving rise to currents which would diffuse the heat. Mr. W. C. Redfield said it was with reluctance that he entered upon this discussion, but in the course of it the assumption had been made, and seemingly admitted on all hands, that water at the bottom of the ‘ocean, if raised in its temperature by the outspreading of lava or other cause, must immediately leave the bottom and rise to the surface. ‘This was not necessarily so. He would illustrate his position by what often occurred in so rare and mobile a fluid as the atmosphere, and would Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 139 cite a single example which he thought might be deemed sufficient. Humboldt in his travels in South America took note of the temperature at eighteen inches from a surface heated by the sun, and also at the level of six feet. Instead of finding a difference of temperature such as was due to the elevation or natural state of equilibrium, it was four hundred and fifty times greater, being 7° F’. in four feet and a half of elevation, which could not have been the case did heated air necessarily rise immediately from the surface. We know, too, that in our Ameri- can summers we have often a stratum of warm air on the surface, brought froma great distance by geographical transfer, so that the ther- mometer stands between 80° and 90° F’., which continues even through the night, and day after day, at only some nine thousand feet beneath the snow line. Now if air heated above its ordinary temperature must im- mediately rise, how could this occur? And in so dense a fluid as wa- ter, confined under the enormous pressure of the ocean depths, how greatly lessened would be the chance of any speedy displacement of the heated stratum from the bottom of the deep sea ? Heated waters if spread in the bottom of a quiet sea could not per- meate or rise through the incumbent colder waters, unless in a state of ebullition, or by the slow process of atomic displacement between the several planes of equal and differential temperatures, or by that insen- sible geographical transfer which probably occurs even at the lowest depths. Nor can the overlying colder waters permeate the stratum that lies beneath. Moreover, we know from the observations of voya- gers, that in deep soundings made in some parts of the ocean, a warmer stratum has sometimes been found deeply imbedded beneath colder wa- ters. This fact, which he had deemed conclusive, is of more certain value than any of our dynamical speculations.* * Mr. Redfield annexes the following observations, made by Scoresby, and by the expedition commanded by Capt. Buchan in 1818, which showed an increase of temperature at increased depths, in certain portions of the arctic seas. It should be noted that the law of expansion in water, as its temperature descends below 40° Fahrenheit, does not apply to sea-water. Tape I.—Scoresby’s Observations. Temperature at BELOW THE SURFACE. : surface. Temperature. Fathoms deep. Latitude. gail 31° i Pe TON Sa TION. 31 33.3 37 79 31 34.5 47 79 31 36 100 79 3 36 400 79 31 37 730 79 29.7 36.3 120 8 140 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. Mr. R. admitted that in numerous conditions which are familiar to our observation, heated air or water was constantly displaced by that of lower temperature and greater density. In these common cases the colder portions of the fluid, by favor of associated conditions, find access below the warmer portions, and force the latter to a higher level. But in the great aerial and oceanic masses it is often otherwise; and the truth was that mistakes of importance have sometimes been made in relation to this matter. He thought all would allow, that there was no more innate tendency in heated air or water to rise than in heated lava. An inferior stratum of heated water could not disobey the law of its own gravity, and might remain at the bottom of the ocean for a length of time that no one could determine. Rereaine to another part of the paper of Mr. Dana— Dr. C. T. Jackson suggested that the conversion of pulverulent coral into magnesian carbonate of lime, might have been effected by the ac- tion of magnesian springs, containing bicarbonate of magnesia. He would ask Mr. Dana if any such springs existed in or around the coral islands of the Pacific Ocean, or if any proofs of the former existence of such springs could be traced. Dr. Jackson had witnessed with much interest Mr. Silliman’s analysis of the corals, and of the magnesian limestone, formed from them, and it had occurred to him that a new theory of the formation of the mag- nesian limestones might arise from the facts observed by Mr. Dana. He was not entirely satisfied with M. Von Buch’s theory of dolomi- Taste [1.—Observations of Buchan’s Expedition. 5 BELOW THE SURFACE. iene a Temperature. Fathoms deep. Latitude and date. 339 34° 15 } 34 34 30* From 79°.45 N. 34 34.5 30” Li 80°.27 N., in 33 34 60 | June and July. 34 34.5 7 J 32 36.7 73 ) July 31 35.6 83 Oe 32 36 94 | 88 32 35.3 95 ee 31.5 36.5 103 “ 32 395.6 108 cc 30.3 36 120 ce 30.5 36.5 142 ee 32.5 36.5 173 & 32.5 36.3, 185 ! te 31.5 37 237 ce 32.5 35.5 270 & og 35 33L Oc 33 43 700 May “In harbor, west side of Spitzbergen. See Capt. Beechy’s narrative of the expedition. Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 141 zation, by the action of igneous magnesian rocks. In some of the localities discovered by that distincuished geologist, thick beds of non- magnesian limestone existed between the dolomite and the igneous rocks, from which the magnesia was supposed to have been exuded. Von Buch supposed in such cases, that the pyroxenic porphyry pene- trated the central mass at some point which was not visible, and thus conveyed magnesia to the superincumbent carbonate of lime. Dr. J. thought it more probable that the limestone, so situated, had become charged with carbonate of magnesia, by means of water charged with bicarbonate of magnesia; for the carbonate of magnesia would be de- posited only at the surface, where its solution was freed from pressure. Heat, by expelling one equivalent of carbonic acid, would also cause a deposit of carbonate of magnesia from a solution of the bicarbonate. ‘Tn the instances cited by Mr. Dana, if no magnesian springs occur at the present time, we may reasonably suppose their former existence as one of the effects of volcanic action during the semi-extinet state of volcanoes. We may conceive of the disengagement of carbonic acid from various carbonates, acted upon by chlorohydric acid, or by sul- phurous acid, both of which are abundantly exhaled from volcanic vents. If then carbonic acid gas was disengaged and discharged through comminuted volcanic magnesian rocks, such as tuffs, volcanic ashes and various pyroxenic rocks; those substances would be decom- posed and their magnesia would be dissolved under pressure of the ocean, by carbonic acid, and would form bicarbonates, which would deposit the carbonate of magnesia the moment the solution was freed from pressure, or was acted upon by heat. Hence the various pulve- rulent carbonates of lime, corals, &c. might in this manner be charged with carbonate of magnesia. It is possible thus to account for the form- ation not only of the compact secondary magnesian limestones, but even for the formation of granular dolomite, but it is probable that the latter variety was rendered crystalline by the subsequent action of heat. Mr. Dana said, in answer to Dr. Jackson’s suggestion, that there existed no springs of hot water charged with carbonic acid or bicarbonate of magnesia, as Dr. Jackson had supposed, in any of the coral islands of the Pacific, and therefore such an explana- tion must rest entirely on hypothesis, and in reply to an enquiry from the Chair, he further stated that so far as Mr. Silliman had examined the corals brought home by him from the Pacific, they had. proved to be pure carbonate of lime, but thus far only a few had been analyzed, not enough to be the basis of an opinion, as to the presence or absence of magnesia in them. He consid- ered that the carbonate of lime was secreted by the powers of 142 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. animal life from sea-water, and it was not impossible that mag- nesia might be secreted in the same manner. Prof. H. Emmons, referring to the interest of the subject of metamorphism, advanced the opinion that the view of Mr. Dana was not sufficient to meet all the phenomena, and that cases ex- isted where the changes could not be referred to his explanations. The influence of trap dykes had no doubt been overrated, and in his observations the alterations effected by them were confined to a very limited space, a foot or less, and not unfrequently the line of contact. He thought that there were metamorphic chan- ges due to the influence of cold water transfused through and filling all the pores of rocks, particularly those changes which take place in lime-rocks. The siliceous nodules on the clay beds of Johnsberg, seemed to be in the position where they were form- ed, as the clay presented internal evidence of having never been moved, and this change from feldspar to clay, and the segregation of the silica, he deemed referable to the transfused water. Mr. Dana said he recognized also the action of cold water as supposed by Prof. Emmons, and cited a bed of clay at the foot of a basaltic hill in New South Wales, containing nodules of sili- ceous matter, which he supposed proceeded from the decomposi- tion of basalt. Prof. H. D. Rogers found objection to the theory of Mr. Dana, on the ground that an internal fluid mass of molten lava, was more likely to convey heat to the superincumbent rocks, than an ocean of water heated to any considerable extent. Prof. Rogers said he would ask liberty to explain his views more ful- ly at another hour. The Association then adjourned till 9 o’clock, Thursday morn- ing. Thursday, April 27th, 9 A. M.—The Association met at the hour appointed, when the Chair presented a list of names from the standing committee, of gentlemen as candidates for admission to the Association, viz. Messrs. A. Osporn, of Herkimer, N. Y.; G. S. Weaver, of Cambridgeport, Vi.; Lyman Wixper, of Hoo- sick Falls, N. Y.; and Franxuin Everert, of Canijoharie, N. Y. They were unanimously elected. The Secretary then read a letter from Prof. O. P. Hubbard, the Secretary elect, to the Chair, stating that he was unable to be present at the meeting, from the pressure of other duties, and ex- Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 143 pressing his regret; also from Mr. John H. Redfield, secretary of the New York Lyceum of Natural History, containing a resolu- tion of the Lyceum, inviting the Association to hold one of their regular annual sessions in that city at an early day. It was resolved, ‘that the Association authorize the publica- tion, in Silliman’s Journal, of Mr. J. D. Dana’s paper ‘on the analogies between the modern igneous rocks and the so-called primary formations, and the metamorphic changes produced by heat in the associated sedimentary deposits.’ ”’ Prof. Lewis C. Beck then read a paper “on certain phenomena of igneous action, chiefly as observed in the state of New York,” of which the following is an abstract. In this paper the author first adverted to the facts which are exhib- ited in various parts of New York in favor of the inference that cer- tain primary rocks have been subjected to heat, subsequently to the erystallization of the imbedded. minerals which they contain. Among the most striking examples of this kind, he noticed the locality in the town of Hammond, St. Lawrence County, where the crystals of apatite, feldspar and pyroxene in white limestone are often variously bent, and have their angles smooth and rounded as if by fusion, while crystals of zircon have been broken and their terminations moved from their ori- ginal position. Similar appearances were referred to as occurring in the scapolite near Natural Bridge in Lewis County, and in the apatite and so called idocrase in Orange County ; all of these minerals being found in the white limestone. The author next noticed some peculiarities presented by the mine- rals occurring in gneiss and mica slate. In the former, whenever gar- net is found the crystals are seldom perfect. Localities were enume- rated in Westchester, Montgomery, Saratoga and Essex Counties, at which rounded or apparently fused garnets occur in the gneiss. On the other hand, when the same mineral is found in mica slate it almost invariably presents a perfect form and a fine finish. Such are the spe- cimens from Dover, Dutchess County, &c. From the facts adverted to, the author thinks we are warranted in the conclusion that whatever may have been the agency by which these minerals were originally segregated, the rocks in which they are found were subsequently subjected to a high temperature, sufficiently high at least to soften many of the minerals imbedded in them. The mica slate having been farther removed from the supposed source of heat, has its imbedded crystals more perfectly developed. In noticing other evidences of igneous action, Dr. B. observed that there was one circumstance applicable to all the minerals found in the 144 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. primary masses, with the exception of serpentine, viz. the total absence of water, at least in any thing like atomic proportions. On the other hand, this substance is a common ingredient in those minerals which are found in fissures of trap and greenstone, and in lavas which have been ejected from volcanoes. It was hence inferred that water was not evolved from a central nucleus during the earlier geological eras. Several localities were referred to in New York in which the con- nexion between trap and serpentine, or the change of the former into the latter, is well exhibited. Facts were also stated in regard to the occurrence of the hydrous minerals both in trap rocks and in lavas. The general conclusion drawn from them was that the presence of wa- ter, known to be an almost constant condition of modern voleanic ac- tion, was no less so during the periods when the ejection of the trappean rocks took place. The author also endeavored to show by a reference to facts connect- ed with traps and lavas, that as we proceed to the interior of the earth there are arrangements of mineral forms quite different from those which characterize the lowest of the primary rocks which appear on the surface. Dr. B. also submitted some remarks upon what has been called Antediluvian Climate, or the climate which is supposed to have prevailed during the fossiliferous era. The author referred to several well known facts, to show that from the earliest periods of geological history down to the latest, the animals and plants afford the evidence that a higher temperature prevailed than is now observed, except in tropical regions. But he thought it had been hastily concluded that during these remote periods the refrigeration was gradual. The remains of animals found in the oldest of the tran- sition prove that the arrangements of light and heat were the same or nearly the same as those which at present characterize tropical regions, and the same general conclusion was drawn from an examination of the remains found in the latest of the tertiary. ‘There appears to be no gradation from more to less tropical forms in these immensely dis- tant geological eras. A uniform or nearly uniform condition of things in regard to light, air, and heat, must have prevailed from one end to the other of this far-reaching series. Again, if it be admitted that the bowlder era was characterized by the prevalence of ice, at least in northern regions, the change from a tropical to a polar temperature must have been comparatively sudden. The author upon reviewing all the facts, concluded that the theory of Poisson afforded a more consistent explanation than that which had been generally adopted. Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 145 Mr. J. D. Dana in reply to the reasoning of Dr. Beck re- -marked, that Dr. B. argued that the zeolites might have been formed by the action of the volcanic steam on the rock: if this be possible it will by no means account for the large geodes of chalcedony in these rocks, which, consisting of layer deposited in layer, and often occurring in stalactites, was evidently formed from aqueous solutions. He also re- marked that the numerous minerals of Vesuvius were not looked for in the recent eruptions, but in the older lavas of Somma, which had been exposed for some years at least to the action of moisture and other decomposing agents; and that as far as his observation went, lavas im- mediately after eruption do not contain hydrous minerals of any kind. To Prof. Beck’s remarks on the refrigeration of our globe, he replied that this theory of refrigeration must be admitted by those who believe in its once fluid state ; but it cannot be asserted that this gradual dimi- nution of temperature continued in progress till the recent period. Yet the diffusion of corals proves that the ocean was undergoing refrigera- tion in the tertiary period. The reef-forming corals do not grow where the winter temperature is below 66° F., and are in general confined between the latitudes 28° north and south of the equator. Yet we find coral rock on Porto Santo, near Madeira, where the water in winter often stands at 58°; and farther back in the tertiary period similar reef- forming corals occur in England, and in the oolitic period still farther north. Mr. D. alluded to a statement made by Mr. Couthouy at the meeting of the Association at Boston, that the limiting temperature of corals was 76° F., and took occasion to remark that Mr. Couthouy was indebted to himself (Mr. D.) for the views there advanced by him with regard to temperature limiting corals: and added that the temperature 76° F. was a mistake by Mr. Couthouy for 70°, the limit fixed upon by Mr. Dana when the views were communicated by him to Mr. Couthouy. Prof. John Johnston of Middletown, Conn., observed that the erystals of beryl at Haddam, were singularly broken and distort- ed, in a manner similar to that mentioned by Dr. Beck as belong- ing to the crystals of apatite from Hammond, so well known to all mineralogists. Dr. C. T. Jackson \aid on the table specimens of metamorphic rocks bearing upon the question which had been started yester- day and continued to-day. They were from Pequawket Mountain in New Hampshire. ‘This mountain was upwards of four thousand feet high, consisting of a pe- culiar granite destitute of mica. It had burst through an argillaceous slate, which at the base of the mountain was broken up into Pcrene Vol. xiv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 1g hg 146 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. Half way up the mountain large masses of the slate, many upwards of 100 Ibs. weight, were found imbedded in the granite; further up was a breccia of granite and slate, in which the latter is found varying in size from a diameter of several feet to less than one inch, mixed up with the granite in the greatest possible confusion ; the slate standing in ey- ery possible position was aptly compared on the spot to the books of an extensive library scattered about. Passing over this breccia for the eighth of a mile, we find a finer breccia; at the summit only fine scales of the slate are found in the granite. We learn from this locality that the changes effected by the granite are very slight; the angles of the fragments are preserved, and there is no appearance of fusion. At the lower part of the mountain, changes in the structure are evident, but none in the form. The conclusion forces itself upon the mind, that here the granite was not intensely heated, or else that it is a very poor conductor of heat; that it was not liquid, but in the state of a thick paste. This leads to a consideration of the absence of vesicles, for the formation of which a pasty state is not favorable. The density of the paste may be estimated from the fact of magnetic iron in masses of several inches in diameter being found imbedded in it. If the granite had been ina liquid state, the iron would have sunk tothe bottom. Dr. J. exhibited a hand specimen showing the drift scratches, which would be appreciated by those who knew the difficulty of obtaining small characteristic specimens. ‘The mountain was covered with these scratches ; they were from N. 10° W. to S. 10° E. The occurrence of metamorphic rocks is frequent in New Hampshire, Maine, and Ver- mont. An examination of the line of junction between the slate and granite shows that the eruption took place immediately after the depo- sition of the oldest argillaceous slate, and that it is much older than the granites of Switzerland. Prof. FE. Emmons then exhibited specimens, showing the ef- fects of alteration by artificial heat, producing a columnar struc- ture resembling basalt in a piece of the Potsdam sandrock, which had for many years been used as the hearth of an iron furnace; also a mass of sand altered by similar means. He instanced a trap dyke passing through the calciferous sandrock of Eaton, and converting the adjoining portions into a rock resembling white crystalline limestone. Prof. E. adverted to these as instances of change effected by dry heat. He then showed other specimens which he supposed to have been altered by the aid of heat and - water conjointly ; among these are specimens of calcareous spar, coated with chalcedony and other Rossie specimens. Prof. E. would divide the effects of heat under two heads; first, dry heat ; and second, the conjoined effects of heat and water. Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 147 The President then requested Mr. George B. Emerson to take the chair, while he favored the meeting with some remarks “on hydrated minerals and antediluvian temperatures.” Prof. Rogers suggested whether the steam which so usually accom- panies volcanic emissions, may not have furnished the water of the hydrous minerals found in the serpentine, referred to by Dr. Beck. We may easily conceive that this steam, by mingling with the lava matter in some localities and not in others, might cause the difference between the igneous injections involving hydrous minerals and those destitute of them. Organic remains afford evidence of the existence of water upon our globe at very remote dates, as early as the eruption of many of the ancient basalts and serpentines. A source of the steam existed, therefore, in periods of very ancient volcanic action. Upon the subject of the ancient climate of the globe, Prof. R. avow- ed his dissent from the doctrine maintained by Prof. Beck, that the temperature of the ancient globe was uniform throughout the vast pe- ” riod of the secondary and tertiary races. He contended that we ought not to look for proofs of a very obvious refrigeration during any but a greatly prolonged period of geological time, since we must presume that the earth had already approximated to a statical condition of tem- perature at the time it became the abode of the earlier organic tribes. At the same time he appealed to the supposed habits of the ancient races, in support of the doctrine of a gentle and progressive cooling of the earth’s surface. The hypothesis of Poisson, which explains the changes in the earth’s general climate, by assuming the solar system to have passed successively into portions of space having different tem- peratures, being alluded to by Prof. Beck as offering a probable cause of the refrigeration in the past-tertiary period: Prof. R. stated that so sudden and transient a reduction of temperature must be considered as incompatible with the conditions of that theory. bY Eccentricity, . . . . . 1.0008560 Gaussian angle, 20. 4..-y-29 23", 04.76 Perihelion distance,. . . 0.00415697 Mean daily motion retrograde, 146”.50299. We have the honor to be your obedient servants, Sears C. Waker, E. Oris Kenpatu. To Messrs. John K. Kane, Alexander Dallas Bache, LL. D., Robley Dunglison, M. D., Joshua Francis Fisher. Arr. XXII.—Remarks on Mr. Owen’s Letter to the Editors on Dr. Harlan’s New Fossil Mammalia. [To THE EDITORS OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.] New Orleans, May 5, 1843. Gentlemen—lIn the last number of your Journal, (Vol. xxiv, No. 2, p. 341, April, 1843,) I was gratified with the perusal of an in- teresting letter by Prof. Owen of the Royal College of Surgeons, London. The observations and opinions of Dr. O. on fossil oste- ology, are entitled to the highest respect; placed at the head of the richest osteological collection in the world, and endowed with a genius which peculiarly qualifies him for the successful prose- cution of his favorite department of science, he has perhaps ac- complished more for its advancement than any other single living laborer in this attractive field of research. His criticisms on my ‘notice of new fossil mammalia,” are conceived in the proper spirit, having no other object than the advancement of science, and as such are duly acknowledged. I write under a full conviction of the difficulties attending my present isolated position: there does not exist a scientific library within a thousand miles, and the natural and physical sciences have consequently few votaries. The observations of Dr. Owen and myself on certain fossil mammals, have resulted in some discrepancies of opinion, which I conceive require some explanation on my part. on Dr. Harlan’s New Fossil Mammalia. 209 Prof. Owen pronounces me in error in supposing that his genus “ Mylodon,” is founded on my genus Megalonyr laqueatus ; the latter he admits is a true Megalonyx, and by no means to be in- cluded in his Mylodon. My original description of M. laquea- tus, was published in the Philadelphia Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences in 1831. Subsequently, perhaps about the close of the same year, I published in the “‘ American Monthly Journal of Geology,” ‘a description of the jaws, teeth, clavicle, &c. of the Megalonyx laqueatus’’—fossils then in the collection of Mr. Graves of New York. Now, the “error” above noticed, rests entirely on a difference in opinion between Dr. O. and myself respecting the true nature of these New York specimens. Ona careful inspection at the time, I considered them as belonging certainly to the genus Megalonyz, and as closely allied to if not identical with the JZ. laqueatus. But when the entire skeletons of individual species cannot be examined, it is not easy to pronounce with certainty in all cases, on the identity of species. Dr. O. relies in every instance on the structure, arrangement, &c. of the teeth, in his designation of species, without conceding to other portions of the skeleton a relative importance. 'T'o me it appears that the organs of masti- cation, viewed alone, are more liable to lead to error in forming distinctive characters than are the organs of locomotion; thus, in form, structure, and arrangement of the enamel, the superior molars of the horse differ more from the inferior molars of the same individual than do the molars of the Megalonyz of the New York specimens from the M. laqueatus of my original me- moir. On a careful examination and comparison of the tibiee in both specimens of Megalonyzr, I could perceive no specific difference, much less discrepancies authorizing the adoption of a new genus for it, as Dr. O. has done under the name of Mylodon. 'The form and structure of the tibia in my new genus “ Orycterothe- rium” of Missouri is totally distinct from either. Professor Owen has founded his observations of the characters of the New York species on the drawings of the cast of the jaws and teeth, to- gether with the figures accompanying my memoir. In the pres- ent state of our inquiries, I think that we are not yet prepared to pronounce with certainty that “the name Orycterothertum Mis- souriense, must sink into a synonym of Mylodon Harlani.” Vol. xiv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 27 210 Remarks on Mr. Owen’s Letter, Sc. Professor Owen proceeds to state, “The Megalonyr laquea- tus of Dr. Harlan is a true Megalonyz,” [but which was not “mainly founded on the cast of a tooth.’”’| ‘‘ Nor can I conceive any reasonable ground for its specific distinction from the Mega- lonyx Jeffersoni.” Perhaps not, if we confine our observations to teeth. Of the latter animal we have as yet only the bones of the fore-arm and hand, and a broken tooth, to rest our opinion on; I think, however, that in a comparison of the radius alone of the two specimens we might detect “reasonable grounds for spe- cific distinction.” JI have no means in reach of comparing the distal extremity of the tibia of the Orycterotherium Missouri- ense, with the same part in the Brazilian species which forms the type of Dr. Owen’s “ Mylodon.”’ Dr. O. remarks at p. 345 of the letter above quoted: ‘The tibia of the Missouri Mylodon corresponds with that of the Me- gatherium, in the deep ovoid depression at the anterior and inter- nal part of the lower articular end.’ He also supposes that a similar structure will be found to characterize the tibia of the “ Scelidotherium,” and further on continues: ‘The Megatheroid family thus appears to have been as strikingly distinguished by this structure of the ankle-joint as the sloths are by the pivoted articulation of the astragalus with the fibula.” It is somewhat surprising that two experienced anatomists should differ so wide- ly on a structure submitted to ocular demonstration ; in the tibia of the Megalonyx laqueatus originally described by me, as also in the specimen in possession of Mr. Graves, there is not the least approach to such a conformation. Nor will the tibia of the Megatherium show any such comparison with the same part in the Megalonyx ; they all differ widely in this respect from the Orycterotherium. Further on, p. 345, Dr. O. states: “In my report on the ‘ Mis- sourtum,’ printed in the proceedings of the Geological Society, Dr. Harlan will find that I have duly acknowledged the origina- tor of the opinion that the ‘ Z'etracaulodon’ was nothing but the young of the gigantic Mastodon. 'To Mr. Wm. Cooper of New York, the honor of this insight belongs.” ‘This paragraph in- volves two errors; the “ Tetracaulodon” was not founded on characters peculiar to a young animal; nor was it first announced by Mr. Cooper that the “ Vetracaulodon’’ is only a variety of the Mastodon. That the four tusks exist in the skull of the Bibliography. 211 adult Mastodon is abundantly testified by specimens now in nu- merous cabinets, including that of Mr. Koch’s, if we rightly re- member, and by reference to dates it would be easy to show, that I immediately announced its identity with the Mastodon, in a paper read before the American Philosophical Society in 1830, shortly after the appearance of Dr. Godman’s memoir. At first we had only noticed this additional tusk in the young animal, but in the following year, when ona visit to the University of Virginia, at Charlotteville, we were shown adult jaws with the same peculiarity, and published the fact in the “ American Month- ly Journal of Geology.” I beg to be understood, Messrs. Edi- tors, to make these comments on Dr. Owen’s remarks in good faith and kind feelings, and with the utmost deference to the opinions of my valued friend, Prof. Owen; but we are none of us immaculate. In all my investigations I have striven for truth and not for victory. Iam, therefore, not impatient of criticism ; on the contrary, when conducted in the manner of Dr. O., I court it, as subservient to truth and to the best interests of science. We are proud to bear testimony to the very general accuracy of his published facts; in matters of mere opinion, however, an honest difference must be anticipated. We are very willing to concede, that in most cases it will prove in the end that “it is not Homer nods, but we that sleep.” I sincerely hope that Prof. Owen will frequently favor the read- ers of your important Journal with his valuable observations. I have the honor to be, gentlemen, your much obliged friend, R. Haran. Arr. X XIII.—Bibliographical Notices. 1. Histoire Naturelle des Poissons d’ Eau Douce de ? Europe Cen- trale; par L. Acassiz. Embryologie des Salmones; par C. Voet. Neuchatel, 1842. Planches.—M. Agassiz, in order to render his ex- cellent monograph on the fresh-water fishes of Central Europe as com- plete as possible, has determined to enter into the details of anatomical structure and development of the different natural families, which will come under his observation. To this end he has associated with him M. Vogt, the author of the present livraison, comprising ‘ l’Embryolo- gie des Salmones.” This is founded on the original observations of 212 Bibliography. ' the author, commencing with the earliest period at which the ovum comes within the reach of the microscope, and following it through its . various stages of development, terminates with the escape of the em- bryo from its membranous envelopes. The arrival of the spawning season of the Coregonus pala, the spe- cies experimented upon by M. Vogt, is announced by these fishes asso- Clating in pairs, and jumping frequently above the surface of the water, the female protruding ova at the same time that the male ejects the seminal fluid; by these simultaneous movements, impregnation is effect- ed, but large numbers of ova escape the fecundating influence. In or- der to procure a sufficient number of ova for microscopic observation, he has found it most convenient to have recourse to artificial impregna- tion, which is more successful, as regards the numbers impregnated, than when effected in the natural manner. The artificial mode con- sists simply in squeezing ova from the female, and the seminal fluid from the male, and the two are brought in contact by being placed in a vessel containing water. The development takes place perfectly well in the house, provided water is used taken from the locality in which the fish usually deposits its ova. This last is by no means an unimpor- tant step, since his experience goes to show that ova which are ordina- rily deposited in lakes, are destroyed or blighted, if water from rivers is made use of, and vice versa. The water should also be frequently agitated and changed, and all sudden variations of temperature avoided ; the most favorable degree of warmth, being from 4° to 8° R. or from 40° to 50° F. Congelation of the water in which they are contained, retards their progress, but does not destroy life. He finds the ova liable to diseases, and like those of some species of Limax, are often attacked by vegetable growths, consisting of slender jointed filaments, often expanded at their free extremities, giving the egg a milky appearance, and finally destroying its vitality. He has seen the same growths attacking young fishes, and causing death in the course of eight or ten days. If the same specimen is to be brought frequently under the microscope, care should be taken to keep it im- mersed in water, and not to keep under the instrument beyond a few minutes at one time. If the outer or shell membrane is to be removed, it is most easily accomplished under water; if the vitelline membrane is to be opened, this should be done in the air, for the vitellus is ren- dered completely opaque, by being brought in contact with water. We mention these different steps, for the benefit of those who wish to engage in similar investigations. If the ovary of the C. paleea is examined in the spawning season, ova of different degrees of development are to be seen, but all consist- ing of the same essential parts. According to M. Vost, the following Bibliography. 213 is the order of events in the formation of an ovum; a simple cellule is first produced in the substance of the ovary, which has been denomina- ted “la vesicule germinative,” germinating vesicle, or vesicle of Pur- kinje; this, after it has acquired a certain size, forms exterior to and enclosing itself, a second which is the ‘‘ vitellne membrane,” and at the same time there is formed in the interior of the germinating vesicle a number of granules, which constitute what is called the “ tache” or ‘“‘taches germinative,” germinating spot or spots—they being for the most part grouped together, so as to form a single granular mass. These different parts once formed, increase in size, but in different pro- portions. When first formed, the vitelline membrane is only large enough to enclose the germinating vesicle ; but when the vitellus is perfectly formed, it is many times larger. The entire ovum having acquired the diameter of 3 line escapes from the parietes of the ovary into the cavity of the abdomen, having previously acquired an envel- oping membrane, which corresponds to the shell membrane of the eggs of birds. The mature ovum, which is susceptible of impregnation, is nearly transparent, having a slightly yellowish tinge, resulting from the pres- ence of globules of oil in the vitellus, which, in consequence of their lightness, occupy its most elevated portions, constituting what is de- nominated the oil disk. The vitellus contains no cellules whatever, and has a very strong resemblance to albumen. Immediately on be- ing immersed in water, the latter penetrates the shell membrane, and accumulates between it and the membrane of the vitellus, occupying ~ the place of albumen in the eggs of birds and reptiles, which has no existence in ova of the C. palea. The vitellus floats and turns freely in the watery fluid. As to the effects of the seminal fluid, the author says but little, al- though beyond a doubt indispensable to the development of the genus. The difficulty of appreciating its immediate effect, may be estimated from the fact that impregnated and unimpregnated ova manifest, during the first day, precisely the same changes; after this period, however, the difference is striking ; the ova going on through the successive steps of the development of organs, and the other becoming opaque, soon passes into a state of putrefaction. M. Vogt has given detailed descriptions and figures of the evolution of the different organs, and the changes which they undergo during em- bryonic life ; not commencing, however, with the first appearance of individual organs merely, but going back to the formation of the cel- lules, out of which the organs themselves are generated. ‘The nervous system, skin and muscles, intestinal canal, with its appendages, and the sanguiferous and respiratory systems are described in turn, as they 214 Bibliography. each pass through their successive transformations. ‘The formation of cellules and their transformations into tissues and organs, form one of the most prominent topics treated of in this work, and it will be obvious to those who have paid attention to the subject, that the author’s views with regard to these changes, vary somewhat from those of Schwan, Valertin, and others, which at the present day are the most generally accepted. It is well known that the researches of Mirbel and Schlei- den, have proved that all the organs and parts of plants are originally composed of simple cellules; and Schwan, in making similar research- es with regard to animals, has been led to the conclusion, ‘ that in their primitive state, all the tissues are composed of cellules, and that the elements of all the organs, whatever their form, are also generated from them.” The researches of Vogt confirm these results, but as re- gards the formation of the cellules themselves, he entertains different views. Schwan maintains that the nuclei and nucleoli are primary, and the germinating vesicle, secondary formations ; whereas, according to Vogt, the vesicle is in nearly all cases formed first, and the nuclei and nucleoli subsequently. In the cellules from which the epidermis, black pigment and intestinal canal are formed, no nucleoli make their appearance, until a comparatively advanced period. ‘The nuclei are much more generally found than the preceding, a very few cellules be- ing destitute of them; but these he thinks are as clearly secondary formations, since they cannot be recognized until some days have elapsed. With regard to the truth of the author’s views, as respects this and some other subjects treated of, it will be impossible to form a correct estimate, without going over the same ground and repeating his experiments. Setting aside, however, the controverted points, we think it will be readily admitted that his observations form an exceed- ingly valuable addition to the science of embryology, and the labor and industry with which these observations have been conducted, justify us in forming a high estimate of the results of his future researches. Agreeable to the plan adopted by M. Agassiz, this livraison will be followed by another, by the same naturalist, on the anatomical structure of the Salmonide. 2. Hooker’s Icones Plantarum; or Figures, with brief descriptive characters and remarks, of new or rare Plants, selected from the au- thor’s Herbarium. New Series, Vol. 1, 1842; and Vol. I, part 1, Jan- uary, 1848. (Svo., plates 401-550.) London: H. Bailliére.-—We du- ly informed our readers, (Vol. xti11, p. 189,) that the new series of this low-priced and very valuable work was to be continued regularly as a quarterly publication. Three numbers of the continuation have now reached us; which are principally devoted to the illustration of the rar- Bibliography. 215 ities of Gardner’s collections in Brazil, Schomburgk’s in Guiana, Skin- ner’s in Guatemala, Linden’s in Mexico, Mr. Wright’s, &c. in the Falk- land Islands, and Cunningham’s, &c. in Australia. One of the most remarkable of Dr. Gardner’s plants is his Utricularia nelumbiifolia, (t. 505 ;) which sends up from a creeping stem numerous scapes more than two feet high, bearing a raceme of very lar ge violet-colored flow- ers, and round, centrally peltate leaves 3 or 4 inches in diameter, which resemble those of the Nelumbium! Among those from Mr. Skinner’s collection in Guatemala, we were surprised to meet with a Smilacina, (S. flewuosa, Hook.) The antarctic plants are especially interesting. Among them we have a figure (t. 492) of the Bolax glebaria of Com- merson, one of those dwarf and singularly tufted Umbelliferous plants so characteristic of the vegetation of the southern extremity of this continent. ‘The rounded and excessively dense tufts of this species, which in their young state D’Urville compares to mole-hills coy- ered with green turf, at length, according to Mr. Wright, resemble small haystacks! ‘Their appearance, we imagine, is not unlike that of the larger masses of Diapensia Lapponica upon the Alpine summits of the White Mountains, only that they are on a much greater scale. The Dalibarda geoides of Persoon and DeCandolle turns out a genu- ine Rubus. We find only two North American plants, viz. Carex fil- ifolia, Nutt., (under which a wrong name is inadvertently cited in place of that of the more able author of the Monograph of North American Cyperacez,) and Oakesia Conradii of Tuckerman. Sir Wm. Hooker has not the fruit of this interesting plant, and he states that the flowers in his specimens do not so well accord with Dr. Klotzsch’s description as could be wished. He figures the abortive pistil which is frequently found in the staminate flowers; but as he does not notice some curious particulars observed by the writer of this article, it may here be briefly mentioned,* 1. The plant is polygamo-diecious ; or, at least, some of the flowers are not unfrequently perfect. 2. These perfect flowers are sometimes provided with three stamens, similar to those of the sterile flowers; but more commonly they present a single antheriferous sta- men, sometimes accompanied by two short sterile filaments, and some- times destitute of these rudiments: occasionally a fertile flower is fur- nished with three short rudimentary filaments. 93. In the perfect flow- ers, especially when only one stamen is antheriferous, the anther is commonly found to be one-celled; the other cell being entirely sup- pressed, or else reduced to a mere vestige, as was seen in a single in- stance. 4. The lobes of the style are variable in number, and are of- * Since this article was in type, these characters have also been pointed out to the writer by Mr. Oakes, who furnished the specimens he examined, 216 Bibliography. ten two-toothed or cleft. 5. The floral envelopes, or rather scales, are not distinguishable into two well-defined series, (calyx and corolla,) and their number is very variable; the innermost series (corolla of Klotzsch and Tuckerman) not unfrequently consisting of three scales, and the others of 5 to 10 successively imbricated scales. A. Gr. 3. Enumeratio methodica Caricum quarundam: species recensuit et secundum habitum pro viribus disponere tentavit Epvarpus TuckER- | man, Jun. LL.B. etc. etc. Schenectadie: 1848. (pp. 21, 8vo.)—This pamphlet we believe is not formally published, but was printed for pri- vate distribution among the author’s botanical friends. It is the result of an attempt—in most respects very successful—to effect a natural distribution of the species of the vast and difficult genus Carex. Mr. Tuckerman adopts the following primary sections. 1. PsytuopHorEs, (Loisel.) Spica unica simplicissima androgyna, s. dioica. Stigmata 2-3. 2. VienEx, (Koch.) Spicule plures sessiles androgyne, in spicam continuam, s. interruptam, s. paniculatam disposite. Stigmata 2. 3. VIGNEASTRA, (mihi.) Spicis compositis ramosis ramisque sem- per androgynis, apice masculis 2-3-stigmaticis. Wahl. 4. LEPTANTHERS, (mihi.) Vigneas inter et Carices. Stigmata 2, rarissimeé 3. 5. Lecitimz, (Koch.) Spicis simplicibus sexu distinctis, rarius pseudandrogynis. Spica terminalis feré semper mascula, nune plures. Wahl., Koch. These sections are mostly divided into subsections, and the latter in- to minor groups, amounting to fifty-one in number, which (except those of the first section) are not furnished with diagnoses,—and really it would prove no easy task to characterize them,—but are distinguished by the names of their leading species. Many interesting critical re- marks are interspersed among, and follow the systematic portion; and four new species are indicated, viz. C. alopecoidea, (= C. cephalo- phora, var. maxima, Dew.,) C. neglecta, (aff. C. trisperme and C. Dew- eyane,) C. Monile, (= C. bullata 6.? Torr. and Gr.) and C. Torreyt, (= C. pallescens?) The proposed arrangement of the C. straminea group is perhaps the best that can be done with it; except that C. ard- da will renew its claim to specific distinction. We cannot distinguish C. Meadii, Dew. from C. panicea. In conclusion, we must be allowed to express our strong dislike of the attempt to change, in one or two cases, long established specific names, because they conflict with the Linnean canons and other excellent rules. ‘+ C. scirpina” may be a better name than C. scirpoidea, Miche, (although nomina Barbaro-Lat- ina are as expressly forbidden by the canon as Barbaro-Greca,) and Bibliography. 217 ““C. vulpineformis” is greatly preferable to C. vulpinoidea, Micha. ; but to discard the received names, as here proposed, on the strength of the axiom § 223 Phil. Bot., besides the danger of the precedent, is re- ally to be ‘‘ plus saint que le Pape; for Linneus himself ever adopted all the nomina Barbaro-Latina there cited as examples, viz. Tamarin- dus and Morinda, as well as one of the three N. Greco-Latina, viz. Sapindus. The practice of the great botanist affords the safest con- struction of the rule. The genus Carex, with all its difficulties, has long been an especial favorite with the botanists of this country; who will hail with pleasure so zealous a laborer in this yet unexhausted field as Mr. Tuckerman. A. Gr. 4, Flora Brasiliensis, sive Enumeratio Plantarum in Brasilia hac- tenus detectarum quas cura Musei Ces. Reg. Palat. Vindobonensis suis aliorumque Botanicorum studiis descriptas, et methodo naturalt digestas sub auspictis Ferdinandi I, Austrie Imperatoris et Ludovici I, Bavaria Regis ediderunt SterpHanus Enpuicuer et Carou. Frip. Puit. De Martius. (Vienna and Leipsic, royal fol.) Fasc. I, 1840. Fase. II, Jan. 1841. Fasc. II1.-V, Apr. 1842.—This work, although prin- cipally based upon the rich collections of Martius, &c. at Munich, and of Pohl at Vienna, is intended to embrace all the known Brazilian plants ; which at the commencement of the undertaking were estimated at 15,000 species. — Jt will extend, it is thought, to a dozen large volumes, and will probably require as many years for its completion; although the enterprising authors have secured the aid of many celebrated bota- nists, such as Nees von Esenbeck, Bentham, Lindley, Schlechtendal, Unger, Zuccarini, Spring, Reper, Peppig, Meisner, Kunze, Grise- bach, Hornschuch, Decaisne, &c. for the elaboration of particular or- ders. The first fasciculus comprises the Musci, which are elaborated by Prof. Hornschuch, and the Lycopodiacee by Prof. Spring; and is illustrated by eight plates. The second contains the Anonacee, by Mar- tius, (with 14 plates,) who adds an interesting historical account of the species cultivated for their edible fruit. In the third, fourth and fifth fasciculi, the learned Nees von Esenbeck has given a monograph of the Cyperacee of Brazil, illustrated by thirty plates from admirable draw- ings by Putterlich of Vienna. All the plates of the systematic part of the work, we should remark, are engraved upon stone in the same ex- cellent style as those of Martius, Nov. Gen. et Spec. Brasil.; Siebold § Zuccarini, Flora Japonica, ete. Several new genera are estab- lished, one of the most interesting of which is Hoppia, nearly allied to Carex. The genera of the tribe Sclerieg are greatly, not to say undu- ly multiplied; and, in a note, even our Scleria triglomerata is separa- ted as the type of anew genus, Trachylomia; which name however Vol. xxv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 28 218 Bibliography. the anterior Trachyloma of Bridel renders inadmissible. In the Rhyn- chosporee, we are pleased to find that Nees has adopted the genus Psi- locarya of Torrey; to which he has added eight species. The Ptilo- chata, N. ab E., nearly approaches Eriochete, (sub Rhynchospora,) Gray, in Torr. mon. Cyp. A good figure and full analysis is given of Scirpus (Isolepis) subsquarrosus, Muhl., under the name of Hemicarpha subsquarrosa, from which a second species from St. Louis, H. Drum- mondii, NN. ab E., (in a note,) does not appear to differ; and the genus is at length referred to the Hypolytree. The fifth fasciculus of this Flora also contains the Smilacee and Di- oscoree, by Prof. Grisebach, with six plates. Each fasciculus compri- ses a portion of a very interesting and graphic introductory chapter by Prof. Martius, upon Brazilian vegetation generally, with illustrations of some of its more remarkable features and peculiarities in different re- gions. ‘This is illustrated by a series of spirited Tabula physiognomice, in tinted lithography, eighteen of which are already published. ‘The whole Flora will form a series of monographs, prepared by some of the ablest botanists in Europe, (each with its letter-press and plates in- dependently numbered,) which, if we mistake not, may be separately purchased. The subscription price is very moderate, viz. from thirty to thirty-three florins for each volume of 40-50 leaves and as many (uncolored) plates. A. Gr. 5. Binomial Theorem and Logarithms ; for the use of the Midship- men at the Naval School, Philadelphia. Perkins & Purves, 1843.— This is the title of a work recently published, from the pen of Profes- sor Chauvenet, of the United States Naval School, Philadelphia. The author modestly remarks in his preface, that his original design was to use the work in manuscript, but he found it necessary to enlarge it so much as to render its use in that form impracticable. He says, ‘* in preparing it for the press, the original design has been still farther extended, and the work now assumes the form of a distinct, if not a complete, treatise upon the binomial theorem and logarithms.” We have read the work somewhat carefully ; although it has been prepared especially for the use of the midshipmen, we consider it wor- thy of general circulation. Such a work has long been a desideratum among elementary mathematical treatises. The subjects upon which it treats, although intimately connected, and in some measure dependent upon each other, have hitherto been treated of disconnectedly, and could only be studied properly by reference to different works. Here we have a complete and thorough treatise upon the subjects on which the author writes. He has introduced into it every thing necessary to make it so 5 at the same time he has omitted every thing not absolutely essential to that purpose. Bibliography. 219 Its chief excellence consists in the clearness and precision of the steps by which he advances. He combines clearness with sufficient length, so that his steps are abundantly evident, at the same time that there is diffi- culty enough to render them interesting to the more intelligent student. He does not pretend to originality, but his style and method are pe- culiar to himself, and his demonstrations are either altogether new, or happy modifications of those of other writers. With regard to the binomial theorem he says in his preface, ‘‘ a rigid demonstration of it, at once simple and elementary, has been much sought for by mathe- maticians. The one here given depends upon a principle which is the foundation of the differential calculus, and is in fact little else than a translation, of the very simple demonstration afforded by that science, into the elementary language of algebra.” We have examined the demonstration with some care. The principle is similar to that used by Bourdon in his later editions, (we have not seen his earlier,) and by other algebraists. Prof. Davies, in his translation of Bourdon, gives Euler’s method, which though ingenious seems by no means so clear or so elegant, and certainly more abstruse and less direct. Euler first deduces the binomial formula in the case when the exponent is a positive integer, and then proves that the same formula exposes the expansion of binomials affected with negative and fractional exponents. ~ Professor Chauvenet has made the demonstration at once elegant and direct, by first proving the fundamental principle somewhat in the form of a lemma. This principle is found in the peculiar nature of the vr —y” quotient of “ , whatever be the nature of the exponent m. He ‘first beautifully shows in a few lines that this quotient is always exact, and the series limited, when m is positive and integral; and then in an equally striking manner demonstrates that when xy, although : 0 : AP AY i the quotient then becomes 0° (the expression for an infinitesimal quan- tity,) that still it is for all values, if the exponent is equal to mx”~1, the well known form of the differential co-efficient of #”. When these principles are established, the demonstration becomes at once direct and clear, and as elementary as the student can desire. He has inter- spersed through the work numerous and appropriate examples; into this chapter in particular he has introduced a beautiful collection, many of them original, others from French works, which illustrate fully the application of the binomial theorem. The chapter on the “nature and use of logarithms” is extremely happy, well calculated to interest the student and to place the subject before him in an entirely new light. We would call the attention of teachers of mathematics particularly to it. ‘The mode of deriving the 220 Miscellanies. logarithmic formula, is that of Euler, but so modified and improved as scarcely to be recognized. The method of finding “ the number cor- responding to a given logarithm,” is different from any we have before seen. The method usually employed is by “ the reversion of series,” as it is called, a method which is tedious and liable to the great objec- tion, that it does not reveal the law of the resulting series, by which any succeeding term may be inferred or deduced from the preceding terms, however numerous. ‘That law has been invented and applied by the author. In short, we consider the work to be a valuable one, and one from which almost any mathematician may derive advantage. 6. Transactions of the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists, 1840-1842. Boston: Gould, Kendall & Lincoln. Royal Svo, pp. 544, with 21 plates.—This volume embraces the reports of the doings of the three first years of the Association of American Ge- ologists and Naturalists, at their meetings held at Philadelphia in 1840 and ’41, and in Boston in 1842. Several of the papers it contains, and all the proceedings of the sessions, have already been before our read- ers in the pages of this Journal ; but the great bulk of the volume ap- pears now for the first time, and embraces all the papers read before the Association at its three first meetings. We shall not attempt any notice of its contents, but can assure our readers that the volume is every way creditable to American science, and must be considered as an essential companion to all who would keep up with the rapid pro- gress of American geology and the cognate sciences; while it gives to the body from which it emanates a character which at once places it among the permanent agents of scientific progress. MISCELLANIES. DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN. 1. Notice of certain siliceous tubes (Fulgurites) formed in the earth ; in a letter from Cuartes E. West, to the Editors, dated Rutgers Fe- male Institute, New York, March 21, 1843.—A remarkable natural phenomenon was observed a few years since in the town of Rome, state of New York. I was particular at the time, to gather what information I could respecting it, which is now submitted to the readers of your valuable Journal. A lambent flame was seen playing at night upon the surface of a sand bank, some seventy or eighty feet high, which forms the east bank Miscellanies 221 of the ancient channel of what is called Fish Creek. This excited the - curiosity of the neighborhood and led to an examination of the spot. After removing some twelve or eighteen inches of the soil, they dis- covered an irregular tube of very coarse glass, which had evidently been made from the sand of the bank. ‘The sides of the tube were compressed, and very irregular. Its longest diameter was about half an inch. Its interior was highly glazed, while its exterior was rough, being covered with particles of sand. When they had exposed about fifteen feet of the tube, they found it necessary to sink a shaft of logs to prevent the caving in of the bank. They continued to dig thirty feet deeper, when it was discovered that the tube, which had main- tained an almost vertical position, made a sudden inclination and passed deeper into the bank. The fear of inhumation now compelled them to relinquish all further effort in tracing its course. They, how- ever, dug five feet more in a vertical line and came to water; ma- king in all rising of fifty feet from the surface. The tube was single for some distance from the top, where it made two bifurcations. Some eighteen inches below the surface were found thin strata of indurated ‘sand, which were easily broken by the shovel; they were highly inclined, and their surface was undulating. Some of them were sepa- rated from each other one or two inches, others three or four inches. These interstices were filled with sand, which by digging, had shaken out in some instances and left the strata like the leaves of an open book; they were glazed, but not so highly as was the interior of the tube. From this narration of facts, two questions naturally suggest them- selves. Ist. In what manner was this tube formed? and 2d. What was the source of the light ? Without attempting to offer satisfactory replies to these questions, I would remark in relation to the first, that sand tubes of a few feet in length have been frequently described, but none of them, so far as I know, equals in interest the one referred to. None had its great length. To account for their formation, several theories have been proposed. One, that carbonate of lime held in solution had been gradually deposited around vegetable stalks, which finally wasted away, leaving these peculiar tubes. Another, that they are the work of insects. The third and most popular theory is, that they are produced by lightning.* It has been suggested, that whenever the electric fluid in its passage into the earth meets with the essential ingredients of glass, it fuses them into these singular tubes, provided the current be of sufficient intensity. It appears to me that neither * Hence the name Fulgurites, by which they are usually known. 222 Miscellanies. of these causes is adequate to produce a tube fifty feet in length, such as we have described. That the first two had any agency in the mat- ter, we cannot admit fora moment; for the tube gives evidence of igneous action, and consists of silex instead of lime. With respect to the third, let us inquire, if from the diffusive tendency of electricity to divide itself into a thousand ramifications on coming in contact with moist bodies, it is probable that the fluid would pass for fifty feet or more in a continuous line through moist sand? It strikes us as highly improbable. Again, if lightning is the cause, why did it not produce a solid mass, instead of a tube ? And yet, if we set aside these objec- tions, the tube appears as though it were formed in this way. ‘The smooth and highly glazed surface of the interior, admitting atmos- pheric electricity to be the agent, might be accounted for from the fact of its being nearer the central action of the fluid, and also from the fact that there would be no particles of unmelted sand within the tube to mar its surface, while the exterior in its liquid and afterward pasty state, coming in contact with particles of sand, would be pierced by them and made rough. It would be natural to suppose that a tube produced in this manner would collapse, presenting a flattened ap- pearance. With regard to the second question, it is now impossible to tell what the gas was which produced the light, because it has disappeared since the destruction of the tube. It may have been phosphuretted hydro- gen, derived from the decomposition of animal bones deposited ages ago beneath that sand bank, or it may have been pure hydrogen, re- sulting from the changes which native protosulphuret of iron undergoes when exposed to moisture ; for it is well known in the spontaneous de- composition of water by this mineral when thus exposed, that it ab- sorbs the oxygen of the water, forming a protosulphate of iron, and eliminates heat sufficient to inflame the hydrogen; or it may have been sulphuretted hydrogen derived from the decomposition of iron " pyrites, the bisulphuret of iron, which is often associated with organie remains, which would also afford phosphuretted hydrogen, thus yield- ing a mixture of these gases, one of which burns spontaneously at or- dinary temperatures. The writer has made these gratuitous comments, not with the inten- tion of satisfactorily accounting for these phenomena, but for the sake of awakening enquiry among your readers upon this interesting subject. 2. Supplementary notice of the Ceraurus crosotus ; in a letter from Prof. Jonn Locke, M. D., to the Editors, dated Cincinnati, Feb. 24, 1843.—Below are some figures of parts of the crustacean which I have denominated the Ceraurus crosotus, described and figured in a Miscellanies. | 223 previous letter. (See this Journal, Vol. xurv, p. 346.) It is very rare that we meet with this fossil entire ; my own specimen, which is some- what mutilated in its smaller appendages, is the only one known to me. To the practical geologist it will be a matter of interest to be informed what fragments are of most frequent occurrence. The subjoined figures represent such as are most abundant in our rocks. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 2 isan accurate drawing of a specimen in my own cabinet, magni- fied six times in linear dimensions. By referring as above to fig. 1, it will be seen that it is the cheek or lateral portion of the shield. ‘This is by far the most common fragment, and it is fortunately very well charac- terized by its pectinate form. Fig. 3, from a fragment in my own pos- session, magnified to the same scale, represents the tail or termination of the animal. The two longer processes are continuations of the last costal arches, while the four intermediate smaller appendages, and the two exterior ones, of similar size, are attached merely to the margin of the crustaceous covering, and are similar to the fringe of the cheek in Fig. 2. Fig. 4, from a specimen in Mr. Carley’s cabinet, is evidently the same as fig. 3, but with the lesser processes broken off, as at a. Before other parts had been examined, this last had deceived one of our best naturalists, who mistook it for the anterior instead of the pos- terior termination of a crustacean. Since I communicated to you my account of the entire fossil, (Vol. xurv, p. 346,) I have discovered that the best specimens are covered with elegant tubercles, showing in this respect a close analogy to the Ceraurus pleurexanthemus of Dr. Green. A. fragment is not unfrequently found, which if it belongs to this spe- cies, would indicate a central process from the posterior margin of the shield, running down over the middle of the body, like a Chinese cue of hair. My best specimen, already referred to, is broken at this point, and does not settle the question with regard to such a process. Contemporaneous fossils.—Strophomena alternata, 8. semiovalis, nu- merous crinoidean joints, Orthis testudinaria, Cryptolithus tesselatus, Calymene senaria, Isotelus megistos, and numerous branched corallines, Q24 Miscellanies. are associated immediately with the Ceraurus. The Isotelus gigas is found below it, and the Cryptolithus terminates perhaps sixty feet above it. The particular locality at which the best specimens are found is about sixty feet in altitude below the reservoir at Cincinnati, and about one hundred feet above low water of the Ohio. 3. Cambridge Observatory.—The deficiency of instruments at this observatory is about to be supplied upon a scale of munificence, worthy of. the princely liberality of the Boston merchants. Davin Sears of Boston has given five thousand dollars for the erection of an observato- ry tower, which will be furnished with instruments from a contribution of twenty thousand dollars, which was subscribed within sixty days from the date of the Sears donation, and to which he himself gave an addi- tional sum of five hundred dollars. The ready patronage, which has, upon this occasion, been so generously extended to American astrono- my, is most honorable to the republic, and no country can point toa larger donation to science, in proportion to its wealth. The other do- nors are Peter C. Brooks, who gave one thousand dollars; Samuel Ap- pleton, William Appleton, John P. Cushing of Watertown, Joseph Pea- body of Salem, Thomas H. Perkins, Jonathan Phillips, Robert G. Shaw, and George C. Shattuck, each of whom gave five hundred dollars ; Na- than Appleton, Abbot Lawrence, Amos Lawrence, Israel Munson, The- odore Lyman, Nathaniel West of Salem, D. L. Pickman of Salem, George Howland of New Bedford, Gideon Howland of New Bedford, John A. Parker of New Bedford, William Rotch, jr. of New Bedford, James Arnold of New Bedford, N. W. Neal of Salem, John Parker, William Pratt, John Wells, Ezra Weston, J. W. Ward, Josiah Quincy, Samuel Falls, Francis Parkman, Martin Brimmer, Thomas Lee, Fran- cis C. Gray, Horace Gray, Henry Oxnard, William Lawrence, N. J. Bowditch, George W. Lyman, Charles Lyman, George F. Parkman, Thomas B. Wales, Daniel P. Parker, John L. Gardner, George Ballett, Edmund Dwight, William Sturgis, Nathaniel Silsbee of Salem, John C. Gray, Ozias Goodwin, James Davis, jr., Dr. John Codman, John Quincy Adams, Dr. Wm. J. Walker, Charles G. Coffin of Nantucket, Jared Coffin of Nantucket, J. W. Barrett of Nantucket, G. R. Upton of Nantucket, Dwight Boyden, Henry Plympton, F. Tudor, H. Cod- man, Samuel C. Gray, William Amory, J. Ingersoll Bowditch, Thomas B. Curtis, Bates & Co., Joseph Grinnell of New Bedford, J. J. Dixwell, James 8. Amory, Samuel T. Armstrong, J. Chickering, Dr. John Ware, John M. Forbes, George H. Kuhn, Joseph Whitney, Andrew E. Bel- knap, 8. Austin, jr., F. Bassett, Richard D. Harris, and Thomas Wet- more, of whom the first eighteen gave two hundred dollars each, the following thirty, one hundred dollars each, and the remainder smaller Miscellanies. 225 sums, principally of fifty dollars. In addition to these individual con- tributions, the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge gave one thousand dollars; and this lead to the societies was almost simultane- ously given by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences with the still larger donation of three thousand dollars ; the other societies which contributed, are the American, Merchants and National Insurance Com- panies, and Humane Society, each of which gave five hundred dollars ; the Neptune and Washington Insurance Companies, each of which gave three hundred dollars; the Equitable Safety Insurance, which gave two hundred and fifty dollars ; and the Tremont Insurance Company, which gave two hundred dollars. The location of the present observatory is very bad on many ac- counts; so that about a year since, the Corporation of Harvard Uni- versity had wisely profited by an advantageous opportunity to purchase the best possible site in its vicinity for astronomical purposes. The po- sition is elevated, and commands in every direction a clear horizon, without any danger of molestation from trees, houses, smoke, or other causes, and with hills well situated for the erection of meridian and prime vertical marks. Upon this, which is known as Summer House Hill, the Sears Tower will be erected, with the other buildings for mag- netic, meteorological and astronomical observations, and the house for the observer. The funds invested in the observatory, when it is com- pleted, will amount to thirty-five or forty thousand dollars; consisting, besides the above twenty-five thousand dollars, in the house and lands given by the College, the extensive magnetic apparatus given by the American Academy, a telescope for occultations and eclipses from Fran- cis Peabody of Salem, Mr. Bond’s astronomical clock, transit telescope, telescope for occultations, and his other instruments; and lastly, the nev- er-to-be-forgotten little comet seeker belonging to President Quincy, with which Mr. Bond first detected the head of the recent comet, and was enabled to make his observation of the 9th of March, and to which instrument we are largely indebted for the contribution of these funds. The new instruments which will probably be purchased if the funds should prove to be sufficient, are, an equatorial telescope of the largest class, being of the same dimensions with the celebrated Pulkova tele- scope; a transit circle; a small equatorial of six feet focal length; a comet seeker of the largest size; and a zenith sector. With these in- struments, the observatory will be as well endowed as any in the world, for the class of observations to which it will be principally devoted. 4. Notice of Botanical Collections.—We take much pleasure in an- nouncing that three enterprising botanists are now engaged in exploring the most interesting portions of the far West, and that their collections Vol. xxv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 29 226 Miscellanies. of dried plants will be offered to subscribers, in sets, as they come to hand. Two of these collectors, Mr. Charles A. Geyer, (well known as the botanist of Mr. Nicollet’s official northwestern expedition,) and Mr. Liiders, who are for the present attached to Sir. Wm. Stewart’s party, have by this time reached the Rocky Mountains. The particular field of Mr. Geyer’s operations, and the extent of his journey, were undeci- ded at the time of his departure from St. Louis. Mr. Liders expects to spend the next winter, and perhaps the ensuing summer, at a station of some Roman Catholic missionaries on the upper waters of Lewis and Clarke’s, or Great Snake River. ‘These botanists being well ac- quainted with the vegetation of the general Valley of the Mississippi and of the lower Missouri, will doubtless avoid the common and better known plants of this region; and thus their collections may be expect- ed to prove unusually choice and valuable. The third collector, Dr. Lindheimer, a very assiduous botanist, in- tends to devote a few years to the exploration of Texas; and he pledg- es himself to exclude from his sets all the common plants of the south- western United States. These several collections will be assorted and distributed, and for the most part ticketed, by Dr. Engelmann of St. Louis; assisted, as far as need be, by the authors of the Flora of North America, who promise to determine the plants, so far at least as they belong to families pub- lished in that work; and for the information of subscribers, particular notices of the centuria offered for sale, will probably appear in this Journal, as they come to hand. The number of sets being limited, ear- lier subscribers will receive a preference. ‘The three explorers are en- tirely independent of each other; and their collections are to be sepa- rately subscribed for. The price of the Rocky Mountain collections of Geyer or of Li- ders, is fixed at ten dollars (or two guineas) per hundred; that of Dr. Lindheimer’s Texan collections at eight dollars (or £1, 13s. 6d. sterling) per hundred—payable on delivery of the sets at St. Louis, Missouri, by Dr. George Engelmann; at New York by Wiley & Putnam, 161, Broadway, and Stationers’ Hall Court, London; and Prof. A. Gray, of Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, to either of whom sub- scribers may address themselves (post paid) by mail. ‘The additional expense of transportation, doubtless trifling in amount, will be charged upon the sets deliverable in London. The writer of this notice cheerfully states that the dried specimens made by these botanists which have fallen under his observation, are well selected, very complete, and finely prepared; and he cordially joins Dr. Engelmann in recommending the enterprise to the patronage of botanists. Miscellanies. 227 For the purpose of obtaining some immediate pecuniary aid in the prosecution of his present arduous undertaking, Mr. Geyer also offers for sale, (through the parties above mentioned,) a selection from his collections of the last year in Illinois and Missouri; consisting of twen- ty sets of one hundred and fifty species of plants, which are offered at six dollars per set. A list of this collection, with critical remarks, and descriptions of some new species it contains, received from Dr. Engel- mann too late for present insertion, will find a place in the ensuing num- ber of this Journal. A. Gr. 5. Iodine in Phanerogamic Plants and Mosses.—At a meeting of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, on the 7th of December last, ‘¢ Mr. Brand read ‘a notice of the presence of iodine in some plants growing near the sea,’ by G. Dickie. The author found, by chemical examina- tion of specimens of Statice Armeria from the sea-shore, and of oth- ers from the inland and higher districts of Aberdeenshire, that the for- mer contained iodine, and that soda was more abundant in them, while potassa prevailed in the latter. lodine was also found in Grimmia mar- atima ; and Mr. P. Grant of Aberdeen has also found it in Pyrethrum maritimum. An analysis was made of specimens of Statice Armeria, Grimmia maritima, Lichina confinis, and Ramalina scopulorum, all growing near the same spot, and occasionally during storms exposed to the sea spray: all these plants, with the exception of the Lichen, con- tained iodine. ‘The specimens having been washed previously to anal- ysis, the iodine could not have been derived from saline incrustation. All these vegetables were healthy, and the author of the paper has been led to conclude that the marine Alge are not the only plants which possess the power of separating from sea water the compounds of io- dine, and of condensing them in their tissues, and this without any det- riment to their healthy functions.” —Gardener’s Chronicle. 6. Disengagement of Carbonic Acid by the Roots of Plants.—* It appears from the researches of Messrs. Wiegmann and Polsdorff as re- ported in the last number of the ‘ Annals of Chemistry,’ that the roots of living plants disengage carbonic acid, and that this acid is capable of decomposing the silicates of the soil, which resist even the action of nitro-muriatic acid. ‘This most curious discovery throws a new light upon the importance of carbonic acid to vegetation, and explains clear- ly, what has been by no means evident, namely the manner in which flinty substances prove beneficial to vegetation, and how minerals so hard as feldspar are made to contribute to the maintenance of plants. Plants of tobacco, oats, barley, clover, &c. were grown in quartz sand which had been heated red hot, and then digested for sixteen hours in 228 Miscellanies. dilute nitro-muriatic acid. One would have thought that, after such treatment, the quartz could have contained nothing capable of sustain- ing vegetable life; nevertheless the plants grew in it, and their ashes were found to contain potassa, lime, magnesia, and silicious earth, which had been obtained from the decomposition of the quartz sand by the decomposition of the roots.”,—Gardener’s Chronicle. (We see no proof nor probability that the carbonic acid in such cases is disengaged from the roots.) 7. Filarie in the Blood of a living Dog.—MM. Gruly and Dela- fond exhibited to the Academy of Sciences, at their session, Feb. 6th, numerous specimens of an Entozoon, allied to the Filarie, obtained from the blood of an apparently healthy dog. Physiologists have been for a long time aware of the presence of Entozoa in the blood of rep- tiles and fishes, but this is the first instance in which they have been detected in the blood of a mammal. It is of great importance to physi- ology, pathology, and natural history, to prove not only their existence in the blood itself, but that they circulate with it in the higher animals. The entozoa in question, have a length of 0.25 millimetre, and a di- ameter of 0.003 to 0.005 millimetre. Body transparent, colorless ; anterior extremity obtuse, posterior terminated by a thin filament. Their motions are very active, swimming with an undulating move- ment among the globules. ‘They were detected in the blood drawn from the coccygeal arteries, external jugular veins, capillaries of the conjunctiva, mucous membrane of the mouth, skin and muscles. The urine and excrements contained none. ‘Their diameter is less than that of a blood globule, which will allow them to pass wherever the blood circulates.— Comptes Rendus, Feb. 6th, 18438. 8. Experiments of Karsten, relative to the formation of the “* images of Moser ;” extracted from letters of Humboldt to Arago.—* On pla- cing a medal ona glass plate, and under the last a metallic plate, Kars- ten has ascertained that an image of the medal is formed upon the up- per surface of glass, when an electrical spark is made to fall on the medal. If the medal rests on several plates of glass, and the last on metal, the spark produces images on all the plates, but only on their upper surfaces ; the most feeble being the most distant from the medal. To render the images visible, they must be exposed to the vapor of iodine or mercury. The spark is necessary for the production of images. M. Karsten has not succeeded with the electricity of the pile.” (Berlin, 10th March.) ‘“‘] have seen experiments of M. Karsten; the effect is instantaneous, and the figures very distinct. The electricity emanating with greater Miscellanies. 229 intensity from the prominent or convex part of the medal, changes the molecular state of the glass, in passing to its lower surface. ‘The image is rendered visible, by the most gentle breath. The vapor is deposited in little drops on all the parts of which the molecular condition is changed, whilst it is deposited uniformly where no such change exists. (Berlin, 22d March.)—Comptes Rendus, April 3, 1843. 9. Great Comet of 1843.—This splendid comet, which was seen in the sunshine on the 28th day of February last by thousands of spec- tators in New England, and which for a month after adorned the evening sky with its long and brilliant train, has excited uncommon interest in all quarters of the globe. A letter from Mr. John Tay- lor, of Liverpool, to the Editors of this Journal, states that in the Isle of France, (S. lat. 20°,) the comet was seen in great splendor from the 28th of February to the 8th of March, (and doubtless later,)— the train resembling “a stream of fire from a furnace.” At Bombay, (N. lat. 19°,) the train was discovered shortly after sunset March 4, as a long, straight beam of light streaming from the western horizon to- wards the zenith. The next night the nucleus, or at least the lower termination of the comet, became distinctly apparent. From this time onward, numerous observations were taken at that place, but with what precision remains to be seen. Similar accounts have been received from various places on both sides of the equator; yet we have no evidence that by any of these early observers (except Mr. Clarke of Portland) was the position of the nucleus accurately determined. This defi- ciency is matter of great regret, as it is obvious that good measures of the place of the nucleus taken within a week after the perihelion passage, would far outweigh in value those which were made during the latter part of the month of March. It appears quite probable that the train of this comet was seen in the evening before the perihelion passage, at Bermuda, Philadelphia, and Porto Rico, on the 19th, 23d and 26th of February. Some of the ob- servations on which this statement is founded, need however further investigation before they are given to the public. In stating at p. 413 of the last volume of this Journal the distance of the nucleus of the comet from the sun on the 28th of February, as measured by Mr. F. G. Clarke, of Portland, Me., an error was commit- ted, which is corrected in the following valuable memoranda, which have been kindly furnished me by that gentleman. The nucleus and also every part of the tail, as seen by him, in strong sunshine, were as well defined as the moon onaclear day. The nucleus and tail bore the same appearance, and resembled a perfectly pure white cloud, without any variation except a slight change near the head, just sufficient to 230 Miscellanies. distinguish the nucleus from the tail at that point. The denseness of the nucleus was so great that Mr. C. has no doubt that it might haye been visible upon the sun’s disk if it had passed between it and the ob- server. This dense appearance he considers due in part to the fact that the tail was foreshortened by projection, and so directed with ref- erence to the earth, that the nucleus must have been seen through a considerable mass of the matter of the tail. Notwithstanding the diffi- -eulties resulting from the nearness of the comet to the sun shining in its strength, Mr. C. succeeded in obtaining with an instrument of reflee- tion the following measurements, viz. Feb. 28, 3h. 2m. 15s. P. M., Sun’s farthest limb from nearest limb of nucleus, j : 4° 6! 15" Feb. 28, 3h. 6m. 20s. P. M., Sun’s Poriheat fib (ote farthest limb of nucleus, . i 4° 7 30” Feb. 28, 3h. 9m. 40s. P. M., stints Girthrest tina for extrem- ity of tail, . ; : i 5° 6 30” The first of these measures Mr. C. considers reliable within 15” ; and the other two may be taken as near approximations. Due alttys ance must of course be made for the motions of the two bodies during the period of observation. When the sun was in the plane of the me- ridian, the angle made by the line joining the centres of the sun and nucleus, with the lower vertical, on the eastern side, was about 73°. These data must evidently supersede those derived from the observa- tions which were made at Waterbury, without the use of instruments. EK. ©: E. 10. Second Comet of 1843.—M. Victor Mauvais, an astronomer at- tached to the Paris Observatory, discovered May 3, 1843, a telescopic comet on the limits of the constellations Cygnus and Pegasus. It isa feeble nebulosity, of an oval shape, and about 3/ diameter, with a sen- sible condensation of light towards the centre. It was seen by Sir J. South at Kensington, on the 10th of the same month.—Lond. Ath. May 13, 1843. 11. Meteoric Observations, April 20, 1843.—On the night of April 20, 1843, (the anniversary of the great meteoric shower of April, 1803,) I watched alone in the open air, at intervals during the entire night, which was one of uncommon sereneness. ‘The number of me- teors noted by me, did not exceed what I assume to be the average number, visible after midnight, at other seasons,—or from twelve to fifteen an hour for an individual observer. The next night was likewise very clear, but I made no observation. Persons who were abroad to a late hour, informed me, that without Miscellanies. 231 giving any special attention, they remarked that shooting stars were unusually frequent. As however no reckoning was kept of the number actually seen, it might be unsafe to deduce any very positive inference from this information. It was intended to watch for shooting stars on the morning of the 2d of January last, but on that morning as well as on the next, the sky at this place was overcast, and the intended observations were defeated. Dl Ob a ls 12. Hundredth Anniversary of the American Philosophical Society. —This society celebrated its centennial meeting in Philadelphia on the 26th of May last and the four following days, closing on the evening of Thursday the 30th. An opening address was delivered by Dr. Robert Patterson, embracing a sketch of the origin and progress of the society. A large number of scientific laborers were assembled, and forty five papers were read on different departments of scientific research. The following is a list of the papers read. Friday Morning, May 26th. : be Phosphorogenic Emanation, by Professor JoserH Henry, of New Jersey College, rinceton. . On the Family Proboscidea, their general character and relations, their mode of denti- tion and geological distribution, by Isaac Hays, M. D. - On Analytical Trigonometry, by Professor THEopoRE Strone, of Rutgers College, Brunswick, N. J. . On Two Storms, which occurred in February, 1842, by Professor Ex1as Loomis, of Western Reserve College, Hudson, Ohio. mem CF Ww me Friday Evening. . Historical sketch of Continental Paper Money. Part second. By Samurt Breck, Esq. - On the Theory of Earthquakes, by Professor H. D. RogErs, of the University of Penn- sylvania. Ro Saturday Morning, May 27th. 7. History of the progress in establishing an Observatory at Washington City. Descrip- tion of the building erecting, and of the instruments ordered for the Depot of Charts and Instruments of the U. S. Navy, by Lieut. J. M. Giuuiss, U. S. N. 8. On the Influence of the Microscope upon the Science of Anatomy, by W. E. Horner, M. D., Professor in the University of Pennsylvania. 9. On the Tides and Currents of the Atmosphere and Ocean, by Wiiuiam C. REDFIELD, Esq. of New York. 10. On the Hourly and other Variations of the Magnetic Elements, of the Temperature and Pressure of the Air, and of the Force of Vapor, deduced from two years’ obser- vations at the Magnetic Observatory at the Girard College, by Professor A. D. BAcuE, of the University of Pennsylvania. 11. Biographical Memoir of the Hon. Edward Livingston, by Henry D. Giirin, Esq. Saturday Evening. 12. On the Launch of the Three-deck Ship, the Pennsylvania, by Joun LentHAut, Naval Constructor. 13. Method of Arranging the Spider’s Lines in the Micrometer of a Transit Instrument, by Joun Locker, M. D. of Cincinnati. 14. On the Tails of Comets, by Professor W. A. Norton, of Delaware College, Newark. 15. On the Decomposition of Carbonic Acid by the Light of the Sun, by Joun W. Dra- per, M. D., Professor in the University of New York City. 16. Letter from Chancellor Livingston to the Society of Arts of New York on Air Springs, Air Beds, &c. Letter from Count Rumford to Chancellor Livingston on Steam Car- riages. Communicated by the Rey. Professor ALonzo Porrrr, of Union College. BaP Miscellanies. 17. 18. 19. 20. Cale 99. 93. 24. 25, 26. 27, 28. Monday Morning, May 29th. Observations on the Comet of February, 1843, made at the Observatory of the Gen- tral High School, with Results of the Computations relative to its Orbit, by Szars C. WaLKER, Esq. and Professor KenDALL, of the Central High School. Abstract of a Memoir on the Ethnography of the Ancient Egyptians, with specimens illustrative of its conclusions, by SamuEL GrorcE Morton, M. D. The Social and Intellectual state of the Colony of Pennsylvania, previous to the year 1743, by Jon R. Tyson, Esq. Measurements of the Foetal Cranium, by CHaries D. Metes, M. D., Professor in the Jefferson Medical College. On Hippuric Acid, by Professor James C. Booru and Martin Boys, Esq. Ona new method of determining the Velocity of a Projectile, by Professor JosrrH Henry, of New Jersey College, Princeton. Description of anew Thermometer of Contact, by Professor A. D. BAcHE, of the University of Pennsylvania. Descriptions of Water Spouts, by Captain Lavenper, of Princeton, N. J., and by R. C. Tayvior, Esq. Monday Evening. Transformation of the Series S=ar+bz2+4cx3, &c., by Professor TuHropoRE Strrone, of Rutgers College, Brunswick, N. J. An account of a Geographical Exploration of the Sources of the Mississippi, by J. N. Nicouuet, Esq. On the Pica Phenomena attending Solar Eclipses, by Professor StrPHEN ALEX- ANDER, of New Jersey College, Princeton. Tuesday Morning, May 30th. On the Instruments of the Astronomical Observatory of the United States Military Academy, West Point, and the Observations made upon the Comet of February, 1843, by Professor Wm. H. C. Bartuert, of the United States Military Academy. . An outline of the Physical Geography and Geology of Maryland, in reference to its Agricultural Condition and Resources, by Junius T. DucaTEL, M. D. of Baltimore. . On the Geology of a Portion of the Island of Cuba, by R. C. Taytor, Esq. . On Coprolites, by Isaac Lea, Esq. . On the effects of Gloomy Seclusion upon the Health of Individuals of the African Race, by B. H. Coatzs, M. D. . Description of some new Fossil Shells from the Tertiary of Virginia, by Henry C. Lea, Esq. . Notice of the Meteorological Observations now making at the Military Posts of the United States, by T. G. Mower, M. D., Surgeon U.S. A. . On the law of Cooling of Atmospheric Air for various suddenly diminished pressures, by Jamss P. Espy, Esq. . Ona new form of Mountain or other Barometer, by J. H. ALEXANDER, Esq. of Baltimore. Tuesday Evening. . On some Fossil Ferns, of the Family of Sigillaria, in the Coal Strata of Pennsylvania, by R. C. Tayzor, Esq. . Comparison of the Dimensions of the Earth, obtained from Measurements made in the Survey of the State of Massachusetts, with Accredited Mean Determinations, by Simron Borpen, Esq. and R. T. Paine, Esq. of Boston. . On Impressions produced upon Sensitive Plates in the Dark, by P. B. Gopparp, M. D. and JosrpH Saxton, Esq. . Comparison of Magnetic Observations at Philadelphia, and Toronto, U. C., on the oc- casion. of an unusual disturbance of the magnetic elements, May 6th, 1843, by Pro- fessor A. D. Bacue, of the University of Pennsylvania. . Two Inedited Letters of Franklin upon Subjects of Science, communicated by Gzo. Bancrort, Esq. of Boston. . On the Theory of the Turbine Water Wheel, and the results of its practical applica- tion, by Etnwoop Morris, C. E. . On a Theory of Combinatorial Aggregation, by Professor SYLVESTER, F. R. S., late of University College, London. . Geological Notices, by Professor Henry D. RocErs, State Geologist. . On the Structure of the Fetal Heart, in reference to Cyanosis, by Cuarues D. Metres, M. D. * Not read. ¥ So: OW Gar See, app Mind ate ti sey ; FR in Web tk oem wo Sat ae ase 4 Or UCN a REN Uy cee Pa q Aran wi x fr " Mrs ; a RL TOUERS CE OCs 1808 VOL. XUV NOI. PLATEIV ORI ene fig. L PROF. ALEXANDER'S BAROMETER 5 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. Art. 1L—On a New Form of Mountain or other Barometer ; by J. H. Atexanper, Esq.—(with a plate.) Tue modifications of shape and details, which different ingen- ious individuals have proposed or executed upon barometers, are now so numerous, that, if on the one hand one might be suppos- ed dispensed from adding to the variety, equally on the other the want of full acceptation, with any, serves to shew the object yet unattained, and the whole subject therefore open still for reflection and effort. I question much if, generally, in the judgments of those who have had more especial occasion for making observa- tions with mountain-barometers, all the modern complications of structure, introduced with the best intentions, are not found to have contributed to the embarrassment of the observations if not of the result; by rendering necessary a number of merely collat- eral operations and by hiding accidental defects, which are only least harmful when soonest found out. Mr. Hassler seems to partake of an opinion like this, from the account which has been recently published* of the new portable barometer of his construction—an instrument characterized by all the originality and much of the appropriateness, which belong to all the works of this distinguished philosopher. I mention this instrument in particular, that I may not obtain credit for more novelty than really belongs to the arrangement which I pro- pose. ‘Touching the respective merits of either or of any other arrangement, it is not my purpose now to speak. * Doce. 176, H. R. 2d session, 27th Congress. Vol. xiv, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1843. 30 236 New Form of Mountain or other Barometer. observation of coincidences therefore to be much more precise and agreeable. The reading is not nearer than to 0.01 of inches; which is quite refined enough for any purpose to which I may expect its appli- cation, and indeed I might say for every purpose, except the deter- mination of some atmospheric constants, when all recognized cor- rections would have to find their place. Whenever in such case or any other, all those corrections are employed, it will be appro- priate to read the measurement closer and closer. At present there seems to be no need. For instance, in the climate of Baltimore, for at least half the year, a change of 1° Fahr. in the dew-point implies an elevation or depression of the barometer of more than 0.016: such a change is very common, in the same locality, within the hour—such a difference highly probable, at the same moment, between places not very remote even from one another. Yet in the multitude of barometers read to thousandths, who reads the hygrometer ? So, in the application of the barometer to other than strictly meteorological purposes, the correction of a zenith distance for re- fraction when the angle is as great as 85°, is upon 0.01 of an inch of mercury only 0.2 of a second—a quantity to be sure general- ly admitted in calculation, but not materially affecting the most of astronomical or geodetic results. In zenith distances not so great, more usual, and more reliable, the amount of correction is still less: an altitude of 45° varies for 1, in the barometer less than two hundredths of a second, a quantity in all ordinary cal- culations to be safely neglected. Similar considerations apply to this instrument, when rendered portable for the determination of heights. If the thermometer and hygrometer remain the same, a variation of ;,1,; in the barometric column would correspond to a difference of level of little more than 10 inches; a space far within what any barometric observation has yet pretended. to an- swer for. The correction, too, arising from the specific gravity of the mer- cury, a particular rarely registered with the measurements, en- closes within no narrow margin the apparent accuracy of a read- ing to thousandths of inches. If we take 13.6 as a mean specific gravity, giving with a certain temperature and dryness a stand of 30 inches, a specific gravity of 13.601 would give an equiva- lent stand under the same circumstances of only 29.9978 inches. New Form of Mountain or other Barometer. 237 I apprehend it would be but accidental, if two barometers, made even by the same person but at different periods, or from any cause containing mercury of different lots, agreed in the specific grav- ity as nearly as this. Finally, not to make too long discussion of such a point, it is even rare to find two observers, in direct succession upon the same instrument, reading to a coincidence as close as the thou- sandth of an inch. I thought myself therefore justified in dis- carding a graduation which, as I before said, multiplies the refine- ment without increasing the certainty. Nevertheless, in limiting the tube-graduation to tenths of inches, I have not shut out the means of subdivision to thousandths in a ready and unexceptionable manner; whenever such subdivision - should be requisite. ‘These means consist in the application of a reading microscope or micrometer, whose position on the tube is held and regulated by a spring and clamp. The zero is ad- justed, first, to the now magnified image of the mercury surface : and then, by the motion of the screw, the space between said sur- face and the nearest division on the tube below, is measured in hundredths of inches by the comb of the micrometer, and thou- sandths on the head of the screw in a well-known manner. 6. A piece of watch-spring, about three inches in length, is bent round at one end, so as to embrace three quarters of the circum- ference of the tube: the other end, which will then project from the tube, has merely a light triangular notch made in its upper edge to catch the loop of string or wire, which suspends the ther- mometer. In order to prevent any unsteadiness or wriggling motion, which would be otherwise likely in so narrow a strip, a piece of an inch length, from the same spring, is fastened with a single rivet at right angles to the former, so as to be vertical or nearly so when the clasp is made; or, as was done in the present instance, a cruciform piece is cut out of a wide clock-spring. 7. Nothing more need be said of the float than that it is of ivo- ry, worked as thin and light as is consistent with its safety; and that the distance, between its under surface and the parallel fidu- cial edge of the rectangular notch seen in it, must be exactly equal with the space between the zero mark on the tube and that other line next above the zero mark, which has been spoken of already in $4. It is obvious that in such case, when the image of said fiducial edge seen by reflection on the tube, coincides with the 238 New Form of Mountain or other Barometer. appropriate mark, the under surface of the float and of course the surface of the mercury beneath it in the cistern must also coin- cide with the zero of the graduation. I apprehend that this symmetrical position of the float sical the tube, tends to make such a coincidence of the zero mark and the mercury-surface more exact than is likely to be attained in any other arrangement; which places the float at a greater dis- tance, and entirely on one side of the tube. No single point of the mercury-surface, perhaps, is ever to be taken as precisely in the normal plane of the base to the atmospheric column equili- brating the barometric column: but this equilibrium is made by pressure of an infinite number of atmospheric columns whose ba- ses are in different horizontal planes, or, what is the same, by the pressure of an aggregate column whose base is as irregular as the cistern surface. A float, then, whose horizontal base extends equally all round the axis of equilibrium, may be supposed to present the fairest average of these irregularities and a general re- sultant of these several pressures. In any event, its exactitude may be taken as within any such methods as the estimation of the capacity of the cistern, an Eng- lish manner of construction ; or the ivory point used in some con- tinental barometers; or the minimum visibile, the most used but I think the most objectionable of all. 8. The cistern is a porcelain or glass dish of suitable size ; which, when occasionally cleaned, admits of the application of heat to drive off all moisture. Wood is not favorable for such a purpose ; because it receives a very smooth surface only with dif- ficulty. It is besides hygrometric: and all varnish which might be used to remedy this disqualification brings another quite as bad —in the action, which the resinous components of such varnish are apt to have on the mercury. What has been so far described, contains all the parts necessary for establishing a stationary barometer. I suppose, of course, though I have not yet mentioned it, that the mercury is pure, that its specific gravity is ascertained, that the tube has been boiled, and that in immersing it in the cistern no substance has been placed in contact with the mercury, likely to act upon or soil it. Asa suitable implement for this purpose, I have figured in fig. 5 a tool, which Mr. Green applies in such cases. It is of iron, covered with clean undyed leather: the spheroidal pad at New Form of Mountain or other Barometer. 239 one end takes the place of the finger ; and the pressure, which from its shape can be exerted by the whole hand and wrist to keep it in place, will be, in several positions of the tube, of the highest convenience. The additions, necessary for constituting a mountain barome- ter, are shewn in figs. 2 and 3; of which the first is a vertical section, and the other a ground plan seen from below, of the ap- pliances. In fig. 2, is seen surrounding the tube, shewn by dotted lines, a steel cylinder, cemented to the tube. ‘The middle part of said cylinder is left more massive than either extremity, and is work- ed into an octagonal shape to allow its being firmly clamped in a vice. The lower extremity is cut Into a screw thread, which fits the screw of the inverted, bottomless, iron disk that is to form the termination of the tube. This disk is made of a piece of a gun barrel. ‘The lower edge of this is also screw-cut, and is fitted with the ring seen in fig. 3. The notches in that ring, which are also shewn, serve for catching a lever or handle by which the ring is screwed up. The single line in fig. 2, between the ring and the disk, isa section of the bottom of the sub-cistern; which bottom is a plate of Russia-iron, hammered so thin as to be flexi- ble, and secured by the ring before mentioned. One side of the disk is tapped with a screw-thread and fur- nished with a screw, as seen in both drawings, for opening or shut- ting off the communication of the atmosphere. As this is only opened, when the tube is immersed in the cistern; and as one’s fingers should be carefully kept from the mercury, fig. 4 repre- sents a tool which I use for unscrewing and screwing: the hook- ed end of it, as can be readily imagined, fitting in the hole of the handle seen in fig. 3. Inasmuch asa great deal of power can- not be exerted with such a tool, the handle is necessary in order to tighten up the screw more effectually after the withdrawal of the barometer from the cistern. I should mention that all the permanent screws—those con- necting the disk with the cylinder or collar, and the ring with the disk—are laid in a cement, which Mr. Green contrived, and which, fusible only at a very high heat, has the property of quick- ly hardening. An idea of the tightness thus given to all the joints may be formed, when I state that in an experimental ar- rangement of this kind, wherein the disk had been turned out of 240. New Form of Mountain or other Barometer. a piece of cast-iron, supposed to be uniform enough,—the tube being inverted and immersed in water of about 130°,—the ex- panded mercury, not able to escape by any of the joints, actually forced its way in two or three places through the metal itself; that is, through flaws in its texture, though they were so micro- scopic as not to be observable to the naked eye, except by the emission of the quicksilver. So comminuted was the stream, and so great the force of emission, that the metal ascended in graceful wreaths, like smoke, to a height not less than two feet. Having now explained the different parts of the instrument, I shall describe the various steps which were taken in the com- position of it. First, upon the open end of the tube was cemented the collar; and they were then ground to remove any irregularities, and make them fit evenly. Then the tube was clamped in a vice; and the disk was screwed on in cement, as far as possible. Clean mercury was then sifted into the tube, until it filled a part of the disk. 'The whole was then boiled over a spirit-lamp by suc- cessive portions; the flame being finally brought about as near to the end of the tube, as is shewn in fig. 2. ‘The whole was then replaced in the vice, the plate of Russia-iron laid in its place, and the ring screwed on in cement, as tightly as might be. ‘The tube was then removed, the side-screw taken out, while the in- strument was held in a position somewhat inclined, but not so far as by possibility to uncover the end of the tube by the mercu- ry now contained in the disk; and warm mercury was sifted down through the screw-hole, until it overflowed. The overflowing was regulated by the pressure of the finger against the elastic bottom, the tube being held nearly horizontal; and the screw was inserted and turned tight. I should have said that due care was taken, before inserting the screw, to disentangle and expel any air that might have been taken in with the mercury; and the proof of success in that regard was afforded, in giving the in- strument, held in proper position, some smart shocks in order to see if any air could be forced up the tube above the cylinder. None shewed itself; and I think because there was none there. This mode of terminating the tube, I regard as one of the most important modifications which it has been my aim to describe ; and the merit of its suggestion belongs to Mr. Green, the artist who constructed the various portions of the instrument. ‘The New Form of Mountain or other Barometer. 2AL end which we had in view, in various plans which were con- trived and tried, was to provide some means of following the expansions and contractions of the mercury, arising from chan- ges of temperature ; so as to furnish the air no chance of getting in. This the elastic plate does very well; indeed I may say completely: the heat of the hand being enough, in a few min- utes, to cause a convex appearance, and the pressure of the at- mosphere, on its removal to a cold room, sufficient to make it concave. It was of course interesting, to have the plate, and by conse- quence the disk, of as small a diameter as would be compatible with the other conditions requisite. After some experiments, therefore, to ascertain what elasticity was attainable by hammer- ing out the Russia-iron, consistent with uniformity and strength, I calculated the following table, shewing the relations existing between the clear inside diameter of the disk and that of the tube, on the assumption that the range of temperature does not exceed 90° Fahr., and that the mercury is always pressed upon by the plate. Inside diameter of disk, Inside tube-diameter. or exposed plate diameter. Inch. Inches. 0.20 0.59 0.25 1.13 0.30 1.35 0.40 1.81 0.50 2.26 0.60 2.71 0.70 3.16 0.75 3.09 These proportions have been found to suit very well in prac- tice in the instances where they have been applied. I have before spoken of the advantage in precision, which the symmetrical disposition of the float is presumed to afford to the measurements. I give here the formula, for calculating the amount of correction which is to be applied to make up for the partial sinking of the float, and the consequent elevation of the mercury in the tube and cistern. It is manifest, that the heavier the float, with the same diame- ter, the deeper it (and of course the zero of the graduation) will sink in the cistern; and also, that with a float of constant weight Vol. xtv, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1843, 31 242 New Form of Mountain or other Barometer. and diameter, the larger the cistern the less will be the vertical rise of the fluid in it, in consequence of the displacement by the float. If then we call W, the weight of the float—for instance in grains ; w, the weight of a cubic inch of mercury at any given tempe- rature ; 4, the diameter of the cistern in inches; D, the diameter of the float Ki d, the external diameter of tube ‘ 0, the internal diameter “ su And z, the circumference of a circle whose diameter is unity ; the sum of the correction will be Ww ( 1 1 —([- osayt@rzem)) 5 reducing to a common denominator, we have W . (42-402 —d?) ee eran (D2 —d?) ; (42 +5? —D?) If we neglect the change of specific gravity by a change of tem- perature, as we may in this case safely do, and take w=3426.56 grs. (which corresponds to a specific gravity for mercury of 13.5728 at 62° F., and very near 13.6 at the maximum density of water,) and give to z its numerical value of 3.14156, etc., the correction becomes in round numbers Wi. (42-0? =a?) —9691. (D?—d*).(4?-40°—D*) Such is the quantity to be subtracted from the reading, in order to give the height of the barometric column unaffected by the weight of the float. It only remains to be added, that in comparing the few barom- eters of this construction, which have so far been made, with some others, among which were those of Mr. Troughton, of Mr. Hassler, and of Mr. Green—I mean coming from the hands of the persons named—the former, after deducting the amount of correction, stood uniformly higher than any of the latter; which I attribute not so much to the individual precautions in securing a better vacuum as to the greater precision with which the zero of the measurement can be ascertained. Baltimore, Md., May 25, 1843. Dr. Maniell’s Notice of Molluskite. 243 Art. Il.—WNotice of “ Molluskite,” or the fossilized remains of the soft parts of Mollusca; by Giron Aucernon Manre.u, Esq., LL. D., F.R.S., G.S., &e. [Read before the Geological Society of London, January, 1843.] Since the interesting discovery by Dr. Buckland of the nature and origin of the fossil remains termed coprolites, substances hav- ing the same general appearance and composition, but destitute of the spiral structure, and distributed in amorphous masses in the strata, have commonly béen placed in the same category under the name of pseudo-coprolites. In the blocks of firestone or upper green sand, which are seen at low water along the shore at Southbourne in Sussex, con- cretions of this kind are thickly interspersed among the shells which abound in those rocks. In my earliest geological research- es along the Sussex coast, these fossil bodies particularly arrested my attention, but I failed to obtain any clue to their origin, until the important memoir on coprolites by Dr. Buckland, pointed out the right path of enquiry, and offered a satisfactory solution of a problem which had baffled the attempts of previous observers. That a large proportion of the concretionary and nodular mass- es of the substance in question is the mineralized egesta of fishes and other marine animals, there can be but little doubt ; although it is rarely possible to detect the traces of intestinal structure which are so commonly impressed, more or less distinctly, on the coprolites of the chalk, wealden, and lias. But in the rocks at Southbourne, instances are not unfrequent in which the copro- litic matter (I use the term for the sake of convenience) occurs in the state of casts of shells belonging to the genera Cucullea, Venus, 'Trochus, &c., which abound in the firestone ; and in these examples the substance appears to have originated from the soft bodies of the mollusca. In Sussex, in the layers of firestone which occur at the line of junction with the galt, pseudo-copro- lites are very abundant. They are not uncommon in the beds of galt, at Ringmer and Norsington near Lewes, and at Bletching- ly in Surrey ; and they abound in the same argillaceous deposit at Folkstone in Kent. Dr. Fitton, in his elaborate memoir on the strata below the chalk, (Geological Transactions, Vol. LV, part 2, page 111,) has given an accurate description and analysis of 244 Dr. Mantell’s Notice of Molluskite. the coprolitic nodules and concretions which occur at Folkstone. Dr. Fitton states, “that they resemble coprolites in their chem- ical composition, though no traces of animal structure are appa- rent in them. 'They sometimes enclose portions of shells, but no fragments of bone or scales of fishes have been detected. In some cases they are of a very irregular figure, surrounding or incorporated with fossil remains, especially of ammonites, the an- terior of which is filled up with matter of the same kind.” ‘The last quoted remark of this eminent geologist, bears immediately on the subject of the present communication. In the grey Shanklin sand these substances also abound in some localities. I have observed them in western Sussex, in Surrey, in the Isle of Wight near Ventnor, andin Kent. But in no locality do they occur in greater number and variety, than in the “Iguanodon quarry” of Kentish rag near Maidstone, belong- ing to Mr. W. H. Beusted, to whose talents, zeal, and liberality, geology is indebted for many important discoveries. Mr. Beusted having long paid attention to this subject, had the kindness to submit to my examination (more than two years since) several specimens of Rostellarize, Trigoniz, Cucullea, and other shells, the cavities of which were filled with a dark brown substance, in every respect identical with the nodular and irregu- lar concretions of coprolitic matter, which abound in the sur- rounding sandstone. At the same time Mr. Beusted expressed his conviction that the carbonaceous substance was derived from the soft bodies of the mollusca, and that the concretionary and amorphous portions of the same matter, dispersed throughout the sandstone of this bed, were fossilized masses of the soft bodies of the animals which had become disengaged from their shells, and floated in the sea, till enveloped in the sand and mud, which is now concreted into the sandstone called Kentish rag. ‘The evi- dence collected by Mr. Beusted appears to me so conclusive, and so confirmatory of the correctness of the opinion I have previ- ously advanced, that I beg to place before the Society the fol- lowing abstract of his correspondence with me on the subject. “The bed of Kentish rag in my quarry which lies immediate- ly beneath the stratum that contained the remains of the Iguano- don, abounds in the usual shells of the Shanklin sand, particu- Jarly in Trigoniee, (generally 'T’. aleeformis,) and there is an abun- dance of a dark brown coprolitic looking matter, of which I send Dr. Mantell’s Notice of Molluskite. 245 you specimens. In some instances this material actually forms the entire casts of the univalves and bivalves, and I think there can be no doubt that it is derived from the soft bodies of the animals which inhabited the shells found in connection with it, fossilized in this peculiar manner. 'There are many examples which look more like true coprolites of fishes, and some of these contain shells partly crushed, as if they had been the partially digested contents of the intestinal canal. I am therefore inclined to think that the dark material which now occupies the shells, was the soft body of the mollusc, that those of a concretionary form which are imbedded in the stone are coprolites, and that the shapeless portions of this substance distributed in the rock have originated from floating masses of dead shell-fish. In illus- tration of the manner in which such an accumulation of mate- rials as I find in my quarry, may have been formed, I beg to call your attention to the following extract from the American Journal of Science for 1837, which seems to me to afford an explanation of some of the appearances that I have attempted to describe. ““¢One of the most curious phenomena of the year 1836, was the fatal effect of an epidemic among the molluscous animals or shell fish of the Muskingum River, in the state of Ohio. It commenced in April and continued until June, destroying mil- lions of that great race, which peoples the beds of streams. As the animals died, the valves of the shells opened, and decompo- sition commencing, the muscular adhesions gave way and the fleshy portions rose to the surface of the water, leaving the shells in the bed of the stream. As masses of the dead bodies floated down the current, the headlands of islands, piles of fixed drifted wood, and the shores of the river in many places were covered with them, and the air in the vicinity was tainted with the pu- trid effluvia exhaling from these accumulations of decomposing animal matter. 'The cause of the disease among the shelly tribes remains as much a mystery as that of the Asiatic cholera among the human race.’ “‘ Now nearly the whole of the shells which occur in the bed of Kentish rag, appear to have been dead shells. I mean that from the open state of the valves it is probable that the animals for the most part, were dead before they were enveloped in the sand and mud; and from the large quantity of water-worn fragments of wood perforated by lithodomi, that is imbedded with them, it 246 Dr. Mantell’s Notice of Molluskite. ~ would seem that this stratum had constituted a bank of drifted wood and shells, presenting a very analogous condition to the phenomena above described. ‘The gelatinous bodies of the 'Tri- goniz, Gervilliz, Ostreze, Rostellaric, &c. detached from their shells may have been intermingled with the drift wood, in a sand bank, while in some instances the animal matter would remain in the shells, and become fossilized in the state observable in the accompanying examples.” The above remarks present a correct view of the circumstances under which the phenomena referred to occur in the quarry of Mr. Beusted. Some of the dark substances extracted from a Trigonia, was submitted by my friend, the Rev. J. B. Reade, to a careful anal- ysis by Mr. Rigg, who obligingly favored me with the following note: “My analysis confirms your suspicion respecting the pres- ence of animal carbon in the substance which you sent for ex- amination. After removing the lime, &c. by means of dilute hydrochloric acid from ten grains of the darker portion of the stone, there remained 1.2 grains of dark powder, which gave by analysis with oxide of copper .16 of a cubic inch of carbonic acid, and apparently a small portion of nitrogen. On subjecting to the same kind of analysis two grains of the darker body without previously acting upon it by any acid, .054 of a cubic inch of carbonic acid was obtained ; so that from these results there is no doubt but the darker portion of these substances contains about .35 per cent. of its weight of carbon in an organized state.” The presence of animal carbon in fossil remains will, I expect, be found of frequent occurrence, not only enclosed in the shells of mollusca, but disseminated in the surrounding matrix. In the unique specimen of a fossil fox from Ruingen, which I had the pleasure of dissecting for our distinguished president, I found a considerable quantity of carbonaceous coprolitic matter within the abdominal region, and I have frequently detected its presence in the grit and sandstone of Tilgate Forest associated with the bones of reptiles. The black material which is so commonly seen to occupy some of the spiral cavities of the Paludina com- posing the Sussex and Purbeck marbles, and which by its con- trast with the white calcareous spar, adds considerably to the beauty of those fresh-water limestones, contains a large propor- tion of animal carbon, doubtless derived from the soft parts of Evzistence of Radicals in the Amphide Salis disproved. 247 the mollusca having been enclosed at the period of its formation. A microscopical examination detects with a low power innume- rable portions of the nacreous lamine of the shells of extreme thinness, intermingled with the carbonaceous matter, together with numerous siliceous spiculz of sponges, very minute spines of echinoderms and fragments of Polyparia; these extraneous bodies probably became entangled among the soft animal matter before the latter had undergone decomposition. If my inferences be deemed correct, the term molluskite would be a proper designation for the substance in question. N. B. This memoir was illustrated by drawings and numerous specimens of the molluskite, in some instances forming large amorphous carbonaceous masses in the sandstone, and in others filling the shells of the Trigoniz, Terebratule, &c.* Crescent Lodge, Clapham Common, (Eng.) January, 1843. Art. IIl.—An effort to refute the arguments advanced in favor of the E'xistence, in the Amphide Salts, of Radicals consist- ing, like Cyanogen, of more than one element; by Roserr Hare, M. D., Prof. Chem. Univ. Pennsylvania. (Concluded from p. 65.) 46. Respecting the new principles which I have been contest- ing, Dr. Kane alleges “that the elegance and simplicity with which the laws of saline combination may be traced from them is remarkable,” because he conceives, that without an appeal to those principles, the fact that the number of equivalents of acid in a salt are proportionable to the number of equivalents of oxy- gen in the base, would be inexplicable. 47. 'Thus, when the base is a protoxide, we have one atom of the protoxide of hydrogen to take its place; when the base is a sesquioxide (two of radical and three of oxygen,) three atoms of the protoxide of hydrogen take its place : if the base be a bioxide, two atoms of the protoxide of hydrogen take its place. * Dr. Mantell has been so kind as to forward to us, in illustration of his memoir, very distinct and satisfactory specimens of the molluskite, together with ammo- nites from the Kimmeridge clay, having elongated beaks in good preservation ; also belemnites with their chambers preserved.—Eps. 248 Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. 48. I have already adverted to the existence of certain chemi- cal laws, inexplicable in the present state of human knowledge. Among these is that of the necessity of oxidation to enable me- tallic radicals to combine with acids. But asa similar mystery exists as respects the adventitious property of combining with radicals, which results from the acquisition of an additional atom of oxygen by any of the compounds hitherto considered as an- hydrous acids, the new doctrine has in that respect no pre-emin- ent claim to credence. A9. But if, without impairing the comparative pretensions of the prevailing doctrine, we may appeal to the fact that the ac- quisition of an atom of oxygen confers upon a radical the basic power to hold one atom of acid, is it not consistent that the ac- quisition of two atoms of oxygen should confer the power to hold two atoms of acid, and that with each further acquisition of oxy- gen a further power to hold acids should be conferred ? 50. So far then there is in the old doctrine no more inscruta- bility than in that which has been proposed as its successor. Since if on the one hand it be requisite that for each atom of oxygen in the base, there shall be an atom of acid in any salt which it may form, on the other, in the case of the three oxy- phosphions, for each additional atom of hydrogen extraneous to the salt radical, there must be an atom of oxygen superadded to this radical. 51. It being then admitted that, numerically, the atoms of acid in any oxysalt will be as the atoms of oxygen in the base, it must be evident that whenever an oxysalt of a protoxide is decomposed by a bioxide, there will have to be two atoms of the former for one of the latter. For the bioxide has two atoms of oxygen, and requires by the premises two atoms of acid, while the salt of the protoxide, having but one atom of oxygen, can hold, and yield, only one atom of acid. 'T'wo atoms of this salt, therefore, whe- ther its base be water, or any other protoxide, will be decomposed by one atom of bioxide; provided the affinity of the acid for the bioxide predominate over that entertained for the protoxide, as when water is the base. 52. It follows, that the displacement of water from its sulphate, adduced by Kane, does not favor the idea that hydrous sulphuric acid is an oxysulphionide of hydrogen, more than the impression that it is a sulphate of water. Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. 249 53. Of course, in the case of presenting either a sesquioxide, or a trioxide, to the last mentioned sulphate, in other words, hy- drous sulphuric acid, the same rationale will be applicable. 54, The next argument advanced by Dr. Kane, is, that some of the acids of which the existence is assumed upon the old doc- trine, are hypothetical, as they have never been isolated. This mode of reasoning may be made to react against the new doctrine with pre-eminent force, since all of the compound radicals ima- gined by it are hypothetical—none of them having been isolated. 55. he third argument of the respectable author above named is, that acids display their acid character in a high degree only when in the combination with water. 56. This argument should be considered in reference to two different cases, in one of which all the water held by the acid is _in the state of a base, while in the other an additional quantity is present acting asa solvent. So far as water, acting as a solvent, facilitates the reaction between acids and bases, it performs a part in common with alcohol, ether, volatile oils, resins, vitrifiable fluxes, and caloric. Its efficacy must be referred to the general law, that fluidity is necessary to chemical reaction. ‘Corpora non agunt nisi soluta.” 57. Ina majority of cases, basic water, unaided by an addition- al portion acting as a solvent, is quite incompetent to produce re- action between acids and other bodies. Neither between sul- phuric acid and zinc, between nitric acid and silver, nor between glacial or crystallized acids and metallic oxides, does any reaction take place without the aid of water acting as a solvent, and per- forming a part analogous to that which heat performs in promo- ting the union of those oxybases with boric, or silicic acid. 58. It is only with soluble acids that water has any eflicacy. The difference between the energy of sulphuric and silicic acid, under the different circumstances in which they can reciprocally displace each other, is founded on the nature of the solvents which they require, the one being only capable of liquefaction by water, the other by caloric. 59. In support of his opinions the author adverts to the fact, that with hydrated sulphuric acid, baryta will combine energet- ically in the cold, while a similar union between the anhydrous vapor and the same base cannot be accomplished without heat. But it ought to be recollected, that to make this argument good, Vol. xiv, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1843. 32 250 Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. it should be shown wherefore heat causes the baryta, a perfectly fixed body, to unite more readily with an aériform substance in which increase of temperature must, by rarefaction, diminish the number of its particles in contact with the solid. If the only an- swer be, that heat effects some mysterious changes in affinity, (or as I would say in the electrical state of the particles, ) it should be shown that the presence of water or any other base has not been productive of a similar change, before another explanation is held to be necessary.. But I would also call to mind that the hydrated acid is presented in the liquid state; and if it be asked why water, having less affinity than baryta, can better cause the condensation of the acid, I reply, that it is brought into contact with the acid both as a liquid and a vapor, of neither of which forms is the earthy base susceptible. But if all that is necessary to convert anhydrous sulphuric acid into an oxysulphionide, be an atom of oxygen and an atom of metal, what is to prevent baryta and anhydrous sulphuric acid from forming an oxysulphionide of barium? All the elements are present which are necessary to form either a sulphate or oxysulphionide ; and I am unable to conceive wherefore the inability to combine does not operate as much against the existence of radicals as of bases. 60. I would be glad to learn why, agreeably to the salt radical theory, anhydrous sulphuric acid unites with water more greedily than with baryta, and yet abandons the water promptly on being presented to this base. Why should it form an oxysulphionide with hydrogen more readily than with barium, and yet display, subsequently, a vastly superior affinity for barium ? 61. It seems to be overlooked, that anhydrous sulphuric acid, being the oxysulphion of the sulphites, ought to form sudphites on contact with metals. 62. But if the sulphate of water owe its energy to that portion of this liquid, which, by its decomposition gives rise to the com- pound radical oxysulphion, and not to the portion which operates as a solvent, wherefore in the concentrated state, will it not react with iron and zinc, without additional water, when, with dilution, it reacts most powerfully with those metals. 63. Some stress has been laid upon the fact, that sourness is not perceived, excepting with the aid of water, as if to derive force for the new doctrine from that old and popular, though now aban- - doned test of acidity ; but it should be recollected that it is not the Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. 251 water which goes to form the compound element in the ‘‘hydra- cids,” erroneously so called, which confers sourness. Will any one pretend that either sulphuric or nitric acid, when concentra- ted, issour? Are they not caustic? Can any of the crystallized organic acids be said to have a sour taste, independently of the moisture of the tongue? 'The hydrated oily acids being incapa- ble of uniting with water as a solvent, have none of these vul- gar attributes of acidity. ‘The absence of these attributes in prus- sic acid would alone be sufficient to render it inconsistent to consider them as having any connexion with the presence of hy- drogen. 64. It has been remarked, that liquid carbonic acid does not combine with oxides on contact. To this I would add, that it does not combine with water under those circumstances, but, on the contrary, separates from it like oil, after mechanical mixture: nor does it, under any circumstances, unite with an equivalent propor- tion of water to form a hydrate. Of course, as it is not to basic water that it is indebted for its ability to become an ingredient in salts, it cannot be held that this faculty is the result of its previous conversion into an oxycarbionide of hydrogen. 65. Chromic acid is admitted not to require water for isolation, and cannot, therefore, be considered as oxychromionide of hydro- gen. Yet the oil of bitter almonds, which consists of a compound radical, benzule, and an atom of hydrogen, and which is there- fore constituted precisely as the salt radical doctrine requires for endowment with the attributes of an “hydracid,” is utterly des- titute of that acid reaction which hydrogen is represented as pe-~ culiarly competent to impart. It follows that we have, on the one hand, in chromic acid, a compound endowed with the attri- butes of acidity, without being a hydruret of any compound ra- dical ; and, on the other, in oil of bitter almonds, a hydruret of a compound radical, without any of the attributes of acidity. 66. The last argument in favor of the existence of salt radicals, which I have to answer, is that founded on certain results of the electrolysis of saline solutions.* * [t is well known that Faraday employed a very simple instrument to ascer- tain the quantity of the gaseous elements of water yielded in a given time, by a liquid subjected to the voltaic current. It consisted of a graduated tube, through the cavity of which the current was conveyed by wires, so terminating within ‘it, as to have an interval between them through which the current, being convey- 252 Huaistence of Radicals in the Amphide Salis disproved. 67. On subjecting a solution of sulphate of soda to electrolysis, so as to be exposed to the current employed, simultaneously with some water in a voltameter, Daniell alleges that, for each equiv- alent of the gaseous elements of water evolved in the voltameter, there was evolved at the cathode and anode, not only a like quan- tity of those elements, but likewise an equal number of equiva- lents of soda and sulphuric acid. This he considers as involving the necessity, agreeably to the old doctrine, of the simultaneous decomposition of two electrolytic atoms in the solution, for one in the voltameter; while, if the solution be considered as holding oxysulphionide of sodium, instead of sulphate of soda, the result may be explained consistently with the law ascertained by Far- aday. In that case, oxysulphion would be carried to the anode, where, combining with hydrogen, it would cause oxygen to be extricated, while sodium, earried to the cathode, and deoxidizing water, would cause the extrication of hydrogen. 68. Dr. Kane, alluding to the experiments above mentioned, and some others which I shall mention, alleges that ‘“ Profes- sor Daniell considers the binary theory of salts to be fully estab- lished by them. 69. Notwithstanding the deference which I have for the dis- tinguished inventor of the constant battery, and disinclination for. the unpleasant task of striving to prove a friend to be in the wrong, being of opinion that these inferences are erroneous, I feel it to be my duty, as a teacher of the science, to show that they are founded upon a misinterpretation of the facts appealed to for their justification. 70. It appears to me, that the simultaneous appearance of the elements of water, and of acid and alkali, at the electrodes, as above stated, may be accounted for, simply by that electrolyzation of the soda, which must be the natural consequence of the expo- sure of the sulphate of that base in the circuit. I will in support: of the exposition which I am about to make, quote the language ed by the electrolytic process, effected the decomposition of the intervening liquid, the resulting gas being caught and measured by the tube. This instrument has been called a volta-electrometer, or voltameter. Faraday found that when various substances were electrolyzed, a voltameter being at the same time in the circuit, that for every equivalent of water decom- posed within the tube, neither more nor less than an equivalent of the other body could be decomposed. Evistence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. 253 of Professor Daniell, in his late work, entitled, “Introduction to Chemical Philosophy,” page 413 :— ‘Thus we may conceive that the force of affinity receives an impulse which enables the hydrogen of the first particle of water, which under- goes decomposition, to combine momentarily with the oxygen of the next particle in succession; the hydrogen of this again, with the oxy- gen of the next; and so on till the last particle of hydrogen commu- nicates its impulse to the platinum, and escapes in its own elastic form.” 71. The process here represented as taking place in the in- stance of the oxide of hydrogen, takes place, of course, in that of any other electrolyte. P 72. It is well known, that when a fixed alkaline solution is subjected to the voltaic current, that the alkali, whether soda or potassa, is decomposed ; so that if mercury be used for the cath- ode, the nascent metal, being protected by uniting therewith, an amalgam is formed. If the cathode be of platinum, the metal, being unprotected, is, by decomposing water, reconverted into an oxide as soon as evolved. This shows, that when a salt of po- tassa or soda is subjected to the voltaic current, it is the alkali which is the primary object of attack, the decomposition of the water being a secondary result. 73. If in a row of the atoms of soda, extending from one elec- trode to the other, while forming the base of a sulphate, a series ‘of electrolytic decompositions be induced from the cathode on the right, to the anode on the left, by which each atom of sodium in the row will be transferred from the atom of acid with which it was previously combined, to that next upon the right, causing an atom of the metal to be liberated at the cathode; this atom, deoxidizing water, will account for the soda and hydrogen at the cathode. Meanwhile the atom of sulphate on the left, which has been deprived of its sodium, must simultaneously have yielded to the anode the oxygen by which this metal was oxi- dized. Of course the acid is left in the hydrous state, usually called free, though more correctly esteemed to be that of a sul- phate of water. 74. I cannot conceive how any other result could be expected from the electrolysis of the base of sulphate of soda, than that 254 Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salis disproved. which is here described. Should any additional illustration be requisite, it will be found in a note subjoined.* 75. I will, in the next place, consider the phenomena observed by Professor Daniell, when solutions of potassa and sulphate of copper, separated by a membrane, were made the medium of a voltaic current. 76. Of these I here quote his own account—(Philosophical Magazine and Journal, Vol. xvu, p. 172)— ‘‘ A small glass bell, with an aperture at top, had its mouth closed by tying a piece of thin membrane over it. It was half filled with a dilute solution of caustic potassa, and suspended in a glass vessel containing a strong neutral solution of sulphate of copper, below the surface of which * It is easy to understand how a simultaneous appearance of oxygen and acid at the anode, and soda and hydrogen at the cathode, may ensue, simply by the electrolyzation of the alkaline base from the following association of formule. Anhydrous sulphuric acid is represented by the usual formula, SO3 ; oxygen by the usual symbol, O; sodium by Na; water, acting as asolvent, by HO. Each atom of oxygen, sodium, or acid, is numbered from right to left, 1, 2, 3, 4, so that the change of position consequent to electrolysis may be seen. 12 2. 3. 4, Water. Anode O O O O HO Cathode. 1 a 3h 4 an Ten on en Na Na Na Na 1 2 3h 4 LEA eA CY" LO SO3 SO3 SO3 SO3 HO HO HO HO L. 2 3. 4. Anode O O O O O H Cathode. ] 2. 3 4, eon en ~a eon Na Na Na Na 2. Bh 4 LON LEA LEA SO3 SO3 803 SO3 HO HO HO HO As the atoms are situated in the second arrangement, the atom of oxygen (1), is 1, ; enn at the anode, the atom of sodium, Na, with which it had been united, having been transferred to the second atom of sulphuric acid, which had yielded its sodium to 3. rea the third atom of acid, SO3, this having, in like manner, yielded its sodium to 4 4. YN | etna the fourth atom of acid, SO3, from which the fourth atom of sodium, Na, had been abstracted by the electrolytic power. The atom of sodium thus removed from the fourth atom of acid, is represented in union with the oxygen of an atom of water, of which the hydrogen, H, is at the cathode. Ezistence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. 255 it just dipped. A platinum electrode, connected with the last zinc rod of a large constant battery of twenty cells, was placed in the solution of potassa ; and another, connected with the copper of the first cell, was placed in the sulphate of copper immediately under the diaphragm which separated the two solutions. The circuit conducted very readily, and the action was very energetic. Hydrogen was given off at the platinode in a solution of potassa, and oxygen at the zincode in the sul- phate of copper. A small quantity of gas was also seen to rise from the surface of the diaphragm. In about ten minutes the lower surface of the membrane was found beautifully coated with metallic copper, interspersed with oxide of copper of a black color, and hydrated oxide of copper of a light blue. “The explanation of these phenomena is obvious. In the experi- mental cell we have two electrolytes separated by a membrane, through both of which the current must pass to complete its circuit. The sul- phate of copper is resolved into its compound anion, sulphuric acid + oxygen (oxysulphion), and its simple cathion, copper: the oxygen of the former escapes at the zincode, but the copper on its passage to the platinode is stopped at the surface of the second electrolyte, which for the present we may regard as water improved in its conducting power by potassa. The metal here finds nothing by combining with which it can complete its course, but being forced to stop, yields up its charge to the hydrogen of the second electrolyte, which passes on to the pla- tinode, and is evolved. “The corresponding oxygen stops also at the diaphragm, giving up its charge to the anion of the sulphate of copper. The copper and oxy- gen thus meeting at the intermediate point, partly enter into combina- tion, and form the black oxide; but from the rapidity of the action, there is not time for the whole to combine, and a portion of the cop- per remains in the metallic state, and a portion of the gaseous oxygen escapes. The precipitation of blue hydrated oxide doubtless arose from the mixing of a small portion of the two solutions.” 77. It will be admitted, that agreeably to the admirable re- searches of Faraday, there are two modes in which a voltaic cur- rent may be transmitted, conduction and electrolyzation. In order that it may pass by the last mentioned process, there must be a row of anions and cathions forming a series of electrolytic atoms extending from the cathode to the anode. It is not necessary that these atoms should belong to the same fluid. A succession of atoms, whether homogeneous, or of two kinds, will answer, provided either be susceptible of electrolyzation. Both of the liquids resorted to by Daniell, contained atoms susceptible of 256 Ezistence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. being electrolyzed. If his idea of the composition of sulphate of copper, and the part performed by the potassa, were admitted for the purpose of illustration, we should, on one side of the mem- brane, have a row of atoms consisting of oxysulphion and copper ; on the other, of oxygen and hydrogen. 78. Recurring to Daniell’s own description of the electrolyzing process, above quoted, an atom of copper near the anode being liberated from its anion, oxysulphion, and charged with electrici- ty, seizes the next atom of oxysulphion, displacing and charging an atom of copper therewith united. The cupreous atom thus charged and displaced, seizes a third atom of oxysulphion, sub- jecting the copper, united with it, to the same treatment as it had itself previously met with. This process being repeated by a succession of similar decompositions and recompositions, an elec- trified atom of copper is evolved at the membrane, where there is no atom of oxysulphion. Were there no other anion to receive the copper, evidently the electrolyzation would not have taken place ; but oxygen, on the one side of the membrane, must suc- ceed to the office performed by oxysulphion on the other side; while hydrogen, in like manner, must succeed to the office of the copper. 79. Such being the inevitable conditions of the process, how can it be correctly alleged by Professor Daniell, the transfer of the copper being arrested at the membrane, that as this metal “can find nothing to combine with,” it gives up its electrical charge to the hydrogen, which proceeds to the cathode: As hy- drogen cannot be present, excepting as an ingredient in water, how can it be said that the copper can discharge itseif upon the hydrogen, without combining with the oxygen necessarily liber- ated at the same time by the electrolytic process? How could the copper, in discharging itself to a cathion, escape a simultane- ous seizure by an anion? Would not the oxidizement of this metal be a step indispensable to the propagation of that electro- lytic process, by which alone the hydrogen could, as alleged, ““nass to the platinode,” i. e. cathode ? 80. In these strictures Iam fully justified by the following allegations of Faraday, which I quote from his Researches, 826, 828 :— “A single ion, i. e. one not in combination with another, will have no tendency to pass to either of the electrodes, and will be perfectly Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. 257 indifferent to the passing current, unless it be itself a compound of more elementary ions, and so subject to actual decomposition.” “Tf, therefore, an ion pass towards one of the electrodes, another ion must also be passing simultaneously to the other electrode, although, from secondary action, it may not make its appearance.” 81. In explanation of the mixed precipitates produced upon the membrane, I suggest that the hydrated oxide resulted from chemical reaction between the alkali and acid, the oxide from the oxygen of the water or potassa acting as a cathion in place of that of the oxide of copper: also that the metallic copper is to be attributed to the solutions acting both as conductors and as electrolytes ; so that, at the membrane, two feeble electrodes were formed, which enabled a portion of the copper to be discharged. without combining with an anion, and a portion of oxygen to be discharged without uniting with a cathion. In this expla- nation I am supported by the author’s account of a well known experiment by Faraday, in which a solution of magnesia and water was made to act as electrodes at their surfaces respectively. 82. There can, I think, be no better proof that no reliance should be placed on the experiments with membranes, in this and other cases where the existence of compound radicals in acids is to be tested, than the error into which an investigator, so saga- cious as my friend Professor Daniell, has been led, in explaining the complicated results. ; 83. The association of two electrolytes, and the chemical re- action between the potassa and acid, which is admitted to have evolved the hydrated oxide, seem rather to have created difficul- ties than to have removed them. 84. In this view of the subject, I am supported by the opinion of Faraday, as expressed in the following language :— ‘** When other metallic solutions are used, containing, for instance, peroxides, as that of copper combined with this or any decomposable acid, still more complicated results will be obtained, which, viewed as the direct results of electro-chemical action, will, in their proportions, present nothing but confusion; but will appear perfectly harmoni- ous and simple, if they be considered as secondary results, and will accord in their proportions with the oxygen and hydrogen evolved from water by the action of a definite quantity of electricity.” 85. I cannot conceive, that in any point of view the complica- ted and “‘confused” results of the experiment of Daniell with electrolytes separated by membranes, are rendered more intelli- Vol. xtv, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1843. 33 258 Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. gible by supposing the existence of salt radicals. I cannot per- ceive that the idea that the anion in the sulphate is oxysulphion, makes the explanation more satisfactory than if we suppose it to be oxygen. Were a solution of copper subjected to electrolysis alone, if the oxide of copper were the primary object of the cur- rent, the result would be analogous to the case of sodium, except- ing that the metal evolved at the cathode, not decomposing water, would appear in the metallic form. If water be the primary ob- ject of attack, the evolution of copper would be a secondary ef- fect. 86. It is remarkable, that after I had written the preceding interpretation of Daniell’s experiments, I met with the following deductions stated by Matteuchi, as the result of an arduous series of experiments, without any reference to those of Daniell above mentioned. It will be perceived that these deductions coincide perfectly with mine. 87. I subjoin a literal translation of the language of Matteuchi from the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, tome 74, 1840, page 110 :— ‘‘When salt, dissolved in water, is decomposed by the voltaic cur- rent, if the action of the current be confined to the salt, for each equiv- alent of water decomposed in the voltameter, there will be an equiva- lent of metal at the negative pole, and an equivalent of acid, plus an equivalent of oxygen, at the positive pole. The metal separated at the negative pole will be in the metallic state, or oxidized, according to its nature. If oxidized, an equivalent of hydrogen will be simultane- ously disengaged by the chemical decomposition of water.” 88. "hus it seems, that the appearance of acid and oxygen at the anode, and of alkali and hydrogen at the cathode, which has been considered as requiring the simultaneous decomposition of two electrolytes upon the heretofore received theory of salts, has, by Matteuchi, been found to be a result requiring the electrolysis of the metallic base only, and, consequently, to be perfectly recon- cilable with that theory. 89. In fact 1 had, from the study of Faraday’s Researches, taken up the impression, that the separate appearance of an acid and base, previously forming a salt, at the voltaic electrodes, was to be viewed as a secondary effect of the decomposition of the water or the base; so that acids and bases were never the direct objects of electrolytic transfer. Evistence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. 259. Of Liebig’s “ Principles,’ so called. 90. Under the head of the “theory of organic acids,” in Liebig’s Treatise on Organic Chemistry, we find the following allegations dignified by the name of principles. Manifestly they must tend to convey a false impression to the student, that hydrogen has a peculiar property of creating a capacity for saturation, instead of being only the measure of that capacity, as is actually true, and likewise that in this respect it differs from any other radical. 91. The allegations to which I refer are as follows, being a literal translation from the French copy of the Traité of Liebig, page 7 :— “ the capacity of the tube from the point marked a to the | ¢ lower extremity is equal to the capacity of 50° of the other tube, and the other two marks correspond to ten and five; the use that is made of these, will be hereafter ex- plained. Fig. 2. Carbonate of Lime present in Calcareous Substances. 265 Manner of performing the analysis.—Being furnished with the two tubes, the two fluids, a cup or other convenient vessel, a small piece of glass rod a few inches long, a wine-glass, and a piece of litmus paper, a portion of which has been reddened by an acid, we proceed as follows. Weigh out fifty grains of the sub- stance to be examined, place it in the cup and add to it about one ounce of water, fill the instrument last described up to-the highest mark upon the stem with the acid; this is done by hold- ing it between the thumb and fore-finger, having the little finger applied to the lower opening. After the acid is poured in, before withdrawing the finger, introduce the cork and place the fore- finger of the other hand upon the opening of the tube on the cork, for the purpose of preventing the liquid flowing out, when the lower opening is left unprotected ; after seeing that the acid stands exactly at the mark, it is allowed to flow gradually upon the substance. After all the action has ceased, stirring it towards the end to insure this result, we fill the graduated tube with the solution of ammonia, in the same manner as we did the last, and let it fall gradually upon the mixture of acid and calcareous sub- stance, arresting at will the progress of the flow, by simply pla- cing the finger upon the tube in the cork. This instrument should always be transferred to the left hand and held in an in- clined position. During the addition of ammonia, the mixture should be well agitated with the glass rod, and occasionally tested by bringing a little of it upon the extremity of the rod in contact with the litmus paper, and so soon as it ceases to turn this paper red, or begins to. turn the red part of it blue, the experiment is completed, and we now look at what number of degrees the fluid stands in the tube and we are furnished with the per centage of carbonate of lime contained in the calcareous substance examin- ed.* We may be saved the trouble of testing too often, by pay- ing attention te the strength of the reaction of the fluid upon the litmus paper. In most marls which have served as the subjects of my exper- iments, more or less alumina is to be found, a part of which is dissolved by the acid, of which part a very good use can be made. While adding the ammonia, the alumina immediately * If magnesia happens to be present, it will be estimated as lime, but this will very seldom be a cause of error, as it exists very rarely in calcareous manures, for which this instrument is particularly intended. Vol. xiv, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1843. 34 266 A New Instrument for estimating the quantity, §c. around where the ammonia falls, is thrown out of solution, and if we stir the liquid, the alumina will be redissolved so long as there is any free acid, so that when the flocks of alumina are no longer taken up, we are furnished with an assurance that the process is nearly completed. ‘The acid that the alumina and iron takes up is acted upon by the ammonia, with almost the same readiness as if free, so that no cause of error is to be apprehended from that source. It may sometimes happen from oversight, that too much am- monia is added; notwithstanding this, the analysis need not be lost. Still holding the instrument in the left hand over the cup, having of course arrested the flow of the fluid, we pour some of the acid solution into the wine-glass, introduce the small end of the acid instrument into it, and allow it to rise on the inside to either of the small marks, and add this acid to the liquid and go on as before with the experiment, and at the conclusion read. off what is indicated and to it add ten or twenty according as we may have added the acid measured by the first or second mark. After what has been said, a few words will suffice to explain how the instrument operates. . It takes 50° of acid to dissolve fifty grains of carbonate of lime, or 1° to dissolve one grain, and it takes 2° of the ammonia solu- tion to neutralize one of the acid, and therefore in treating a sub- stance consisting in part of carbonate of lime, for every grain that is present one degree of the acid is taken up, so that when we come to add the ammonia, we know how much of the acid is taken up by the quantity of ammonia left behind, thereby know- ing the number of grains of carbonate of lime, which we multiply by two, (as fifty grains of the substance was used,) to arrive at the per centage. This multiplication is not actually performed, as the instrument is so graduated as to dispense with it. Were it at all necessary to give any evidence of its easy appli- cation, I might state that it, along with the fluid, has been placed. in the hands of persons entirely unacquainted with chemistry, and even with the principle of the instrument, and they have, with some little instruction in the manipulations necessary, ob- tained results only one or two per cent. ont the way, in their first examination. Nitrogen in Organic Compounds. 267 Art. V.—On the Method of Drs. Varrentrapp and Will for estimating the Nitrogen in Organic Compounds ; by J. Law- RENCE Suiru, M. D. TO THE EDITORS. As I sent you some time since, an account of a new method invented by MM. Varrentrapp and Will for estimating the quan- tity of nitrogen contained in organic substances,* it becomes my duty to see that you are furnished with an account of M. Reizet’s investigation of this method, which investigations were presented to the Académie des Sciences in July of last year. M. Reizet finds that the method is applicable, with some care, to substances containing large quantities of nitrogen, and small quantities of carbon, but when we analyze a substance poor in nitrogen and rich in carbon, the result is invariably inaccurate. M. Reizet was led to suspect that there were errors attendant upon this method, from the fact that some years ago Mr. Faraday showed that organic substances containing no nitrogen, when heated with potash in contact with air afforded ammonia, a cir- cumstance which must affect materially MM. Varrentrapp and Will’s method, for they burn the organic substance, mized with potash and lime, in a tube, the tube being partly filled with air, so that when heated not only would all the nitrogen of the sub- stance be converted into ammonia, but also the nitrogen of the air contained in the tube, so that when the nitrogen was calcu- lated from this ammonia, a larger quantity than the substance rarely contained would be indicated. Sugar and other substances devoid of nitrogen were burnt by M. Reizet, after the method made mention of, and he stated to me that he has obtained as much as 2 per cent. of nitrogen in burning 15 grains of sugar with the mixture of potash and lime, and the truth of which I have since witnessed. ‘The following is a table of the results of some of his experiments upon sugar. 0.250 gram. sueat furnished 0.0038 gram. nitrogen. Wia00). = i 0.0075“ i 1.000 “ dy ° 0.0127 “* 1.500. “ ay : Uso °° ee 2.000 6e a a4 0.0153 66 ce * See this Journal, Vol. xu, p. 253, April, 1842. 268 Nitrogen in Organic Compounds. Besides substances destitute of nitrogen, many that contained but a small quantity of nitrogen were experimented with, and al- ways a larger quantity of ammonia was obtained than was due to the nitrogen present in the substance. M. Reizet has also found that the mixture of alcohol and ether used, decomposes a small quantity of the bichloride of platinum, which is always added in excess, so as to form a small quantity of the protochloride, which being insoluble in this menstruum, is only a cause of error. From these experiments, M. Reizet concludes that MM. Varren- trapp and Will’s method should be used with great reserve, when new substances are the subjects of analysis, but he does not doubt that in the hands of skillful manipulators, it might become a valu- able means of control. The contents of this letter should have been communicated to you before, but I have been for some time intending to try a modification of this method, which suggested itself to me, asa means of remedying the defects pointed out by M. Reizet, but my occupations have prevented me from testing this modification, and as it is impossible for me to say when I shall be able to per- form the necessary experiments, I have to content myself, in bringing it to your notice simply as a suggestion. First, then, in preparing the mixture of potash and lime, after we have heated the mixture for the purpose of drying it, while hot, place it beneath a vessel containing oxygen gas, which gas will become condensed in the pores of the mixture, and prevent the nitrogen of the air finding its way in, when exposed to the atmosphere. Oxygen is preferred to hydrogen gas, from the fact that the former would be absorbed in larger quantity, and more ef- fectually exclude the nitrogen. Thus much then for the prepara- tion of the mixture. When employed, it is to be mixed with the substance to be analyzed, introduced into the tube, and the air of the tube is then to be driven out either by oxygen or hydrogen gas; if these precautions are taken, which will certainly not be found difficult of application, I doubt not that all error arising from the nitrogen of the air would be avoided. Charleston, S. C., April 12, 1843. Messrs. Editors—I have just received the January number of the Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, and there find an arti- First Principles of the Differential Calculus, §c. 269 cle of M. Will’s concerning M. Reizet’s experiments upon the new method of estimating the nitrogen of organic bodies. M. Will has not been able to obtain an appreciable quantity of ni- trogen from the combustion of sugar and other organic substan- ces free from nitrogen. 1.214 gram. sugar candy, burnt with the soda and lime, gave 0.00086 gram. nitrogen, which represents 0.07 per cent. of the sugar used. 0.386 gram. stearic acid gave 0.00028 gram. nitrogen. Numerous other experiments were made with a larger quantity of the same and other substances, with similar results, and he accounts for M. Reizet obtaining ammonia from sugar, by suppo- sing that his mixture of soda and lime contained a nitrate, prob- ably the nitrate of potash. Dr. Fownes has also been testing the experiments of M. Reizet, and finds them incorrect, substantiating those of M. Will. 10 grs. crystallized tartaric acid gave him 0.127 ip c. nitrogen, a quantity too small to be considered. M. Constantin Zwenger, in his article on Elaterin, (Ann. der Chem. und Phar. Sept. 1842,) states that this substance contains no nitrogen, having satisfied himself of that fact by MM. Varren- trapp and Will’s method, the substance being constituted as fol- lows, C2° H!4 05. T have also examined a specimen of animal charcoal that gave M. Laurent by the old method 2.5 per cent. of nitrogen, which when burnt with the soda and lime gave me 2.6 per cent. Yours, &c. J. Lawrence Smiru. Charleston, June 9, 1843. Arr. VI.—Remarks on the First Principles of the Differential Calculus, together with a new investigation of Taylor's The- orem; by Prof. '’Hropore Srrone. Ler ¢x denote any function of x, and suppose that x is chang- ed tor+h, then gx becomes 9(¢+h), which it is our object to express in a series ; considering z and / as indeterminate quanti- ties, which are independent of each other. We may evidently assume 9(2+h)=92+(A+B)yhA, (1), (a finite expression ;) and suppose that A is a function of @ and in- 270 First Principles of the Differential Calculus. dependent of h, also that B is a function of x and h, such that it =0 when h=0, and that yh is a function of h independent of z, and such that it =0, when 4=0; for according to these supposi- tions when h=0, (1) becomes identically yr=pz, as it (evident- ly) ought to be. Since / is arbitrary, we may put 2/ for h in (1), and if we use B’ to denote the value of B when h is changed to 2h, (so that B’ is the same function of z and 2A that Bis of x and h,) (1) becomes 9(4+2h)=9r7+(A+B’)v(2h), (1’); also since z is ar- bitrary we may put +A for x in (1), and if we denote the in- crements of A and B (arising from the substitution of c-+-A for z in A and B, which are supposed to be functions of z,) by 4A and 4B, it becomes 9(7+2h)=9(4+h)+(A+B)yh+(sA+4B)vh, or substituting the value of 9(z-+-h) from (1), 9(c-+2h)=9r-+ (A+B)2yh+(4A+4B)yvA, (1); and subtracting (1) from (1’), we get A[y(2h) —2vh] + B’y(2h) —2Byh—[4A + 4Blyh = 0, which must be an identical equation ; .*. since A is independent of h, and B’, B, 4A, 4B, are not independent of it, (since each of them =0 when h=0,) we must have 4#(2h)—2yh=0 or y(2h)=2wh, and since # is indeterminate y=1, .°.2h=2h, an identical equation, and A is arbitrary, as it ought to be; hence the equation is easily reduced to 2(B’/—B)—4A—4B=0, (2), which must be satisfied so as to be an identical equation. Since y=1, (1) becomes ¢(x+h)=er+(A+B)h=or+Ah+ Bh, which shows that Ah+Bh is the increment of gx arising from the substitution of x-+-h for x, .°. we may denote this incre- ment by 4x, and shall have 4gr=Ah-+Bh, (3), so that (1) be- comes 9(2-+-+h)=9r+ 4x, (4). First Principles of the Differential Calculus. We may consider / as an increment of rv, and denote it by Jz, A and (3) becomes 47z=Adz+Ba4e, (3/), or = A+B, (3”), which must manifestly be an identical equation, and be satisfied so as to leave dx indeterminate; .:. since A is independent of 4z, (or h,) the first member of the equation must be considered as having a term which is independent of Jz, .°. if we denote this d d dy term by s, we get 7A, (4’), or dye = . dz = Adz, (4”) ; where z is called the independent variable, yz a function of 2, First Principles of the Differential Calculus. 271 dga and dx, dg are called their differentials, and sa = A is called the differential co-efficient, since we must multiply dz by it to obtain dyno .dx=Adz. "The same results are readily obtain- ed by writing for 4z in the first member of (3’), dpr+4’grx=A4z +Bzz, the d relating to the term that involves the first power of Jz only, and the 4’ to the remaining part of the right mem- ber of (3’), .°. we get dpr=Asxr=Adz, by using d for 4, in the right member of the equation ; this process shows the propriety of calling the method of obtaining the expression der=Adz, (together with its various applications, ) the differential calculus, since Adz is only a part of the entire difference Ah+ Bh, obtain- ed by putting dpyy=Ah=Adz. We consider the method which we have given (deduced from considering (3’) or (3) as an iden- tical equation) for obtaining (4’) or (4”), as being the true founda- tion of the differential calculus. These remarks however are to be understood as referring to the principles of the science ; for in practice the common method of . der ; lon . Ape regarding eee A as expressing the limit of the ratio an A-+B when 4c is diminished in infinitum, is generally more sim- ple and expeditious than any known method, and is therefore by no means to be abandoned. Again, the method of Leibnitz, which consists in rejecting the term B4z in comparison with the term Aaz in (3’) when 47 is indefinitely small, so that 4gr=Azz, or denoting these supposi- tions by using d instead of 4, dyxr=Adz, has its practical advan- tages. d Finally, we may consider, (if we please, ) =A as denoting the operation that must be performed on ¢gz in order to obtain A, the co-efficient of the first power of h (only) in the expansion of g(z+h); for it is only this co-efficient that is obtained by the several methods that we have noticed ; and we may observe that if we change h into dz, we shall get 9(7-+-dr)=9xr+Adz-+ Bdz, and that the term Adz is the differential of gr, so that we have dpx der = Adz, or G- =A. 272 New Investigation of Taylor’s Theorem. Investigation of Taylor’s Theorem. We shall now resume (2), 2(B’ —-B)— 4A - 4B=0, (a), which we may put under the form 2(B’—B) —4(A+B)=0, (a’), which is to be satisfied so as to be an identical equation ; hence since B’ is the same function of z and 2h, that B is of xz and h, it is manifest that B must be of the same form as 4A, also that B’ has the same form as 4A, excepting that we must use 2/ in B’ where we use # in JA or B. dex dya If we substitute | for A in (3) it becomes spn = h+Bh (3’”), which substituted in (4) gives eth) soe eo h + Bh, (b); since A is a function of x, the form of 4A must be similar to that of agz when we use A instead of 9x, .*. we may put dA dA 4A= 7, h+ Ath, (5), where 7 1s independent of h, and A’ is a function of z and h, such that it =O when h=0; since A= ee ae dex NN ON des : da d2 yx iy Mears de aks Os (Gif we denote ——7— by Ga as is customary, ) - Lee , which reduces (5) to A= ee h+ A‘h, (5’); hence (from what has been said) we may represent B and B/ by B= B,h+ 2, h).h, B/=B2h+ (a, 2h). 2h, (6), where B, is supposed to be independent of h, and 6(z, h) denotes the same function of x and h, that 9(7, 2h) does of x and 2h, these functions being such as to =0 when 4=0, so that the forms of B and B’ are similar to that of 4A, as they ought to be; and 4B=h[4B,+40(2, h)], (7). By substituting the values of 4A, B, B’ and 4B in (a), and rejecting the common factor h, it be- dA comes after a slight reduction 2B,— 7° —A’+-40(z, 2h) — 202, h) —4B,—46(x, h)=0, which is to be an identical equation, -’- dA since 2B, and 7 are independent of h, and since the other terms of the equation are not independent of it, (since Ot of them dA d? px =0 when h=0,) we must put 2B,— 7 =0, or B ae 2 Gas? New Investigation of Taylor’s Theorem. 273 d? . B=$ Fan b+ Aa, h).h, which substituted in (3’”) gives 4or= d d? a, btk aw ht +2, h).h?, (3’"); and since the form of 4A must be similar to that of 49x, when we use A instead of 9z, we may denote 4A by eee h+3 oe i +6(2,h).h?,(5”), (x, h) denoting a function of « and h, such that it =O when | Te h=0; and if (according to the usual method) we denote i d* d?A d® by a we get 7.2 aS ; and we may here observe that we ie) “‘dx*-) d" px shall denote any expression of the form i by =: ’ where 7 is supposed to be a positive integer greater than zero. In- d stead of using the equation that remains after putting 2B, — irely we shall use (a’) in what follows; and since the forms of B and B’ are to be similar to that of 4A, we may by (5”) represent them by B=BA+B,h?+6(a, h).h?, and B/=B,2h-+B, (2h)? +0(x, 2h).(2h)?, 6(x, h) being the same function of x and h that 6(x, 2h) is of x and 2h, each of these functions being =0 2 when h=0; and since A= ae B,=4 2 we get cee dj? +3 ae h+B,h? +6’(x, h).h?; hence substituting the values dj? of B, B’, and A+B in (a’), it becomes a(4 rh + 3B,.h? + dyx d? px 0"(x, 2h) . (2h)? ~0"(a, h). ht) —4 (Fo 44 Fe ht Byhe + 6(2, h). h | =0, (a’”). dx d? x is If we develope a(= +4 rasa h+ &e.] by (5”), we get d a d*p d? A(T +4 aaah a: &e.] == — A+ ce h? +&c. which being substituted in (a’”’), rejecting the terms which destroy each other, dividing by #2, then putting the terms which are independent Vol. xv, No. 2.—July-Sept¥#1843. 35 274 New Investigation of Taylor’s Theorem. of h (or which do not =O when h=0) equal to zero, we get Spee EE cues (7 3 2.3B,—G,2 =9, oo Bi=g 3 Gye ence (3’") becomes 4g7= dpx _ d’ ou 1 d*oxr de +2 Wath aL2.3 se h?+ 6”(x, h).h?, (3%); and since 4A has the same form as dex, (5”) b Lie h Lea H gx, (5) becomes = ae +2 Gra + ae Che Loa, h)h®, (5), and as Band B’ must be of similar forms, it is evident from what has been done that we may put B=BA+B,h?2 +B,h? + B,A* + &c., and B/=B,(2h) + B?(2h)?+B,(2h)*+B,(2h)*+&c.; .*. substituting these values dpa d? px 1 d'or : it and A+B =a +4 ee h-+ 2.3 gs WBA +&e. in (a’), d? d? we get 22 h+4 Fo H+ (2°-1)B,h+(2!-1)B,ht+&e. | dex dx 1 dx bear ~a(F 18: ae h+5-3 FEES h?+B,h? +&e.)=0, (a’v), which is under a more convenient form than (a’”). dpe dou 1 dex If we develope Debs de @t3.3 AER h?-+60.] by (5”), reject the terms which destroy each other, divide by h?, then put the terms which are independent of h, equal to zero, we shall ‘ 1 1 \d‘oux 1 doz get 2(2*—1)B, —2( 9349-4) gar =o Of Beg aa ae and substituting this value of B, in (a’”), we shall in the same 1 di px dx way find B,=9-3_4.5 eR age and so on; hence A+B=—777-+ d? Ids Lbisenatale boehts—5 a Tors" h he + &c. and substituting this in y(w7+h) = per+(A+B)h, we get o(a+h)=¢x eee + digo ly digas ee 2 h?+5-3 ‘dpe Fong id dee B+ &e., (A), the law of continuation being evident. (A) is the theorem of Taylor which we proposed to inves- tigate; and we have obtained it without making any use of the binomial theorem. It may not be improper here to ob- serve, that although (A) has been found on the supposition that x is indeterminate, yet it may uate when a particu- Notice of the Report on the Fishes of New York. 275 lar value is assigned to x, provided that none of the quanti- : dpx d’ gx Hes 92, Go Gaz &c. becomes infinite when the particular value of x is substituted in them, and if any one of the aforesaid quantities is infinite, the true development will be given by (A) no further than to the term that first becomes infinite; and in order to obtain the development of the rest of the series, recourse must be had to particular processes of algebra. If we substitute : : a a the particular value z=0 in (A), and denote what gx, 4—, ke. , ; A px become when we substitute z=0 in them, by ¢’a, a? é&c., then © if we write x for h, (which we may evidently do,) (A) will be dy’ d? y'x changed to ¢(v)=9'x+ —— 2+4 a x? + &c., (A’), which is Maclaurin’s theorem; and which is applicable always when the om Px 4 : quantities 9x, 7, &c. are none of them infinite; should any of these quantities be infinite, then we are to apply particular processes to obtain the development (when it is possible). If h is negative, the odd powers of h in (A) are negative, and must have the sign — ; and similar remarks are applicable to (A’). New Brunswick, April 21, 1843. Arr. VII.—WNotice of a portion of Dr. Dekay’s Report on the Fishes of New York; by D. Humpureys Storer, M.D. [Read before the Boston Society of Natural History, June 21, 1843.] Wuen I read to this Society a few weeks since a notice of Dr. Dekay’s Report on the Reptiles of New York, I promised to re- view his report on the fishes also of that state. Unavoidable circumstances have prevented me thus far from redeeming my pledge; but fearing I may still longer be detained from giving that careful attention to the volume referred to, which, from the munificent patronage under which it has been produced, will undoubtedly be looked upon as authority in the department upon which it treats, by scientific men abroad, if not in this country, I would at the present time offer you a few general remarks upon the descriptions of those species which are also found in the wa- 276 Notice of the Report on the Fishes of New York. ters of Massachusetts. This I feel compelled to do, not merely to prevent the propagation of many errors which are observable throughout the pages before me, but also to enter my feeble pro- test against the efforts of any individual to stand on ground which is already occupied—to redescribe, under new generic and spe- cific names, genera and species which have been known and acknowledged by scientific men. Previous to presenting you these rough notes, I would remark, I have endeavored to persuade another, possessing more leisure and much more accurate knowledge of many of the fluviatile species contained in this volume than myself, to perform this duty, but he has refused to attempt it, and I have no alternative left me but to perform it myself. I cannot commence, however, without observing that I have left untouched the descriptions of the western and southern species, trusting the ichthyologists of those sections of our country will feel likewise called upon to point out any glaring defects which they may find to exist. I would only add, if at any future period I should ascertain that any of my observations now made are erroneous, I shall, upon this floor, correct them. Entertaining for Dr. Dekay no feelings save such as should actuate every naturalist, I shall be most happy, if I have unintentionally wronged him, to do him full justice— to prove to him, what I feel you already know, that my sole ob- ject is to establish the truth. There is undoubtedly much valuable information in the volume before us; prepared as it is by one who ina manner represents the zoologists of the state of New York, it cannot be otherwise. It is not my purpose to dwell upon its merits ; they will undoubt- edly be fully appreciated by all who peruse it; I would merely point out to you some of its defects. And as I have been ena- bled to devote but fragments of time to its examination, I will follow the arrangement of our author. On page 16, Dr. Dekay has thought proper to form a new ge- nus, to contain a species which he calls Pileoma semifasciatum ; but the description and figure of this fish place it in the genus Etheostoma of Rafinesque. Boleosoma tessellatum, (p. 20.)—This species was described by me before this Society in April, 1841, and the description, accom- panied by a figure, was published in the number of your Journal for January, 1842, under the name of Etheostoma Olmstedi, from Notice of the Report on the Fishes of New York. 277 its discoverer, Mr. Charles H. Olmsted, of East Hartford, Conn. Dr. Dekay observes, ‘it approaches the genus Etheostoma in the form of its head, but its opercules are said not to be scaly.” In this species the preoperculum is destitute of scales, although the artist in the figure before us has pretty liberally distributed them over both the gill-covers ; and the lower portion of the opercu- lumis naked. Such appearances would almost justify Rafinesque when he formed his genus, to say the “ gill-covers without scales.” The genus Perca is described as having bony opercula, and the genus Labrax differs from Perca in having scaled opercules; still the upper portion of the opercula of the Perches exhibit a greater or less number of well marked scales. If Dr. Dekay is dissatisfied with Rafinesque’s genus, I am unwilling he should thus presump- tuously attempt to expunge my specific name; personal friend- ship, as well as the most common rules of scientific etiquette, prompt me to act on the defensive.* Pomotis appendix, (p. 32.)—Inasmuch as one of the charac- ters of the genus Pomotis is “opercule with an elongated mem- brane at its angle,” Mitchill’s specific name of the fish here de- scribed is evidently inappropriate, and it will undoubtedly be changed by some future ichthyologist who shall have an oppor- tunity of examining it. Uranidea quiescens, (p. 61.)—About a year and a half since, Mr. Olmsted, of whom I have previously spoken, sent me a spe- cimen of what appeared to him to be a new species. I at once recognized it to be the Cottus viscosus of Haldeman. 'That spe- cimen is now in your cabinet. It is, in the volume before us, described as a new species under a new genus.t} Gasterosteus quadracus, (p. 67.)—Dr. Dekay in describing this species remarks, “‘ Dr. Storer describes a membrane attached to the ventral spine, which escaped my notice.” In a living specimen now swimming before me while I am writing this no- * Since these remarks were penned, Mr. Olmsted assures me that he examined in the state collection at Albany, with Prof. Emmons, the gentleman who discov- ered it, the identical specimen which Dr. Dekay describes in his report as the Boleosoma tessellatum, and that it is the same species that he sent me, and which I described two years since as the Etheostoma Olmstedi. +t Mr. Olmsted also states that the specimen which Dr. Dekay calls Uranidea guiescens, was examined by him in the same collection, in company with Mr, Hal- deman, who unhesitatingly pronounced it to be his Cottus viscosus. 278 Notice of the Report on the Fishes of New York. tice, a beautiful scarlet colored membrane is perfectly obvious, extending from the posterior edge of the ventral spine. In five specimens preserved in spirits, this membrane is equally distinct but colorless. Rhombus triacanthus, (p. 137.)—The original description of this species by Peck is very accurate. When speaking of the situation of the spines from which it derives its name, he says: ‘There is a small horizontal spine, pointing forwards, at the be- ginning of the dorsal fin; another at the beginning of the anal fin; and a third, arising from the sternum and pointing back- wards a little before the anus.” Dr. Dekay describing the fins, observes: ‘ Pectorals long and pointed. . Anterior to this fin, is a broad acutely tipped movable spine; and before this, a broad axe-shaped movable plate or spine (see figure) occupying the place of the ventrals.” ‘This is unintelligible to us. + This is the extent of my observations upon “anomalies,” which were “dwelt upon at some length in the manuscript” of Mr. D., “laid open most confidingly” for my perusal at the Sandwich Islands, and thus much, I trust, it has been shown I had other means of arriving at, without abusing the confidence of Mr. D. But I * Vide Boston Journal Nat. Hist., Vol. IV, p. 160. + Op. cit. p. 160. Mr. Couthouy’s Reply to Mr. Dana. 383 must now proceed to notice another, and very important mis-state- ment of Mr. Dana’s. On page 145 of your last number, I find the following among the “ proceedings of the American Associa- tion of Geologists and Naturalists,’ at Albany, in April last. “‘ Mr. Dana alluded to a statement made by Mr. Couthouy, at the meeting of the Association at Boston, that the limiting tempera- ture of corals was 76° Fahrenheit, and took occasion to remark, that Mr. Couthouy was indebted to him (Mr. D.) for the views there advanced by him, with regard to the temperature limiting corals; and added, that the temperature 76° Fahr. was a mis- take by Mr. Couthouy for 70°, the limit fixed upon by Mr. Dana when the views were communicated by him to Mr. Couthouy.” It must be admitted that the language of this accusation is sufficiently clear and explicit, as to time, place and circumstance. ‘There seems to have been especial care taken to prevent any possibility of misapprehension as to the precise nature of the charge, and also to fix it distinctly upon me, by the frequent it- eration of my name. It is open but to the solitary objection that there is not one syllable of truth in the passage from beginning to end, so far as Mr. Dana is concerned. Both the statement al- luded to, and the views he represents me as having expressed in it, are entirely the creation of Mr. D.’s singularly imaginative _ brain. he facts set forth in the indictment on which I am thus arraigned at the bar of public opinion, are altogether ficti- tious. The opinions which Mr. Dana therein alleges were de- rived by me from his manuscript, I have never expressed either orally or in print! Incredible as this may seem, I shall now pro- ceed. to place it beyond the shadow of a doubt. First, then, I deny that I made any statement, advanced any views or expressed any opinions whatever to the Association, upon the subject of temperature limiting corals, or upon their srowth, their distribution, or in short, upon any topic connected with corals directly or indirectly.* For the evidence of this as- sertion, I refer to the proceedings of the Association, as publish- ed in your Journal, and in the first volume of its 'Transactions. * Perhaps I ought in so sweeping a denial, to except the remarks alluded to on page 153, Am. Jour. for July, 1842, (p. 48, Transactions of the Association,) on the evidences of successive paroxysmal elevations, presented by one of the uplifted coral islands visited by me in 1839; though these had not the slightest bearing on the question here at issue. 384 Mr. Couthouy’s Reply to Mr. Dana. Omitting for the present farther comment on his assertion that the opinions here falsely quoted as mine were derived from him, 1 affirm in the next place, that Mr. Dana is guilty of gross and in- excusable misrepresentation of my actual views in regard to tem- perature limiting the growth of corals. I have never named, either directly, or otherwise, any particular standard of tem- perature as limiting such growth, but on the contrary, have de- clared that we were not yet possessed of sufficient data to estab- lish that point, and Mr. Dana betrays that he feels the weakness of his cause, by thus ascribing to me opinions I have never en- tertained. I leave others to pass judgment on his motives for doing this, merely remarking, that could it be made to appear that I had named, or intended to name, as a limiting temperature, that designated by himself, it would give a coloring of probability to his charge. Moreover, so far from specifying 76° Fahrenheit as such limit, by mistake, as heasserts, for 70° Fahrenheit, the limit assigned by him, I have in my published views expressly stated my con- viction, that wherever this temperature of 76° exists, there corals will be found to flourish in their utmost profusion. In proof of this, I adduce the following extracts from my article on coral for- mations in the Pacific. Speaking of a reef near Tutuila, one of the Samoan group, on which were thirteen fathoms water, I re- mark, “This ledge, distant about two and a half miles from the coast, which. was very steep, was profusely covered, with coral. The surface temperature was here 81°, and that of the bo¢- tom 76° Fahrenheit. ‘Throughout the Coral Archipelago to the eastward of Tahiti, the surface temperature ranges from 78° to 81°. The same may be said of that in the neighborhood of the detached islets, between Tahiti and Samoa, to the west. Throughout this region, I observed all kinds of corals flourish- ing in perfection on the outer plateau of the reefs, at a depth of seven, eight, andin some cases, as that just cited, twelve or thir- teen fathoms.”* ‘That I here intended to prove, that as through- out the Archipelago, where corals flourish in such perfection, the surface temperature is the same as at the reef off Tutuila; so also is the temperature of the bottom, i. e. 76° Fahrenheit,—is surely obvious, even without what here follows. ‘It is my belief that * Boston Jour. Nat. Hist. Vol. IV, pp. 74, 75. Mr. Couthouy’s Reply to Mr. Dana. 385 to a certain extent, the corals are limited in their range of growth by temperature rather than depth, and that wherever this is not below 76° Fahrenheit, there, ceteris paribus, they will be found to fiourish as in the Polynesian seas ;’* and again, ‘among the Paumotus, the field of their most lavish display, the temperature varies from 77° to 83°. At Tahiti, from 77° to 80°, and about the same at the large groups to the west of it. At the Hawaiian Islands, laying between 19° and 22° north latitude, it is some- times as high as 81°. In our own hemisphere, among the An- tilles, Bahamas, and southern coasts of Florida, I have found the temperature of the water near the shore, at different seasons, from 78° to 82°, and in all these regions coral reefs abound.” + I have italicised in the preceding quotations, the passages proving most clearly the falsity of Mr. Dana’s representation of my opin- ions in regard to a limiting temperature, and I appeal with con- fidence to every candid and honorable mind, whether they do not completely disprove his assertion, that I named 76° Fahren- heit as the temperature limiting the growth of corals? whether, on the contrary, I have not specially designated it as the temper- ature suited for their utmost development ? Certainly, no unprejudiced person will attempt to deny, that there is a wide difference between affirming, that wherever the temperature is not below 76° Fahrenheit, there corals will be found to flourish in perfection—that where that exists, is ‘the field of their most lavish display,” and stating that when it is be- low that, they will not grow at all. ‘To deny this, would involve the utter absurdity of assuming that there were no intermediate grades of temperature, between the one suited to their most lavish growth, and that in which they become extinct. In this matter I claim only to be allowed to mean what I have said, in regard to temperature as limiting the growth of corals, and protest against its being assumed that I mean any thing more. I ask that the language of my article on coral formations be taken in its strict literal import, and I challenge Mr. Dana to point to a single pas- * Boston Jour. Nat. Hist. Vol. IV, p. 76. t Ibid. p. 160. Although it is perhaps unnecessary, I will here remark, that the temperatures here given are unless the contrary is expressly mentioned, those of the surface, as shown by a common thermometer placed in a bucket of freshly drawn water, or held in the sea by hand, while sailing or pulling along the reefs in a boat. Vol. xiv, No. 2.—July-Sept, 1843. 49 386 Mr. Couthouy’s Reply to Mr. Dana. sage therein, which by any construction can be made to imply that I considered 76° Fahrenheit as the limiting temperature of corals. Unless he can do this, I maintain his affirmation that I named 76° by mistake for 70°, ~ limit named by him, to be wholly unfounded. There can be no excuse or palliation offered for the conduct of Mr. Dana on this point. He was bound in honor, and by every principle of justice, to possess himself fully of my real opinions, before bringing against me an accusation of so serious import as that contained in the record. It matters not whence my views were derived, I had a right to claim at his hands a fair presenta- tion of them to the public. It was especially incumbent on Mr. Dana while accusing me of behavior the most dishonorable, not to show any thing like an approach to unfairness himself: how much more then, to avoid attributing to me in support of his charges, in an imaginary statement, opinions which 1 have never expressed. The records of the Association were upon the table before him at the time his remarks were offered; he had but to open them and ascertain that I had made no such statement as he alluded to. My published views were within his reach. A slight examina- tion would have sufficed to convince him that I had never ad- vanced those he attributed to me, and accused me of borrowing from his MSS. Between the time of his making the charge against me before the Association, and that of its publication in your Journal, nearly if not quite three months elapsed, and yet he made no attempt to correct his misrepresentations. How far these will strengthen belief in, or cast discredit upon the similar charge against me in the article first alluded to in this reply, it is not my province to determine. A few words as to the mere fact of Mr. Dana’s having shown me his MSS. at Oahu, in 1840. Although I have not the slight- est recollection of the fact, 1 am perfectly willing to concede that it is very possible he did so. That he exhibited his portfolio of drawings I distinctly re- member, and how much I was struck in a cursory examination of them, with their wonderful beauty of coloring and minute- ness of detail. During the few days we passed in company, we were both very much occupied by other matters, and what con- Versation or comparison of observations took place between us, Mr. Couthouy’s Reply to Mr. Dana. 387 was of necessity very brief and hurried. My own personal rela- tions with the commander of the Expedition were in a painfully unsettled state, and engrossed almost my entire thoughts and at- tention. i If I really saw Mr. Dana’s notes, it will not be considered strange, that the circumstance should have escaped my memory amid the excitement and distractions of the occurrences which led to my separation from the squadron; especially when it is understood that saving my official correspondence, I am without note or memorandum of any description, relative to the Expedi- tion, or aught that transpired at the island, subsequent to the ar- rival of the first of the squadron. Had I remembered any such expression of Mr. Dana’s views as he refers to, I should gladly and unhesitatingly have cited a wit- ness so competent, in support of my own, whose priority I had abundant means of establishing. We certainly conversed freely together on all subjects so far as we had opportunity, as was natu- ral for persons engaged in. kindred pursuits, just meeting after a year of separation. If Mr. Dana, as he alleges, (and I have no objection to admit,) submitted his MSS. to my perusal, assuredly he had as free access to mine. I may hereafter take occasion to show that he has availed him- self of them in a manner that leaves him, to say the least, equally open with myself to the charge of having misused confidence. My first duty will be to fully vindicate myself from the accusa- tions he has brought against me. When this shall be accom- plished, it may then be Mr. D.’s turn to act upon the defensive. I trust that I may be pardoned for here observing, that during the whole period of my connection with the Expedition, I neg- lected no opportunity for noting facts, and making collections in Mr. Dana’s departments, both of which were always freely turned over to him, without other return being made or sought than the satisfaction it afforded me to add my contribution to the general stock. Inno solitary instance did I return from an excursion without some addition to his collections. 'The additions thus made by me, numbered many hundreds of specimens in both Mr. D.’s departments—a large proportion of them from localities un- visited by him. Treceived in exchange, at the extent, some three or four dozen specimens in my departments, and the unmerited charge of having abused his confidence. At the very time he 388 Mr. Couthouy’s Reply to Mr. Dana. accuses me of having done this, besides freely submitting to him all my notes on the geology of Hawaii, made during a resi- dence of nearly six months, I placed in his hands a set of over four hundred specimens, forming a complete suite of all the for- mations in the group, from its northwestern to its southeastern extremity, illustrative of the facts noted, and collected along the whole course of journies over more than three hundred and fifty miles, with great care and labor, and in some instances at no slight peril to life and limb. | I have hastily drawn up this preliminary defence with feelings akin to those excited by a first perusal of the charge, not more in anger than in sorrow. I confess that after the peculiar intimacy which subsisted between us during the whole of our connection in the Expedition, after the warm expressions of regard and in- debtedness on his part at the time of our separation, I was wholly unprepared for his adopting so violent a course, without a word of remonstrance or request for explanation. Had he proffered either, in lieu of assailing me unawares, while I was not present to de- fend myself, and leaving me to arrive at a knowledge of the fact by mere accident, I could readily have proved to him that he was under an erroneous impression, have spared much pain to one, and I cannot but hope to both of us, and prevented an act of great injustice, which he will hereafter regret no less than myself. That he saw fit to proceed as he has done, must ever be to me a source of deep regret—but this cannot be recalled. In self de- fence, I am compelled to prove, that Mr. Dana is virtually a tra- ducer, or become myself an object of scorn to all true men. I am content to abide the issue. ‘The grounds of my defence are now before your readers. It only remains for me to assure those friends to whom the charges not herein fully disproved, have given pain, that if at the next meeting of the Association before which they were originally preferred, I fail to prove their entire groundlessness, I will consent not only to forfeit that esteem which is dearer than life, but to be branded with the full igno- miny which should justly attach to conduct so unworthy as they attribute to me. Statement of Mr. Couthouy in relation to Prof. H. D. Rogers. Permit me before concluding, to correct an erroneous state- ment in the proceedings of the Association in Boston, published — Mr. Couthouy’s Reply to Mr. Dana. 389 in your Journal for July, 1842, which by implication conflicts with the claims of another to originality in conceiving a great theory. On page 183, (page 75 also of Transactions,) it is stated, that ‘Mr. Couthouy read some extracts from his journal, ‘on the wave-like undulations of the earth’s crust, at all periods of disturbance from the most ancient date to the present time.’ ”’ I am ignorant how this came to be so worded, but it conveys an entirely erroneous idea. The extract read by me referred exclu- sively to results produced by recent volcanic action in Hawaii, strikingly illustrative on a minor scale of those grand undulations of the earth’s crust, so eloquently accounted for by Prof. H. D. Rogers, on the principle of a tremendous billowy movement of the ignifluous mass beneath, at some remote period. I read noth- ing referring to undulations of this description as observed by myself. My remarks were introduced at the request of Prof. R. on account of their bearing on his theory, as proving that effects similar to those described by him, were produced on a diminu- tive scale, by a less activity of the same agent, and also to prove the singular coincidence of expression between two observ- ers of like phenomena, placed thousands of miles apart, occur- ring in his notes and my own; the same comparison of the undulations to the march of ocean waves, having been made by both in terms almost verbatim the same. I request you to make this correction, that it may not be here- after surmised from the record as it now stands, that any thing advanced by me, conflicted with the claim of Prof. Rogers to en- tire originality in the views then presented by him. Allow me to add, that the coincidence above referred to, is not without value for its bearings on the question raised by Mr. Dana, be- tween whom and myself the similarity of expression is far less striking than this, which was assuredly the result of mere ac- cident. Respectfully, your obedient servant, JosepH P. Coutuovy, Late Mem. Scien. Corps U.S. Expl. Exped. 341 Broadway, New York, August 28, 1843. 390 Experiments with Grove’s Battery. Art. XVI.—E'zperiments made with one hundred pairs of Grove’s Battery, passing through one hundred and sixty miles of insulated wire ;—in a letter from Prof. 8. F. B. Morse, to the Editors, dated New York, Sept. 4th, 1843. Dear Sirs,—On the 8th of August having completed my pre- parations of one hundred and sixty miles of copper wire for the electro-magnetic telegraph which I am constructing for the gov- ernment, I invited several scientific friends to witness some ex- periments in verification of the law of Lenz, of the action of galvanic electricity through wires of great lengths. I put in action a cup battery of one hundred pairs, which I had constructed, based on the excellent plan of Prof. Grove, but with some modifications of my own, economizing the platinum. The wire was reeled upon eighty reels, containing two miles upon each reel, so that any length from two to one hundred and sixty miles could be made at pleasure to constitute the circuit. My first trial of the battery was through the entire length of one hundred and sixty miles, making of course a circuit of eighty miles, and the magnetism induced in my electro-magnet, which formed a part of the circuit, was sufficient to move with great strength my telegraphic lever. Even forty-eight cups. produced action in the lever, but not so promptly or surely. We then commenced a series of experiments upon decomposi- ‘tion at various distances. ‘The battery alone (one hundred pairs) gave in the measuring guage in one minute, 5.20 inches of gas. When four miles of wire were interposed, the result was 1.20 inches—ten miles of wire, .57 inch—twenty miles, .30 inch— fifty miles, .094. The results obtained from a battery of one hundred pairs are projected in the following curve. Experiments with Grove’s Battery. 391 Miles. 1 2 3 4 5 SODVHOUR OME I Table constructed from the Curve. Inches. Battery alone - - - - 5.20 90 One mile - - - - - 3.85 Two miles - - - - 2.62 Three ‘ - - - - 184 Hour...“ Sislinpies - - 1.20 Bive «. .% - - - - 1.05 S1x & - - - - .92 30 Seven “ - - - - .80 Hight ‘“ - - - ol Dun en Bons - - .64 Meany iy! - - - - 57 ‘Twenty “ - - - - .30 Thirty ‘“ - - - - .20 40- Forty ‘ - - - - .14 Pittyy j.' - - - - .094 50 During the previous summer I made the following experiments upon a line of thirty-three miles, of number 17 copper wire, with a battery of fifty pairs. In this case, I used a small steelyard with weights, with which I was enabled to weigh with a good degree of accuracy the greater magnetic forces, but not the lesser, yet sufficiently approximating the recent results to confirm the law in question. 392 Experiments with Grove’s Battery. Table of Results. Fifty pairs through 2 miles attracted and raised 9 ozs. (73 66 4 ce 66 (74 4 ce 66 6¢ 6 &6 6c 6¢ 3 43 19 66 8 73 66 66 24 (14 te ce 10 6¢ 44 66 24 66 14 its 12 6c 74 6c 4 ce 14 (14 14 66 6 6 4 ce and each successive addition of two miles up to thirty-three, still gave an attractive and lifting power of one-eighth of an ounce. Curve from the Results. 2 1 oz. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 = 1 , A great irregularity is seen between 16 +— the 10th and 12th mile, which is due te undoubtedly to a deficiency of accura- 20 cy in the weighing apparatus. 99 _|- I take pleasure in sending you the following calculation of the law of the 24 : : : i conducting power of wires, for which 2 I am indebted to my friend Prof. Dra- 28 per, of the New York City University. 30 32 33-+- On the law of the conducting power of wires; by Joun W. Dra- PER, M. D., &c. &c. It has often been objected, that if the conducting power of wires for electricity was inversely as their length, and directly as as their section, the transmission of telegraphic signals through Experiments with Girove’s Battery. 393 long wires, could not be carried into effect, and even the galvanic multiplier, which consists essentially of a wire making several convolutions round a needle, could have no existence. This last objection was first brought forward by Prof. Ritchie, of the University of London, as an absolute proof that the law referred to is incorrect. 'There is, however, an exceedingly sim- ple method of proving that signals may be despatched through very long wires, and that the galvanic multiplier, so far from controverting the law in question, depends for its very existence upon it. Assuming the truth of the law of Lenz, the quandzties of elec- tricity which can be urged by a constant electromotoric source through a series of wires, the lengths of which constitute an arithmetical ratio, will always be in a geometrical ratio. Now the curve whose ordinates and abscissas bear this relation to each other is the logarithmic curve whose equation is a¥=w. Ist. If we suppose the base of the system which the curve under discussion represents be greater than unity, the values of y taken between «=O and «= 1, must be all negative. 2nd. By taking y=O we find that the curve will intersect the axis of the z’s at a distance from the origin equal to unity. ord. By making c=0 we find y to be infinite and negative. Now these are the properties of the logarithmic curve which furnish an explanation of the case in hand. Assuming that the a’s represent the quantities of electricity, and the y’s the lengths of the wires, we perceive at once that those parts of the curve which we have to consider lie wholly in the fourth quadrant, where the abscissas are positive and the ordinates negative. When, therefore, the battery current passes without the inter- vention of any obstructing wire, its value is equal to unity. But as successive lengths of wire are continually added, the quantities of electricity passing, undergo a diminution at first rapid and then more and more slow. And it is not until the wire becomes infinitely long that it ceases to conduct at all; for the ordinate —y, when z=0, is an asymptote to the curve. In point of practice, therefore, when a certain limit is reached the diminution of the intensity of the forces becomes very small, whilst the increase in the lengths of the wire is vastly great. It is, therefore, possible to conceive a wire to be a million times as long as another, and yet the two shall transmit quantities of elec- Vol. xv, No. 2,—July-Sept. 1843. 50 394 Foot-prints of Birds and Impressions of Rain-drops. e tricity not perceptibly different, when measured by a delicate galvanometer. But under these circumstances if the long wire be coiled so as to act as a multiplier, its influence on the needle will be inexpres- sibly greater than the one so much shorter than it. Further, from this we gather that for telegraphic despatches, with a battery of given electromotoric power, when a certain distance is reached the diminution of effect for an increased dis- tance becomes inappreciable. Art. XVII.—On the Fossil Foot-prints of Birds and Impressions of Rain-drops in the Valley of the Connecticut; by CHarues Lys., Bsq., V.P. G.S.* THE deposit in which these impressions, long known on account of the researches of Prof. Hitchcock, occur, is situated in a trough of hy- pogene rocks, about five miles broad, the strata, which consist of sand- stone, shale and conglomerate, dipping uniformly to the east at angles that vary from 5° to 30°. Mr. Lyell first examined the red sandstone at Rocky Hill, three miles south of Hartford, in Connecticut, where it is associated with red shale and capped by twenty feet of greenstone. Many of the beds are rippled, and cracks in the shale are filled by the materials of the superincumbent sandy layer, showing, the author ob- serves, a drying and shrinking of the mud while the accumulation of the strata was in progress. The next quarries he examined were at Newark, in New Jersey, about ten miles west from New York city. The excavations are extensive, and the strata dip, as is usual in New Jersey, to the northwest, or in an opposite direction to the inclination in the valley of Connecticut, a ridge of hypogene rocks intervening. The angle is about 85° near Newark. The beds exhibited ripple-marks and casts of cracks, also impressions of rain-drops on the upper surface of the fine red shales. Mr. Lyell states, that he felt some hesitation respecting the impressions first assigned to the action of rain by Mr. Cunningham of Liverpool, but he is now convinced of the justness of the inference, having observed similar markings produced on very soft mud by rain at Brooklyn, in Long Island, N. Y. On the same mud were the foot-prints of fowls, some of which had been made before the rain and some after it. * Communicated to the Geological Society of London, and extracted from Vol. IM, No. 91, of their Proceedings. We had not seen this abstract of Mr. Lyell’s paper when the article on the Ornithichnites appeared in our last number, or we should have united it with the other matter of that paper.—Eds. Foot-prints of Birds and Impressions of Rain-drops. 395 Mr. Lyell next visited the red and green shales of Cabotville, north of Springfield in Massachusetts, where some of the best Ornithichnites have been procured, chiefly in the green shale. The dip of the beds is 20° to the east, a higher inclination, the author says, than could have belonged to a sea-beach. He observed in the same quarries ripple- marks as well as casts of cracks, and he was informed that the impres- sions of rain-drops have likewise been found. In company with Prof. Hitchcock, Mr. Lyell afterwards examined a natural section near Smith’s Ferry, on the right bank of the Connecti- cut, about eleven miles north of Springfield. The rock consists of thin- bedded sandstone with red-colored shale. Some of the flags are dis- tinctly ripple-marked, and the dip of the layers on which the Ornithich- nites are imprinted, in great abundance, varies from eleven to fifteen degrees. Many superimposed beds must have been successively trod- den upon, as different sets of tracks are traced through a thickness of sandstone exceeding ten feet; and Prof. Hitchcock pointed out to the author that some of the beds exposed several yards farther down the river, and containing Ornithichnites, would, if prolonged, pass under those of the principal locality, and make the entire thickness through- out which the impressions prevail, at intervals, perhaps twenty or thirty feet. Mr. Lyell, therefore, conceives that a continued subsidence of the ground took place during the deposition of the layers on which the birds walked. It has been suggested, but the opinion has not been adopted by Prof. Hitchcock, that the eastward slope of the beds represents that of the original beach. With a view to this question, Mr. Lyell examined the direction of the ripple-marks, and found that it agreed with the dip, or was at right angles to the supposed line of beach; but he adds, though this agreement presents a formidable objection to the suggestion above alluded to, if the ripples were produced by waves, yet it does not dis- prove the opinion, as the ripples do not exceed in dimensions those which are produced by sand blown over a muddy beach, and often dis- tributed at right angles to the coast-line. Instances of this effect of the wind Mr. Lyell has remarked along the shores of Massachusetts. Nev- ertheless he is of opinion that the rippled layer of sandstone in question contains too much clay to have resulted from blown sand, and he is dis- posed to think that in most of these localities the strata have been tilted, instances of such disturbance having been pointed out to him by Prof. Hitchcock in the state of Massachusetts, and by Dr. Percival near New Haven, in Connecticut. In reference to this subject, he says, that a few miles from Smith’s Ferry, a conglomerate, several hundred feet thick, containing angular and rounded fragments of trap and red sand- stone, the base being sometimes a vesicular trap and trap tuff, passes 396 Foot-prints of Birds and Impressions of Rain-drops. upwards into the very flags on which Ornithichnites occur; and from this he infers, that there were eruptions of trap, accompanied by up- heaval and partial denudation, during the deposition of the red sandstone. With respect to the impressions having been made by birds, Mr. Ly- ell states, that until he examined the whole of the evidence he enter- tained some scepticism, notwithstanding the luminous account given by Prof. Hitchcock. In proof of their being the foot-prints of some crea- ture walking on mud or sand, he mentions, Ist, the fact of Prof. Hitch- cock’s having. seen two thousand impressions, all, like those he had himself examined, indented in the upper surface of the layer, the casts in relief being always on the lower surface ; and 2dly, that where there is a single line of impressions, the marks are uniform in size, and near- ly uniform in distance from each other, the toes in the successive steps turning alternately right and left. Such single lines, Mr. Lyell says, indicate that the animal was a biped, and the trifid marks resemble those which a bird leaves, there being generally a deviation from a straight line in any three successive prints; and his attention having been call- ed to indications of joints in the different toes, he afterwards clearly re- cognized similar markings in the recent steps of coots and other birds on the sands of the shores of Massachusetts. Prof. Hitchcock has shown, that the same impression extends through several laminz, de- creasing in distinctness in proportion as the layer recedes from that in which it is most strongly marked, or in proportion as the sediment fill- ed up the hollows and restored the surface to a level; and Mr. Lyell states, that he has observed a great number of instances of this fact. He also says, that he can scarcely doubt that some of the impres- sions on the red sandstone of Connecticut are not referable to birds, but he believes that the gigantic ones described by Prof. Hitchcock are Ornithichnites. At Smith’s Ferry they are so numerous that a bed of shale many yards square is trodden into a most irregular and jagged surface, so that there is not a trace of a distinct footstep; but on with- drawing from this area to spots where the same tracks are fewer, the observer, Mr. Lyell says, is forced to admit that the effect in each case has been produced by this cause. On examining the shores on some small islands about fifteen miles southeast from Savannah, the author was struck with the number as well as the clearness of the tracks of raccoons and opossums imprinted in the mud during the four preceding hours, or after the tide had begun to ebb. At one spot, where the raccoons had been attracted by the oys- ters, the impressions were as confused as when a flock of sheep has passed over a muddy road; and in consequence of a gentle breeze blowing parallel to the line of cliffs composed of quartzose sand, the tracks had in many places already become half filled with blown sand, Bibliography. 397 and in others were entirely obliterated ; so that if the coast should sub- side, the consolidation of this sand would afford casts analogous to those of Storeton Hill in Cheshire, yet the impressions had been made and filled in a few hours. When considering the broad question whether the fossil foot-prints were made by creatures walking on mud or sand after the ebbing of the tide, Mr. Lyell reminds his readers of the fact that in the United States, as in Saxony and Cheshire, the tracks in sandstone and shale are accompanied by littoral appearances, as ripple-marks, the casts of cracks in the clay, and often by the marks of rain. In regard to the age of the red sandstone of the valley of the Con- necticut and New Jersey, the author states he has nothing to add to what had been previously advanced, by which its position had been shown to be between the carboniferous and cretaceous series. In the neighborhood of Durham, Connecticut, he had collected in the sand- stone, fishes of the genera Palzoniscus and Catopterus, but no other or- ganic remains, except fossil wood. In conclusion, Mr. Lyell remarks, Ist, that the Ornithichnites of Con- necticut should teach extreme caution in inferring the non-existence of land animals from the absence of their remains in contemporaneous ma- rine strata; 2dly, that when this red sandstone of Connecticut was de- posited, there was land in the immediate vicinity of the places where the Ornithichnites occur; and that but for them it might naturally be inferred that the nearest land was several miles distant, namely, that of the hypogene rocks which bound the basin of the Connecticut. Now, the land that caused the sea-beach, Mr. Lyell says, must have been formed of the same sandstone which was then in the act of accumula- ting, in the same manner as where deltas are advancing upon the sea. In a postscript, Mr. Lyell states, that subsequently to writing the pa- per, he had read the luminous report of Mr. Vanuxem* on the Ornithich- nites described by Prof. Hitchcock, and though it agrees in substance with his own account in some particulars, yet that he has left his notice as it stood. .} Art. XVIII.— Bibliographical Notices. 1. Zoology of New York, or the New York Fauna, comprising de- tailed descriptions of all the Animals hitherto observed within the State of New York, with brief notices of those occasionally found near its borders, and accompanied by appropriate illustrations ; by James E. De Kay. Part 1, Mammalia. pp. 146, 4to, plates —The mammiferous * See this Journal, Vol. x11, p. 165. 398 Bibliography. animals found within the limits of the state of New York, as well as of the other eastern and middle states, had been already, for the most part, described previous to the commencement of the survey of which the present volume forms the first of a series of reports, published un- der the direction and at the expense of the state government. Many of the descriptions were drawn up by foreign naturalists, and in conse- quence of having been frequently made from stuffed skins and the in- correct information of travelers, were oftentimes erroneous. Within a few years, our own naturalists have turned their attention to the sub- ject, and although but comparatively few additions have been made to the number of species, yet our knowledge is based upon a much more certain foundation. In the present work, the whole subject as regards the Mammalia has been gone over anew, the descriptions re-examined or rewritten, and such information added as the author, from his extend- ed observations and long familiarity with the subject, was enabled to do. A copious synonymy has been made out, and many interesting obser- vations brought together on the habits and geographical distribution of the different species. The state of New York covers a large tract of territory, extending over eight degrees of longitude, and from 40° 30! to 45° north latitude, and having an area of about 46,000 square miles. Of Mammalia in- habiting the State and indigenous to it, there are, according to Dr. De Kay, about seventy-four species, belonging to the following orders and natural families : Order Marsupiata.—Didelphide, 1 species. Order Carnivora.—Vespertilionide, 5 species; Sorecide, 8; Ursi- de, 3; Mustelide, ‘7; Lutride, 1; Canide,4; Felidae, 38; Phocide, 2. Total, 33. Order RopEent1A.—Sciuride, 6; Arctomide, 1; Gerbillide, 1; Cas- toride, 2; Hystricide, 1; Muride, 11; Leporide, 2. ‘Total, 24. Order Uncutata.—Elephantide, (fossil,) 3; Cervide, 5. Total, 8. Order Cetacra.—Balenide, 4; Delphinide, 4. Total, 8. As regards the geogrfiphical distribution, the following instances are interesting, as showing the great extent of territory over which some of the species inhabiting the State are found. The Vespertilio Noveboracen- sis is found throughout the territory lying between Massachusetts and the Rocky Mountains, and between the twenty-third and forty-second par- allels of north latitude. Vespertilio pruinosus, Say, is found in nearly every state of the Union, on the Columbia River, and as far north as the fifty-third degree. Scalops aquaticus, or shrew mole, extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from Carolina to 50° north latitude. The Procyon lotor, or raccoon, is found throughout nearly the whole of North America, its highest range as yet known being 60° north. Me- Bibliography. 399 phitis Americana, or skunk, is found in both Americas, extending from the frozen regions of the northern, to Chili and Paraguay in the south- ern hemisphere. Lutra Canadensis and Braziliensis, which Dr. De Kay regards as identical species, there being no essential differences, extends over the immense tract of country lying between the Arctic seas and Brazil. The number of extinct mammifers whose remains have as yet been discovered within the limits of the state, is very small, and even these have been detected more abundantly elsewhere. ‘The fossil elephant, E. primigenius, has been found in one locality only. The remains of the Mastodon giganteum, Cuvier, have been detected in several locali- ties ; but since they have not as yet been detected in Massachusetts or other eastern states, excepting Connecticut, New York may be regard- ed as enclosing a portion of the eastern limit. The only other fossil mammiferous remains indicated by Dr. De Kay, are those of the fossil stag, Elaphus Americanus, which have not been detected except in one or two instances. Jap 2. Monographies D’Echinodermes Vivans et Fossiles; par Lovis Acassiz. Neuchatel, Suisse, 1841 and ’42. 4to, planches.—Our know- ledge of the Echinodermata has within a few years been much increas- ed, especially by the labors of Muller, Tiedemann and others in Ger- many, and by Mr. Forbes in England. The ‘“‘ History of British Star- fishes,” by the last named naturalist, although confined to such species as are met with on the coast of England, yet may be considered as the first work in which an attempt has been made to unite in a single mo- nograph all the different orders of the Echinodermata. In the magni- ficent monographs now in the course of publication by M. Agassiz and his collaborators, are included all the fossil as well as existing species hitherto known, illustrated by numerous and well executed plates. No effort has been spared to render the descriptions as complete as possible, including what has been for the most part overlooked by previous nat- uralists, viz. the internal organization. The importance of such a plan must be at once apparent, since it should be no less the province of the zoologist to ascertain what animals existed on the earth’s surface during the early history of the world, than those which are found at the pre- sent day, and it is evident that the study of organization will be here- after inseparable from the corgect methods of zoological research. The first monograph contains descriptions of Salenies, by M. Agas- siz; the second, of the Scutelle, by M. Agassiz; the third, Galerites and Dysasters, by Desor; and the fourth, the anatomy of the Echinz, by G. Valentin. Of the Scutedl@ there are described thirteen genera and seventy-four species, illustrated by twenty-five quarto plates, inclu- 400 Bibliography. ding several hundred figures. These descriptions are preceded by a notice of the external and internal organization, mode of growth, rela- tions to other Clypeastroides, and their geological position and distribu- tion. On comparing the fossil and existing species, well marked diffe- rences have been found to exist, and of the genera Mellita, Rotula and Encope, all the species belong to the actual epoch. It is also interest- ing to notice the fact, that among the Scutellz, as well as some of the other Echinodermata, the species beome larger and larger as we ap- proach the present period, precisely the reverse of what is true with regard to some of the Vertebrata, Mollusca, &c. Previous to the labors of Valentin, Tiedemann, Meckel and Delle Chiaje had already investigated the general anatomy of the Echini, but the microscopical examinations of the former into the minute struc- ture of the different organs, are almost entirely new. In many of the soft parts, such as the ambulacral tubes, buccal membrane, external branchiee, ézc. Valentin has discovered small calcareous bodies, assu- ming various shapes, resembling somewhat the spicula described by many recent microscopists, as existing in the Sponges, Alcyonias, Acti- nias, &c.* ‘* Why,” asks M. Valentin, “may not these minute parts be preserved in a fossil state, as well as the shell, the lantern, the teeth, and other organs? Iam convinced that the microscopic paleontology of the Echinodermata will become a vast field for research.” ‘The gen- eral organization of the shell, its microscopic structure, its mechanism, its appendages, and mode of increase, are all treated of in full detail, as are also the digestive, respiratory, circulating, nervous, and genera- tive systems. Scarcely any thing is as yet known with regard to the mode of copulation, although the duality of the sexes has long since been determined. Nearly every thing relating to the embryology of the Echini, yet remains a desideratum. The series of monographs of which those just noticed form a part, constitute one of the most important additions which have been made to modern zoology, no less in consequence of the completeness of the plan upon which they have been conceived, than the fidelity with which they have been executed. Jee * Prof. Bailey has suggested the possibility of determining the existence of the Actinie in the tertiary formations, by means of the minute spicula, which are the only solid parts. Quite recently I have detected spicula in the dorsal appenda- ges of the Eolis, which resemble somewhat those met with in the Actinia ; they are found in a small sack, recently described and figured by M. Quatrefages, though no mention is made of its contents, situated at the extremity of the appendage, Opening and discharging its contents externally. Miscellanies. A0L 3. Description of New Fresh-water and Land Shells; by Isaac Lea.*—In the present paper Mr. Lea describes fifty four species of Unio, two of Margaritana, nine of Anadonta, one of Caracolla, one of Cyclostoma, and sixty of Melania, in all one hundred and twenty seven new species of land and fresh-water shells, described and figured by this indefatigable naturalist since the appearance of his last extended me- moir on this subject, on the appearance of which it was supposed that this prolific subject was exhausted ; as least so far, as that few new species of Naiades were to be looked for hereafter, and that future re- searches must bear mainly to the investigation of the anatomy and habits of the species already described. Some valuable light is thrown on this department of the subject in the present memoir, by the obser- vations of Mr. Thomas G. Lea of Cincinnati, brother to our author, carried on during the years 1838, ’9, and ’40, on some of the species in the Ohio River, particularly in reference to the times of their partu- rition, which he finds to differ very much in the different species. Mr. Lea has tabulated his observations made on at least twenty five different species during each of the four years, but it will require careful and long extended observations to arrive at valuable results. 4. Graham’s Chemistry.t—Prof. Graham’s work is one of the best, if not the best, of all English text-books, on the difficult science of chem- istry, and is of such recent date as to embrace the latest discoveries. The appearance of a correct and amended American edition under the care of Dr. Bridges, will prove an acceptable thing to both teachers and students of chemistry in this country. MISCELLANIES. FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC. 1. Fossil Fruits described by Dr. Gideon Algernon Mantell.—Dr. Mantell has recently read to the Geological Society of London, a memoir on three undescribed fossil fruits, from the chalk formation in the southeast of England. (1.) Zamia Sussexiensis—a cone belonging to a plant allied to the Zamia, and found associated with coniferous wood at Selmestown in Sus- * Transactions of the American Philosophical Society held at Philadelphia for promoting useful knowledge, Vol. VIII, new series, Part II, 1842. pp. 163-250, 4to. t Elements of Chemistry, including the applications of the science to the arts, with numerous illustrations ; by THos. Granam, F.R.S. Lond. & Ed., Professor of Chemistry, University College, London, &c. &c. With notes and additions, by Rogert Bripges, M.D. Philadelphia, Lea & Blanchard, 1843. pp. 749, 8vo. Vol. xiv, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1843. 51 402 Miscellanies. sex, in the bed described in Dr. Mantell’s Fossils of the South Downs; this fruit is 54 inches long. (2.) Abies Benstedi—a fir cone found with coniferous wood in the Iguanodon quarry near Maidstone, and described in Dr. Mantell’s me- moir on the Molluskite, (see page 243 of the present volume.) This fossil contains numerous seeds in a fine state of preservation. (3.) .Carpolithes Smithie—a most remarkable fruit; it is the same that is described in Dr. Mantell’s Fossils of the South Downs, from the white chalk near Lewes, as resembling a compressed nut of Areca. It was evidently a spurious compound berry, like the mulberry, the seeds imbedded in a pulpy substance. It was found by Mr. Smith, of Tunbridge Wells, in the white chalk of Kent.—(Letter from Dr. Man- tell to the senior editor, dated Clapham Common, near London, March 30, 1843.) 2. Eremite——A comparison of the angles of Eremite and Mona- zite, appears to indicate that these species are identical. They agree also in hardness, color, and lustre; the discrepancy in specific gravity may arise from imperfect determination, as error is scarcely avoidable in crystals so minute. The following are a few of the angles of Ere- mite. (See Am. Jour., Vol. xxx, p. 71.) Monazite. Eremite. M:e=136° 35’, M:é=140° 40’, M:€=126° 8’, P: e=181° 52% For the corresponding inclinations, Monazite gives (Am. Jour. xxx1I1, p. 203) 136° 30’ (€:M), 140° 10! (2:4), 126° 25' (2:4), 131° 22" (é:a). Ina late article on the foreign Monazite by Delvoiseaux, in the Annales des Mines, t. 11, 1842, p. 362, these angles are given as follows: 186° 30/, 141° 5’, 126°, 131°. By calculation, M:T in Eremite gave the writer, 103° 46’, and in Monazite, 103° 42’. A spe- cimen of Eremite in the hands of Mr. Thomas Dutton, shows a cleavage similar to that of Monazite. When first described, only three or four very minute crystals had been seen, and in these no cleavage was de- tected. J. D. Dana. Miscellanies. 403 3. Meeting of the British Association at Dublin.—This meeting of the Association was held during the month of August. It was a small meeting,—we do not learn that any thing very important came before it, and we are informed that party politics interfered somewhat with its success. One fact of great interest was announced. An up- right trunk of a large Sigillaria has been discovered in the coal-field near Liverpool, with roots eight or nine feet long, spreading in every direction and with the radicles radiating from the main roots, and these roots and radicles are the Stigmaria ficoides and its leaves. This dis- covery must modify some existing theories on coal.* 4. Animal of the Belemnite-—Lord Northampton has recently ob- tained from the oolite of Chippenham, (Eng.) a specimen of a Belem- nite with the impression of the soft parts of the animal on the sur- rounding clay! Even the little hooks with which the creature was furnished remain! Dr. Buckland’s figure from D’Orbigny must there- fore be modified; Prof. Owen, in the admirable volume of lectures on the Invertebrata, (the Hunterian lectures for this year, just published,) has given a restored outline of the animal of the Belemnite, and which must be correct.—(Extract from a letter to Prof. Silliman from Dr. Mantell, dated Aug. 28th.) 5. Meteoric Epoch of August.—In consequence of cloudy weather at this place for several days about the 10th of August, 1843, it was im- practicable here to determine whether the meteoric sprinkle of August recurred the present year. 6. Death of Mr. Bakewell.—Robert Bakewell, Esq. died at his residence at Hampstead, near London, on the 15th of August, at the age of 75. He had long been an invalid, and his death was the result of gradual decline, rather than acute disease. Mr. Bakewell was one of the oldest of the present school of English geologists, and was the author of the first good treatise on geology in the English language, which went through five editions in England and three in this country, before the author’s death; and it still holds a place among the best elementary works on the subject. Mr. Bakewell also published in 1823 two interesting and valuable volumes of travels among the Alps in Switzerland. Mr. Bakewell’s mind was distinguished for vigor, acuteness, and in- dependence ; his Geology was indeed much in advance of the science at the time he wrote, but his sagacious views have been fully confirm- ed. In the course of an epistolary correspondence of many years, we * ‘We hope to begin our usual abstract in our next number. A404 Miscellanies. have found his letters rich in thought, and vivid and attractive in style, while a warm and true philanthropy imparted a living moral interest to his epistles. A great degree of modest retirement characterized Mr. Bakewell’s intercourse with society, and he carried it to such an extent as rarely to visit the sessions of any of the scientific bodies in London. This may serve to explain the fact that his treatise on geology was at first received with more favor in this country than in England. 7. Death of Prof. Hall.—Professor F. Hall, whose name has often appeared in our pages as a contributor of valuable matter, died du- ring a journey at the west, in the month of August last. We have no information of the exact time of his’death, nor his age, which how- ever was not far from sixty. Prof. Hall was a zealous cultivator of mineralogy ; he collected a large and valuable cabinet, which a few years since he generously gave to Dartmouth College, at Hanover, N. H., and at the same time he placed the chair of mineralogy in that institution on a permanent foundation, by the contribution of five thou- sand dollars in money. 8. Death of Mr. J. N. Nicollet.—It is also our painful task to re- cord the decease of Mr. Nicollet, who died at Washington, D. C., on Monday morning, the 11th of September, a little after six o’clock, aged it is supposed about forty eight. Mr. Nicollet’s labors in the depart- ments of physical astronomy and geography are well known. He was the favorite pupil and friend of La Place; and the frequent occur- rence of his name in the Mécanique Celeste, shows in what estimation he was held by his teacher. Mr. Nicollet came to this country about ten years since, and has been engaged principally in carrying out a survey—geographical, topo- graphical, astronomical, and geological—of the vast region embraced by the sources of the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers. His map of this important labor was completed before his death, and was shown by him at the Association of American Geologists in April last, at Albany, and referred to in explanation of an interesting paper on the geology of the region in question, an abstract of which is con- tained in their proceedings, in the present volume of this Journal. Mr. Nicollet also devoted much effort to the collection and preserva- tion of the various Indian dialects, and in fact every thing which could illustrate the history of this interesting race. It is said his collections of MS. notes on this subject are quite voluminons. All who had the pleasure of knowing him, and enjoying his fine social and moral qualities, will hear of his premature loss with deep regret. INDEX TO V A. Adverbial genitive case in English, 96. Agassiz’s Fresh-water Fishes of Central Europe, 211. Monographies mes, 399. Nomencelator Zoologicus no- ticed, 11. Agrostis Pickeringii, a new plant, 42. Alexander, J. H., on a new form of’ ba- rometer, 233. Alexander, §S., letter on the comet of, 1843, 195. American Geologists and Naturalists, proceedings of, 135, 310. Transactions of, 220. American Philosophical Society, hun- dredth anniversary of, 231. Amphide salts, existence of radicals in disproved, 52, 247. Anatifa, metamorphosis of, 335. Andromeda montana, a new plant, 172. recurva, a new species, 172. Angelica Curtisii, a new plant, 173. Antediluvian climate, 144. temperatures, 147. Apocrenic acid, properties of, 338. Arum polymorphum, a_ new plant, 173. Aspidium aculeatum, 46. Atlantic ocean, currents‘of, 295. Atmosphere, prevailing currents of, 302. Atolls, formation of, 132. B. d’Echinoder- Bailey, J. W., on crystals in the tissues! of dicotyledonous plants, 149. on microscopic fossils from the infusorial stratum of Virginia, 313. Bakewell, Robert, decease of, 403. Barometer, new form of, 233. Bartlett, W. H.C., letter on the comet} of 1843, 196, Beck, L. C., on antediluvian climate, 144. on bituminous or organic matter, in the New York limestones and sandstones, 339. on certain phenomena of ig- neous action, 143. on the influence of pressure on the density of liquids, 49. Belemnite, animal of, 403. Bibliographical notices, 211, 397. Binomial Theorem and Logarithms, Chauvenet’s, 218. Birds, fossil foot-prints of, 316, 394. Bituminous or organic matter in the New York limestones and sandstones, 335. OLUME XLV. Blind fish, description of, 94. ‘Botanical collections, 225. ‘Brace, J. P., on a vibrating dam, 372. Brazil, Endlicher and Martius’ Flora of, noticed, 217. British Association, meeting of at Dub- lin, 403. Buckley, S. B., on new species of plants, 170. C. \Calculus, differential, first principles of, 270. Calorific theory of winds objected to, 303. Cambridge observatory, 224. Campanula rotundifolia, 27. Carbonic acid, disengagement of by the roots of plants, 227. Carex Caroliniana, a new plant, 173. miser, a new species, 173. styloflexa, a new species, 174. (Carices, Tuckerman’s Enumeration of, 216. Cass, L., table of tides in Lake Michi- gan, 20 Ceraurus crosotus, supplementary no- tice of, 222. (Cetraria Tuckermanii, 48. (Chauvenet’s Binomial Theory and Log- arithms, 218. Chronometers, errors of, 83. Climate, antediluvian, 144. Coal formation of Nova Scotia, 356. strata of Nova Scotia, fossil trees in, 353. (Colors proposed for geological classifica- | tion, 351. Comet, great, of 1843, 188, 229. second, of 1843, 230. ‘Compensation balance, new construction of, 83. Coral islands indicative of areas of subsi- | dence in the Pacific, 131. Corals, distribution of, 130. Couthouy, J. P., reply to the accusations of Mr. Dana, 378. Crescent-formed dykes of trap, 334. (Cretaceous formation of the Missouri | River, 153. Crinoidea of the rocks of New York, 349. ‘Currents of the Atlantic, 295. | of the Southern and Pacific | oceans, 299. polar, geological agencies of, 299, 326. ; . . revailing, of the atmosphere 302, P § piere,; 406 Cuscuta hispidula, a new species, 75. neuropetala, 75. Cuscutinee, North American, mono- graphy of, 73. D. Dams, vibrating, 363. Dana, J. D., charges against Mr. Cou- thouy, 130, 145. Mr. Couthouy’s reply to, 378. notice of eremite, 402. on analogies between the modern igneous rocks and the primary formations, 104. on areas of subsidence in the Pacific, as indicated by coral islands, 131. on the metamorphosis of the Anatifa, 335. on the temperature limiting the distribution of corals, 130. Deane, J., on the Ornithichnites of the Connecticut River sandstones, 178. Dekay’s Report on the Fishes of New York noticed, 275. Zoology of New York, 397. Dent, E. J., on the errors of chronome- ters, and the compensation balance, 83 Dicotyledonous plants, crystals in their tissues, 149. Diervilla sessilifolia, a new plant, 174. Differential calculus, first principles of, 270. Dinornis of New Zealand, remains of, 186. Draper, J. W., on the law of the -con- ducting power of wires, 392. Drift and strata of Lake Erie, 327. influence of icebergs upon, 317. phenomena of, 320, 329. E. Earthquake motion, theory of, 341. Echinodermata, Agassiz’s monographs of, noticed, 399. Electro-magnetic telegraph, experiments with, 390. Elevations in Ohio, &c., 12. Endlicher and Martius’ Flora Brasilien- sis, 217. Engelmann, G., on North American Cus- cutinee, 73. Eremite and Monazite identical, 402. F. Filariz in the blood of a living dog, 228. Fish, blind, description of, 94. Fishes of New York, Report on, 275. Foot-prints, fossil, of birds, 394. Fossil fishes in New Jersey, 314. foot-prints of birds, 394. fruits, new, 401. INDEX. Fossil trees in the coal strata of Nova Scotia, 353. Fossils, geographical distribution of, 157. microscopic, from the infusorial stratum of Virginia, 313. Fruits, fossil, three undescribed, 401. Fulgurites, notice of, 220. G. Gardiner, R. H., on vibrating dams, 371. Genitive case, adverbial, in English, 96. Geological coloring and symbols, system of, 351. paintings and illustrations, 136. Geologists and Naturalists, American Association, proceedings of, 135, 310. Geology of the western states, 151, 163. Gibbs, J. W., on the adverbial genitive case in English, 96. on Greek verbal roots in English, 284. Glacial theory, strictures upon, 324. Gould, A. A., on the nomenclature of zoology, 1. Grabam’s Chemistry, 401. Granites, metamorphic origin of, 108. Gray, A., bibliographical notices, 214. botanical collections, 225. Greek verbal roots in English, 284. Grove’s battery, experiments with, 390. Gypsiferous formation of Nova Scotia, 357. H. Hall, Prof. F., death of, 404. Hall, J., on diluvial phenomena, 329, on the Crinoidea of the rocks of New York, 349. on the geographical distribution of fossils in the older rocks of the Uni- ted States, 157. on the strata and drift of Lake Erie, 329. on wave lines and casts of mud furrows, 148. Hare, R., refutation of the existence of radicals in the amphide salts, 52, 247. Harlan, R., remarks on Mr. Owen’s let- ter on new fossil mammalia in Vol. XLIv, 208. Hayden, C. B., on the ice mountain of Hampshire county, Virginia, 78. Hayes, J. L., on the influence of ice- bergs upon drift, 317. Herrick, E. C., on the great comet of 1843, 229. meteoric observations, April, 20, 1843, 230. Hitchcock, E., on the glacial theory of Agassiz, 324. on vibrating dams, 370. Holcomb, A., on a vibrating dam, 363. impressions of rain-drops, 315,394. ||Hooker’s Icones Plantarum noticed, 214. palm trees, 336. Hypericum graveolens, a new plant, 174. INDEX. I. Icebergs, influence upon drift, 317. Ice mountain of Hampshire County, Vir- ginia, 78. Igneous action, phenomena of, 143. rocks and primary formations, analogies between, 104. Infusorial stratum of Virginia, limits of, 313. Iodine in phanerogamic plants and moss- es, 227. Tris Duerinckii, a new plant, 176. J. Jackson, C. T., on the organic matters of soils, 337. drift, 320. : Juncus Greenei, a new plant, 37. Justicia letevirens, a new plant, 176. K. Karsten’s experiments on the images of; Moser, 228. Kendall, E. O., on the great comet of| 1843, 188. on the phenomena of L. Labyrinthodonts, analogy of their teeth with those of the Lepidostei, 361. Lea, I., monograph of fresh-water and land shells noticed, 401. Lepidanche adpressa, a new species, 77. Lepidostei, microscopic structure of their teeth, 359. analogy with those of the Labyrinthodonts, 361. Lime, carbonate of, in calcareous sub- stances, 262. phosphate of, in the Virginia me- teoric stone, 102. Liquids, density of, influenced by pres- sure, Locke, J., supplementary notice of the Ceraurus crosotus, 222. Loomis, E., on vibrating dams, 363. Lyell, C., on fossil trees in the coal strata of Nova Scotia, 353. on the coal and gypsiferous for- mations of Nova Scotia, 356. on the fossil foot-prints of birds and impressions of rain-drops in the valley of the Connecticut, 394. M. Malva LeContii, a new plant, 176. Mammalia, new fossil, Dr. Harlan’s re- marks on, 208. Mantell, G.‘A., letter of Dr. Deane to, 178. reply of, 184. notice of Molluskite, 243. on fossil fruits in the chalk formation, 401. A07 Martius and Endlicher’s Flora Brasilien- sis, 217. Metamorphic changes produced by heat, Meteoric epoch of August, 403. observations, April 20, 1843, 230. stone of Virginia, phosphate of lime in, 102. Missouri, mineral region of, 340. River, cretaceous formation of, 153. Molluskite, Dr. Mantell’s notice of, 243, Monazite identical with eremite, 402. Morse, S. F. B., experiments with elec- tro-magnetic telegraph, 390. Moéser’s images, Karsten’s experiments on, 228. Mud furrows, casts of, 148. Murchison, R. 1., on the Ornithichnites and Dinornis, 187. N. Nicollet, J. N., on the cretaceous forma- tion of the Missouri River, 153. on the glacial theory of Agassiz, 323. on the mineral region of Missouri, 340. obituary of, 404. Nitrogen in organic compounds, 267. Nomenclature of zoology, 1. Nova Scotia, coal and gypsiferous for- mations of, 356. fossil trees in the coal stra- ta of, 353. Obituary of Robert Bakewell, Esq., 403. of Prof. F. Hall, 404. of J. N. Nicollet, Esq., 404. Ornithichnites of the Connecticut River sandstones, 177. Osborn, M. W. and N.S., on a vibrating dam, 366. Owen, D. D., on fossil palm trees in In- diana, 336. on geological paintings and illustrations, 136. on the geology of the west- ern states, 151, 163. universal system of geolo- gical coloring and symbols, 354, Owen, R., Dr. Harlan’s reply to his let- ter on new fossil mammalia, 208. on the Ornithichnites of the Connecticut valley and the Dinornis of New Zealand, 185. 1p Paintings and illustrations, geological, 136. Palm trees, fossil, 336. Phacelia brevistylis, a new plant, 172. Purshii, a new species, 171. pusilla, a new species, 172. 408 Phlox glutinosa, a new plant, 177. Phosphate of lime in the Virginia mete- oric stone, 102. Plants of New England, 27. Poa modesta, a botanical species, 45. Primary formations and igneous rocks, analogies between, 104, Pseudo-volcanoes of the Upper Mis- souri, 154. Pteris Alabamensis, a new plant, 177. R. Radicals in the amphide salts, their ex- istence refuted, 52, 247. Rain-drops, fossil impressions of, 315, 394. Redfield, W. C., on fishes and other fos- sil memorials in the new red sandstone of New Jersey, 314. on the effects of polar currents, 326. on tides and the prevail- ing currents of the ocean and atmos- phere, 293. Reizet’s method of finding the nitrogen in organic compounds, 267. Rogers, H. D., on crescent-formed dykes of trap, 334. on hydrated minerals and antediluvian temperatures, 147. theory. of earthquake mo- tion, 341. Rogers, W. B., on the limits of the in- fusorial stratum, in Virginia, 313. Roots, Greek verbal, in English, 284. Rotary action of storms, 65. Ruggles, D., on tides in the North Amer- ican lakes, 18. S. Salts, amphide, existence of radicals in disproved, 52, 247. Scutellaria arguta, a new plant, 175. Shells, new fresh-water and land, 401. Shepard, C. U., on phosphate of lime in the Virginia meteoric stone, 102. Sigillaria, discovery of a large species, 403. Siliceous tubes (Fulgurites) formed in the earth, 220. Smilax grandifolia, a new plant, 171. Smith, J. L., on a new instrument for es- timating the carbonate of lime in eal- careous substances, 262. on Varrentrapp and Will’s method of finding nitrogen in organic compounds, 267. Soils, organic matters of, 337, Storer, D. H., notice of Dr. Dekay’s Re- port on the Fishes of New York, 275. on a new species of Tor- pedo, 165. Storms, rotary action of, 65, 307. Streptopus maculatus, a new plant, 170. INDEX. Strong, T., on the differential calculus, and a new investigation of Taylor’s theorem, 269. Subsidence, areas of in the Pacific, 131. Symbols, proposed geological, 352. a Taylor’s theorem, investigation of, 272. Teeth of Lepidostei, microscopic struc- ture of, 359. their analogy with those of the Labyrinthodonts, 361. Telegraph, electro-magnetic, experi- ments with, 390. Temperature limiting the distribution of corals, 130. Temperatures, antediluvian, 147. Thalictrum debile, a new plant, 175. Tides in the North American lakes, 18. Mr. Redfield’s remarks on, 294. Torpedo occidentalis, anew species, 165. Tracy, C., rotary action of storms, 65. Trap, crescent-formed dykes of, 334. Trees, fossil, in the coal strata of Nova Scotia, 353. Tuckerman, E., on some plants of New England, 27. his Enumeration of the Carices noticed, 216. V. Vaccinium hirsutum, a new plant, 175. Varrentrapp and Will’s method of esti- mating the nitrogen in organic com- pounds, 267. Vibrating dams, 363. Vogt’s Embryologie des Salmones noti- ced, 211. W. Walker, S. C., on the great comet of 1843, 188. Wave lines, markings of, 148. West, C. E., on siliceous tubes (Fulgu- rites) formed in the earth, 220. Whittlesey, C., on elevations in Ohio, d&c., 12. Will and Varrentrapp on nitrogen in or- ganic compounds, 267. Winds, calorific theory of, controverted, 303. Wires, conducting power of, 392. Wyman, J., bibliographical notices, 211, 397, description of a blind fish from Kentucky, 94. on the teeth of the Lepidos- tei, and their analogies with those of the Labyrinthodonts, 359. Z. Zizia pinnatifida, a new species, 175. Zoology, nomenclature of, 1. of New York, Dr. Dekay’s Re- port on, noticed, 397. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TO CORRESPONDENTS, FRIENDS AND STRANGERS. Remarks.—This method of acknowledgment has been adopt- ed, because it is not always practicable to write letters, where they might be reasonably expected; and still more difficult is it to prepare and insert in this Journal, notices of all the books, pamph- lets, &c., which are kindly presented, even in cases, where such no- tices, critical or commendatory, would be appropriate ; for it is often equally impossible to command the time requisite to frame them, or even to read the works; still, judicious remarks, from other hands, would usually find both acceptance and insertion. In public, it is rarely proper to advert to personal concerns; to excuse, for instance, any apparent neglect of courtesy, by pleading the unintermitting pressure of Jabor, and the numerous calls of our fellow-men for information, advice, or assistance, in lines of duty, with which they presume us to be acquainted. The apology, implied in this remark, is drawn from us, that we may not seem inattentive to the civilities of many respectable persons, au- thors, editors, publishers, and others, both at home and abroad. It is still our endeavor to reply to all letters which appear to require an answer ; although, as a substitute, many acknowledgments are made in these pages, which may sometimes be, in part, retrospective.— Eds. SCIENCE.—FOREIGN. Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles. Texte et Planches. Liv. 14. 1841. Histoire Naturelle des Poissons d’Eau Douce de |’Europe Cen- trale. Tome I, texte, contenant Embryologie des Salmones. Liv. 2, planches. i841. Etudes Critiques sur les Mollusques Fossiles. Liv. 2, avec plan ches, contenant les Myes du Jura et de Ja Craie Suisses. 1842. Monographies d’Echinodermes, Vivans et Fossiles. Liv. 2, con- tenant les Scutelles; liv. 3, les Galerites et les Dysaster, par E. Desor; liv. 4, ?Anatomié du genre Echinus, par G. Valentin. Planches. Nomenclator Zoologicus, continens Nomina Systematica Gene- rum Animalium, tam viventium quam fossilium. Fasiculus 1, con- 1 2 tinens Mammalia, Echinodermata et Acalephas. Fasciculus 2, con- tinens Aves.—With several prospectuses. All the above from the Author, M. Louis Agassiz, Neuchatel, Switzerland. Recit d’une course faite aux Glaciers en hiver, par MM. Agassiz et Desor. From the Authors. Apercu general de la Structute Geologique des Alpes, par M. Studer; precede de quelques observations generales, par M. Desor. From the Author. Letter to Prof. Forbes concerning his alleged discovery of the “Jamellar structure of glaciers.” From the Author, M. Agassiz. Evolution of Light from the Living Human Species; by Sir Henry Marsh, Bart. M. D., M.R.J. A. Dublin, 1842. Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology. Part Il. By James F. W. Johnston, M. A., F. R. S. The Effects of a Lightning Flash on the steeple of Buxton Church, and observations on Lightning Conductors generally ; by Charles V. Walker, Sec. Lond. Elec. Soc. London, May 17th, 1842. From the Author. On the Action of Lightning Conductors. London, July 19th, 1842. Memoir on the difference between Leyden discharges and Light- ning Flashes; by Charles V. Walker. From the proceedings of the London Electrical Society. London, Dec. 20th, 1642. From the Author. Annuaire Magnetique et Meteorologique du corps des Ingenieurs des Mines de Russie, ou recueil des observations Magnetique et Me- teorologique faites dans l’entendre de |’empire de Russie, et publiees par Pordre de S. M. ’Empereur Nicolas I. Année, 1840-1842. Received March, 1843, from M. le Comte Cancrine, chef du corps des Invenieurs. Introduction to the Atomic Theory ; by Chas. Daubeny, M. D., Prof. Chem. Oxford, 1841. Elements of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology; by Prof. Johnson. Second edition. London. pp. 250, 12mo. From the . Author. Revue des Fossiles du Government du Moscow, par C. Fischer de Waldheim. No. 1, Belemnites. From the Author, forwarded by Charles Cramer, Esq. The British Quarterly Journal of Dental Surgery, edited by J. Robinson, Esq. London, March, 1843. From the Editor. Proceedings of the London Electrical Society. Session, 1842-3. Edited by the Secretary. April. From the Society. Received April, 1843, from Signor Giovanni Michelotti, Turin, the following works, viz. Brevi Cenni sullo condizione attuale della Sardigna, per l’Auv. Giovanni Michelotti. Torino, 1842. Ten copies. Cenni Statistici sopra la Ricovero di Mendicita di Torino Nell Anno, 1841. pp. 36. Two copies. 3 _ | Atti della seconda riunione degli scienziata Italiani tenuta en To- rino. Nel Septembre, del 1840. pp. 400, quarto, pamphlet form. — Annali della scienze del regno Lombardo Veneto, opera _period- ica di Alenni collaboratori. 1841, Gennajo e Febbrajo, Marzo e Aprile, Maggio e Gingno, Luglio e Agosto. De solaris in supracretaceis Italice stratio repertio. Auctore Jean Michelloti. Two copies. Saggio storico del rizopodi caracteristici del terreni sopracreta cei, per Giovanni Michelotti. Modena, 1841. Quarto pamphlet. Five copies. Saggio orittografico sulla classe del Gasteropodi fossili del terreni terziarii del Piemonte di Luigi Bellardi e Giovanni Michelloti. Two copies. eaialbes medaglio. Musio Numismatico Lavy appartnente alla R. Academia, della scienze di Torino. In two vols., 4to. pp. 500. Two copies. Caroli Allionii Flora Pedimontana. ‘Three volumes. On the Distribution and Classification of the order of the Palzo- zoic Deposit of the north of Germany and Belgium, and on their comparison with formations of the same age in the British Isles; by Rev. A. Sedgwick, F. R.S., and Roderick I. Murchison, Esq., F.R.S. pp. 400, quarto, pamphlet form. With a set of plates. London, 1842. From the Authors. Address of Mr. Murchison before the Geological Society of Lon- don, Feb. 18th, 1842. From the Author. Maidstone ; its Geology, History, Antiquities and Traditions, dis- cussed in a memoir read in that town by Douglas Allport, Esq. From Dr. Mantell. _ Address before the Royal Society on its anniversary, Nov. 30, 1842, by the most noble Marquis of Northampton, president of the Society. From Dr. Mantell. Dent on the errors of Chronometers, and explanation of a new | construction of the Compensation Balance. London, 1842. Five copies. From the Author. Dent on the construction and management of Chronometers, Watches and Clocks. Three copies. From the Author. The Royal Society, Fellows and Council. November, 1842. Quarto pamphlet, pp. 30. From Dr. Mantell. Extract of a letter from Prof. Hansteen, Christiana, to Prof. M. Forbes, Edinburgh. Small pamphlet. pp. 8. The Geologist ; edited by Charles Moxon, Esq., from Jan. Ist, 1842, to Dec. inclusive. From the Editor. On the specific inductive capacities of certain electrical substances ; by W. Snow Harris, Esq., F. R.S. London, 1842. Quarto pam- phlet, pp. 172. From the Author. Arsberattelse om Technologiens framsteg till Kongl. Vetenskaps Academien afgifen den 31 Mars, 1840; af G. E. Pasch. Stock- holm, 1841. pp. 24. 4 Konel. Vetenskaps Academien Andlingar. For Ar 1840. Stock- holm, 1841. Tal af Academiens Preses Grefve M. Rosenblad. Stockholm, 1840. Tal om Jordbrukets narvarande tillstand inom fadernestlandet, hundren for dess fooksfran och utsigterna for dess framtd. hallet 1. K. V. A. vid. Presidii Nedlageande den 6 April 1842, af August, Auckarsward. Stockholm, 1842, pp. 42. Arsberattelser om nyare Zoologiska arbeten och Upptackter, till Kongl. Vetenskaps-Academin afvifne for aren 1837-40. Af C. J. Sundewall. Stockholm, 1841. pp. 585. All from the Swedish Academy, through their perpetual Secretary, M. Jac. Berzelius. SCIENCE.—DOMESTIC. A Muck Manual for Farmers. Lowell, Mass. 1843. From the Author, Samuel L. Dana. 12mo. pp. 232. Elements of Geology, with an outline of the Geology of North Carolina, for the use of students of the University ; by Prof. Mitch- el]. 1842. Small octavo, pp. 141. From the Author. Monograph of the Fresh Water Mollusca of the United States. No. 6. Two copies. From the Author, S. S. Haldeman, Genus Physa. Phil. 1843. Farmer’s Register, Vol. X, No. 12, containing an essay on cal- careous manures ; by Edmund Ruffin. Petersburg, 1842. The Medical News Library, Vol. I, Nos. 1 and. Philadel- phia. A continued series. Transactions of the Society of Alumni of the College of Physi- cians and Surgeons of the University of the State of New York. No. I, 1842. Quarterly Summary of the Transactions of the College of Phy- sicians of Philadelphia. 1843. Transactions of the Am. Phil. Soc. Part II, Vol. 3. Observa- tions on the species Unio. Twocopies. From the Society, and I. Lea, Esq. Binomial Theorem and Logarithms, for the use of the Midship- men in the Naval School at Philadelphia. By and from Wm. Chauvenet. 1843. Small octavo, pp. 91. Geological History of Manhattan or New York Island; by Issa- char Cozzens, Jr. New York, 1843. pp. 114, small Svo. From the Author. Reports of the first, second, and third meetings of the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists at Philadelphia, in 1840 and 1841, and at Boston, 1842, embracing its proceedings and transactions. Boston, Oct. pp. 544. Animal Chemistry, by Justus Liebig, M. D. Edited from the author’s manuscripts, by Wm. Gregory, M. D.: with additions, is ae notes and corrections, by Dr. Gregory and others; by John W. Webster, M. D., Prof. Chem. in Harvard University, Cambridge. A Catalogue of the Birds of Connecticut; by Rev. J. H. Lins- ley, A.M. From the Am. Jour. Science, Vol. xuiv, No.2. From the Author. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society for Promo- ting Useful Knowledge, held at Philadelphia. Vol. VIII, Part Third. 1843. From the Society. Description of the American Limacide; by A. Binney, Esq. Boston. ‘Three copies. MISCELLANEOUS.—FOREIGN. List of prices of mathematical and other apparatus, for sale by E. M. Clark, London. Memoires sur le Canada depuis 1749 jusqu’a 1760, entrois par- ties avec cartes et le plans lithographies, 1833. A number of bookseller’s catalogues. Twenty sixth report to the 20th November, 1842, of the London Provident Institution. Sketch of the writings and philosophical character of Augustin P. De Candolle, Prof. of Nat. Hist. Geneva; by Prof. Daubeny, of Oxford. From the Author. Austria; by W. R. Wilde, M.R.I. A. Dublin. From the Pub- lishers. Fourth annual report of the Morrison Education Society. Ma- cao, 1842. From Rev. S. R. Brown. Journal of a tour through the United States and in Canada, made during the years 1837-38; by Charles Daubeny, M. D., F. R.S., &c. Oxford. pp. 232, 12mo. From the Author. MISCELLANEOUS.—DOMESTIC. Tenth Annual Report of the Trustees of the State Lunatic Hos- pital at Worcester. Dec. 1842. Boston. From Dr. 8. G. Howe. Catalogue of Williston Seminary, fall term, 1842. East Hamp- ton, Mass. Twenty fourth Annual Report of the Directors of the New York Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. 1843. From H. P. Peet, Secretary. Inaugural Address of the Hon. A. Gallatin, LL.D., on taking the chair as President of the New York Historical Society. New York, 1843. From the Society. Reports to the Providence Atheneum, Feb. 1837 and Sept. 1888; by Stephen Trip, 1842. Do. submitted, Sept. 1842. Seventeenth Annual Report of the Board of Managers of the Prison Discipline Society. Boston, 1842. 6 r Transactions of the Hartford County Agricultural Society for 1842. Northern Lakes as a residence for the invalids of the South; by Daniel Drake, M.D. Louisville, Ky. 1842. From the Author. Annual Reports of the Interments in the city and county of New York, for 1842; by J. H. Griscom, M. D. From the Author. Twenty second Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the Mercantile Library Association, Clinton Hall. New York, 1843. Catalogue of Kemper College, 1842-3. St. Louis, Missouri. Catalogue of Middlebury College, 1842-3. Middlebury, Vt. New England and the West; by R. W. Haskins, Buffalo, N. Y. From the Author. The Destinies of War and Labor. An essay delivered by A. E. Gwynne, before the Hamilton Chapter of the Alpha Delta Phi So- ciety, 1842. Clinton. Prof. Hitchcock’s Anniversary Address before the Mount Hol- yoke Female Seminary. Amberst, Mass. 1843. From the Au- thor. Mr. Colman’s Agricultural Address, 1842, at Rochester, N. Y. From the Author. A Discourse on the rightfulness and expediency of Capital Pun- ishments ; by Rev. Wm. T. Dwight, Portland, Me. 1843. From the Author. Gambier Catalogue for 1842-3. Gambier, Ohio. ‘Two copies. Circular and Catalogue of Willoughby University, 1842-3. Clinton, Ohio. The Chicora, Nos. 9, 10, 11, 12. Charleston, S.C. From J. B. Legare, Esq. President’s Message and documents accompanying, to the 3d ses- sion of the 27th Congress. From Hon. 8S. J. Andrews. Speech of Hon. Willis Hall in committee of the whole on the governor’s message. Report by Mr. Ferris on the electro-magnetic telegraph, Dec. 30, 1842. From Hon. F. Granger. Report of Mr. Aycrigg on the Coast Survey, Feb. 9th, 1843. From Hon. J. Trumbull. From Hon. $.J. Andrews. From Hon. W. W. Boardman. From Hon. C. Morgan. Report of the Commissioners of Patents, Feb. 1843. Report by Hon. Mr. Pendleton, Ohio, on Military Posts, Coun- cil Bluffs, to the Pacific Ocean, Jan. 4th, 1843. From Hon. J. Trumbull. Mr. Underwood’s report relative to steamboat explosions. From Hon. W. W. Boardman. Collection of the documents that appeared in relation to Dr. Sewall’s drawings on the human stomach. New England’s Memorial, by Nathaniel Morton. Fifth edition, with notes, by John Davis. Boston, 1826. pp. 476, 8vo. From _ the Author. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TO CORRESPONDENTS, FRIENDS “pee STRANGERS. Remarks.—This method of acknowledgment has been adopt- ed, because it is not always practicable to write letters, where they might be reasonably expected; and still more difficult is it to prepare and insert in this Journal, notices of all the books, pamph- lets, &c., which are kindly presented, even in cases, where such no- tices, critical or commendatory, would be appropriate ; for it is often equally impossible to command the time requisite to frame them, or even to read the works; still, judicious remarks, from other hands, would usually find both acceptance and insertion. In public, it is rarely proper to advert to personal concerns; to excuse, for instance, any apparent neglect of courtesy, by pleading the unintermitting pressure of labor, and the numerous calls of our fellow-men for information, advice, or assistance, in lines of duty; with which they presume us to be acquainted. The apology, implied in this remark, is drawn from us, that we may not seem inattentive to the civilities of many respectable persons, au- thors, editors, publishers, and others, both at home and abroad. It is still our endeavor to reply to all letters which appear to require an answer; although, as a substitute, many acknowledgments are made in these pages, which may sometimes be, in part, retrospective.-— Eds. SCIENCE.—FOREIGN. Account of the Museum of Economic Geology and Mining Re- cords Office established by government in the department of her Majesty’s Commissioners of Woods and Forests, under the direc- tion of Sir Henry De La Beche, F. R.S., F.G.5.; by T. Sop- with, F. G.$. London, 1843. From R. Phillips. On the theory and construction of a Serismour, or instrument for measuring earthquake shocks, and other concussions; by James D. Forbes, Esq., F. R. S., &c. From the Transactions of the Royal Soc. of Edinburgh, Vol. XV, part 1, 1841. From the author. On a remarkable structure observed by the author in the ice of glaciers; by J. D. Forbes, Esq., with a plate. Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1841. From the author. Observations on the Aurora Borealis from Sept. 1834, to Sept. 1839; by Robert Snow, Esg. London, 1842. From the author. 2 Prof. Forbes’ Account of his recent Observations on Glaciers ; and A Fourth Letter on the Glacier Theory to Prof. Jameson; by Prof. Forbes. From the author. Report of the Manchester Geological Society at their Fourth An- nual Meeting, Oct. 27th, 1842, Jas. Heywood, Esq. in the Chair. From the Council of the Society. On the Galvanic Properties of the Principal Elementary Bodies, with a description of a new Chemico-Mechanical Battery ; by Al- fred Smee, Esq. London, 1840. From the author. On the Public Institutions for the advancement of Agricultural Science which exist in other countries; by Chas. Daubeny, M. D., F. R.S. London, 1842. From the author. Tables for the extemporaneous applications of Corrections for Temperature ; by S. Elliot Hoskins, M. D. Guernsey, 1842. Two copies from the author. Lecture on the application of Science to Agriculture; by Charles Daubeny, M. D., F. R. S. London, 1842. From the author. On the intimate rationale of the Voltaic Force ; by Alfred Smee, F. R. $8. London, 1842. From the author. Memoirs and Proceedings of the Chemical Society, Part 2. From Mr. 'Teschemacher. De mutationibus quas subit momentum virge magnetice, partim ob temporis, partim ob temperature mutationes; auctore Christo- phore Hansteen. Christianiz, 1842. Experimental Researches in Electricity, 18th series ; by Michael Faraday, Esq. D. C. L. From the Philosophical Transactions, Part I, 1843. London. From the author. On the transparency of the Atmosphere, and the law of extinc- tion of the Solar Rays in passing through it; by Prof. Forbes. From the Philos. Trans., Part II, 1842. London. From the author. Delphinus Leucopleurus, nova species, descripta ab H. Rasch, con- servatore Musei Zoologici universitatis regie Fredericiane. Chris-— tianie, 1843. Received August 27th, 1843. Descriptio ornamentorum maximam partem aureorum et nummo- rum seculi viii, vi. et ixni in preedio Hen, in parochia Eger in Di- cecesi Norvegiw Agershusiensi repertorum ; auct. Chr. Andr. Holm-~ hoc. Christianie, 1835. Received August 27th, 1843. Semina Horti Botanici Christianiensis, 1842, collecta. From the Royal University. Christiana, Norway. SCIENCE.—DOMESTIC. Elements of Chemistry, including the applications of the Science in the Arts, with numerous illustrations; by Thos. Graham, F’. R. S. With notes and additions, by Robert Bridges, M. D. Philad. 1848. Published by Lea & Blanchard. From the publishers. Large Svo, pp. 749. 3 Relique Baldwiniane—selections from the Correspondence of the late Wm. Baldwin, M. D., U. S. N.; compiled by Dr. Darlington. Philad. 1843. 12mo. pp. 346. From H. C. Townsend, Esq. Report on the exploration of the country lying between the Mis- souri River and the Rocky Mountains, on the line of the Kansas and Great Platte rivers; by Lieut. J. C. Fremont, of the corps of Topographical Engineers. Washington, 1848. pp. 243. From Col. Abert, and do. from Hon. Mr. Huntington, Norwich. Lithotripsy, or breaking of stone in the bladder; by Alvan Gold- smith, M. D. New York, 1843. From the author. Foreign Agriculture, No. 1. The Economy of Farming, from the German of Prof. Benger, with copious notes from other authors ; by E. Goodrich Smith. New York, 1843. From the author. An historical sketch of the state of American Medicine before the Revolution; by John B. Beck, M. D. Albany, 1842. From the author. Suggestions of new theories to the scientific ; by A. Girard. Mo- bile, 1843.—With a newspaper containing an article entitled, Sug- gestions of a new Planetary System. From the author. Observations of Encke’s Comet at the High School Observatory, Philadelphia, March-April, 1842, with the Fraunhofer Equatorial ; by S. C. Walker and E. O. Kendall. Read May, 1842. From the authors. Contributions to the Geology of the Tertiary Formations of Vir- ginia, second series; by Prof. W. B. Rogers and Prof. H. D. Ro- gers. Read March, 1839. MISCELLANEOUS.—DOMESTIC. Address to the Norfolk County Temperance Society at their meet- ing at Quincy, 29th Sept. 1842; by J.Q. Adams. From J. Har- rington. An Election Sermon, by the Rev. Samuel C. Jackson, Jan. 7th, 1843, before his Excellency the Governor of Massachusetts, John Davis, the Lieutenant Governor, and Common Council. The Hierophant, or Monthly Expositor of Sacred Symbols and Prophecy ; conducted by George Bush. No. Ill, Aug. 1842. Report of the joint special committee of the Senate and House of Representatives of Massachusetts, to whom was referred the pe- tition of George Latimer and more than 65,000 citizens of Mass. From Sam’! Greele. 1843. Mid Lothian coal mining company’s circular for 1843. Richmond. Twenty-fifth annual report of the Asylum for the Insane, 1842. Philadelphia, 1842. From Dr. Pliny Earle. Memoir of John Treadwell, LL. D., late Governor of Connecti- cut; by Prof. Olmsted, of Yale College. Pamphlet form, pp. 31. 1843. From the author. A The Dial. Nos. 12 and 13. Boston, April, 1848. From the Editors. A Discourse at the ordination of the Rev. F. Butler, pastor of the Congregational Church in the East Parish of Windsor, Vt.; by Rev. J. Richards, pastor of the Church at Dartmouth College. 1843. From the Author. Transactions of the Natural History Society of Hartford, No. I. Address on the birth day of Linneus, May 24th, 1836; by Dr. 8. F. Jarvis. Two copies. Fifty-sixth annual report of the Regents of the University of New York, made to the Legislature, March 1, 1843. Albany. Reply of Col. Abert and Mr. Markoe to the Hon. Mr. ‘Tappan of the U. S. Senate. Washington, 1843. Report of the select committee relative to the renewal of the State Railways with Pennsylvania cast iron rails; Mr. Trego, chair- man. April 4th, 1843. Harrisburg. “Facts for the People.” Cincinnati, O., March, 1842. Catalogue of fruit and forest trees for sale by Parsons & Co., Flushing, L. 1. 1843. Perkins Institution for the Blind. Annual report of the Trus- tees, 1843. Boston. Report of the American Temperance Union, 1843. New York. Report of the Am. Protestant Reformation Soc. N. Y. 1843. First annual report of the Western Baptist Theological Institute of Covington, Ky. 1843. From E. Robins. A new Grammar of the Enelish Language. Boston, 1834. From the author. Annual address before the Board of Trade of the city of Pittsburg, on Jan. 24th, 1842; by A. W. Loomis, Esq. Pittsburg, 1842. Catalogue of the valuable Library of Mr. Town, for sale. Wi- ley & Putnam’s Catalogues. Army and Navy Chronicle. Washington, June Ist, 1843. Collection of the documents which appeared in the public papers in relation to Dr. Sewall’s drawings of the human stomach. Dr. Pusey’s Sermon. Published in New York. Address before the Philological Institute, Dec. Sth, 1842, by T. J. Bigham, Esq. Pittsburg, 1842. Order of Exercises at exhibition of Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., August 8th, 1843. Hunt’s Magazine and Commercial Review, No. L, Aug. 1843. An address delivered before the New Haven Horticultural Society, May 25th, 1843; by Alfred S. Monson, M. D., Pres. of the Soc’y. A. discourse on the duties and qualifications of an historian, deliv- ered at the fourth anniversary of the Georgia Historical Society, Feb. 1843 ; by the Hon. M. King. Savannah. Quarterly Journal of the American Education Society, Aug. 1843. Catalogue of Western Reserve College for 1841-2. Hudson. From Prof. St. John. 5 Report on School House Architecture, made to the Board of Com- missioners of Common Schools; by Henry Barnard, Esq. Hart- ford, 1842. From the author. American Book Circular, with notes and statistics. 1843. From Wiley & Putnam, publishers, New York. The progress and results of Emancipation in the English West Indies; by John Jay, of Bedford, N. ¥Y. 1842. The Snag Nullifier—description of an invention for preventing accidents by striking against snags. 1843. From the author, L. G. Mickles. Annual circular of the Medical College of Louisiana, tenth ses- sion, 1843-4. New Orleans. Annual announcement of the Jefferson Medical College of Phil. 1843-4. Report of the joint special committee on the subject of the ef- fects of lead pipes on well water in the city of Lowell; by Dr. 8S. L. Dana. 1842. From J. W. Grant, Esq. Address delivered by Hon. Daniel Webster at the completion of the Bunker Hill Monument, June 17th, 1843. Catalogus Collegii Hamiltonensis, 1843. NEWSPAPERS.—FOREIGN. The Nonconformist, London, July 12, 1843, from J. C. Dun- lap, Esq.—A number of copies of the Scotsman and the Witness, Edinburgh, from J. Dunlap, Esq.—Jersey and Guernsey Advocate, April, 1843. NEWSPAPERS.—DOMESTIC. Albany Daily. Tribune, March 17th, 1842, from Mr. Delavan.— New York Card.—Albany Patriot, from Mr. Delavan, containing some temperance discussions; a series of them, also of the Evening Journal.—Christian Freeman, Hartford, March 24th, 1843.—The Dayspring, Boston, June and July, 1842.—The Planters’ Banner, Franklin, La.—The Clarion, Washington, D. C.—New York Daily Tribune.—Washingtonian Weekly News, New York, 1843.—Bos- ton Semi-Weekly Courier, Feb. 1843.—The Literary Age, Feb. 1842, Philad.—Cincinnati Gazette-—American Messenger, Jan. 1843.—The Southern Chronicle, Jan. 11th, 1843.—The Midnight Cry.—The Protestant Vindicator, New York, Dec. 1842.—The Washingtonian Reformer, April, 1843.—Christian Intelligencer, New York.—The New World Monthly Messenger, Feb. 1842.—The Millennial World.—New York Spectator, March, 1843.—Republi- can, Savannah, Geo.—New York American, containing an article by Dr. Hare on lead pipes, June 9th, 1843.—Vicksburg Sentinel, Feb. 1843, with meteorological tables for that place.—Brooklyn News, June 3d, 1843, with a notice of a curious impression on stone 6 found in that city. Ohio Observer, Feb. 2d, 1843, containing a let- ter from Mr. E. Andrews to Prof. Barrows, "Hodeor. —The Consti- tution, Middletown, Dec. 1842, from Dr. Barratt, containing an ac- count of the hard winter of 1779-80; from the same source, a no- tice of the various floods in Connecticut river.—Newark Daily Ad- vertiser, May 2, 1842, from Prof. Henry, with a notice of the com- et.—Indiana Statesman, Jan. 1843.—Georgia Messenger, Macon, June, 1843, from S. T. Bailey, with a notice of the phenomenon — witnessed in Georgia and Florida on the same day with the great earthquake in St. Domingo.—Middletown Constitution, from Dr. Barratt, with a scheme for restoring salmon to Connecticut river.— Albany Argus, with an article on the progress of pledge taking.— Bloomington (lowa) Herald, with the meteorological journal for 1842.—Fishkill Standard, Feb. 28th, 1843, with an article on gold fish.—Western State Journal, Syracuse, May 3d, 1842.—Norristown Free Press, with an article on comets, April, 1843.—Vermont Tem- perance Advocate, Feb. 1843.—The Comet, a Tract for the Times. —Owevo Gazette, July 7th, 1843, with a notice of the “ Owego Female Academy.”—United States Gazette, Philad., Aug. 5th, 1843, with an article headed, ‘“‘ Cambridge Astronomers.”—New England Puritan, Boston, July 28th, 1843.—The Inquirer, Philad., Aug., 1848, with a notice of the American Journal.—Commercial Advertiser, Buffalo, from R. W. Haskins, with some scientific me- moranda translated from the French.—Journal and Advertiser, Au- burn, 1843, noticing death of Rev. Jas. Richards.—The Sabbath Vindicator, New York, Aug. 1843.—Pittsburgh Gazette, July 27th, with a notice of this Journal—The Gazette, Boston, Aug. 26th, 1843.—The Christian World, Boston, July 22d, 1843, with a no- tice of Washington Allston.—Boston Semi-Weekly Gazette, from R. H. Dana, Jr., Aug. 21st, 1842, with an article headed ‘ Mr. Sturgis’ Letter.”—New England Farmer, from Dr. C. T. Jackson, with some remarks on ‘‘ Common Salts as ‘Fertilizers, ” Boston, May, 1843.—New York Sun, Aug. 29th, 1843. —Albany Evening Ga- zette, July 7th, 1843.—Albany Atlas, Aug. 21st, 1842, from Mr. Delavan. SPECIMENS. Orthis, three miles below Rochester, Genessee River. From Samuel Griswold, Mumfordville, N. Y. A suit of Pliocene Shells from the Tertiary of Italy, near Pied- mont. From M. Avocat Jean Michelotti, a Turin. A series of Ammonites cornutus, from the Kimmeridge Clay ; and sundry other interesting fossils. From Dr. G. A. Mantell. A suit of fossils from Mount Lebanon, Syria, embracing some in- teresting fishes, similar to those from the yellow limestone of Monte Bolca, Traly. From Rev. E. R. Beadle. rea, “a? CAN JOURNAL | ~AMERI > ae. | . OF eas e “'€ | - §CIENCE AND ARTS. . ~ CONDUCTED BY PROFESSOR SILLIMAN ee amp 8 | BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Jn. VOL. XLV.—No. 1— FOR APRIL, MAY, AND JUNE, 1843, — peat . i PGE tp SOR =e ie: oa HAVEN: Sold by B. NOYES.—Boston, LITTLE & BROWN anf W. H. S. JORDAN.— New York, WILEY & PUTNAM, C.S. FRANCIS & Co., and G. S. SILLI- MAN.—Philadelphia, CAREY & HART and J. 8S. LITTELL.—Baltimore, Md., N. HICKMAN.—London, WILEY & PYTNAM.—Paris, HECTOR, BOSSANGE & Co.—Hamburgh, Messrs. NESTLER & MELLE. Piet PRINTED BY B. L. HAMLEN. Published at New Haven, July 15, 1843. » 4 eS ae Bi ate ; oe a ' ee : # ne id ee oh as : Se Pie a oe TO CORRESPONDENTS. | Communications have been received from Prof. Strong, our next. Pe Our English Eorfeopoiiouts are requested to forward all cere cels to Messrs. Wiley & Putnam, booksellers, 35 Paternoster Row, London. The titles of communications and of their authors, must be fully gi Authors should always specify at the head of their MSS. the i a copies of their communications which they may wish to have printed. | Return proofs, not to be sealed, or inscribed with any thing except conan Notice always to be given when communications sent to this Journal, have been, or are to be, published also in other Journals. “ We request our friends, who desire to have their communications Guseried in a particular number, to give us timely notice of the fact, as it not unfrequei ip: pens that the space is all pre-engaged one number in advance. 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Any one who sends us the subscription money of one year for four subscribers, shall receive a copy of the work gratis for that ee MONO AMERICAN JOURNAL OF _ SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY - “PROFESSOR SILLIMAN AND BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Jr. VOL. XLV.—No. 2.—OCTOBER, 1843, FOR JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, 1843. “ NEW HAVEN: Sold by B. NOYES.—Boston, LITTLE & BROWN and W. H. 8, JORDAN.— New York, WILEY & PUTNAM, C.S. FRANCIS & Co., and G. S. SILLI- MAN.—Philadelphia, CAREY & HART and J. S. LITTELL.—Baltimore, Md., N. HICKMAN.—London, WILEY & PUTNAM.—Paris, HECTOR BOSSANGE & Co.—Hamburgh, Messrs. NESTLER & MELLE, + PRINTED BY B. L. HAMLEN. Published at New Haven, October a, L843. TO CORRESPONDENTS. Communications have been received from Dr. Engelmann, Prof. Byrne, Mr. Al- len, Mr. Hinsley, Mr. Haldeman, Mr. Chauvenet, we Plummer, and others, some of which will appear in our next. Our English correspondents are requested to forward all communications and par- —cels to Messrs. Wiley & Putnam, booksellers, 35 Paternoster Row, London. — The titles of communications and of their authors, must be fully given. a Authors should always specify at the head of their MSS. the number of extra copies of their communications which they may wish to have printed. Return proofs, not to be sealed, or inscribed with any thing except corrections. Notice always to be given when communications seut to this Journal, have been, or are to be, published also in other Journals. We request our friends, who desire to have their communications inserted in a particular number, to give us timely notice of the fact, as it sometimes happens that ; the space is all pre-engaged one number in advance. Attention to this request may perhaps prevent disappointment on the part of authors. Prof. Forbes’ elegant volume on the Glaciers, was received too late for Be, in our present number, and Beveral bibliographical notices intended for this number, are crowded out. ; : " NOTICES.. THE public are cautioned not to make payment for subscriptions to this Journal, except to such ‘persons as are authorized to receive it. This work issent Post paid to those who pay in advance. Messrs. C. W. and J. E. James are now collecting for this Journal, and are e fully é authorized to receive all dues from our subscribers. It is requested that prompt notice be given of discontinuance, and also of remo- ~ vals and deaths. TO OUR SUBSCRIBERS. We are under the necessity of urging our friends generally to exert themselves in behalf of our subscription list, which has so far diminished from the pressure of the times and from the failure of agents, as to place the work in a precarious situa- tion. We hope that every subscriber can obtain one more to add to our list. i Any one who sends us the subscription money of one year for four subscribers, ‘shall receive a copy of the work gratis for that year. SS ee ee Se aah PHILOSOPHICAL APPARATUS. JOSEPH M. WIGHTMAN, | ’ No. 33, Cornurit, Boston, — ae Manufacturer of Philosophical, Mechanical, and Chemical Appa- ratus. Nee A Ko Among which, are Apparatus for illustrating Inertia, Attraction, and other Laws of Matter. ;, aan Morion.—Laws of Falling Bodies, Compound Motion Sets, for Centre of Gravity, Models of Cycloidal Pendulums, Brachysto- chrone, or line of swiftest descent, Liaw of Central Forces, show- ing that bodies in rapid rotation always select the shorter axis, Ivory © and Boxwood Balls for collision. : Mecwanicats.—Complete sets of various sizes, from $25 to $100. hee : ee x -Hyprosratic and Hypravuric Apparatus, in great variety. -Pneumati¢.—Lever Air-Pumps, on Leslie’s construction impro- ved. Barrel 4 inches and plate 13 inches diameter; patent Single Barrel Lever Air-Pumps, on table stand, and also of portable size for Academies; Common Air-Pumps, and Condensing Syringes ; with a great variety of Apparatus adapted to the different sizes. Execrrican Prats Macuines.—Improved construction of all sizes. Cylinder do. 6 to 10 inches diameter, Batteries, Jointed and Universal Dischargers, Balance, Gold Leaf, and other Electrome- ters, Thunder. Houses, Cannons, &c. &c. &c. : Cuemicay.—Compound Blowpipes, Parabolic Reflectors silver plated, in cases with Apparatus, Gas-holders,, Cast Iron Mercury -Cistern with Gas-holder, improved from the best English, Lamp Stands with improved Shifting Rings, Spirit Lamps with Glass Caps, _ Furnaces of various sizes, Oxygen Retorts of Iron with tubes, tight joints without luting, Pyrometers, Porcelain Mortars, and Evapora- ting Dishes, Nooth’s Apparatus, Bell Glasses, Alembics, tubulated and plain Retorts, Glass Tubes, &c. &c. _ Opricat.—Lenses, Mirrors, Prisms, Models of the human Eye, Single and Compound Microscopes, Telescopic Kaleidoscope, Phan- tasmagoria Lanterns, imported by J. M. W. and warranted superior to any other, with great variety of sliders on Astronomy, Natural History, Ancient and Modern Costume, Views, &c. &c. Astronomy, Grotoey, and Mrerrororoey.—Orreries, Telluri- ans, Globes 18, #2, 10, and 6 inches diameter, Clinometers for tak- ing the inclination and direction of strata, Reflecting Goniometer, Rain Gauges, Barometers and Thermometers. Execrro-Macnetism.—A very great variety of Apparatus and Machines for Motion, Shocks, and Sparks, for illustrating this, inter- esting branch of science. Gatvanism.—Batteries, improved construction of different sizes. J. M. W. would refer to his Catalogue for further information, copies of which will be sent per mail on application. All letters post paid. ne (> Sets of Apparatus for the various departments of science, are put up for Schools, Academies, Colleges, &c. at all prices. Respecting the quality of the apparatus manufactured by J. M. W., he has the pleasure of referring to the Edi- ~ tors of the Journal of Science, and also to the following awards from the Fairs of the Mass. Char. Mech. Association held in Boston. SityEr Mepar, 1887. Gop Mepat, 1841. Sitver Mepat, 1839. Boston, Dec. 1, 1841. Hin gy ie ¢ THE AMERICAN JOURNAL, &c. eee RA ‘TERMS. Lal ‘Six dollars per annum; published in four Quarterly numbers, making two vol- umes a year, of from eight to niue hundr ed pages for oo volumes, which are fully illustrated by plates. _ is eta The Editors will draw on the agents, semi- ri-annually, at ninety days. - Postmasters can Srank all remittances. “Money remitted will in all cases be acknowledged by a bill or receipt i in the ae ~No. of the Journal or by letter: if no such paper or letter is received, it ana be presumed that the remittance has miscarried, (a very rare occurrence, ) Complete sets, now 45 vols., are furnished to order. 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