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Pl me ibaherar gc Bio Boe bit a era ae iyato dst Meaty Hi iain: AE v eye hid a ayesha d saga ts iy EAD RRB a cd yey sy! ye PERN Tat aNd fh SIAN Pe ‘ gett ter wey haneespe (0 odd) Bers ei! iio ON eh a eOk ae PUA rage eiries ‘ yrtetey Na Saent fit 4 “fy kat ipePsswass Hoses tee ‘ auate He Tait sn fait Agere Cisne akesl asap wee Seyt Witenes var gel teeny TEU oF LITT Uo ba Pe iP Nisin SR FTAA pila nese nieay t a ae ad Liye Wb tyso Pratt ae} SIE POLS SEI ny ene be fest mate) { ‘| oa 4H t. Teh yeas ee ted Satya: wy Fergie 4 Aytaes ty tat NaMnre tes Morty asa ty ite Wad ones Puen ae ie Sys st yay ae aa Hight wi pees Mai ite et a ne ay auhr Pra iay pare Tee tLAE abn cae Hite hast ry ie HAN Bieaebte hy te Dies hnto ysis patit Mb de apt Fptyars sn pad adie tg Foe eer ade ceeanctet gee ened ea ad RTT i data i v Saar | Mt hat WR Maa eee a oO pret ai AA ghee ae Litvak oH Hf Maa +1) ai Gnie iti ie URN Uti CA ehisas a BAU OTSEE tects ph tit Dae A Lite Lag, Net ¥ siryasti td tts Hira en i ” Hebel Ca ED rea jails gts iy wit 3 WRENS SANA AD rer : eld ae HN fra Mmat it ju path t Df M tas iin “ies bin Fate tay Hey Mite An ety aie i dil teat athe poe (iy ; b Wy) i hie 1 hi ‘ : Sui a) YA Ni a "i Me rel " qu ve iy ¥, Pi ; i Mf (he Day) hy iia Di { i rh "4 Wy vi iy cu nny Hi nel Bia A ( } \ iy wit iat Hy Hay re Dane hi it iP , rn fe 4 Aoi MY - ; 7) aa ne Ca nde ii halter id ‘ Wn i } i si * re yy 1 L : Ty WJ 7 ot, j { ad ALY, DIK os ihe THE AMERICAN SHEPHERD: BEING A HISTORY OF THE SHEEP, WITH THEIR BREEDS, MANAGEMENT, AND DISEASES. PORTRAITS OF DIFFERENT BREEDS, SHEEP BARNS, SHEDS, &c. WITH AN APPENDIX, EMBRACING UPWARDS OF TWENTY LETTERS FROM EMINENT WOOL- GROWERS AND SHEEP-FATTENERS OF DIFFERENT STATES, DE- TAILING THEIR RESPECTIVE MODES OF MANAGEMENT. BY LY A. MORRELL. NEW YORK: HARPER & BROTHERS, 82 CLIFF STREET. Meg Clot: Operv Sp pl a bes ENTERED, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1845, BY HARPER & BROTHERS, In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. > . ad e 7 ~ my NY ~ AS) y oN ee WwW ‘\ ws x e ‘ ’ a er eee vers ts ee eh hs rh wer PREFACE. Tat a work embracing perhaps all the topics of the present treatise, has long been demanded by American Wool-growers, cannot be denied. The English, and other foreign works on the important subject of Sheep Husbandry, notwithstanding the ability with which they are written, are unadapted to our wants, chiefly because the breeds of sheep and modes of management are, in the main, so essentially different in our own country and Great Britain. Something AmERrIcAN, therefore, is need- ed—a work which would tend to correct the many errors and abuses of management, and enter into such minute details connected therewith, as would teach the merest novice his duties. With many others, I have long been waiting with the hope that some one having the necessary practical knowledge, and in other respects eminently qualified, would undertake the difficult task of supplying us with such a treatise; but no one having come forward, after due consultation with some friends, on whose judgment I could safely rely, I determined to attempt what, under other circumstances, I could not have summoned the res- olution, and I may add, temerity, to do. It is, therefore, with no ordinary degree of apprehension that I appear be- fore the public in the character of an author, and the more especially of a work of this kind, having been obli- ged, in a measure, to carve out my own way, and act the “Jone pioneer.” It was my original intention to have limited the histor- ical part to the prominent and most profitable breeds, but so little is generally known of those peculiar to Asia and Africa, as well as remote portions of Europe, it appeared 12 vi PRETAOCE. to me that a brief notice of these would be acceptable ; and, in addition, I have introduced all that the Scriptures afford us concerning the sheep, thereby bringing forward everything of consequence to know from the most remote antiquity to the present period. I have availed myself, principally, of Mr. Youatt’s standard and able work to aid ine in this department; and also to him and Mr. Blacklock, both distinguished Veterinary Surgeons, for much of what is offered on the Diseases of Sheep; and to Mr. Spooner, the author of a recent English work, and likewise a Veterinary Surgeon, for the interesting chapter on the Structure, or Anatomy of the sheep. All this neces- sity compelled me to do, owing to the paucity of works in American libraries relative to the history of the species, and the very little progress as yet made among us in scientific classification and treatment of diseases. Mr. Youatt is probably the first veterinary surgeon of the age, and is at present the editor of a London periodical devo- ted to that science; therefore, that part of this work con- cerning Diseases is, undoubtedly, entitled to much confi- dence ; in addition, my own observations and experience, together with all that I could gather from others, have been added. It is many years that I have been a practical manager of sheep, a vocation to which I am enthusiastically at- tached. I acknowledge an affection for the sheep, para- mount to that for any other domestic animal, and have studied its instincts and habits at all seasons, and under all circumstances ; and now andalways have shared with my laborers in every department connected with manage- ment. What, therefore, is offered on this subject, is the result almost solely of what my own eyes have seen, and hands handled—indeed, is nearly a transcript of my sys- tem of practice. Being aware, however, of the tenacity with which farmers cling to their particular modes of management, right or wrong, I entered into an extensive correspondence with distinguished wool-growers, to aid me in perfecting this department of the work, with a view to confirm positions which are set forth, and strike a more effectual blow at errors. 'T'o my brother wool-growers, as well as all others, who have so kindly aided me in my PREFACE. vii undertaking, I acknowledge myself under deep obliga- tions, and doubtless this will be the response of every reader. ‘The Appendix cannot be otherwise regarded than as a valuable portion of this work. The portraits of the several breeds of sheep were sub- mitted to a number of competent judges, and pronounced faithful representations. In reference to that of the Span- ish Merino, it, with one other, was forwarded to the Hon. Wm. Jarvis, of Vermont, who pronounced it “a fair like- ness of a Merino in high order, and with a long fleece.” It will be apparent to every one, that an American Merino portrait would be inappropriate in treating of Spanish Merinos. All the cuts were drawn from life, and mostly by the celebrated animal painter, Harvey, of London. In conclusion, I have chosen very frequently to give the very language of my authorities, rather than my own, except when condensation became necessary. For any one individual to write an ortginal work of this charac- ter, embracing such a variety of topics, of course is im- practicable ; therefore the course adopted I believed to be best, because it would be likely to have more weight with the reader. My object has been to bring before the pub- lic a strong work—authentic, if possible, in every partic- ular, and worthy to be trusted and appealed to upon any question and point of importance ; and lastly, I have en- deavored to convey everything in language simple and unadorned, to suit the capacity of the humblest of my brother wool-growers, for whose benefit chiefly this was written. ‘To these, and all others engaged in this honor- able vocation, I appeal for a decision upon its merits, which, if favorable, will afford me a degree of pleasure not easily conceived, and terminating only with life. fa ih bi abl i a Te chia | ae sia “elim . on yea; hoyhigt iy ti bina eh lk tata Cantata: Rin err ine nivedice ace ae be! Tk eae ie ibaa ctr dite a, ai nf ae ar : pact hor ue gee & eae thy iad { Sei = Badia at § Brie : sen “phn: ‘ ‘ yg yh 4 ; ek Gig ~ i ' "J ? THE AMERICAN SHEPHERD. CHAPTER I. PROPERTIES OF WOOL. As frequent allusions will be made in various parts of this work to the structure of the fibre, the distinctive peculiari- ties of the various kinds of wool, and the uses to which these wools are respectively applied, it is apparent that here will be the proper place for a discussion of the subject ; and the reader is invited, for reasons which will appear obvious, to give it his careful attention. STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN. The skin of the sheep, and of animals generally, is com- posed of three coats, or layers. ‘The external one is called the cuticle or scarf skin, which is exceedingly tor gh, devoid of feeling, and pierced by innumerable small holes, for the passage of the wool and insensible perspiration. The next layer is termed the mucus coat, a soft structure, its fibres having scarcely more consistence than mucilage, and consequently separated with much difficulty from the coat below it. From the fact that the pulpy substance of this layer uniformly approximates the color of the hair, or wool, it is supposed that here resides the coloring matter. This is the seat also of sensation; the nerves, or rather their terminations, ramifying minutely in its substance. The third or lowermost layer is the cutis or true skin, a dense, firm, elastic substance, in order to fit closely to the parts beneath, to yield to the various motions of the body, and the resistance of external injury. The true skin is 28 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. composed almost entirely of gelatine, so that although it may be dissolved by much boiling, it 1s insoluble:in water at the common temperature. It is well known the skin of the sheep is seldom fully tanned, but is prepared in a peculiar way, and used for the common sort of binding for books, or is converted into parch- ment, which, from its durable nature, is used for the inscrip- tion of documents of more than ordinary value. Other uses made of the pelts of lambs in foreign countries, mention will be made hereafter. ANATOMY OF WOOL. Although the fibre of wool has been submitted to severe examinations of powerful microscopes, its internal structure is not yet definitely setthed—whether solid, or conisting of a hard exterior tube with a pith within. The weight of testi- mony, however, is much in favor of the supposition of the latter. The fact may be adduced in support of this conclu- sion, that the wool of the sheep, when in high condition, is coarser than when im low flesh, the fibre being distended appareutly from no other cause than the superabundance of the secretive matter designed for its growth. Could it be otherwise were it not tubular in its conformation? It may, however, proceed from another cause, for it has been satis- factorily ascertained that the fibre is vascular, being supplied with vessels which convey nourishment from the pulp, which seem to accompany it to a considerable distance from the root, if not through its whole extent. The learned Dr. Good says :— The Plica polonica, a disease whose existence is doubted by some, but of the oc- casional occurrence of which there is abundant testimony, completely establishes the vascularity of the hair; for it is an enlargement of the individual hairs, so much so as, in some cases, to permit the passage of red blood, for the hair will bleed when divided by the scissors.” Admitting it to be true that the hair is vascular, it follows that the fibre of wool is also ; and hence if a sheep is in more than ordinary condition, the consequent repletion of the fluids would cause an increased bulk of the fibre, without the necessity of a tubular conformation. But leave is taken of the question, with the repetition that the preponderance of testimony is in favor of the theory that the fibre is hollow. Each fibre of wool is composed of a number of filaments. iTS CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. 29 er smaller hairs, ranged side by side, which can be perceived without difficulty, from the tendency it sometimes has to un- ravel at the point. Mr. Bakewell has remarked on this as follows: “‘ Hair is frequently observed to split at its points into distinct fibres—a division has also been seen in the hair of wool. This seems to prove that they are formed of dis- tinct long filaments uniting in one thread or hair. In large hairs I have discovered a number of divisions from the root to the point. In one hair I distinctly perceived fifteen of these divisions of fibres lying parallel to each other, and in some of the fibres a further subdivision was distinguishable. Probably these subdivisions were each composed of others still smaller, which the limited power of our instruments may prevent us from discovering. If such be the structure of the hair of some animals, it is at least probable that the hair of all others may have a similar conformation, although the fibres of which they are composed may be too minute, or adhere too firmly together to permit us to separate or dis- tinguish them.” ITS CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. The fact has long since been established that the chemi- cal composition of nails, hoofs, horns, hair, wool, and even feathers, is substantially the same. According to Henry, they are made up of an animal substance resembling coagu- lated albumen; and sulphur, silica, carbonate and phosphate of lime, and oxides of iron and manganese. The similarity of the odor of hoofs, horns and hair, perceptible when burned, is within the experience of all. It is also well known that the horns of cattle are made up of elongated fibres or hair, which will be obvious to any one who will take the trouble to examine with the aid ef a microscope. Indeed, without this instrument, the fact can be established as exemplified in the horns of the deer, at certain stages of the growth, and also those of the giraffe, on the surface of which hairs can be distinctly traced. Other testimony may be found in the circumstance, uniformly the same, that the horns conform in the degree of their twist or curve to the hair or wool of the animals on which they respectively grow. Thus, in the Angora goat and wild sheep of the Rocky Mountains, the horns are, like the hair and wool they produce, compara- tively straight; while the horns of the Saxon and Merino resemble the beautiful spiral curve of their wool. 3* 30 PROPERTIES OF WeOL, YOLK. This peculiar substance is so called abroad, from its ad- hesiveness and color; but with us it is termed gwm, an ap- pellation derived from its glutinous properties, quite as appropriate. It is apparent in the fleeces of fine-wool sheep, especially the Merino, at all seasons of the year, but very much so in the winter and spring ; and although diffused through the whole fleece, yet such is its profusion in the Merino, that it is observable in detached concrete particles, resembling ear wax. According to the chemical analysis of Vauquelin, it consists principally of a soapy matter, with a basis of potash; a small quantity of carbonate of potash; a small quantity of acetate of potash; lime in an unknown state of combination ; and an atom of muriate of potash. Its peculiar odor, well known to those familiar with the fleeces of Saxon and Merino, is derived from the infusion of a small quantity of animal oil, and is in every respect a true soap, which would permit of the fleece being thoroughly cleansed by the ordinary mode of washing, were it not for the exist- ence of this uncombined fatty or oily matter, which remains attached to the wool, and rendering it glutinous, until sub- jected to the process of scouring by the manufacturer. There are some, from ignorance, who imagine the yolk or gum to be, if not absolutely a detriment to wool, at least a use- less concomitant. This, however, is adecided mistake. It is a peculiar secretion from the glands of the skin, acting as one of the agents in promoting the growth of the wool, and by its adhesiveness, matting it, and thereby forming a de- fence from the inclemency of the weather. From accurate observation, it has been ascertained, that a deficiency of yolk will cause the fibre to be dry, harsh and weak, and the whole fleece becomes thin and hairy ; on the contrary, when there is a natural supply, the wool is soft, plentiful and strong. ‘The quantity is depending on equability of tem- perature, the health of the sheep, and the proportion of nutritive food it receives. Although it is found in greater or less quantities in the fleeces of almost every variety of sheep, such is its excess in the Merino breed, that it causes dirt to collect on the sur- face to such a degree as to form an indurated crust, with a hue resembling the thunder cloud. This excess, although, as already remarked, no way injurious to the fibre, yet in YOLK. $l one sense it is so to the manufacturer, from the uncertainty as to the amount of loss sustained by cleansing. Hence it is that the European manufacturer refuses to purchase Spanish Merino wool, without being thoroughly washed with soap, which is always performed after the fleece is shorn, and even then the wool shrinks, by the manufacturer’s mode of cleansing, generally about 10 per cent. It has been observed that temperature has an influence in determining the quantity of yolk; hence, the equable and mild climate of Spain is favorable to its production; and although the Escurial Merino is for the most part the parent stock of the Saxony sheep, yet, from the opposite character of the climate to that of Germany, it is found in a greatly diminished quantity in Saxon fleeces. The Saxon Merino, however, when kept in fair condition, has the requisite sup- ply to give additional softness, pliability, and strength to the fibre. On the authority of an English writer, the wools of several breeds of sheep in the more southern part of the kingdom abound in yolk in great abundance, so that a fleece, un- washed on the back, will lose one-half of its weight by thor- ough scouring. A deficiency of this substance is percepti- ble as progress is made northward ; and in Northumberland and Scotland, it is common for the farmers to supply its loss by means of smearing the sheep, in autumn, with a mixture of tar and oil, or butter, which will be more particularly no- ticed hereafter. To confirm the propriety of this, as well as afford additional testimony of the virtues of yolk, the fol- lowing fact is quoted, recorded by Mr. Bakewell, the emi- nent sheep breeder :— “An intelligent manufacturer in my neighborhood, whe kept a small flock of good wooled sheep, informed me he had adopted the practice of rubbing the sheep with a mixture of butter and tar. He could speak decidedly to the improve- ment the wool had received by it, having superintended the whole process of the manufacture. The cloth was superior to what ungreased wool could have made, if equally fine ; it was remarkably soft to the touch, and had a ‘ good hand and feel” the appearance of the threads being nearly lost in a firm, even texture, covered with a soft, full nap.” The additional value, then, the yolk imparts to the wool, affords a useful lesson to the wool-grower, to take such care of his sheep as will best supply the needful quantity. Equa. 32 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. bility of temperature being one requisite, he should protect his flocks during the winter season; and good condition being another, wholesome and nutritious food should not. be spared. FORM OF THE FIBRE. The fibre of wool is circular, differing materially in diam- eter in the various breeds, and also in different parts of the same fleece. Itis generally larger towards the point and also near the root, and in some instances very considerably so. Mr. Youatt’s description cannot be simplified or im- proved. “The fibres of white wool, when cleansed from grease, are semi-transparent; their surface in some places is beautifully polished, in others curiously encrusted, and they reflect the rays of light in a very pleasing manner. When viewed by the aid of a powerful achromatic micro- scope, the central part of the fibre has a singularly glittering appearance. Very irregularly placed minuter filaments are sometimes seen branching from the main trunk like boughs from the principal stem. ‘This exterior polish varies much in different wools, and in wools from the same breed of sheep at different times. When the animal is in good condition and the fleece healthy, the appearance of the fibre is really brilliant; but when the sheep has been half starved, the wool seems to have sympathized with the state of the constitution, and either a wan, pale light, or sometimes scarcely any, is reflected.” His closing paragraph is especially true. The wool of half-starved sheep can be detected without any difficulty by the wool stapler and experienced buyer, and its consequent deterioration affects the price. The fibre of such wool is finer, it is true; but the numberless breaches injure every manufacture for which it is used. ‘This is another illustra- tion of the bad policy of farmers in neglecting to keep their sheep in uniform good condition. Healthy sheep will pro- duce healthy wool, both being always the most valuable, and consequently paying the largest dividends. ELASTICITY. A writer observes—“ There are two antagonistic princi- ples continually at work in every part of the frame of every animal ; and it is on the delicate adjustment and balance of power between them, that all healthy and useful action de- SPIRAL .CURVE. 38 pends ; the disposition to give way, or submit to some alter- ation of form when pressed upon, and an energy by means of which the original form is resumed, as soon as the ex- ternal force is removed.” ‘These two principles are beauti- fully exemplified in the fibres of wool, obviously much dependant on the numerous and minute spiral curves, so manifest in the Saxon and Merino. Take, for instance, a single fibre of weol of these varieties of sheep, if it be stretched to its full length, and then suddenly set free at one extremity, it will resume its ringlet form; and hence upon the union of pliability with the elastic principle chiefly de- pends the usefulness, and consequently value of wool. The play of these powers is differently adjusted in differ- ent wools. Inthe Saxon, calculated for our finest fabrics, the action of these opposing principles is beautifully bal- anced. Hence it is the fabric is so easily shorn of its superfluous nap, the facility with which it yields to pressure, and covers the threads of the cloth with a dense, soft pile. Notwithstanding the injury the elastic powers may receive by the process of manufacture, yet by the aid of a micro- scope, the nap presents innumerable minute curves closely hugging the texture ; and to this much of the beauty of our finest cloth is owing. To these opposing powers of the fibre, the felting principle is not a little indebted, as will be explained hereafter. SPIRAL CURVE. The spiral curve, or ringlet form of wool, has been referred to. ‘This is one of the distinguishing qualities between wool and hair, the latter being comparatively straight. It is re- markable in all short-wooled sheep, but in no other varieties is it so conspicuous as the Saxon and Merino. It is ob- servable in the Leicester and other long-wooled varieties, but in a far less degree ; and with seme species of the goat, under the hair of which is found a perfect wool, having the true felting property, and the fibre considerably curved. There is an intimate connexion between the fineness of the wool, and the number of the curves, or otherwise, i pro- portion to the number of curves in a given span, is the diame- ter of the fibre. It should be stated, however, that this is more generally true of pure Saxon and Merino. It can be easily demonstrated, if the experiment is fairly made with the micrometer, care being taken not to destroy the curves 34 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. by extension, but the fibre placed in the instrument as i¢ naturally grows upon the sheep. From M. Lafoun’s work on German management of sheep, the following is extracted, bearing on this point: “Those breeding pure Saxons, inspect their flocks three times in the year; before winter, when the selection of lambs is made, in the spring, and at shearing time. Each sheep is placed in its turn on a kind of table, and examined carefully as to the growth, the elasticity, the pliability, the brilliancy, and the fineness of the wool. The latter is as- certained by means of a micrometer. Jt being found that there was an evident connection between the fineness of the fibre and the number of curves, this was more accurately noted, and the following table was constructed. ‘The fleece was sorted in the manner usual in France. The fineness of the Superelecta, or picklock, is represented by a spam corresponding with the number 7 on the instrument.” Curves in Sort. Name. an inch. Diameter of fibre. 1. Superelecta, 27 to 29. «7 _~=«or 1-840th of an inch. 2. Electa, 24 to 28 8 or 1-735th © 3. Prima, 20 to 23. 9 or 1-660th ss 4. Secunda Prima, 19 to 19 10. or 1-588th os 5. Secunda, 16 to 17 11° or 1-534th “ 6. Tertia, 14 to 15 114 or 1-510th es The above will show the necessity of more care with wool-growers in breeding from such sheep only whose woo} approximates nearest to the principle laid down, as it is te this curled form of wool its most valuable uses depend. It is one agent, though not the principal, in producing the phe- nomena of felting. “It materially contributes to that dispo- sition of the fibres which enables them to attach and entwine themselves together ; it multiplies the opportunities for this Seok tag and it increases the difficulty of unravelling the elt.” The numerous and minute curves being, as observed, emi- nently characteristic of the pure Saxon and Merino, will serve as a sure test, in all cases, of the purity of blood, and therefore affords a certain and unerring guide in the selection of breeding sheep. If it is rightly adhered to, the every day attempts to dispose of grades for high-bred sheep will be frustrated. FINENESS, 35 SOFTNESS——FINENESS. It is not as generally known as it should be, that softness is a quality of wool of much consequence. When the wool buyer and stapler proceed to an examination of a parcel, their judgment will be materially affected as to its value, whether “soft in handle,” or otherwise. This, however, generally speaking, is the result of comparative fineness; but by no means always so, for wool of the same quality of fineness has not the same degree of softness. There are several causes to account for it, and among them is soil; as, for instance, the chalky districts of England affect the wool to such an extent as to make it invariably brittle and harsh. This, however, is only local. The general cause of a de- ficiency of softness in wools of the same breed, may be re- ferred directly to the condition of the sheep. It has already been stated that when the animal was kept in uniform good condition, the necessary quantity of yolk was supplied. Now if there is but little of this substance, which will follow an abuse in management, the wool will be less pliable and “kind to feel.” Therefore it may be set down as a univer- sal rule, that wool owes much of its softness to the presence of a sufficiency of yolk. As a testimony how much this quality of wool is appre- ciated by the manufacturer, it is affirmed on the authority of an English author, “that two parcels of sorted wool being taken, possessing the same degree of fineness, but the one having the soft quality in an eminent degree, and the other being harsh, the cloth prepared from the first, at the same expense, will be worth more to the manufacturer than the other, by full 20 per cent.” FINENESS. This term, when applied to wool, is wholly comparative ; various breeds of sheep producing wool essentially different in quality, the same breeds varying much, and all breeds exhibiting qualities of wool of unequal fineness in the same fleece. It is also sometimes the fact that the extremity of the fibre, as ascertained by the micrometer, is five times greater in bulk than the centre and root. The fibre may be considered coarse when it is more than the five hundredth part of an inch in diameter, and very fine when it does not exceed the nine hundredth part of an inch, 36 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. as exhibited occasionally in choice samples of Saxon Merino wool. It is said there are animals which have a wool un- derneath a covering of hair, the fibre of which is less than the twelve hundredth part of an inch.* The following cut will show the points in the pure Merino and Saxon where the different qualities of wool are to be found. The divisions do not always accurately correspond, but Lasteyrie and Chancellor Livingston, who were both familiar with pure Spanish Merinos, agree as to their general truth, and the observations of the writer confirm their decision. It is, then, a matter to be studied by the wool-grower who is desirous of propagating sheep of the fine-wooled varieties ; for grades will often exhibit seven and eight qualities in the same fleece, whereas it will be seen that unalloyed breeds show but four qualities. Individuals have occasionally been found in original Saxon flocks whose fleeces would divide into only two sorts; but this is very rare. afi hi Nes % CF mAh val } PEGE STAN \ i ROE Yj . ; sh Mh Raa) 1/7 | “oni ee PE. ? a y\ orlagere MERINO EWE. * Luccock. LENGTH OF THE STAPLE—COLOR. 37 The refina (fig. 1), or the picklock wool, begins at the withers, and extends along the back to the setting on of the tail. It reaches only a little way down at the quarters, but, dipping down at the flanks, takes in all the superior part of the chest, and the middle of the side of the neck to the angle of the lower jaw. ‘The fina (fig. 2), a valuable wool, but not so deeply serrated, or possessing so many curves as the refina, occupies the belly, and the quarters and thighs down to the stifle joint. No. 3, or third quality, is found on the head, the throat, the lower part of the neck, and the shoulders, terminating at the elbow; the wool yielded by the legs, and reaching from the stifle to a little below the hock, is procured from the tuft that grows on the forehead and cheeks, from the tail, and from the legs below the hock.* LENGTH OF THE STAPLE. Formerly, wool of short staple only was thought by the manufacturer indispensable to make a fine cloth with a close pile or nap, but the improvements made in machinery within afew years have superseded this consideration, and now long-staple wool is most valued. This in part proceeds from the fact that short wools have more “dead end,” pro- portionally, than long ; again, the new American enterprise for manufacturing muslin de laines, calls for a long, tough, fine staple. The Australian wools, which are of Merino and Saxon blood, from the mildness of the climate of New South Wales, are very much longer in staple than formerly, and are much used for the above object. It is a query, however, whether a fine and very compact fleece, possessing a long fibre, can be produced on the same sheep. Very close, fine fleeces, are always comparatively short in staple; and close fleeces are indispensable in our rigorous climate, to protect the sheep from the effects of cold and wet ; on the con- trary, open fleeces are usually long in staple, but a poor defence against a low temperature. It is, therefore, a question for the wool-grower of the North to consider whether, in obliging the manufacturer, he will not adopt a policy injurious to the constitution of his sheep. Ina more southern latitude, this consideration is not so important. COLOR. The alteration of the color was the first recorded im- * Livingston. 4 88 PROPERTIES OF WOOL, provement of the sheep, and its purity, its perfect whiteness, should never be lost sight of by the sheep-master of the present day. It is, however, not so much considered as it should be. Manufacturers desire none other fine wools than those of the purest whiteness, for the reason that those of a black or dun-colored hue, do not receive a perfect fancy dye, and therefore can be converted only into black cloths ; hence, they are valued accordingly. Flock-masters should never breed from individuals that are otherwise than purely white ; for, independent of the above consideration, black or smutty sheep mar the appearance of a flock. TRUENESS. The quality of trueness of the staple especially enhances the value of every grade of wool in which it is found. It comprises an equality of the diameter of the fibre from the root to the point, and uniformity of the fleece generally. When the filament greatly lacks in this particular, it may be ascribed to an irregular and unhealthy action of the secretion of wool, which, in turn, must be attributed, in general, to abuses in management ofthe sheep. For instance, if the animal has fared kindly till the winter season, and then exposed to storm, and cold, and withal ill fed, the growth of that part of the fibre during this period will be considerably dimin- ished in diameter, proportionally weak, and when examined by the microscope, presents a withered appearance. On being turned to pasture, the fare being better, and the secre- tions again becoming healthy and abundant, an enlargement of the fibre follows; but it is greatly destitute, from the causes stated, of the quality of trueness, and therefore de- bases the value of the whole fleece. The weak and with- ered parts of the fibre are termed breaches, and injure mate- rially every manufacture in which it is employed, the felting property being deteriorated, and the cloth having less strength and softness. ‘The skilful stapler and wool-buyer will, on critical examination, easily detect this serious fault, and prize the wool accordingly. By pulling asunder a single fibre, the break will uniformly be confined to the breachy or with- ered point. This is termed unsound wool. Although this description of wool is generally, as remarked, the result of bad management of the flock, yet it is common to all good sheep. With the Saxon and Merino, after the ewes, particularly, pass the age of eight or nine years, the INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE. 3g yolk lessens in quantity, which is followed by compara- tively a hard, inelastic, unyielding character of the wool, with the strength and weight greatly diminished. There- fore, notwithstanding the singular longevity of these breeds, it is better to pass them over to the butcher, when arrived at the age mentioned. Intimately connected with producing a sound and true sta- ple, is the INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE, It cannot be doubted that equability of temperature is an important agent in perfecting the several properties of wool. The Spanish custom, continued for centuries, of driving the sheep in the spring to the northern and mountainous parts of the kingdom, which are there kept until the approach of winter, originated in part from the conviction that this theory was sound. Indeed, it is founded in the natural instinct of the sheep. Every one knows it is impatient of heat. In the midst of summer, in all latitudes where it is found, it will seek the most elevated points for the sake of the cool- ing breeze, and retire to shades to guard itself against the burning rays of the sun. In winter it will flee to a place of refuge from storms and cold. All this testifies strongly in favor of the correctness of the premises. But the question may be asked, what has the bodily comfort of the animal to do with perfecting the several properties of the fleece? The answer is, every thing. If health and thrift are promoted by equability of temperature, the cutaneous glands are alike healthy, and a regular and even growth of the fibre naturally follows. But strictly speaking, equability of temperature is nowhere to be found; therefore, in our rigorous and changeable climate, the fibre of wool must ever present a greater or less inequal- ity of diameter between its extremes. It is remarkable that the point has always the largest bulk. ‘This is the product of summer, after shearing time, when there is a repletion of the secretions which produce the wool, and when the pores of the skin are relaxed and open, and permit a larger fibre to protrude. The portion near the root is the growth of the spring, when the weather is getting warm; and the inter- mediate part is the offspring of winter, when, under the in- fluence of the cold, the pores of the skin contract, and permit only a finer fibe to escape. 40 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. An author remarks, “The variations in the diameter of the wool in the different parts of the fibre will also curiously correspond with the degree of heat at the time the respective portions were produced. The fibre of the wool, and the record of the meteorologist, will singularly agree, if the va- riations in temperature are sufliciently distant from each other for any appreciable part of the fibre to grow.” In confirmation of the general fact as to the influence of climate on wool and hair, the remarks of Mr. Hunter, an English author of high authority, are quoted: ‘“ Sheep car- ried from a cold to a warm climate soon undergo a remarka- ble change in the appearance of their fleece. From being very firm and thick, it becomes thin and coarse ; until at length it degenerates into hair. Even if this change should not take place to its full extent in the individual, it will in- fallibly do so in the course of a greater or less number of generations. ‘The effect of heat is nearly the same on the hairs of other animals. The same species that in Russia, Siberia, and North America, produce the most beautiful and valuable furs, have nothing in the warmer climates but a coarse and thin covering of hair.” The above must be received with some limitation. Mr. Youatt makes the following remarks: “ Temperature and pasture have an influence on the fineness of the fibre, and one which the farmer should never disregard ; but he may in a great measure, counteract this influence by carefui management and selection in breeding. ‘The original ten- dency to the production of a fleece of mixed materials exist- ing, and the longer coarse hair covering and defending the shorter and softer wool, nature may be gradually adapting the animal to his new locality; the hair may increase and the wool may diminish, if man is idle all the while; but a little attention to breeding and management will limit the extent of the evil, or prevent it altogether. A better illus- tration of this cannot be found, than in the fact that the Merino has been transplanted to every latitude on the tem- perate zone, and to some beyond it—to Sweden in the north, and Australia in the south, and has retained its ten- dency to produce wool exclusively, and wool of nearly equal fineness and value.” M. Lasteyrie, the unwearied advocate of the Merinos, uses this remarkable Janguage :—‘'The preservation of the Merino race in its purity at the Cape of Good Hope, and FELTING. 41 under the rigorous climate of Sweden, furnish an additional support of this, my unalterable opinion, fine-wooled sheep may be kept wherever industrious men and intelligent breeders exist.” Notwithstanding the above is so consolatory, and withal so very encouraging to our brethren of the Southern States to embark in sheep husbandry, yet it is undeniable that in northern latitudes the finest wools are produced; but this has arisen much from superior skill in breeding, and great assiduity in management in every regard. If sheep are properly selected from high-bred Merino and Saxon flocks, and taken to a latitude not south of 28 deg., if rightly man- aged, will suffer little deterioration for many years, and will produce wools of a like description of the Australian, soft, of even and long filament, fit for felting, and also admirably adapted for the finest and most beautiful of worsted fabrics. An instance is known by the writer,* of an imported flock of Saxons having been taken to Tennessee some twenty years since, and judging from the samples of wool from it now in his possession, the conclusion is inevitable, that little or no deterioration has been produced by the climate. If sheep are provided with suitable retreats for shade during the heat of the summer months, there are many districts in the Southern States unsurpassed for wool cultivation. If there is a tendency to coarseness, it will be retarded or wholly prevented by an occasional recurrence to northern stock getters. Many imagine that the climate of the Southern States is wholly unsuitable for the production of a fine fleece, because of the inferiority of the wools of South America. ‘The de- generacy of the Merinos taken there, has not arisen so much from the climate, as because ‘industrious men and intelli- gent breeders” were not present to manage them; further- more, very many of the sheep transported there from Spain, were of the Chunah breed, producing very coarse wool, and these were promiscuously bred with the Merinos. The conservative power over the fleece lies in good management far more than climate. FELTING. The phenomena of felténg long remained enshrouded in * Mr. Mark H. Cockrill—see his letter in Appendix. 4* 42 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. mystery. This gave rise to numerous speculations as to the primary cause or causes, many of which, although plausible at the time of their publicity, now that the true cause has been discovered, appear sufficiently ridiculous. But the keen sagacity of man at length mastered the subject by sur- mising the correct theory, without the means, however, to demonstrate it, for want of microscopes of adequate power. To M. Monge, the distinguished French chemist, are we indebted for the first correct view of the structure of the fibre, which, from its peculiarity, mainly depends the felting principle. He asserted “that the surface of each fibre of wool is formed of lamelle, or little plates which cover each other from the root to the point, pretty much in the same manner as the scales of a fish cover that animal from the head to the tail, or like rows placed over one another, as is observed in the structure of horns ;” and he accounts for the felting process in the following way : “‘Tn making a felt which is to constitute the body of a hat, the workman presses the mass with his hands, moving them backwards and forwards in various directions. This pres- sure brings the hairs or fibres against each other, and multi- plies their points of contact. The agitation gives to each hair a progressive motion towards the root; but the roots are disposed in different directions—in every direction ; and the lamelle of one hair will fix themselves on those of an- other hair, which happens to be directed a contrary way, and the hairs become twisted together, and the mass assumes the compact form which it was the aim of the workman to produce. If the wool is in cloth and subjected to the pro- cess of fulling, the fibres which compose one of the threads, whether of the warp or woof, assume a progressive move- ment ; they introduce themselves among those of the threads nearest to them, and thus by degrees all the threads become felted together, the cloth is shortened in all its dimensions, and partakes both of the nature of cloth and of felt.” No language can be employed which will convey a more cor- rect and vivid impression of the process of felting, than the foregoing. Through the indomitable perseverance of Mr. Youatt, the author of a valuable, though too diffuse, treatise on British sheep-husbandry, Monge’s theory was finally demonstrated, although he was often frustrated, and almost yielded to de- spair, from the imperfections of his instruments. The con- FELTING, 43 struction at last of a superior achromatic microscope by Mr. Powell, of London, enabled him to realize his ardent wishes ; and his own description of the scene, and the conclusions to which he arrived, are of too much interest to admit of any abbreviation. “On the evening of the 7th of Feb. 1835, Mr. Thomas Plint, woollen manufacturer, resident at Leeds; Mr. Sy- monds, clothing agent, of London, Mr. F. Millington, sur- geon, of London, Mr. Edward Brady, veterinary surgeon, Mr. Powell, the maker of the microscope, and the author himself, were assembled in his parlor. The imstrument was, in Mr. Powell’s opimion, the best he had constructed. A fibre was taken from a Merino fleece of three years’ growth; the animal was bred by, and belonged to Lord Western. It was taken without selection, and placed on the frame to be examined as a transparent object. A power of 300 (linear) was used, and the lamp was of the common flat-wicked kind. The focus was readily found; there was no trouble in the adjustment of the microscope; and after Mr. Powell, Mr. Plint had the first perfect occular demonstration of the ir- regularities in the surface of the wool, the palpable proof of the cause of the most valuable of its properties—its disposi- tion to felt. “The fibre thus looked at, assumed a flattened riband- like form. It was of a pearly grey color, darker towards the centre, and with faint lines across it. The edges were evidently hooked, or more properly serrated—they resembled the teeth of a fine saw. These were somewhat irregular in different parts of the field of view, both as to size and num- ber. The area of the field was now ascertained; it was one-fortieth of an inch in diameter. By means of the mi- crometer we divided this into four, and we then counted the number of serrations in each division. ‘Three of us counted all four divisions, for there was a difference in some of them. The number was set down privately, and it was found that we had all estimated it at fifteen in each division. Having multiplied this by four, to obtain the whole field, and that by forty, the proportionate part of an inch of which the field consisted, we obtained a result which could not be disputed, that there were 2,400 serrations in the space of an inch, and all of which projected in the same direction, viz. from the root to the point. Then, before we quitted the examination of the fibre as a transparent object, we endeavored to ascer- . 44 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. tain its actual character, and proved it to 1-750th of an inch. “We next endeavored to explore the cause of this ser- rated appearance, and the nature of the irregularities on the surface, which might possibly account for the production of these tooth-like projections ; we therefore took another fibre,» and mounted it as an opaque object. There was considera- ble difficulty in throwing the light advantageously on the fibre, so small a space only as 1-30th of an inch intervening between the lens and the object. At length Mr. Powell perfectly succeeded ; and we were presented with a beauti- ful glittering column, with lines of division across it, in num- ber and distance seemingly corresponding with the serra- tions that we had observed in the other fibre that had been viewed as a transparent object. It was not at once that the eye could adapt itself to the brilliancy of the object; but by degrees these divisions developed themselves, and could be accurately traced. ‘These were not so marked as the in- verted cones which the bat’s wool presented, but they were distinct enough ; and the apex of the superior one, yet com- paratively little diminished in bulk, was received into the excavated base of the one immediately beneath, while the edge of this base formed into a cup-like shape, projected, and had a serrated, or indented edge, bearing no indistinct resemblance to the ancient crown. All these projecting in- dented edges pointed in a direction from root to point. “Whether these, like the cones of the bat, are joints, or at least points of comparative weakness, and thus accounting for the pliancy and softness of the fibre, or regulating the de- gree in which these qualities exist, may perhaps be better determined by and by; one thing, however, is sufficiently plain, that these serrated edges in the transparent object produced (when the fibre was resolved into its true form as an opaque one) by the projecting edges of the cups or hol- lowed bases of the inverted cones, afford the most satisfac- tory solution of the felting principle that can be given or desired. ‘The fibres can move readily in a direction from root to point, the projections of the cups offering little or no impediment, but when they have been once involved in a mass, and a mass that has been pressed powerfully together, as in some part of the manufactory of all felting wool, the retraction of the fibre must be difficult, and in most cases impossible.” FELTING. 45 The annexed cuts exhibit microscopic views of the fibres of wool from picklock samples of Merino and South Down fleeces. The relative difference of serrations cannot be conveniently delineated in a plate: a marked difference, however, will be observed in the construction of the lamelle. a No. 1, a fibre of Merino wool as a transparent object ; No. 2, the same, as opaque. No. 3, a fibre of South Down wool, transparent: No. 4, the same, opaque. MICROSCOPIC VIEW OF WOOL. ith wl i) KG! vl c. vit! Wea ay a Ha Ib oh Uh jer a IAS SE, —— The following observations by Mr. Youatt, whose inde- fatigable zeal and diligence in the investigation of many particulars embraced in the present chapter, entitles him to much honor, will conclude the subject :— “There can no longer be a doubt with regard to the general outline of the woolly fibre. It consists of a cen- tral stem or stalk, probably hollow, or at least porous, and possessing a semitransparency not found in the fibre of hair. From this central stalk there springs at different distances, in different breeds of sheep, a circlet of leave-shaped projec- 46 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. tions. In the finer species of wool these circles seemed at first to be composed of one indented, or serrated ring ; but when the eye was accustomed to them, this ring was resolv- able into leaves, or scales. In the larger kinds the ring was at once resolvable into these scales, or leaves, varying in number, shape, and size, and projecting at different angles from the stalk, in the direction of the leaves of vegetables, from the root to the point, or farther extremity. In the bat there seemed to be a diminution in the bulk of the stalk, immediately above the commencement of the sprouting of the leaves, and presenting the appearance of the apex of an inverted cone received in the hollowed cup-like base of an- other immediately beneath. The diminution in the fibre of the wool at these points could be only indistinctly perceived ; but the projection of the leaves gave a somewhat similar cone-like appearance. The extremities of the leaves in the long Merino and the Saxon wool were evidently pointed, with acute indentations or angles between them. ‘They were pointed likewise in the South Down, but not so much, and the interposed vacuities were less deep and angular. In the Leicester the leaves are round, with a diminutive point or space. Of the actual substance and strength of these leafy or scaly circles nothing can yet be affirmed ; but they appear to be capable of different degrees of resistance, or of entanglement with other fibres, in proportion as their form is sharpened, and they project from the stalk, and in proportion likewise as these circlets are multiplied. So far as the examination has hitherto proceeded, they are sharper and more numerous in the felting wools than in others, and in proportion as the felting property exists. ‘The conclusion seems to be legitimate, and indeed inevitable, that they are connected with, or, in fact, that they give to the wool the power of felting, and regulate the degree in which that power is possessed. “If to this is added the curved form which the fibre of the wool naturally assumes, and the well-known fact, that these curves differ in the most striking degree in different breeds, according to the fineness of the fibre, and, when multiplying in a given space, increase both the means of entanglement and the difficulty of disengagement, the whole mystery of felting is unravelled. A cursory glance will discover the proportionate number of curves, and the microscope has now established a connexion between the closeness of the curves FELTING. 47 and the number of the serrations. The Saxon wool is re- markable for the close packing of its little curves ; the num- ber of serrations are 2720 in an inch. The South Down wool has numerous curves, but evidently more distant than in the former sample ; the serrations are 2080. In the Lei- cester the wavy curls are so far removed from each other, that a great part of the fihre would be dissipated under the Operation of the card, and the serrations are 1860; and in some of the wools which warm the animal, but were not in- tended to clothe the human body, the curves are more dis- tant, and the serrations are not more than 480. The wool- grower, the stapler, and the manufacturer, can scarcely wish for better guides. “Yet there is no organic connexion between the curve and the serration; the serrations are not the cause of the curve, nor do the curves produce the serrations; the connexion is founded on the grand principle that the works of nature are perfect, that no beneficial power is bestowed without full scope for its exercise. The curves of the smooth fibre might entangle to a considerable degree, but some of the points would be continually unravelling and threatening the dissolution of the whole felt. The straight fibre, however deeply serrated, its root being introduced into the mass, would often pass on, and pass through the felt and be lost. It is by the curved form of the jagged fibre that the object can be accomplished certainly and perfectly. “Future observers may possibly detect in wool the apparent coned and jointed structure of the hair of the bat, and then a third and powerful principle would be called into action, the pliability of the fibre, the ease with which it is bent in every different direction, and in each becomes more inexplicably entangled. A great point, however, is gained by the knowl- edge that in proportion as the auxiliaries in the felting pro- cess are multiplied, the direct agents are also increased.” CHAPTER II. HISTORY OF SHEEP. ARGALI, MUSMON, ASIATIC, AND AFRICAN SHEEP. ASIATIC ARGALI. Tue following description of the Asiatic Argali is from the pen of Professor Low :— “The Argali possessing the generic characters of the sheep, is somewhat less than the size ofa stag. He has enor- mous horns, measuring more than a foot in circumference at the base, and from three to four feet in length, triangularly rising from the summit of the head so as nearly to touch at the root, ascending, stretching out laterally, and bending for- ward at the point. He has a fur of short hair, covering a coat of soft white wool. ‘The color of the fur externally is brown, becoming brownish grey in the winter; there is a buff-colored streak along the back, and a large spot of a lighter buff-color on the haunch, surrounding and including the tail. The female differs from the male in being smaller, in having the horns more slender and straight, and in the absence of the disc on the haunch. In both sexes the tail is very short, the eyelashes are whitish, and the hair beneath the throat is longer than on any other parts of the body. “These creatures inhabit the mountains and elevated plains of Asia, from the Caucasus northward and eastward, to Kamschatka and the Ocean. They are agile and strong, but very timid, shunning the least appearance of danger; their motion is zigzag, and they stop in their course to gaze upon their pursuer, after the manner of the domestic sheep. They are usually found in very small flocks, and at rutting season the males fight desperately, using their horns and forehead in the manner of the common ram. They are hunted by THE AMERICAN ARGALI. 49 the people of the country for their flesh, which is esteemed to be savory, and for their skins, which are made into clothing. In autumn, after having pastured during the sum- mer on the mountains and in the secluded valleys, they are fat, and in high request ; but as winter advances, they are forced to descend from the mountains in search of food ; they then lose their phimpness, and are sought after only for their skins. When taken young they are easily tamed, but the old ones never resign their natural wildness.” THE AMERICAN ARGALI. This supposed variety of the Asiatic Argali is well known as the “ big-horn of the Rocky Mountains.” The Abbé Lambert gives the following account of it :— “ Besides several sorts of animals known among us, there are two sorts of fallow beasts unknown in Europe. They call them sheep, because they have the figure of our sheep. The first species is as large as a calf one or two years old. Their head has a great resemblance to that of a stag, and their horns to those ofa ram. Their tail and hair, which are speckled, are shorter than those of a stag; their ‘flesh is very good and delicate.” The following account was rendered by Capt. Bonneville, and published by Washington Irving in his work entitled the “ Rocky Mountains.” “ Amidst this wild and striking scenery, Captain Bonne- ville, for the first time, beheld flocks of ahsata, or big-horn, an animal which frequents these cliffs in great numbers. They accord with the nature of such scenery, and add much to its romantic effect; bounding like goats from crag to crag, often trooping along the lofty shelves of the moun- tains, under the guidance of some venerable patriarch, with horns twisted lower than his muzzle, and sometimes peering over the edge of the precipice, so high that they appear scarce bigger than crows; indeed, it seems a pleasure to them to seek the most rugged and frightful situations, doubt- less from a feeling of security. It has short hair like a deer, and resembles it in shape, but it has the head and horns of a sheep, and its flesh is said to be delicious mutton. It abounds in the Rocky Mountains, from the fiftieth degree of north latitude, quite down to California; generally in the highest regions capable of vegetation ; sometimes it ventures into the valleys, but on the least alarm, regains its favorite 5 50 HISTORY OF SHEEP. cliffs and precipices, where it is perilous, if not impossible for the hunter to follow. The dimensions of a male of this species is, from the nose to the base of the tail, five feet ; length of the tail, four inches; girth of the body, four feet ; height, three feet eight inches ; the horn, three feet six inches long ; one foot three inches in circumference at the base.” In that valuable work entitled the “ Animal Kingdom,” Major Hamilton Smith remarks :—‘If the American spe- cies be the same as the Asiatic, which appears very proba- ble, it can have reached the New World only over the ice by Behring’s Straits; and the passage may be conjectured as comparatively of a recent date, since the Argali has not spread eastward beyond the Rocky Mountains, nor to the south farther than California.” THE MOUFLON OR MUSMON. Buffon and Wilson have considered this sheep as identi- cal with the Argali; others regard it as a variety only. It inhabits the mountains of Corsica and Sardinia, and has been found in some of the islands of the Grecian Archipel- ago. It is asserted by Pliny as having abounded, at an early period, in Spain. Wilson, the distinguished naturalist, describes it thus :— “Tt is usually about two and a half feet in height, and three feet and a half from the nose to the commencement of the tail. The horns never exceed two feet in length ; they are curved backwards, and the points turn inwards; the roots of the horns are very thick and wrinkled; the ears are of a middle size, straight and pointed; the neck is thick; the body round; the limbs muscular; and the tail short. The color is generally of a dull, or brownish-grey, with some white on the fore part of the face and on the legs ; a tuft of long hair beneath the throat; a dark streak along the back ; and the upper part of the face black, with black streaks along the cheeks. The forehead of this sheep is particu- larly arched. The females are generally without horns, and where they do appear, they are considerably less than those of the male.” The Musmons, like the Argali, love to roam on the high- est mountain-tops, where they are seen congregated in herds of from fifty to an hundred. It is covered by a fine hair of no great length, having beneath it a thick, grey-colored wool, FAT-RUMPED SHEEP. 51 short, but full of spirals, and the edges thickly serrated. Cuvier says the Musmon is difficult to domesticate, rarely exhibiting intelligence, confidence, affection, or docility. ASIATIC BREEDS. FAT-RUMPED—FAT-TAILED—PERSIAN—TIBET—EAST INDIA—CHINESE. FAT-RUMPED SHEEP. From the earliest times of which we have any authentic accounts, the Fat-rumped sheep has inhabited the countries over which the patriarchal shepherds roamed. It is but little known in Africa, but prevails extensively in the north and south of Asia; is found in Palestine in greater numbers than any other breed, and reaches far into the interior and northern parts of Russia. It is purest in the deserts of Great Tartary, no other variety being near to contaminate its blood. 52 HISTORY OF SHEEP. Dr. Anderson, the traveller, gives the following account of this singularly-formed breed: “ The flocks of all the Tar- tar hordes resemble one another, by having a large yellow- ish muzzle, the under jaw often projecting beyond the upper ; by long hanging ears, and by the horns of the adult ram being large, spiral, wrinkled, angular, or bent in a lunar form. They have slender legs in proportion to their bodies, a high chest, large hanging testicles, and tolerably fine wool mixed with hair. The body of the ram, and sometimes of the ewe, swells gradually with fat towards the posteriors, where a solid mass of fat is formed on the rump, and falls over the anus in place of a tail, divided into two hemispheres, which take the form of the hips, with a little button of a tail in the middle to be felt with the finger.” This breed often weigh 200 lbs., and may be considered the largest of the unimproved sheep; of which weight the soft oily fat alone that forms on the rump amounts to from 20 to 40 lbs. In the neighborhood of Caucasus and Tauri- da, the hind-quarters of the sheep are salted as hams, and sent in great quantities to the northern provinces of ‘Turkey. In parts of Russia the fat-rumped sheep bears a somewhat fine fleece, but generally speaking it is coarse, and is adapted only for the purposes of inferior manufactures. FAT-TAILED SHEEP. This race of sheep is more extensively diffused than the fat-rumped, since it is found throughout Asia, a great part of Africa, as well as through the north-eastern parts of Europe. Dr. Russell, in his history of Aleppo, gives the follow- ing account of it, as it appears in Syria :—“ The dead weight of one of these sheep will amount to 50 or 60 lbs., of which the tail makes up 15 or 16 lbs.; but some of the largest that have been fattened with care weigh 150 lbs., the tail alone composing one third of the whole weight. This broad, flat- tish tail is mostly covered with long wool, and, becoming very small at the extremity, turns up. It is entirely com- posed of a substance between marrow and fat, serving very often in the kitchen instead of butter, and cut into small pieces, makes an ingredient in various dishes.” Dr. Russell further remarks— Animals of this extraor- dinary size (150 lbs.) are, however, very rare, and kept up ) FAT-TAILED SHEEP. 53 in yards, so as to be in little danger of hurting their tails from the bushes. The shepherds in several places in Syria fix a thin piece of board to the under part, which is not, like the rest, covered with wool, and to this board are some- times added small wheels ; whence, with a little exaggera- tion, we have the story of the Oriental sheep being under the necessity of carts to carry their tails. But the necessity of carriages for the tails of the African sheep, mentioned by Herodotus, Rudolphus, and others, is real. The tail of that animal when fat actually trails, not being tucked up like those of the Syrian sheep.” THE FAT-TAILED SHEEP. A distinguished writer on sheep supposes the broad or fat-tailed sheep merely a variety of the fat-rumped ; “ the strange collection of adipose matter having only shifted its situation from the posterior part of the haunch—the very rump—to the superior part of the tail. This may have been at first accidental, and perpetuated by accident or design.” pe 54 HISTORY OF SHEEP. PERSIAN SHEEP. In Persia the fat-tailed sheep predominate greatly over the fat-rumped ; and although the chief sources of wealth toa large class, no efforts are bestowed upon their improvement. The shepherds still follow the wandering life of their ances- tors. In Fraser’s account of Persia, they are thus described : “When the pastures are bare, they shift to some other spot. ‘The march of one of these parties is a striking specta- cle. The main body is generally preceded by an advanced guard of stout young men, well armed, as if to clear the way ; then follow large flocks of all kinds of domestic ani- mals, covering the country far and wide, and driven by the lads of the community. The asses, which are numerous, and the rough, stout yaboos (small horses), are loaded with goods, tents, clothes, pots and boilers, and every sort of utensil, bound confusedly together. On the top of some of the burdens may be seen mounted the elder children, who act the part of drivers, and the lesser urchins holding on manfully with feet and hands. A third class of animals bear the superannuated of the tribe, bent double with age, and hardly distinguishable from the mass of rags that forms their seats. ‘The young men and women bustle about, pre- venting, with the assistance of their huge dogs, the cattle from straying too far. The mothers, carrying the younger infants, patiently trudge on foot, watching the progress of their domestic equipage. ‘The men, with sober, thoughtful demeanor, armed to the teeth, walk steadily on the flanks and rear of the grotesque column, guarding and controlling its slow and regular movement.” Much wool is grown in those districts of Persia, where the majority of the inhabitants lead a pastoral life ; the most valuable is found in the province of Kerman. This is a very mountainous country, hot and dry in summer, and intensely cold in winter. ‘The wool of the sheep is fine in quality, and that which grows at the roots of the hair of the goat is nearly as fine. ‘The latter is manufactured into various fabrics, which almost equal the beautiful shawls of Cash- mere. The fine felt carpets, for which Persia is so cele- brated, are manufactured from the wool of the sheep, either in Kerman or Koprasan. Although these districts are re- motely situated from each other, the wool of the sheep near- ly corresponds, and “is remarkable for being spirally-curled, TIBET, EAST INDIA, AND CHINESE SHEEP. 55 and of a grey, or mixed black and white color. The sheep are below the ordinary size, the horns of the ram curved back and spiral at the tip, the ears pendulous, and the tail not very broad. The fine furs are from the lambs slaugh- tered with their dams a few days before yeaning.”* TIBET SHEEP. The sheep of ‘Tibet, which are very numerous, are chiefly a small variety of the fat-rumped Persian and Abyssinian, with black heads andnecks. Some are hairy, with short wool underneath, while others bear a long, soft, and fine wool. It is from the latter that many of the costly Indian shawls are made. Not a little of this peculiar wool finds its way to British India, and is there manufactured. The mutton of Tibet sheep is said to be peculiarly well flavored. EAST INDIA, SHEEP. The sheep which abound in the provinces of British India, consist for the most part of the fat-rumped and fat-tailed va- rieties, and therefore no farther notice will be requisite. CHINESE SHEEP. In the immense Empire of China, as might naturally be expected, breeds of sheep are found differing essentially from each other. One of the most singular is the Long-legged sheep, distinguished, as their name would imply, for the ex- traordinary length of the legs. This breed have horns which are of middle size, and curved; the forehead is arched, the neck short, with a collar of hair reaching from the nape of it to the shoulders ; the head, legs, and mane are of a red- brown color; the tail is long, and the wool short and coarse. The fat-rumped and fat-tailed extensively abound in the more southern parts of China; and in certain districts a small breed is found resembling the form of the European breeds, which produces a fine and very useful long wool. The antiquity of Chinese manufactures is proverbial. An old traveller says, that ‘“when the Dutch presented the Emperor of China with some scarlet and other cloths made in Europe, he asked how, and what they were made of? Being told, he replied that his subjects could make them, and, therefore, there was no need to bring them so far.” * Fraser’s Travels. 56 HISTORY OF SHEEP. AFRICAN BREEDS. EGYPTIAN—ETHIOPIAN—ABYSSINIAN—MADAGASCAR—CAPE OF GOOD HOPE—ANGOLA—GUINEA—MOROCCO. EGYPTIAN, ETHIOPIAN, AND ABYSSINIAN SHEEP. According to Dr. Anderson, the fat-tailed sheep prevail in Egypt, and both varieties of them are found; but those with long tails, nearly or quite reaching to the ground, are more numerous than the broad-tailed kind. They are of a large size, mostly with black heads and necks, an external coat of hair, and their flesh well flavored. In Nether Ethiopia the sheep begin to be more numer- ous; they are large—some of them with tails from 18 to 25 lbs. in weight—with black heads and necks, and the re- mainder of their bodies white; others are quite white, with tails reaching nearly to the ground, and curved at the ex- tremity.* Here also appear the fat-rumped sheep, with black heads and necks, but of smaller size than the Persian breed. Proceeding farther south, says Bruce, they are taller and ali black; their heads large, and with ears remarkably short and small. ‘They also, like all the native sheep within the tropics, have an external covering of hair. It is in this re- gion (Abyssinia) that the many-horned sheep is found, many bearing four, and some writers have asserted that individuals have been seen with six horns. MADAGASCAR SHEEP. The island of Madagascar is situated on the eastern coast of Africa, and mostly within the tropic of Capricorn. The sheep have broad tails like those of Africa. Dr. Anderson states the following: “A Danish East Indiaman put into Leith roads on her return home. I went on board to see what curiosities she had, and I there found a sheep, which was closely covered with a close coat of thick, short hair, very smooth and sleek, like the coat of a well-dressed horse, but the hairs rather stiffer, and thicker set on the skin, and the color a fine nut-brown. This sheep, I was * Dapper’s Africa. CAPE OF GOOD HOPE AND ANGOLA SHEEP, on told, was brought from the island of Madagascar, and that all the sheep found on the island were of the same sort.” CAPE OF GOOD HOPE SHEEP. The British colony of the Cape of Good Hope occupies the extreme verge of Southern Africa, between the 30th and 35th degrees of south latitude. The native sheep are of the broad-tailed breed. Barrow * says “they are of every variety of color, black, brown, bay, but mostly spotted; their necks are small, their ears long and pendulous. They are covered with strong frizzled hair, of which little use is made, except for cushions and mattrasses.” When the Cape was in possession of the Dutch, an ex- periment was made with the Merinos, which, from the un- favorable climate, prejudice and bad management, resulted in utter failure. After its cession to the English, a more extensive and fairer trial was made with Merimos, which was attended with better success. Much good wool is now sent over to the mother country, which amounted in 1833 to nearly 100,000 lbs. ‘The number of sheep, of all kinds, in the colony, exceeds two millions. ANGOLA SHEEP. Angola is situated on the south-western coast of Africa. Here is to be found a very singular sheep, which is thus de- scribed in the “ Animal Kingdom.” ‘It is called the Zenu. Its legs are long and slender, but the arms and shanks are muscular and strong. There is a slight elevation at the withers, the chest is narrow and flat, and falling in between the arms ; the false ribs project, and give to the carcass a strong resemblance to that of the Zebu. The fat is most singularly disposed. It is taken from the tail or rump, and is distributed over three parts of the animal. A small por- tion of it is spread over the posterior part of the loin and the commencement of the haunch. A more decided accumula- tion is found on the poll, and precisely of the semi-fluid character which the fat assumes in the tail, or the rump of other Eastern sheep. ‘This mass commences from the base of the ears, and extends backwards, in the form of a rounded projection, half way down the neck. Under the jaw, ex- * Barrow’s Southern Africa. 58 HISTORY OF SHEEP. tending downwards and covering the larynx, is a third col- lection of soft fatty matter.” ‘This is certainly a very curious variety of sheep, and is found in no other part of the world. GUINEA SHEEP. There are two kinds of sheep on the slave coast. One is small, their forms resembling, in some particulars, the Eu- ropean sheep. Says a Dutch traveller,—“ They have no wool, but the want is supplied with hair, so that here the world seems inverted, for the sheep are hairy and the men are woolly. The hair is like that of the goat, with a sort of mane like a lion on the neck, and so on the rump, and a bunch at the end of the tail.” The most numerous breed in Guinea is of a different character. The male is horned, the horns generally form- ing a semicircle, with the points forward; the females are hornless ; the ears are pendulous, and black spots are distrib- uted on the sides of the head and neck, as well as body.”* A writer remarks, “'The sheep in Guinea have so little re- semblance, in general, to those in Europe, that a stranger, unless he heard them bleat, could hardly tell what animals they were, being covered with white and brown hairs like a dog.” MOROCCO SHEEP. Morocco is situated in the northern latitudes of Africa. Its sheep are far superior to any other breeds of that region, and the only ones worth cultivating. ‘The form and fleece were highly appreciated in the days of Columella, as was proved by his selection of a ram to improve his Spanish ewes, at the time of his residence near Cadiz. Chancellor Livingston, in his “ Essay on Sheep,” says—“I have in my flock a ewe that is descended from a Barbary ram. Her fleece is long, straight, and fine.” She was tupped by one of his Merino rams, and the produce from the cross exhibited a wool equal to seven-eighths Merino! * Animal Kingdom. CHAPTER III. KUROPEAN SHEEP. ITALIAN—SPANISH, MERINOS, &c.—FRENCH—SWISS. ITALIAN SHEEP. Wuen the Roman Empire was at its height of power, the sheep of Italy surpassed all others in the fineness of their fleeces. “The best wool, of all others,” says Pliny, “is that of Apulia, which is of a very short staple, and especial- ly in request for cloaks and mantles.” Ancient authors represent the Italian sheep and wool as being cultivated with a degree of care, which, if true, out- strips every thing in modern times. The reason of this is obvious. ‘The sumptuous Roman was clothed at one period in woollen fabrics, and ambitious to appear in none other than the finest, induced the extreme assiduity in perfecting the material for its manufacture. At length the silk and cotton fabrics of the East were introduced, which, on being found better adapted to the climate, caused the excessive care of the sheep to relax, which were soon after cultivated more for the carcass than the fleece. The celebrated breeds of Apulia and Tarentum ultimately disappeared, and were succeeded by a larger, coarser, but, under the altered cir- cumstances, more profitable race. The remarks of Mr. Youatt concerning the old Tarentine or Tarentum breed, the admitted probable PROGENITORS OF THE FAMED MERINO, will be read with interest. ‘“‘ Although the old Tarentine sheep produced a wool un- equalled in early times, they were not without their defects, and very serious ones too. ‘They were called by the agri- culturists of those days pellite, from the skins and other clothing with which they were covered; and also molles, not only from the softness of their fleece, but from the deli- cacy of their constitution, and the constant care that was re- 60 EUROPEAN SHEEP. quired to preserve them from injurious vicissitudes of heat and cold. ‘The care bestowed upon the fleece was a work of great labor. It was frequently uncovered, not only to as- certain its condition, but for the refreshment of the animal ; it was drawn out, and parted and combed, if it was begin- ning to mat; it was frequently moistened with the finest oil, and even with wine ; it was well washed three or four times in the year; the sheep-houses were daily, and almost hourly, washed, and cleaned, and fumigated.” MERINO RAM. SPANISH SHEEP, MERINOS, ETC. The history of the Spanish Merino sheep, the spread of which in different countries has effected so complete a rey- olution in the character of the fleece, cannot but be a mat- ter of much interest to the American wool-grower ; therefore the compiler has no apology to render for the extended no- tice of this renowned breed, which is here presented. At a very early period, it appears from the accounts of several writers, Spain was possessed of several breeds, the SPANISH SHEEP, MERINOS, ETC, 61 fleeces of which varied in color and quality. One of these was black, and noted for its fine texture; but the “red fleece,” as it was called, of Betica, Granada, and Andalusia, was superior in fineness to all others. The breed which bore the latter, it is now generally believed, were originally from Italy, and of the Tarentine variety, already described. They were crossed with the more inferior kinds, while others of the race were kept distinct; and from the congeniality of the climate and herbage, retained their original superiority of fleece.* In the reign of the Emperor Claudius (A. D. 41), Colu- mella, a distinguished lover of agriculture, introduced many of the Tarentine breed into Spain, of which he was then a resident; and also improved the inferior breeds, by convey- ing into the colony some African rams of singular beauty, which had been exhibited at Rome, and which will account for the probable origin of the Chunah breed, to be presently noticed. Although the Tarentine sheep undoubtedly laid the foun- dation of the excellence of the Merino race, yet the breed betray an amalgamation to have taken place to some extent with the black sheep, referred to, as individuals occasionally, at the present day, have a dun-colored ear, and also spots of that hue on one or more of the legs. In the eighth century the Saracens or Moers conquered a portion of Spain, and which, in the language of a. writer, “they found fruitful in corn and pleasant fruit, and glutted with herds and flocks.” This warlike and enterprising race were distinguished for their luxurious customs, and a fine and expensive wardrobe was regarded an object of essen- tial importance. Hence, in the 13th century, Spain became renowned for her woollen manufactures, then scarcely known in the rest of Europe, and Seville alone contained no less than 16,000 looms. The manufacture therefore of the finest fabrics was the source of much national wealth, as large quantities were exported to every part of Europe, as well as Africa. But after the expulsion of the Moors, manufactures be- came almost extinct. Nearly a million of these enterprising * The evidence of the foreign origin of the Merino is implied in the name, of which “the Spanish orthography is Mareno, which signifies from or beyond sea.”— William Jarvis. 6 62 EUROPEAN SHEEP. artisans were driven from the kingdom during the reigns of Ferdinand V. and Philip III.; and the consequence was that “the 16,000 looms of Seville dwindled down to 60, and the woollen manufacture almost ceased to have exist- ence throughout Spain.”* The Spanish government saw too late its fatal error, as the many fruitless attempts to restore the manufacture of the beautiful fabrics of the Moors have fully proved. But during all this while, however, the Merino, notwithstanding its neglect, continued to produce its invaluable fleece, which, instead of meeting with adequate skill at home for its man- ufacture, was sent abroad to be worked by other more inge- nious and industrious nations. ‘The perpetuation of the Merino sheep in all its purity, amidst the convulsions which changed the whole political existence of Spain, and destroyed every other national improvement, is a fact which the philos- opher may not be able fully to explain; but which he will contemplate with deep interest. In the mind of the agricul- turist, it will beautifully illustrate the primary determining power of blood or breeding, and also the agency of soil and climate, a little too much underrated, perhaps, in modern times.” Independent of the Merinos, there is another race, in Spain, called Chunahs, which are larger and heavier than the Merinos, and carry a fleece the staple of which is from five to eight inches long, and coarse. ‘This breed extends throughout all Spain, and is the favorite of the peasant and small proprietor. ‘The Chunahs are supposed to have been much improved by the English Cotswold breed, of which there exists a record of the 15th century of a number having been exported to Spain with a view to lengthen the staple of the coarser and more inferior breeds of that country. The sheep under consideration are stationary, or never move from their homes for pasture; and hence compose, in part, one of the grand divisions of Spanish sheep denominated Estantes or stationary. The Merinos are of two classes, one of which, like the Chunahs, are of the Estantes or stationary character, which, as the name implies, are never moved beyond the districts in which they are owned, for pasture ; the other class or * Wansey. SPANISH SHEEP, MERINOS, ETC. 63 division is termed transhumantes,* or migratory, which are annually driven to the north of the kingdom for pasturage during the summer months. The latter are composed of the Leonese, and the Sorians. The former pass the winter on the north bank of the Gaudi- ana, in Estremadura, and begin their march about the 15th of April, in divisions of from two to three thousands. They pass the Tagus at Almares, and direct their course towards Trecasas, Alfaro, and L’Epinar, where they are shorn. This operation having been performed, they recommence their travel towards the kingdom of Leon. Some halt on the Sierra (ridge of mountains) which separates Old from New Castile, but others pursue their route to the pastures of Cevera, near Aquilar del Campo. Here they graze until the latter part of September, or early in the following month, when they commence their return to Estremadura. The Sorian sheep having passed the winter on the con- fines of Estremadura, Andalusia, and New Castile, begin their route about the same time. ‘They pass the Tagus at Talavera, and approach Madrid ; thence they proceed to So- ria, where a portion of them are distributed over the neigh- boring mountains, while the others cross the Ebro in order to proceed to Navarre and the Pyrenees. These periodical journeys are made necessary by the severity of the drouth in Spanish Estremadura, from the close of April till near the Ist of October, which parches the plains to such a degree as to destroy almost entirely the growth of the pasture. The rains commence falling about the autumnal equinox, and continue, with intermissions of a few days only, until the latter part of March. In a few weeks from their beginning the plains assume a beautiful verdure, and so continue till the approach of the dry season; and during this time the thermometer rarely falls below 40 deg.t| ‘The rains are of frequent occurrence in the summer season on the sierras or mountains; and thus these numer- ous migratory flocks are supported the entire year on grass, which the Spaniard at one time supposed was the cause of some of the valuable properties of the Merino fleece. The fallacy, however, of this has been fully proved. * From trans and humus, expressive of their change of climate and pasture. + William Jarvis. 64 EUROPEAN SHEEP. “The greater part of these travelling sheep, says Chan- cellor Livingston, in process of time got into the hands of the king, or into those of the principal courtiers and clergy ; and from thence we must probably date the oppressive code by which their march is regulated, and the origin of the great Council of the Royal Troop (Consejo de la Mesta) by whom those laws are administered.” ‘This tyrannical tribu- nal was established as early as the 14th century. It estab- lished a right to graze on all open and common land that lay in the way; it claimed also a path ninety yards wide through all the enclosed and cultivated country ; and it pro- hibited all persons, even foot passengers, from travelling on these roads while the sheep were in motion! The following interesting narrative of incidents connected with the annual peregrinations of these sheep is from Mr. Youatt’s work, by whom it was compiled chiefly from the writings of M. Lasteyrie. “They are divided into flocks, each of which is placed under the care of a mayoral, or chief shepherd, who has a sufficient number of others under his command, with their dogs. He uniformly precedes the flock, and directs the length and speed of the journey ; the others with the dogs follow, and flank the cavalcade, collect the stragglers, and keep off the wolves, who regularly follow at a distance and migrate with the flock. A few asses or mules accompany the procession, in order to carry the little clothing and other necessaries of the shepherds, and the materials for the fold at night. Several of the sheep, principally wethers, are perfectly tamed, and taught to obey the signals of the shep- herds. These follow the leading shepherd, having been accustomed to be fed from his hand; they lead the flock— there is no driving—and the rest quietly follow. “‘When passing through the enclosures, they sometimes travel eighteen or twenty miles a day ; but when they reach an open country, with good pasture, they proceed more leisurely. Their whole journey is usually more than four hundred miles, which they usually accomplish in six weeks, and thus spend, in going and returning, nearly one quarter of the year in this injurious manner. “It may be readily supposed that much damage is done, carelessly, or unintentionally, or wilfully, to the country over which these immense flocks are passing; and particularly as the migrations take place at the times of the year when SPANISH SHEEP, MERINOS, ETC. 65 the property of the agriculturist is most liable to injury. In addition to this, the servants of the Mesta, like the servants of Government elsewhere, have little common feeling with the inhabitants of the country which they are traversing ; they commit much serious and wanton injury, and they re- fuse all redress. “The shepherds and the sheep equally know when the procession has arrived at the point of its destination. It is necessary to exert great vigilance over the flock during the last three or four days, for the animals are eager to start away, and often great numbers of them make their escape. If they are not destroyed by the wolves, there is no great danger of losing them; for they are found on their old pas- ture, quietly waiting the arrival of their companions, and it would be difficult to make any of them proceed a great way beyond this spot. The shepherds are immediately employed in constructing pens for the protection of the sheep during the night, and which are composed of ropes made by twist- ing certain rushes together, which grow plentifully there, and attaching them to stakes driven into the ground. They next build, with the branches of trees roughly hewn, rude huts for themselves. “When the sheep arrive at their summer pasture, which at first is very luxuriant, the mayoral endeavors to guard against the possible ill effects of the change from the uncertain and scanty pasturage found on the journey, by giving the flocks a considerable quantity of salt. He placesa great many flat stones five or six feet from each other, and strews salt upon them, which is eagerly devoured. ‘This is repeated on sev- eral successive days ; and a case of general inflammation, or hoove, seldom occurs. “During the summer pasturage the labor is light of the shepherd. The ewes are put to the rams early in August. After their return at the close of autumn, and when yean- ing time approaches, the barren ewes are separated from the others and placed on the poorest pasture. The Merinos are not good nurses, and nearly half of the lambs—or in bad seasons, and when the pasture fails, full three-fourths—are destroyed as soon as they are yeaned. The males are al- ways sacrificed first; the others are usually suckled by two ewes—for it is a common opinion in Spain that the mother that fully suckles her lamb would yield less wool ; they are afterwards placed on the best pasture, in order that they 6* 66 EUROPEAN SHEEP. may acquire sufficient strength for their approaching joummey. “The skins of the slaughtered lambs are sent into Portugal, and thence find their way to England, where they are used for the manufacture of gloves. ‘The wool is soft and silky, and is formed into little rings or curls. “ Few of the male lambs are castrated, because it is be- lieved that the weight of the fleece is much increased on the ram, without acquiring proportional coarseness. ‘The shep- herd, however, early in March, has four operations to per- form on the lambs: he cuts off their tails five inches below the rump, for the sake of cleanliness: he marks them on the nose with a hot iron: he cuts off the tips of their horns that they may not hurt each other in their frolicks, and he cas- trates those which, from their superior strength, and superior size, he has selected to become bell-wethers, and lead the flock in their peregrinations. “Tt is supposed that forty or fifty thousand men are em- ployed in these peregrinations of the sheep. ‘They are a singular race of men, enthusiastically attached to their pro- fession, rarely quitting it, even for a more lucrative one, and rarely marrying. ‘The number of dogs kept for the purpose of guarding the sheep exceeds thirty thousand. “The shearing does not delay the flock more than a day. Buildings are erected at various places in the early portion of their journey ; they are very simply constructed, and con- sist only of two large rooms, each of which will contain more than a thousand sheep: there is also a narrow, low, long hut adjoining, termed the sweating house. ‘The sheep are all driven into one of these apartments, and in the even- ing those intended to be shorn on the following day are transferred into the low, long hut. As many are forced into it as it will possibly hold, and there they are left during the night. As some are liberated in the morning, the others are urged towards the end of the hut, while more from the apartment occupy their situation. In consequence of this close confinement they are thrown into a state of great per- spiration ; the yolk, which formed a somewhat hard crust on the fleece, is melted, and thus the whole is rendered softer, and is more easily cut. There is no previous washing, nor any other preparation for the shearing. From 150 to 200 shearers are generally collected, and a flock of a thousand sheep is disposed of in a day, although five rams or eight ewes are reckoned a good day’s work for a Spanish shearer! SPANISH SHEEP, MERINOS, ETC. 67 The sheep are turned back as they are shorn into the second apartment, and on the following day continue their journey: thus in the space of six days, as many flocks, each consist- ing of a thousand sheep, pass through the esqguilo (shearing hut), and leave their fleeces behind them. The wool is then cleansed with water and soap and sorted in the esquilo, and is ready for sale.” A writer in the Encyclopedia Londonensis states the fol- lowing: “The management of the Spanish flocks is pecu- liarly Roman, and shows the Italian origin of these sheep. The Merino mayoral corresponds exactly with the magister pecoris of Varro and Columella. The practice of destroy- ing half the sheep at their birth, and of suckling each of the survivors on two ewes; of sweating the sheep before they were shorn, in order to increase the softness of the fleece, and of conducting them from their high winter to their sum- mer stations, by long journeys through public sheep walks, have been derived from Roman institutions.” Mr. Youatt condensed Arthur Young’s account of the Catalonian or Pyrenean breed, as here presented :— “The journeys of these sheep are smaller, and performed in a different manner. On the northern side of the Spanish portion of the Pyrenees are two mountains, the sides of which are covered with short, but plentiful herbage, and from one to the other of which the sheep are continually travelling during the summer. In the winter they are sent into the lower part of Catalonia, a journey of twelve or thirteen days, and when the snow begins to melt in the spring they are conducted back again to the mountains; thus they are kept the whole year in motion: they are never housed or under cover, and never taste of any food but what they find for themselves. “Mr. Young had the opportunity of examining a flock of these Catalonian sheep, consisting of about 2000. They were generally polled, but a few, both of the rams and ewes, had horns. The legs were white or reddish—the faces, some white, some red, and some speckled, and some with a tuft of wool on their faces: the carcase was round, the back straight: they were in good condition: would weigh, when fat, from 15 to 18 pounds per quarter, and resembled, on the whole, the South Down breeds. “Mr. Young wished to examine them more closely, and in- timated this to the shepherd, who immediately walked into 68 EUROPEAN SHEEP. the flock, and singled out a ram, and bid it to follow him, holding out his hand as if to give him something. The ani- mal immediately came with the shepherd, and submitted it- self to Mr. Young’s inspection. He found that mellowness of the skin which is the surest proof of a good fleece, and of a good breed. The wool was beautifully soft and fine, and weighed, as he imagined, about eight “pounds: the average weight of the fleece before washing was usually about four or five pounds. Four shepherds, provided with fire-arms, and four or five large Spanish dogs, had the care of the flock. ‘The sheep were collected together every night on a particular spot,—the shepherd slept in a little hut close by, and the dogs gave certain notice of the approach of danger. During the day the head shepherd sat on the mountain top, or on an elevated spot, whence he could see everything around him, while the flock browsed on the de- clivities.” The Estantes or stationary Merinos amounted at one time to two millions, and the transhumantes to ten millions ; but it is difficult to estimate correctly the number of each at the present time. The Chunah breed, Chancellor Livingston states in his essay, numbered about six millions. The Leonesa, which compose a very large proportion of the travelling sheep, are superior in fleece to all others in the kingdom, and which will always sell for considerably more per pound than that of any other Spanish sheep. But on the other hand, says Mr. Youatt, on the authority of Burgoyne, “there are stationary flocks both in Leon and Estremadura, which produce wool as good as that of the transhumantes.” It will appear, therefore, that these migra- tions are not the exclusive cause of the superior fleeces of the transhumantes, as the Spaniards are wont to suppose. For reasons not necessary for the compiler to assign, he quotes from Mr. Youatt the following accurate description of the prominent characteristics of the true Spanish Merinos, in which, it will be seen, he justly extols their excellencies, and notes impartially their defects, which, however, are tri- fling compared with the returns which their invaluable fleeces afford. “The first impression made by the Merino sheep on one unacquainted with its value would be unfavorable. The wool lying closer and thicker over the body than in most other breeds of sheep, and being abundant in yolk, is covered SPANISH SHEEP, MERINOS, ETC. 69 with a dirty crust, often full of crocks. The legs are rather long, yet small in the bone; the breast and the back are narrow, and the sides somewhat flat; the shoulders and bosoms are heavy, and too much of their weight is carried on the coarser parts. The horns of the male are compara- tively large, curved, and with more or less of the spiral form ; the head is large, but the forehead rather low. A few of the females are horned, but generally speaking they are without horns. Both male and female have a peculiar coarse and unsightly growth of hair on the forehead and cheeks, which the careful sheep-master cuts away before the shearing time: the other part of the face has a pleasing and characteristic velvet appearance. Under the throat there is a singular looseness of skin, which gives them a remarkable appearance of throatiness, or hollowness in the neck.* The pile, when pressed upon, is hard and unyield- ing; itis so from the thickness with which it grows on the pelt, and the abundance of yolk, detaining all the dirt and gravel which falls upon it; but when examined, the fibre exceeds in fineness, and in the number of serrations and curves, that which any other sheep in the world produces. The average weight of the fleece (unwashed) in Spain is eight pounds from the ram, and five from the ewe. The staple differs in length in different provinces. When fatted, these sheep will weigh from 12 to 16 pounds per quarter. “The excellency of the Merinos consists in the unexampled fineness and felting property of their wool, and in the weight of it yielded by each individual sheep: the closeness of that wool, and the luxuriance of the yoik, which enables them to support extremes of cold and wet as well as any other breed ; the easiness with which they adapt themselves to every change of climate, and yet thrive and retain, with common care, their fineness of wool: an appetite which renders them apparently satisfied with the coarsest food ; a quietness and patience into whatever pasture they are turned, and a gentleness and tractableness not excelled by any other breed. * Lord Somerville has some observations on this point :—'The second property to be noted in this sheep is a tendency to throatiness, a pen- dulous skin under the throat, which is generally deemed a bad property in this country, and the very reverse in Spain, where it is much esteemed, because it is supposed to denote a tendency both to wool and a heavy fleece.” —Somerville on Sheep. 70° EUROPEAN SHEEP. “Their defects, partly attributable to the breed, but more to the improper mode of treatment to which they are occasionally subjected, are, their unthrifty and unprofitable form ; a voraciousness of appetite* which yields no adequate return of condition; a tendency to abortion and to barren- ness; a difficulty in yeaning ; a paucity of milk, and a too frequent neglect of their young.t They are likewise said, notwithstanding the fineness of their wool and the beautiful red color of the skin when the fleece is parted, to be more subject to cutaneous affections than most other breeds. Man, however, has more to do with this than Nature.” HISTORY OF THE INTRODUCTION OF MERINOS INTO THE UNITED STATES. The first individual of the breed introduced into this coun- try, was by Mr. Delessert,a French banker. He purchased two pairs, in 1801, selected from the celebrated Rambouillet flock, near Paris, which were shipped early of the same year to the United States, but three of them perished on the passage, and the survivor, a ram, was placed on his farm near Kingston, New York. It had become a matter of history, that the next importation of Merinos was by Gen. David Humphreys, of Connecticut; but very recently a competitor for that honor has appeared. It is now of little moment, further than as a chronological fact, although the individual in question, Mr. Seth Adams, of Zanesville, Ohio, is worthy of praise as one of the pio- neers to improve the fleece of his native country. Mr. Adams’ statement { was addressed to the editor of the Alba- * This is unmerited, because it is not true. A fat sheep is the glory of an Englishman, and in forming an estimate of the Merino, he is apt to lose sight of a great physiological point, namely, no sheep can be the bearer both of a superior fine fleece and much fat, because the assimila- tion of food cannot act for both objects in an equal degree. We must be content with one great excellence, and not expect more from one animal. —Compiler. Not so, after arriving at maturity, and properly provided for—Com- piler. t “T imported in the brig Reward, Capt. Hooper, which left Diepe in August, 1801, and arrived in Boston in October following, a Merino ram andewe. These, I believe, were the first pair of Merinos imported to the United States. The Agricultural Society of Massachusetts having of- fered a premium of $350 for the importation ofa pair of sheep of supe- rior breed, General D. Humphreys imported a flock of Merinos, and sent some of them to Massachusetts, and he, or some one for him, applied te INTRODUCTION OF MERINOS INTO THE UNITED STATES. 71 ny Cultivator (which is appended to the present page), in which the priority of his importation te Gen. Humphreys’ is clearly shown, and a reference to the archives of the Mas- sachusetts Agricultural Society will confirm it. For particulars relative to further importations of the Merinos, the compiler is indebted to the Hon. Witiiam Jarvis, of Vermont, whose name, with that of Davin Houmpureys, will ever be associated, in the minds of Ameri- cans, with the Merino, and cherished with gratitude as the great founders of wool improvement in the United States. The account was originally addressed to L. D. Gregory, of Vermont, and which is invaluable from its authenticity, and graphic details; and the compiler thus publicly expresses his grateful obligations to Mr. Jarvis for his kind permission to insert it in the present work, and its readers will doubtless feel likewise. After many interesting details concerning the manage- ment of Merino sheep in Spain, Mr. Jarvis proceeds thus: “JT shall now call your attention to the first introduction of them into the United States. Soon after the accession of Mr. Jefferson to the Presidency, Chancellor Livingston was appointed Minister to France, and in 1802, he obtained from that government three or four Merinos of the Rambouillet flock, which he sent to New York and put on one of his farms. This flock was obtained by the King of France from the King of Spain, and were undoubtedly pure-blooded sheep. A little before Gen. Humphreys left Spain,* he was enabled to get two hundred sheep from Spain into Portugal, and they were sent to Figueira, at the mouth of the Monde- go, and thence shipped to the United States.. From what flock he obtained them, I never could learn, though I in- quired a number of times; but as Spanish Estremadura and Leon border on Portugal, from 38 deg. of latitude to the northern boundary of Portugal, and as no other than the the society for the premium. Knowing from report, that his sheep did not arrive before the spring season after mine, I applied at the same time for the premium, and after having examined the sheep and wool, and comparing with those of General H., the society awarded to me the pre- mium, and awarded to General H. a gold medal for having imported a larger number. My sheep were from the flock imported by Bonaparte, and distributed through France to improve the flocks of that kingdom.” * For further particulars concerning General Humphreys’ importation, see Mr. Jarvis’ letter in Appendix. 72 EUROPEAN SHEEP. Leonesa Transhumantes are found in that part of Spain, there can be but little doubt that they belonged to that race. “T attempted in 1806, also in 1807, to obtain some from the most celebrated flocks, but the laws were so strict against their exportation without royal license, that I failed of suc- cess. After the French invasion in 1808, the law became more relaxed, and in 1809, by special favor, I obtained two hundred Escurials. At the second invasion of the French under Joseph Bonaparte, the rapidity of the march of the French troops hurried the Supreme Junta from Madrid, and they retired to Badajos. Being without money, and being afraid of disgusting the Estremadurans, by levying a tax upon them, they were compelled to sell four of the first flocks in Spain, which had been confiscated in consequence of the proprietors joining the French. These were the Paular, previously owned by the Prince of Peace; the Ne- gretti, previously owned by the Conde Del Campo de Alange ; the Aqueirres, which had been owned by the Conde of the same name, and the Montarco, owned by the Conde de Mon- tarco, and were such sheep as could not have been got out of Spain, had it not been for the invasion of the French and the distracted state of the country growing out of that inva- sion. When the Junta sold, it was upon the express con- dition of their granting licenses to carry them out of the kingdom. Four thousand of the Paular flock were sent to England for the king; and Col. Downie, a Scotch officer in the British service, but who then held the rank of General in the Spanish service, and I, purchased the remainder of the flock, between three and four thousand more; and of this purchase, I took fourteen hundred, and he sent the rest to Scotland with the exception of two or three hundred, which he sold to come to this country. Sir Charles Stew- art purchased the Negretti flock and sent them to England, with the exception of about a hundred I got out of his flock after they reached Lisbon. “I purchased about seventeen hundred of the Aqueirres flock of the Junta, and the remainder was sold and sent to England. The Montarco flock was bought by a Spaniard and a Portuguese, and about two thousand seven hundred were shipped to this country. I shipped to the United States the fourteen hundred Paulars, one thousand seven hundred Aqueirres, two hundred Escurial, one hundred N egrettis, and about two hundred Montarcos. Of this number, about one INTRODUCTION OF MERINOS INTO THE UNITED STATES. 73 hundred were sent to Wiscasset and Portland, one thousand one hundred to Boston and Newburyport, one thousand five hundred to New York, three hundred and fifty to Philadel- phia, two hundred and fifty to Baltimore, one hundred to Alexandria, and two hundred to Norfolk and Richmond. Besides those which | shipped to the United States on my own account, there were about three hundred Gaudaloupes purchased by others, and two to three hundred of the Paular flock sold by Gen. Downie, shipped to Boston; and of the Montarco flock, shipped by others, about two thousand five hundred were sent to Boston, Providence, New York, Phila- delphia, Baltimore, and Savannah. The Gaudaloupes, Pau- lars, and Montarcos, which were shipped to Boston by others, were for the account of Gorham Parsons, Esq., Gen. Sum- ner, D. Tichenor, and E. H. Derby, Esq. All these sheep were shipped in the latter part of 1809, during 1810, and the early part of 1811, and were the only Leonesa Transhumantes, if we include Gen. Humphreys’ and Chancellor Livingston’s, (which I have no doubt were of the same stock) that were ever shipped to the United States. Badajos is but little over one hundred miles from Lisbon, and all the sheep purchased there and in that vicinity, were shipped from Lisbon. I was then Consul there, and from my office was actually acquaint- ed with all the shipments, as certificates of property from me always accompanied them. “T shall now, in compliance with your wishes, give you a description of the sheep of the different flocks sent to this country. The Paulars were undoubtedly one of the hand- somest flocks in Spain. They were of middling height, round-bodied, well spread, straight on the back, the neck of the bucks rising in a moderate curve from the withers to the setting on of the head, their head handsome, with aquiline curve of the nose, with short, fine, glossy hair on the face, and generally hair on the legs, the skin pretty smooth, that is, not rolling up or doubling about the neck and body, as in some other flocks, the crimp in the wool was not so short as in many other flocks, the wool was somewhat longer, but it was close and compact, and was soft and silky to the touch, and the surface was not so much covered with gum. This flock was originally owned by the Carthusian friars of Paular, who were the best agriculturists in Spain, and was sold by that order to the Prince of Peace when he came into power. The Negretti flock were the tallest Merinos in 74 EUROPEAN SHEEP. Spain, but were not handsomely formed, being rather flat- sided, roach back, and the neck inclining to sink down from the withers ; the wool was somewhat shorter that the Pau- lar and more crimped, the skin was more loose and inclined to double, and many of them were wooled on their faces and legs down to their hoofs. All the loose-skinned sheep had large dewlaps. The Aqueirres were short-legged, round, broad-bodied, with loose skins, and were more wooled about their faces and legs than any other flock I ever saw, the wool was more crimped than the Paular, and less than the Negretti, but was thick and soft. This flock formerly be- longed to the Moors of Spain, and at their expulsion, was bought by the family of Aqueirres. The wool in England was known as the Muros flock, and was highly esteemed. All the bucks of these three flocks had large horns. The Escurials were about as tall as the Paulars, but not quite so round and broad, being in general rather more slight in their make ; their wool was crimped, but not quite so thick as the Paular or Negretti, nor were their skins so loose as the Negretti and Aqueirres, nor had they so much wool on the face and legs. The Montarco bore a considerable resem- blance to the Escurials. The Escurial flock had formerly belonged to the crown, but when Philip the II. built the Es- curial palace, he gave them to the friars, whom he placed in a convent that was attached to the palace, as a source of revenue. These four flocks were moderately gummed. The Gaudaloupe flock was rather larger in the bone than the two preceding, about the same height, but not quite so handsomely formed, their wool was thick and crimped, their skins loose and doubling, their faces and legs not materially different from the two latter flocks, but in general they were more gummed than either of the other flocks. In point of fine- ness there was very little difference between these six flocks, and as I have been told by well-informed persons, there is very little difference in this respect among the Leonesa Transhumantes in general. ‘The Escurials, the Montarcos, and the Gaudaloupes were not in general so heavy horned as the other three flocks, and about one in six of the bucks were without horns, or what is commonly called a polled buck. “T had selected by the Paular shepherds, who came with that flock, three hundred sheep which I shipped to Newbu- ryport. The half of these were Paulars, a fourth Aqueirres INTRODUCTION OF MERINOS INTO THE UNITED STATES. 75 an eighth Escurials, and the other eighth Montarcos and Ne- grettis. These I put on the farm in Weathersfield, Vt., that I bought after my return to the United States, and also drove up about a hundred, the remainder of those I had shipped to Boston. In compliance with the invariable practice in Spain, I bred the respective flocks separately, or what in farmer’s language is called in and in; the custom in Spain having existed from time immemorial, of breeding the bucks and ewes of the same cabanna or flock together, or in and in; but in about 1816 or 1817, I mixed the different flocks to- gether, and have so bred my Merinos ever since.” An importation of Rambouillet Merinos was made by an enterprising citizen of Connecticut several years since, which is properly noticed under the head of French Sheep. The average weight of the Spanish Merino fleece has al- ready been given; that of the American Merino may be safely, under good management, stated at 31 lbs.; small flocks, however, which are apt to receive better attentions than large, will yield about 4 lbs. ; but recently, instances have been recorded, where the flocks have been unusually well selected, and fed, an-average of 41 to 5 lbs. has been obtained. High feeding has much to do in increasing the weight of the fleece, as will appear hereafter. An enterprising feeling is abroad over large portions of our country for wool improvement, and public attention has latterly been directed to the Merinos to forward this im- portant branch of agriculture. This is right. There exists no hardier breed than the Merinos; and for the small flock proprietor, whose locality is cold and exposed, they are especially well adapted. ‘To the Merinos we must look for the greatest general improvement of the fleece throughout our widely-extended country. FRENCH SHEEP. With the exception of the celebrated Rambouillet Merino flock, near Paris, there is little to interest the American wool-grower relative to the sheep and sheep husbandry of France. The breeds are varied as the face of the country, and none, except towards the more southern parts of the kingdom, that yield a fleece possessing much intrinsic excellence either for the purposes of combing or cloth. ‘This appears some- what singular, considering the aptitude of the French nation 76 EUROPEAN SHEEP. for the art of manufacture, the general excellence of the agriculture of the country, the adaptation of the climate for perfecting the several properties of wool, and the super- abundance and variety of the herbage. The conclusion is natural, from the proximity to Spain, that France would have availed herself of the superiority of the Merino wool, and long since have become second to no country in the ex- tent of its culture. The prize, however, which she could so easily have possessed, through culpable neglect, has passed to Germany and Austria, and now to these countries is she indebted, like England, for the finest wool employed in her manufactures. Justice, however, requires the state- ment, that, before her bloody and exterminating Revolution, measures were in progress to ameliorate the character of the native sheep, by the introduction of the Merino as rapidly as the government of Spain would sanction their exportation ; but that terrible event overthrew this contemplated good to the agriculture of the nation. The first, and only marked successful effort, was the flock of Merinos, known since as the Rambouillet’s, which will presently be referred to. As has already been remarked, the most valuable wooled sheep are found in the southern parts of the kingdom; and none probably surpass, form and fleece combined, those of Arles, which embraces the Districts of Crau, Camarque, and Le Plain du Bourg. About 250,000 are kept in these dis- tricts. All these sheep are migratory, being driven from the plains of Arles in the spring of the year towards the Alps which divide Provence and Dauphine from Italy, and are driven back in November. These migrations have continued from time immemorial ; and laws have been enacted limiting the road for their passage to 36 feet in breadth. The flocks vary in number from 10 to 40,000; and to every 1000 sheep three shepherds are allowed, each of whom has his dog. The sheep are led by goats which are trained for the pur- pose, and have bells around their necks. The discipline in which these animals are kept, and the intelligence which they display, is very great. They halt or proceed at the direction of the shepherd; they come to the centre at the close of each day’s march, and there wait in the morning for the proper order, when they repair to their station at the head of the troop with the greatest regularity. If they come to a stream they halt until the word of command is given; and then they plunge immediately into the water, and are - FRENCH SHEEP. revs followed by the rest of the flock. The journey usually lasts from twenty to thirty days. When they arrive at the moun- tains each shepherd has his appointed boundary marked out ; and the proprietors of the land are usually paid about twenty sous per sheep for their pasture during the summer. The shepherds sleep with their flock in the open air, and live almost entirely on bread and goats’ milk.* The question of the influence of these peregrinations on the fleece has been already considered under the head of Spanish Sheep. , M. Daubenton having experimented a sufficient length of time to test the effect of change of climate and habits of the Merino, which resulted in their retaining every valuable quality for which they are so celebrated, the French govern- ment resolved in 1786 to make a trial, under its immediate patronage, on a larger scale than any previously made. “ Accordingly 376 ewes and lambs were purchased in Spain, and sent to Rambouillet, in the neighborhood of Paris, where was an agricultural establishment expressly devoted to the improvement of the domesticated animals. Sixty of them died on their passage. “The Rambouillet flock gradually increased, and a few were given to those agriculturists who appeared, to be disposed to bestow sufficient care on their cultivation. This was an ill- advised measure. ‘That which could be had as a gift was deemed to possess little value ; and the new breed had not justice done to it. It was then determined that an annual sale of a portion of the flock should take place. The first sale was made in 1796, ten years after their establishment at Rambouillet. The average weight of the fleece in the yolk was then 6 lbs. 9 oz.; the average price of the fleece 5 francs !—the average price of the sheep, 107 francs for a ram, and 71 francs for a ewe, and the highest price at which a single sheep sold was 200 francs. Five years afterwards the flock had so much improved in public estima- tion, and in real value, that the average weight of the fleece was 9 lbs.—its price 28 francs; the average price of the ram 412 francs, that of the ewes 236 franes, and the high- est price of any of the sheep 630 francs. “The most rigorous examination was instituted ; and the * Annales de l’Agric. France. + A franc is about one fifth of a dollar. Y baal 78 EUROPEAN SHEEP. superfine wools obtained in France from the pure breed, were worked into cloths in every respect as good as those from the refina or prima wool of the best breeds in Spain. The wool produced from the mixed breed, after the fourth or fifth cross, when made into cloth, was equal to that manu- factured from superfine wool. “Tn order to perfect the undertaking, a publication on the treatment of sheep was drawn up by M. Gilbert, under the patronage of government; a practical school for shepherds was instituted at Rambouillet, and two other depots for Merino sheep were established, one at Pompadour, and another at Perpignan, at the foot of the Pyrenees. “These statements would seem to be highly encourag- ing; but so systematically had the sheep been neglected in France, and so inveterate were the prejudices of agriculturists generally, that when an account was taken of the number of sheep in France, in 1811, 25 years after the establishment of the flock at Rambouillet, there were thirty millions of the native breeds, and only two hundred thousand pure Merinos. “At the sale of Merinos at Rambouillet in 1834, the average price of the ram was 328 francs, and the greatest sum given for the best 510 francs. The average price of the ewe had sunk to 108 francs, and the highest price of the best was only 210 franes.”* Mr. Trimmer, an English writer, has stated the following concerning the Rambouillet flock, which he visited in 1827: “The sheep in size are certainly the largest pure Merinos I have ever seen. ‘The wool is of various qualities, many sheep carrying very fine fleeces, others middling, and some rather indifferent ; but the whole is much improved from the quality of the original Spanish Merinos. * * * * Individ- uals are found in this flock with dewlaps down to the knees, and folds of skin on the neck, like frills, covering nearly the head. Several of these animals seem to possess pelts of such looseness and size, that one skin would nearly hold the carcases of two such sheep. The rams’ fleeces were stated at 14, and the ewes’ 10 lbs. in the grease. By thorough cleansing they would be reduced half, thus giving 7 and 5 Ibs. each.” From the fact that an importation from this celebrated * Youatt. FRENCH SHEEP. 79 flock into the United States has recently taken place, and others not unlikely to follow, it is proper that the public should be fully enlightened as to the degree of its merit. The following is a portion of a report concerning them, drawn up by M. Gilbert, of the French National Institute, and will be found inserted in Chancellor Livingston’s “Essay on Sheep.” ‘The eminent moral character of Mr. Livingston forbids the suspicion that the account is exagger- ated, as he had the opportunity personally to attest its truth. M. Gilbert says—‘ The stock from which the flock of Rambouillet was derived, was composed of individuals beau- tiful beyond any that had ever before been brought from Spain: but having been chosen from a great number of flocks, in different parts of the kingdom, they were distinguished by very striking local differences, which formed a medley dis- agreeable to the eye, but immaterial as it affected their quality ; these characteristic differences have been melted into each other, by their successive alliances, and from them have resulted a race which perhaps resembles none of those which compose the primitive stock, but which certainly does not yield in any circumstance to the most beautiful in point of size, form, and strength; or in the fineness, length, soft- ness, strength, and abundance of the fleece. ‘The manufac- turers and dealers in wool, who came in numbers to Ram- bouillet this year (1796) to purchase, unanimously agreed to this fact, at the very time that they were combining to keep down the price. All the wool of Spain that I have ex- amined, not excepting the prime Leonese, the most esteem- ed of any, appeared to me to contain much more of jar (hair) than that of Rambouillet.” An importation transpired, in 1840, of twenty ewes and two rams, selected from this celebrated flock, by Mr. D. C. Collins of Hartford, Conn., who is still their proprietor. The motives which prompted this laudable enterprise, to- gether with a minute description of these valuable sheep, appear in the American Agriculturist, of July, 1843. The following account was prepared by its editor, who had ex- pended much time in examining them :— “While Mr. Collins was travelling in Europe in the year 1839, having his eye occasionally upon its agriculture and improved stocks, among other things, this gentleman was struck with the marked superiority of the Spanish Merinos, composing the celebrated royal flocks kept at Rambouillet 80 EUROPEAN SHEEP. in France, about 40 miles from Paris. He accordingly de- termined to procure a small breeding flock, with a view of raising bucks to restore the fine-wooled sheep of our coun- try to their original character for strength of constitution and weight of fleece, together with excellence of quality. * * * * * * * “The result of our observations, and the information we obtained, with respect to these Spanish Merinos from the Royal flocks of Rambouillet, and the produce bred from them in this country, is :— “1. They possess as good constitutions, and are as thrifty and as hardy as any native or imported sheep whatever. “2. They attain a great age, having been known to reach 20 years, and may be depended on as good breeders till 12 or 14 years old. “3. They have large, loose skins, full of folds, especially around the neck and below it, on the shoulders, and not un- frequently over the whole body; the wool thickly covering its surface, the forehead, cheeks, and the legs, clear down to the hoofs, giving the fleece, when shorn and spread out in its ample dimensions, the appearance of having been taken from the carcase of a huge buffalo, rather than so small an ani- mal as the domestic sheep. “4. The fibre of the wool is very fine, quite equal to the best Merino in Spain, and is the very antipodes of that of which so much complaint is made by the manufacturer, of being harsh, dry, crispy, and wiry. The fleece opens of a brilliant creamy color within, on a skin of rich pink, and is soft, glossy, wavy, and very even over the whole body ; is exceedingly close and compact, and has a yolk free from gum, and easily liberated when it comes to be washed, but which protects the wool from the weather, and keeps it free of the dead ends that are so objectionable. It becomes of the purest white when scoured by the manufacturer, and still retains its mellow, oily touch, so grateful to the hand- ling of good judges. Its felting properties are beyond dis- pute, making it a choice material for the manufacture of fine cloths.” SWISS SHEEP. There are several breeds of sheep in the several Cantons of Switzerland. The valley sheep are not dissimilar to the SAXON SHEEP. 81 long-wooled English breeds, and approximate more nearly to the Lincoln variety. The mountain breed are esteemed the most valuable, having fine, short wool, which, latterly, has been much im- proved in quality and weight by the Merino. SAXON RAM. SAXON SHEEP. The following history of the introduction of the Merinos into Saxony was written by the late Mr. Henry D. Grove, of Hoosic, N. Y., whose decease will long be lamented by those who knew his many private virtues, and by American agriculturists, who will not cease to pay the homage of gratitude to his memory, for the enthusiastic enterprise and zeal he continued to manifest to his latest moments to im- prove the fleece of his adopted country. The following was addressed to Messrs. Benton & Barry, at whose request it was written, and affixed to their useful work on the Statistics of Sheep and Manufactures of the United States, and published in 1837. 82 EUROPEAN SHEEP. “In the year 1764, the Elector of Saxony obtained, by special negotiation through his ambassador, a grant from the King of Spain, for the purchase of one hundred ewes and one hundred rams, and a few surplus ones to keep that num- ber good in case any should die during the passage. Ac- cordingly one hundred and nineteen ewes and one hundred and ten rams were selected, principally from the Escurial flocks, then the king’s private property, under the care and management of the monks belonging to the monastery of that name, and which were considered the finest sheep in the kingdom. They were shipped at Cadiz, in the month of May, 1765, accompanied by two Spaniards to take care of them. Five rams and three ewes died on the passage ; the remainder arrived safely at the Elector’s private domain at Stolpen. The Spanish shepherds remained with, and took care of the flock till the middle of the following year, when they took their departure for Spain. During the time, however, they remained in Saxony, they instructed Saxon shepherds in the care and management of sheep. “In order the better to make this valuable acquisition ben- efit the country as much as possible, the Elector appointed a commission, to superintend and direct the general concerns of the sheep establishment, whose particular duty it was made, to spread all the information they could obtain on the care and management of sheep before the public, and who were especially instructed to dispose of the young rams at low prices, in order to induce the sheep-owners to improve their flocks. The tenants of the government domains were particularly favored, by giving them the preference in the purchase (which is kept up till this day), while every possi- ble care was taken to induce farmers generally to improve their breed of sheep throughout the Electorate. It was fur- ther required of the said commission to make a detailed re- port to the government, annually, on the condition of the | sheep establishment, and at the same time to submit a list of the persons who had received sheep from the national flock. “ During the first years these valuable animals found many opponents, and the improvement of the Spanish crop was very slow, mainly on account of the common prejudice of the farmers, which was heightened when the scab broke out among them, but afterwards they became convinced of their value, and the improvement was more rapid. But as most SAXON SHEEP. 83 of the flocks in Spain are more or less affected by the scab, those transported to Saxony had to undergo the same ordeal. This, of course, heightened the prejudice of many against them, who pronounced them as entirely unfit for the coun- try, their meat not eatable, or at best, of a miserable descrip- tion; a notion, however, which soon exploded. The scab, however, caused great ravages among them before they were entirely cured of this disease. ‘** When the commissioners had exercised their functions ten years, the call for young rams was so great,—and in or- der the more rapidly to improve the breed of the country,— that they resolved to petition the government to make another importation of ewes and rams from Spain, for which purpose the Elector obtained another grant from the King of Spain for three hundred rams and ewes. At the end of the year 1777, a gentleman by the name of Vaigt, manager of Count Hiorsidel’s farms, who was considered one of the best judges of sheep at that day in Saxony, was provided with the ne- cessary credentials and sent on that mission. But, for some cause unknown, he selected only one hundred and ten two year old rams and ewes, and returned home with them. These were, however, of a very superior quality, selected from the best flocks of Leon, Escurial, Cavagnon, Negretti, Mon- tarco, and Sorian, and exceeded greatly in beauty of form and quality of wool, the first importation. The cost of them was about forty rix dollars per head. “‘ With this acquisition, the commissioners then planted the Merino Tree on the fruitful soil of Lohmen and Renners- dorf, from whence, in conjunction with Stolpen, many pure blood flocks derive their origin. And I owe it to truth to remark, that I have examined private flocks equal, if not su- perior, to the national flocks. “It would lead me too far here, to detail the introduction of the Spanish and Saxony Merino into other parts of Ger- many, Prussia, Austria, &c. Suffice it to say, that many districts rival Saxony ; Prussia, especially, fosters her flocks, not only by premiums, bestowed through her agricultural so- cieties, but by that enlightened protection to domestic indus- try, which so truly characterizes that government.” The invaluable properties of pure Saxon wool, and the demand consequent for its manufacture into fabrics, the fine- ness of which the world has never before produced, is the cause of the high value of Saxon sheep, and their spread 84 EUROPEAN SHEEP. over so large a portion of Europe, and remote parts of the world. No other breeds are so highly prized on the Conti- nent, and none which command such enormous prices. Mr. Grove has stated, that, while grade Saxons sell for 3 to 15 dollars per head, individual rams of uncontaminated blood often bring from 100 to 250 rix dollars; a flock was pur- chased, destined for Russia, a few years since, for which the average price paid exceeded 500 dollars ; and Mr. Spoon- er states that, latterly, rams have been sold at the almost in- credible prices of 100 to near 300 guineas per head. ‘The cause of these extravagant prices has been stated; and so long as there exist grades in society, and the highest of these covet a wardrobe of the finest texture, the breed will continue to be appreciated, and sedulously cultivated. The means adopted to improve the wool of the Saxon breed so much beyond the Merinos of Spain consisted for the most part, originally, in the system of breeding in-and-in, and a great degree of care in management, which is briefly, but imperfectly, detailed by several writers, as follows :—the first remarks are by Mr. Grove :—“ 'The Germans keep their sheep under comfortable shelter during the winter. By this means they do not require, in the first place, so much prov- ender; secondly, the tip ends of the wool do not get weath- er-beaten, which is an injury; thirdly, a great quantity of manure is saved. They hurdle their sheep during sum- mer for the purpose of manuring the land, which makes it more productive. ‘They raise large quantities of roots, such as ruta baga, potatoes, mangel wurtzel, carrots, round turnips, &c., to feed out during winter. Combined with straw, it is considered an economical mode of wintering sheep. They enrich their land, moreover, by this course of management, which enables them to keep still more sheep and cattle, and raise more grain. Many farmers in that country keep their sheep from nine to ten months of the year in the yard ; some only part of their flock, and others their whole flock. For this purpose they sow red and white clover, lucerne, and es- parrette, which is mowed and fed to them in racks, three times a day, and in wet weather a foddering of straw. It follows, as a matter of course, that the stables and yards are well littered with straw every day. It is considered that an acre, thus managed, will maintain double the number of sheep, or cattle, than it would to turn them out to pick for themselves. By this course of management they are ena- SAXON SHEEP. 85 bled to keep large numbers of sheep, without infringing much on their grain growing, and enabled to come in com- petition with the wool-growers of other countries. As there are no fences in that country, the sheep are attended by dogs. One shepherd with his dog will manage from five hundred to eight hundred in the summer, all in one flock.” Mr. Carr, an English gentleman farmer, but now a resi- dent of Germany, states the following in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. “These sheep (Saxons) cannot thrive in a damp climate, and it is quite necessary that they should have a wide range of dry and hilly pasture, of short and not over-nutritious herbage. If allowed to feed on swampy or marshy ground, even once or twice, in autumn, they are sure to die of liver-complaint (rot) in the following spring. They are always housed at night, even in summer, except in the finest weather, when they are sometimes folded in the distant fallows, but never taken to pasture till the dew is off the grass. In the winter they are kept within doors altogether, and are fed with a small quantity of sound hay, and every variety of straw, and which is varied at each feed. Abundance of good water to drink, and rock salt in their cribs, are indispensables.” Baron Geisler has been many years one of the most suc- cessful breeders of Saxon Merinos, and for a long time (on the authority of Dr. Bright) “he has exercised un- wearied assiduity by crossing and recrossing, so that by keeping the most accurate registers of the pedigree of each sheep, he has been enabled to proceed with a mathematical precision in the regular and progressive improvement of the whole stock. Out of seventeen thousand sheep, comprising his flock, there is not one whose whole family he cannot trace by reference to his books; and he regulates his year- ly sales by these registers. He considers the purity of blood the first requisite towards perfection of the fleece.” Dr. Bright makes a few remarks on management. “For fourteen days before the coupling-season the rams should be daily fed with oats, and this food should be con- tinued not only during that particular period, but for fourteen days after ; and one ram will thus be in a condition to serve 60 ewes, if other proper attentions have been paid to him previously. “During the lambing period a shepherd should be con- stantly day and night in the cote, in order that he may place 8 86 EUROPEAN SHEEP. . the lamb, as soon as it is cleaned, together with its mother, in a separate pen, which has been before prepared. The ewes which have lambed should, during a week, be driven neither to water nor to pasture; but low troughs of water for this purpose are to be introduced into each partition, in order that they may easily and at all times quench their thirst. “It is also very useful to put a small quantity of barley- meal into the water, for by this means the quantity of ewes’ milk is much increased. When the lambs are so strong that they can eat, they are to be separated by degrees from their mothers, and fed with the best and finest oats, being suffered at first to go to them only three times a day, early in the morning, at mid-day, and in the evening, and so to continue till they can travel to pasture, and fully satisfy themselves.” Although rigid attention is bestowed on these sheep during winter, yet they are not quite the hot-house objects which, from the remarks of Mr. Carr, the reader would in- fer. On the authority of Mr Youatt, although the sheep in Saxony and Silesia are housed at the beginning of winter, yet they are turned out and compelled to seek, perhaps un- der the snow, a portion of their food whenever the weather will permit; and the season must be unusually inclement in which they are not driven into the yards at least two or three hours during the middle of the day. The doors and windows also are frequently opened, that the sheep-houses may be sufficiently ventilated. This is the practice as far north as Sweden. Very great care is taken by the Saxon flock-master in the selection of the lambs which are destined to be saved in order to keep up the flock. ‘“ When the lambs are weaned, each in his turn is placed upon a table, that his wool and form may be minutely observed. The finest are selected for breeding, and receive a first mark. When they are one year old, and prior to shearing them, another close exami- nation of those previously marked takes place ; those in which no defect can be found receive a second mark, and the rest are condemned. A few months afterwards a third and last scrutiny is made ; the prime rams and ewes receive a third and final mark, but the slightest blemish is sufficient to cause the rejection of the animal. Each breeder of note has a seal or mark secured to the neck of the sheep, to de- SAXON SHEEP. 87 tach or forge which is considered a high crime, and punish- ed severely.”* Before the introduction of the Merinos into Saxony the indigenous sheep consisted of two distinct varieties, one bearing a wool of some value, and the other yielding a fleece applicable only to the coarsest manufactures. Both of these breeds have been most extensively crossed with the Saxon Merinos, and very many mixed flocks now exhibit fleeces litte inferior to the best and purest Escurial sheep. According to Mr. Carr, the Infantado Merinos are also cultivated in their purity, and are described by him as hav- ing shorter legs, and heavier and rounder bodies than the Escurial Saxons, with heads and necks comparatively short and broad. The wool is often matted upon the neck, back, and thighs, and grows upon the head to the eyes, and upon the legs to the very feet. The grease in their fleeces is al- most pitchy, so as to render the washing very difficult. He describes the mode of washing as follows :—‘‘ A warm, mild day, without harsh or drying wind, is indispensable. A marl-pit with a depth of from 8 to 10 feet of clear water is a favorite washing place. The sheep are thrown in from a stage in the evening, and made to swim the whole length of the pond (20 or 30 yards), between rails, with boards on one side, from which women or boys assist them through their bath, by placing wooden rakes or crooks under their chins, and so passing them onwards. When the water has dripped from the fleeces for an hour or two, the sheep are put into a house for the night, as close together as possible, in order to cause the greater evaporation, and the next day they are swum three or four times through the pond, and they are kept in the house (well supplied with clean straw) on dry food, for three or four days, until the wool, by sweat- ing as it is termed, has recovered its characteristic softness. The fleece of this species is generally thick, closely grown, and abundant. Ewes average 2 1-4 to 3 1-4 lbs. by careful feeding (which, however, must never approach to feeding to be fat, else the wool becomes wiry and hard), and rams and wed- ders vary from 4 lbs. to even 6 lbs.” The Escurial Saxon breed have long, tapering necks, small heads, with little wool upon them, round carcases, with rather narrow yet deep chests, and when in good flesh, * C. Howard. 88 EUROPEAN SHEEP. generally well proportioned. Indeed, specimens may be se- lected from the best flocks which rival in symmetry of form any sheep in the world. Compared with other breeds, they are small, and consequently their fleeces are proportionally light ; but being comparatively free from gum, is one of the prominent causes. The average weight of the ewe fleeces is from 1 1-2 to 2 1-2 lbs., and full-grown wethers and rams from 2 1-2 to 4lbs. The finest and purest flocks yield heavier fleeces than those engrafted on common stock. Extraordinary care is observed in washing the sheep be- fore shearing (another cause of the fleeces weighing light), which is manifested by the little waste when subjected to the manufacturer’s process of cleansing.* The shearing is conducted in the most skilful manner, each shearer, generally, being limited as to the number of fleeces he is to clip per day, in order to ensure a greater degree of care in his work. ‘Thus, the skins of the sheep are not mangled as in our country, and otherwise presenting a slovenly appearance, from unevenness of the clippings. After the shearing season is past, the wool is bought of the small proprietors by agents of wool merchants, and transported to Hamburg, Breslau, and Leipsic, where it is sorted, and resold for exportation and home manufacture. ‘The annual wool Fairs of Leipsic are wonders in their way, millions of pounds often exchanging hands in a single day. The large proprietors of pure flocks effect their sales by samples, subject to sorting, which is an art nowhere better understood than in Germany. The fleeces of the same quality are opened and spread flat against each other, when packing, and each bale is made to contain from 400 to 500 Ibs. ‘The amount of German wools (which includes Prus- sian, Saxon, and Austrian) annually exported is enormous, England receiving annually from 20 to 30,000,000 Ibs. ; the amount taken by France is also many millions of pounds. Few Americans are aware of the superiority of German woollen fabrics, as, from the great pains, and therefore ex- pense involved, in their manufacture, few specimens com- paratively reach our shores. The Germans make no haste in doing anything, but all their performances are conducted with skill, and with an eye to durability ; and thus German * Seo Summer Management—article Washing. SAXON SHEEP, 89 eloths are unrivalled in strength, the brilliancy and perma- nency of their dyes. The following Report relative to the introduction of the Saxon Merinos into the United States, was drawn by Mr. Grove, and read before the annual meeting of the New York State Agricultural Society, in 1838, and which will be found in the 1st volume of Transactions of the Society :— “The first importation of Saxony sheep into the United States was made by Mr. Samuel Henshaw,* a merchant of Boston, at the instance of Col. James Shepherd, of North- hampton. They were but six or seven in number. In 1824, Messrs. G. and T. Searle, of Boston, imported 77 Saxon sheep. They were selected and purchased by a Mr. Kretch- man, a correspondent of the above firm, residing in Leipsic, and shipped at Bremen on board the American schooner Velocity. I was engaged to take charge of the sheep on the passage, and I also shipped six on my own account. I am sorry to say, that as many as one-third of the sheep pur- chased by Kretchman (who shared profit and loss in the un- dertaking) were not pure-blooded sheep. The cargo were sold at auction at Brookline, as ‘ pure-blooded Electoral Saxons,’ and thus unfortunately in the very outset the pure and impure became irrevocably mixed. But I feel the great- est certainty that the Messrs. Searle intended to import none but the pure stock; the fault lay with Kretchman. In the fall of 1824, I entered into an arrangement with the Messrs. Searle to return to Saxony, and purchase, in connection with Kretchman, from 160 to 200 Electoral sheep. I was de- tained at sea seven weeks, which gave rise to the belief that I was shipwrecked and lost. When I finally arrived, the sheep had been already bought by Kretchman. On being informed of what the purchase consisted, I protested against taking them to America, and insisted on a better selection, but to no purpose. “The number shipped was 167, 15 of which perished on the passage. ‘They were sold at Brighton, some of them going as high as from 400 to 450 dollars. A portion of this importation consisted of grade sheep, which sold as high as the pure bloods, for the American purchaser could not know the difference. It may be readily imagined what an induce- ment the Brighton sale held out to speculation, both in this * American Agriculturist ; the name was left blank in the Report. 8 90 EUROPEAN SHEEP. country and Saxony. The German newspapers teemed with advertisements of sheep for sale, headed ‘ Good for the American market ;’ and these sheep in many instances were actually bought up for the American market at five, eight, and ten dollars a head, when the pure bloods could not be purchased at from less than 30 to 40 dollars each. In 1826, Messrs. Searle imported three cargoes, amounting in the aggregate to 513 sheep. They were of about the same character with their prior importations, in the main good, but mixed with some grade sheep. On the same year, a cargo of 221 arrived, on German account, Emil Bach, of Leipsic, supercargo. A few more good sheep, and of pure blood ; but taken as a lot they were miserable. The owners sunk about 3000 dollars. Next came a cargo of 210 on German account; Wasmuss & Multer owners. The whole cost of these was about $1,125, in Germany. With the excep- tion of a small number, procured to make a flourish on, in their advertisement of sale, they were sheep having no pre- tensions to purity of blood. In 1827, the same individuals brought out another cargo. ‘These were selected exclusive- ly from grade flocks of low character. On the same year the Messrs. Searle made their last importation, consisting of 182 sheep. Of these I know little. My friends in Ger- many wrote me that they were, like their other importations, a mixture of pure and impure blooded sheep. It is due, however, to the Messrs. Searle to say, that as a whole, their importations were much better than any other made into Boston. “7 will now turn your attention to the importations made into other ports. In 1825, 13 Saxons arrived in Portsmouth. They were miserable creatures. In 1826, 191 sheep ar- rived in New York, on German account. A portion of these were well descended and valuable animals, the rest were grade sheep. In June, the same year, the brig Louisa brought out 173 on German account. Not more than one- third of them had the least pretensions to purity of blood. Next we find 158, shipped at Bremen, on German account. Some were diseased before they left Bremen, and I am happy to state that twenty-two died before their arrival in New York. All I intend to say of them is, that they were a most curious and motley mess of wretched animals. The next cargo imported arrived in the brig Maria Elizabeth, under my own care. ‘They were 165 in number, belonging SAXON SHEEP. 91 to myself and F. Gebhard, of New York. These sheep cost me 65 dollars per head, when landed in New York. They sold at an average of 50 dollars a head, thus sinking about $2,400! I need not say that they were exclusively of pure blood. A cargo of 81 arrived soon after, but I know nothing of their quality. ‘The next importation consisted of 184, on German account, per brig Warren. With a few ex- ceptions they were pure-blooded and good sheep. We next have an importation of 200 by the Bremen ship Louisa. They were commonly called the ‘stop sale sheep.’ They were of the most miserable character, some of them being hardly half grade sheep. ‘The ship Phebe Ann brought 120 sheep, of which I know little, and 60 were landed at Philadelphia, with the character of which I am unacquainted. Having determined to settle in America, I returned to Sax- ony, and spent the winter of 1826-7 in visiting and exam- ining many flocks. I selected 115 from the celebrated flock of Macherns, embarked on board the ship Albion, and land- ed in New York June 27th, 1827. In 1828, I received 80 more from the same flock, selected by a friend of mine, an excellent judge of sheep. On their arrival they stood me in 70 dollars a head, and the lambs half that sum.” Notwithstanding so many imperfect specimens of the Sax- ons, as appears from the above, reached our shores, and which have laid the foundation of much prejudice towards the breed, yet there are many flocks in the states which rival some of the best German in fineness, and superior to the latter in average weight of the fleece. The delicacy of constitution which characterizes the German Saxons does not appear nearly to the same degree in the American, and the reader will learn by reference to the Appendix many par- ticulars from different sources to corroborate this statement. The American breeders of this noted race have struggled against a discouraging obstacle, from the injustice of manu- facturers, by not paying the true difference of value between their fleeces and more inferior grades. This, however, lat- terly, has been somewhat rectified, and eventually, with in- crease of competition, will be wholly so; and therefore this breed, with their meritorious progenitors, the Merinos, will continue to be more and more extensively bred, and, by proper management, with equal degrees of profit. The average weight of American Saxon fleeces is from 2 1-4 to 3 lbs. ? 92 EUROPEAN SHEEP. PRUSSIAN SHEEP. Until the middle of the 18th century, no attempts had been made either by individuals or the Prussian government to ameliorate the quality of the native sheep, which are repre- sented to have been of a very inferior character. The first move towards their reformation was made by Mr. Fink, dis- tinguished as an enterprising agriculturist, and his enthu- siasm in sheep-husbandry. His first effort was to obtain the Silesian native breed, which had long been celebrated for the comparative fineness of their wool. Some improve- ment was effected, but he was not satisfied, and became seized with the mania—then common in Germany—for Merinos, and accordingly imported a number of superior animals of this breed, direct from Spain. His success in naturalizing them to the climate, and wonderful improve- ment accomplished by them to his native flocks, attracted the attention of the Prussian government. Frederick II., in 1786, imported one hundred rams and two hundred ewes from Spain; but, says Mr. Youatt, “illustrative of the dif- ference in result when an organized plan is conducted by one acquainted with all its details, and whose heart is in the affair, and when it is committed to those who know and care little about it, the greater part of the sheep that were dis- tributed in the neighborhood of Berlin perished by various diseases; those that were sent to distant farms in the coun- try degenerated, and the advantage was far from commen- surate with the expense.” The monarch, however, did not despair. Mr. Fink was commissioned by the government to purchase a flock of one thousand of the choicest Merinos; and a school was estab- lished to instruct in their management, at the head of which he was wisely placed. As a proof of the extent to which he improved his own flocks, it is stated on the authority of Lasteyrie, who had an opportunity of examining them, “that the sheep are less than the Merinos of Spain, but are by no means inferior to them in perfections of fleece. Before the improvements had taken place the native breeds produced wool that sold from 5d. to 8d. per Ib., but now, improved by the use of Spanish rams, it sells from 2s. to more than 3s. sterling per lb.” A brief sketch of his system of management may not be unacceptable to the reader; valuable, principally, as it illus- PRUSSIAN SHEEP. 93 trates his knowledge of the fondness of sheep for variety of food, which all experience confirms as contributing so much to their welfare. “He properly maintains, that occasional exposure to the air is favorable to the quality of the wool, and therefore, al- though the sheep are housed at the beginning of November, yet whenever it freezes, and the ground is hard, even al- though it may be covered with snow, the sheep are driven to the wheat and rye fields, where they meet with a kind of pasturage exceedingly wholesome, and while they feed there they are likewise benefiting the crop. When the weather will not permit their being taken out, they are fed on hay, aftermath, and chopped straw of various kinds. The kind of straw is changed as often as possible, and wheat, barley, and oat-straw, and pease-haulm follow each other in rapid succession. ‘The oat-straw is sparingly given, and the pease-haulm is preferred to the wheat and barley-straw. Oil-cake, at the rate of six or seven pounds per hundred, and dissolved in water, is also allowed when the flock cannot be turned on the young wheat. “Three or four weeks before lambing, an additional al- lowance of hay and straw is given to the ewes; and while they are suckling, a little oat-meal is mixed with the solu- tion of oil-cake. When the weather will permit the turning out the ews, the lambs are still kept in the houses, and the mothers brought back to them at noon and at night; after that the lambs are not permitted to graze with the ewes, but are turned on the fallows or the clover of the preceding year; for it is supposed that they unnecessarily fatigue themselves by running with their mothers, and almost inces- santly trying to suck, and that on this account they refuse the herbage on which they are placed and take less nourish- ment than when quietly kept on separate pastures. A few barren ewes, however, are placed with the lambs for the purpose of guiding them, and perhaps teaching them to se- lect the best and most wholesome food.”* Many of the Prussian flocks, at the present day, rival in fineness the purest Saxon, and command an equal price for their fleeces. * Lasteyrie. 94 EUROPEAN SHEEP, SILESIAN SHEEP. As has already been said, a portion of the native sheep of Silesia were comparatively finer than those of Prussia and Hungary. Nevertheless, the breed was infinitely below the Merino in the value of their wocl, and it was not until the introduction of the latter that Silesian fleeces took high rank. At present the wools of that province, for the purposes of the best manufactures, are almost equally valued with the purest and finest Saxony. HUNGARIAN SHEEP. Hungary, a large territory within the Austrian domin- ions, abounded with native sheep corresponding in inferi- ority with other northern countries of Europe, which, with bad management, rendered them comparatively worthless for all purposes. The celebrated Empress Maria Theresa, after witnessing the success of the Merinos in Saxony, through that enter- prise which shone so conspicuously in her character, to en- gage in everything which would tend to premote the wel- fare of her people, was induced to import in 1775 several hundred of that breed. They were placed at Mereopail, where an agricultural school was established; but it was long before her laudable exertions were attended with the desired success. In process of time other importations of Merinos were made; and within the last thirty years no sheep districts have surpassed Hungary in the rapid progress of wool improvement. The Hungarian fleeces now com- pete successfully with the best Saxon, as will be seen on reference to the wool table of prices, in the London market, in the following pages. The number of sheep in the Territory of Hungary is probably about eight millions, three millions of which are the property of Prince Esterhazy ! SWEDISH SHEEP. For many centuries the Merinos were confined to Spain, and preserved with jealous care. Sweden appears to have been the first country which succeeded in procuring them; and there are now about seven hundred thousand in this country .* * Spooner. ee. EE DANISH SHEEP. 95 They were introduced into that high latitude as early as 1723 by Mr. Alstroemer, an enterprising agriculturist, and was deemed at the time a presumptuous, indeed, an almost insane attempt. He triumphed over all difficulties, which induced the Swedish government to yield its patronage, by the formation of an agricultural school, which offered pre- miums for the best Spanish Merinos, and on the sale of the best wool. A brief notice of the mode of management in this extreme northern latitude may be acceptable. “The system of migration is completely abandoned. Both the native and imported sheep, after having been pas- tured during the day, are usually housed at night at all sea- sons, on account of the great number of wolves. The peasantry and small farmers have these houses too confined and crowded; the better sheep-master has them large and well ventilated. The native Swedish flocks are kept in these buildings when the weather is unusually severe ; the Merinos are housed during the six winter months; but scarcely any inclemency of weather will prevent the whole flock being driven out daily, at least for a few minutes, in order to breathe the fresh air while the sheep-house is clean- ed. The Merino sheep are seldom used for breeding until they are two and a half years old, and are fattened for the butcher at seven.”* The native sheep of Sweden are an inferior race in all respects, but the wool of which is strong, and valuable for the clothing of the peasantry. DANISH SHEEP. The native sheep of Denmark correspond with those of Sweden, Norway, and the more northern parts of Russia, The head is long and thin, the neck arched, the eye small, the countenance mild, the legs and tail without wool. In 1797 the government was influenced, by the example of Sweden, to patronize the Merinos. Accordingly 300 Leonese Transhumantes were procured and located in the vicinity of Copenhagen. By careful and skilful manage- ment the success in propagating them equalled expectation ; and by crossing them with native sheep, a fair wool was procured. * Youatt. 96 EUROPEAN SHEEP. Denmark now exports nearly a million of pounds of wool, one half of which is represented to be of the finest quality of Merino. ICELAND SHEEP. ICELAND SHEEP. The sheep of Iceland are of two kinds: the first, termed the native breed, is small, in color from dun to almost black ; the second is larger, the fleece white, and supposed to have originated from more southern regions. ‘The fleece of these breeds consists of hair externally, with a thick, close layer of wool within, impervious to cold and wet; it is worthless for manufacturing, and is used for horse collars, and more or less is exported and appropriated to this pur- pose. The principal peculiarity about the native sheep is the number of their horns, many individuals having four and five, and instances have been known of eight. These hardy animals propagate without the care of man, and seek refuge RUSSIAN SHEEP. 97 from storms among the caverns of the coast during the win- ter season. RUSSIAN SHEEP. From the certainty that a large portion of the waste places of the immense Empire of Russia is destined to be filled with countless hordes of sheep, a brief notice of the progress already made will doubtless be of some interest to the American wool-grower. The following account is supplied by Youatt : “ Far more attention continues to be made to the breeding of sheep than that of cattle, through almost the whole of this immense Empire. All the wandering tribes possess a great number of sheep. Many of the inferior Boors and Cos- sacks in Southern Russia have flocks consisting of many hundreds. “The characters of the sheep differ materially in the various districts. ‘Towards the north they are small, short- tailed, and bear a coarse and harsh wool. About the river Don, and still more towards the centre, and on the banks of the Dneiper, and in some districts of the Ukraine, they yield a better wool; and thence the greater part of the material for the inland cloth manufactories is supplied. In the neigh- borhood of the Baltic a still superior breed is found, and the Dago and Oesel islands, near the Gulf of Finland, are cele- brated for their wool. ‘The half-cloths that are manufac- tured from it have often as fine and close a substance as that which is imported from Great Britain. The finest of the Russian wools are exported from Odessa, on the Black Sea. It is the produce of all the neighboring provinces, but principally of the Crimea. ‘There is no district in the em- pire so fitted by nature for the pasturage of sheep. “There are three kinds of sheep in the Crimea and in Taurida. The common breed is white, or black, or grey, with very coarse wool, and a long tail covered with fat. They are kept in exceedingly large flocks. A rich Tartar will frequently possess 50,000 sheep. . The grey sheep produce the grey lamb-skins, 30,000 of which are exported every year. Fifty or sixty thousand black lamb-skins, which are also much valued, are exported from the Crimea. ‘‘The mountain sheep are smaller than those on the plains. Their wool is beautifully fine, and, even before the improvement which many of the flocks have undergone, 98 EUROPEAN SHEEP. used to find its way to the French manufactories. The Crimea was scarcely in the possession of Russia ere many attempts were made to improve the sheep, naturally so valu- able. ‘The Merinos were in process of time introduced here, as into every part of Europe. A few have been cul- tivated as a pure flock; more have been employed in im- proving the native breeds, and the consequence is that the wool exported from Odessa is increasing in quantity and value every year. In 1828, 184,000 lbs. of wool were shipped from this port; in 1831 that quantity had increased to more than 1,260,000 lbs.* “The staple from a sample of Odessa wool is from four to six inches in length. The diameter of a fibre is the 1-750th part of an inch, and 2080 serrations to an inch. The wool is very soft, and possesses good felting properties: but it is inferior to Merino, and most decidedly so to Saxony.” NEW SOUTH WALES, OR AUSTRALIAN SHEEP. The island of New Holland, now better known as Austra- lasia, or Australia, is situated in the Indian Ocean, between (including the southernmost point of Van Dieman’s Land) the 11th and 41st degrees of south latitude. The climate is temperate of that portion of the country devoted to sheep husbandry, compared with the same latitude of the United States, which may, in part, be ascribed to the proximity of the settlement to the salubrious influence of the ocean. The country is subject to severe droughts, though not of frequent occurrence. “The great drought which commenced in 1826, did not terminate until 1829. Very little rain fell during the whole of this period, and for more than six months there was not a single shower.”t The soil in general, though exceedingly variable, being in many parts almost wholly barren, is highly productiue of herbage well adapted to the sheep. There were no sheep indigenous to the country, therefore the early colonists were compelled to provide themselves with mutton and wool from the native Bengal sheep, which, itis hardly necessary to say, were of the most inferior charac- ter. According to Mr. Atkinson, these sheep resembled goats more than anything else; but the change of climate, as well as of herbage, contributed in a short time to work a * McCulloch’s Dictionary. + McCulloch’s Com. Dictionary. NEW SOUTH WALES, OR AUSTRALIAN SHEEP. 99 singular modification of the fleece, losing its hairiness, and tolerable wool supplying its place. Soon after importations were made to a considerable ex- tent of South Down and Leicester sheep, which, being crossed with the Bengalee variety, was productive of much improvement over the latter, not only in the quality of the mutton, but a similar benefit to the fleece. At this period (1800) there were about six thousand sheep, of all kinds, in the colony ; and comparing this insignificant number with that of the present time, shows how remarkably the animal is disposed, in temperate latitudes, to increase. The number thirteen years afterwards was 65,000, in 1828 563,000.* ‘The export of wool, of all kinds, in 1843, amount- ed to 16,226,400 lbs.t The colonists, from the kind nature of the climate, were induced to experimemt with the Merino. Accordingly a few were sent over from England, and it was observed that the fifth and sixth cross produced a quality of wool little inferior to the pure Merinos of Spain. ‘This is stated by Mr. You- att, on the authority of Mr. Collins, and must be received with some doubt, considering the decided inferiority of the sheep previously in the colony. The success of the Merinos paved the way for still great- er improvement, by the introduction of the Saxons, which have since stamped the high character and value of Austra- lian wools. The original importation was made by Captain McArthur, then in government employ, and distinguished as an enterprising and zealous agriculturist. Mr. Youatt says, “Tt would not perhaps be truly said, that the quality of the Saxon fleece was improved by the change of climate—per- haps it was somewhat deteriorated—but it soon became evi- dent that its properties were superior to any that the colony had hitherto possessed.” The present prominent characteristics of Australian wool, of the improved breeds, are, great length of staple, softness in an unusual degree compared with other wools of the same fineness, and “working kindly” in every manufacture in which it is employed. But the climate unquestionably, al- though comparatively so temperate, together with imperfect management, have wrought deteriorating effects, compared with the wool of the original Saxon stock on its first introduc- * Wentworth’s New South Wales. + Spooner. 100 EUROPEAN SHEEP. tion into the colony. ‘The testimony is conclusive of a deci- dence in fineness, and also in the felting property. ‘The diam- eter of a fibre from a sample of picklock taken from a fleece belonging to Captain McArthur, whose flock is esteemed the purest and best in the colony, was the 1-780th of an inch, about the same as pure Merino, and the serrations 2400 in the span of an inch less by 150 than Merino, and 320 less than a fibre of picklock Saxon. This is the result of a microscopic view made by Mr. Youatt, and he remarks as follows :— “The serrations of this sample were very sharp, and in ap- pearance almost barbed. But there is a marked difference, not only in the length but in the structure of the Saxon wool, as obtained direct from Germany and imported from Austra- lia. The fibre of the Australian is considerably longer, but it is not so fine—the serrations are not so numerous—they are of a different character, seemingly giving pliability and softness to the one, and feltiness to the other. In truth, the manufacturer has properly classed them, although he knew nothing of their microscopic appearance. He has appropri- ated the true Saxon wool to the making of the finest cloth, Owing to its superior felting quality; and he is using the Australian wool for the better combing purposes, in which a strong tough wool, soft and long in the staple, is useful.” Before proceeding to give an account of the mode of man- aging sheep in Australia, taken from Cunningham’s “'Two Years in South Wales,” it is proper to state the fact, not perhaps known to every reader, that it is to the colonies of New South Wales and Van Dieman’s Land England banish- es her criminals, to expiate their crimes in menial servitude, not a few of which are employed in the capacity of shep- herds. “When the country is destitute of timber, the sheep are very easily managed, and so many as a thousand may be trusted to a single shepherd ; but in general they are divided into flocks of about three hundred breeding ewes, or four hundred wethers. Every flock has a shepherd, who takes his sheep out to graze before sunrise, and brings them in at evening. He keeps always before the flock, to check the forward among them from running onwards, and wearing out the old, sick, and lame ; making all thus feed quietly, so as to keep them in good condition. In summer he sees, too, that they have water during the heat of the day; and in drawing up under a tree for shade, when it is too hot for NEW SOUTH WALES, OR AUSTRALIAN SHEEP. 101 feeding, he passes occasionally gently among them, spreads them out, and makes them take a fresh position in as small groups as possible, under another tree, because, when they remain too long together in one place, they are apt to become broken-winded. It is a rule that sheep should never remain in one spot so long as to paddle the ground much with their feet; and hence, in riding round your sheep stations, you have something whereby to judge whether or not your in- structions are attended to. The shepherd takes out his victuals with him, and is required to be on the alert all day Jong, to prevent the sheep from being lost in the woods, or wild dogs from pouncing in among them. “Three flocks are always penned together under the charge of a watchman, who counts each regularly in at night, and the shepherds again count them out in the morning; so that they form a regular check upon each other, and prevent loss- es from carelessness or depredation. 'The watchman has a small weather-proof watch-box to sleep in, and is assisted by a watch-dog ; he keeps up a good fire, which generally deters all native or wild dogs from approaching the fold. The hurdles are made of light swamp oak, iron bark, or gum, measuring seven feet long, with five bars, so close together that a young lamb cannot creep through. They are shifted to fresh ground daily, being sloped outward, and propped to- gether by means of forked sticks, driving a stake through between the bars here and there to keep the hurdles firm, and prevent the wind from blowing them over. * * * * * Bells are attached to the necks of the stoutest leaders, to keep the flock together, and give warning of anything going wrong within the fold.” Notwithstanding the equability and dryness of the climate, the sheep are subject to the same maladies, though less fre- quent, of those in Europe, and especially that lamentable scourge, foot rot. This originates from the poachy nature of the soul. The manner of cleansing the fleece, is by conveying water through spouts, where practicable ; and otherwise, by swim- ming repeatedly the sheep across narrow streams, and after- wards squeezing the wool with the hands. It is not unusual for many of the fleeces to lose three fifths by thorough wash- ing. "The average weight of the fleeces of the improved breeds is from two to two and a half pounds. O* CHAPTER V. BRITISH BREEDS. SOUTH DOWN—RYELAND—DORSET—BLACK-FACED—CHEVIOT—SHET- LAND ISLAND—IRISH SHEEP. SOUTH DOWN. Tue sheep of Great Britain for a long time have been classed into middle-wooled, and long-wooled. The short wools, properly speaking, now employed in English cloth manufactures, are of foreign growth. The middle-wooled breeds comprise the South Down, Norfolk, Dorset, Cheviot, and some others, which are infe- rior, however, to these. Confessedly, on all hands, at the head of the middle- wooled varieties, stands the South Down, and are destined, doubtless, to occupy a large share of the attention of Ameri- can breeders. The original as well as present location of a large proportion of this breed is on the South Downs (from whence the name of the breed is derived), a long range of chalky hills, diverg- ing from the great chalky stratum which intersects the king- dom from Norfolk to Dorchester. ‘“ ‘They may be considered as occupying a space of more than sixty miles in length, and about five or six in breadth, consisting of a succession of open downs, with very few enclosures. On these downs a certain breed of sheep has been cultivated for many centu- ries, in greater perfection than elsewhere ; and hence have sprung those successive colonies, which have found their way to every part of the kingdom, and materially benefited the breed of short-wooled sheep wherever they have gone.”* The perfection of carcase which the South Down at pres- ent exhibits, is owing to the skill of that distinguished sheep- * Luecock on Wool. SOUTH DOWN SHEEP. 103 breeder, Mr. John Ellman. He says, “ This breed was for- merly of a small size, and far from possessing a good shape, being long and thin in the neck, high on the shoulders, low behind, high on the loins, down on the rumps, the tail set on very low, perpendicular from the hip bones, sharp on the back, the ribs flat, not bowing, narrow in the fore-quarters, SOUTH DOWN. The improvement effected by Mr. Ellman, was nut from any admixture of foreign blood, “ for even the cross with the Leicester was a failure, and the promised advan- tages to be derived from the Merinos were delusive.”* It resulted, mainly, from the practice of the true principles of breeding ; a system of choice selection from male and fe- male. The introduction of turnip husbandry was another very important agent, which essentially promoted thrift and size, and an early development of form. ‘“ They are now,” * Youatt. 104 BRITISH BREEDS. says Mr. Ellman,” much improved both in shape and consti- tution. They are smaller in bone, equally hardy, with a greater disposition to fatten, and much heavier in carcase when fat. They used seldom to fatten until they were four years old; but it would now be a rare sight to see a pen of South Down wethers at market more than two years old, and many are killed before they reach that age.” The following description of a perfect South Down, from the pen of Mr. Ellman, will be valuable to the American breeder, as well as guard the ignorant from imposition :— “The head small and hornless ; the face speckled or grey, and neither too long nor too short. The lips thin, and the space between the nose and the eyes narrow. ‘The under- jaw, or chap, fine and thin; the ears tolerably wide, and the forehead well covered with wool, and the whole space be- tween the ears also. “The eye full and bright, but not prominent. ‘The orbits of the eye, the eye-cap, or bone, not too projecting. “The neck of a medium length, thin towards the head, but enlarging towards the shoulders where it should be broad and high, and straight in its whole course above and below. The breast should be wide, deep, and projecting forwards between the fore-legs, indicating a good constitu- tion, and a disposition to thrive. Corresponding with this, the shoulders should be on a level with the back, and not too wide above; they should bow outward from the top to the breast, indicating a springing rib beneath, and leaving room for it. “The ribs coming out horizontally from the spine, and extending far backward, and the last rib projecting more than the others ; the back flat from the shoulders to the setting on of the tail; the loin broad and flat; the rump long and broad, and the tail set on high and nearly on a level with the spine. The hips wide; the space between them and the last rib on either side as narrow as possible, and the ribs, generally, presenting a circular form like a barrel. “The belly as straight as the back. “The legs neither too long nor too short. The fore-legs straight from the breast to the foot ; not bending inward at the knee, and standing far apart both before and behind ; the hocks having a direction rather outward, and the twist, or the meeting of the thighs behind, being particularly full ; the SOUTH DOWN SHEEP. 105 bones fine, yet having no appearance of weakness, and of a speckled or dark color. “The belly well defended with wool, and the wool com- ing down before and behind to the knee, and to the hock ; the wool short, close, curled, and fine, and free from spiry projecting fibres.” This breed will sustain themsélves with occasional short keep, and endure hard stocking equal to any other; and their early maturity is but liltle inferior to the new Leices- ters, the flesh finely grained, and of peculiarly good flavor.* Blacklock says “it is unadapted for bleak situations, but sufficiently hardy and active for a low country.” The average weight is from 15 to 18 lbs. a quarter ;¢ but on the authority of Mr. Youatt, Mr. Grantham exhibited a pen of three sheep at Smithfield in 1835, one of them weigh- ing 283 lbs.; the second 286 lbs.; and the third 294 lbs. The average weight of the fleece was, in 1800, 2 lbs., and the staple at that time very short: it has now increased to 3 lbs.; and the lowland South Down, from better keep, shears from 3} to 4 lbs. The staple has increased from 11 to 2 inches in length to from 3 to 4 inches. A picklock fibre is the 1-600th part of an inch in diameter, and the serra- tions 2080 to aninch. For a microscopic view of the fibre, the reader is referred to the proper place. A serious objection has always existed against English South Down wools, from the brittleness of the fibre, origi- nating in the chalky nature of the soil, on which a large pro- portion of this breed are kept. Formerly much of this wool was employed in the manufacture of army cloths; but its changed character, within a few years, has also changed its uses, and it is now converted into flannels, baizes, and worsted goods of almost all descriptions. The paucity of serrations will prevent its uses beyond combing purposes, for which it is now highly prized. There are no sheep more healthy than the South Downs. They seldom suffer from the hydatid on the brain, nor are they as much exposed to rot as the sheep in many other dis- tricts. Their general health is supposed to be much con- nected with frequent change of food, and their daily journeys to and from the fold.t The South Downs have borne witness to a mania for their * Baxter. t Blacklock. t Library of Ag. Knowledge. 106 BRITISH BREEDS. possession, like the Merinos and Saxons of our own coun- try. In 1800, two of Mr. Ellman’s rams were sold to the Emperor of Russia, in order to try the effect of a cross on the Northern sheep, for one hundred and fifty guineas each. When Mr. Ellman retired from public life, in 1829, his flock was sold by auction at the following rates: 770 ewes $13 64 each; 320 lambs $7 92 each; 36 rams $112 50 ~ each ; and his best ram for $292 50. ‘This valuable breed continue-to sustain the high character they acquired through Mr. Ellman’s efforts, and amongst the purest and best flocks, very high prices are demanded and obtained for breeders. For a further notice of the qualities of the South Down, the reader is referred to the chapter on Breeding and Crossing. RYELAND SHEEP. In point of number, the most distinguished breed of sheep in Herefordshire, is the Ryeland, so called from a district in the southern part of the county, on which a large quantity of rye used to be grown, and where many of these sheep were bred. This breed are rather small, sel- dom exceeding 16 lbs. to the quarter ; and the weight of the fleece about 2 lbs., but surpassing in fineness any other Brit- ish breed. ‘The diameter of the fibre was formerly the same as pure Merino, and the number of serrations 2420 to an inch. The peculiar form of the Ryeland, in some respects re- sembling the Merino, led to the suspicion that the breed was of foreign extraction. The lightness of the fleece, and its comparative inferiority as a mutton sheep, will cause it eventually to be merged into other more profitable breeds, and then the variety will become extinct. DORSET SHEEP. Dorsetshire possesses a valuable breed of sheep, peculiar to itself. ‘The pure breed are entirely white, the face long and broad, with a tuft of wool on the forehead; the shoul- ders are low but broad, the back straight, the chest deep, the lois broad, the legs rather beyond a moderate length, and the bone small. They are a hardy and useful breed, and the mutton is well flavored, averaging, when three years old, from 16 to 20 lbs. a quarter.* * Youatt. BLACK-FACED SHEEP. 107 A principal characteristic of this breed is the almost sin- gular fecundity of the ewe, often bearing lambs twice in the year. ‘ When on luxuriant food, they will often admit the male ten or twelve days after yeaning, and continue to suckle the first lamb after they are pregnant with a second.” Crosses with the new Leicester have been attempted, but failed of success. The cross with the South Down has been otherwise, and the breed resulting from it are esteemed so valuable that it threatens to supersede both the Dorset and South Down. In the neighborhood of cities, where early lambs are in request, the pure Dorset will always be properly appre- ciated. —_ ——— We yy AS al XN oh XX A SON Ss ; SA Se AN? ARE 5S THE BLACK-FACED HEATH SHEEP, BLACK-FACED SHEEP. This noted breed abound in the mountainous parts of Lan- cashire, Westmoreland, Cumberland, Northumberland, and over the whole of Scotland. 108 BRITISH BREEDS. By many it is supposed to be the aboriginal sheep of Scotland; but Mr. Cully, who is high authority, thinks the dun-faced sheep, which is smaller and slower in arriving at maturity, to be the true original Scottish sheep. The belief is common in Scotland, that the black-faced sheep are of foreign origin, and the forest of Ettrick was their original locality.* “They have mostly horns, more or less spirally formed, but the females are frequently without horns. The faces and legs are black, or at least mottled; the eyes are wild and fierce. They are covered with wool about the forehead and lower jaw, and the wool generally is somewhat open and long, coarse, and shaggy ; not so long, however, but that the sheep may be properly classed among the middle- wooled breeds.” t In consequence of greater attention to choice selections of individuals for breeding, the form has changed, within a few years, for the better; the carcase has become so short, round, firm, and handsome, as to acquire the name of short sheep, in contradistinction to the Cheviot, or Jong sheep. The mutton, especially since this improvement of form was effected, is highly esteemed in the London market, re- sembling, more than any other English breeds, the South Dewn in the fineness of its grain and the delicacy of its flavor. This is attributed in a measure to the nature and variety of the herbage on which they are fed during sum- mer. The weight of this breed, when fattened, is from 16 to 20 lbs. per quarter, and the weight of the fleece unwashed is about 5 lbs. No other breeds equal the black-faced sheep in hardiness of constitution, and endurance of cold. CHEVIOT SHEEP. One of the most distinguished British breeds of sheep is the Cheviot; and from their comparative early maturity, valuable mutton qualities, and, especially, hardiness of con- stitution, which would adaptate them to the rigorous climate of the northern portions of our own country, it can scarcely be doubted that a trial, at least, ere long, will be made by some of our enterprising countrymen, and their general merits tested. * Tarmer’s Magazine. + Youatt. a CHEVIOT SHEEP. 109 *'The Cheviot Hills are a part of that extensive and ele- vated range which extends from Galloway through Northum- berland into Cumberland and Westmoreland, occupying a space of from 150 to 200 square miles. The majority of them are pointed like cones; their sides are smooth and steep, and their bases are nearly in contact with each other. The soil, except on the very top, is fertile; and from the base to the summit of most of them there is an unbroken and rich greensward. DIS His \ THE CHEVIOT RAM. “On the upper part of that hill in Northumberland, which is properly termed the Cheviot, a peculiar and most valuable breed of sheep is found. They have been there almost from time immemorial. ‘Tradition says that they came from the border districts of Scotland; but they are totally differ- ent from the black-faced sheep, and bear no resemblance to the original dun-faced Scottish sheep. How two breeds, so totally different from each other, came to inhabit the neigh- 10 110 BRITISH BREEDS. boring districts of Ettrick forest and the Cheviot Hills, nei- ther history nor tradition has attempted to explain.”* They are described by Youatt, as hornless ; the face and legs generally white; the eye lively and prominent; the countenance open and pleasing; the ear large; the body long, and hence they are called “long sheep,” in distinction from the black-faced breed. They are full behind the shoul- ' der, a long, straight back, round in the rib, and well propor- | tioned in the quarters ; the legs are clean and small-boned, and the pelt thin, but thickly covered with a fine, short wool, which extends over the whole of the body. All authorities concur in stating that the Cheviot breed possess considerable fattening properties, and can endure much hardship both from starvation and cold. It is fit for the butcher when three years old, and at two years when crossed with the Leicester. The wethers average from 12 to 18 lbs. per quarter, but some have been exhibited at the Highland cattle shows, weighing 30 and 32 lbs. per quarter. The wool is not quite so fine as the South Down, and since the improvement of the carcase commenced, the wool has been used mostly for combing purposes. The following is Sir John Sinclair’s description of the original Cheviot, as it was in 1792; since which time it has been extensively crossed with the new Leicester, with de- cided success, so far as earlier maturity and fattening are concerned, but with a corresponding reduction of hardiness. “‘ Perhaps there is no part of the whole island where, at first sight, a fine-wooled breed of sheep is less to be ex- pected than among the Cheviot Hills. Many parts of the sheep-walks consist of nothing but peat bogs and deep mo- rasses. During winter the hills are covered with snow for two, three, and sometimes four months, and they have an ample proportion of bad weather during the other seasons of the year, and yet a sheep is to be found that will thrive even in the wildest part of it. Their shape is excellent, and their fore-quarter, in particular, is distinguished by such justness of proportion, as to be equal in weight to the hind one. Their limbs are of a length to fit them for travelling, and enable them to pass over bogs and snows, through which a shorter-legged animal could not penetrate. They have a closer fleece than the T'weeddale and Leicester breeds, which * Farmer’s Magazine. CHEVIOT SHEEP. alg ba | keeps them warmer in cold weather, and prevents either snow or rain from incommoding them. ‘They have never any other food, except when they are fattened, than the grass and natural hay produced on their own hills.” The Cheviot has pushed itself over nearly all Scotland, and is everywhere contesting the ground inch by inch with the black-faced sheep. With every improvement in agricul- ture itadvances. ‘The fleece being more compact, it is found to be a better endurer of cold, though not so patient of hunger. On scanty pasture it does quite as well, and where there is great abundance, it leaves its black-faced competitor far be- hind; and it is supposed that it will soon be the only breed worthy of the Highlands of Scotland. This may be considered a proper place to describe those terrible storms in the Scottish Highlands, to which these and the black-faced sheep are so often exposed. ‘The sub- _ joined accounts are from the “Shepherd’s Calendar,” by the Ettrick shepherd, James Hogg. ‘The first account is termed the “thirteen drifty days.” “For thirteen days and nights the snowdrift never once abated; the ground was covered with frozen snow when it commenced, and during all the time of its continuance, the sheep never broke fast. ‘The cold was intense to a degree never before remembered, and about the fifth and sixth days of the storm, the young sheep began to fall into a sleepy and torpid state, and all that were so affected in the evening, died in the night. About the ninth and tenth days the shep- herds began to build up huge semicircular walls of their dead, in order to afford some shelter to the remainder; but shelter availed little, for the want of food began to be felt so severely, that they were frequently seen tearing one another’s wool. ““When the storm abated on the fourteenth day, there was on many a high-lying farm not a living sheep to be seen. Large misshapen walls of dead, surrounding a small pros- trate flock, likewise all dead and frozen stiff in their layers, were all that remained to the forlorn shepherd and his master. In the extensive pastoral district of Eskdale-muir, which previously contained more than 20,000 sheep, only forty young wethers were left on one farm, and five old ewes on another.” The sheep seem possessed of an instinctive foresight of the approach of these storms, and will hurry to a place for 112 BRITISH BREEDS. protection, when the shepherd himself sees not a cloud, and “dreams not of the wind.” “TI had left,” says one of these mountain shepherds, “‘ my sheep under their accustomed shel- ter, and where I had never failed to find them safe and com- fortable in the morning, and I was plodding my weary way homeward ; but before distance and darkness closed them from my sight for the night, I looked back to see if they had given over work (digging for their food from under the snow), when I was surprised to see them on their march down hill towards a plantation which would afford securer shelter, and to which I had been accustomed to drive them when I feared the coming tempest. They had fallen into rows, pacing one after another until they reached the plantation, and there was nothing to suggest to my mind the return of a drift, but their movement and their bleating. ‘They passed through the plantation, and took that side of it which would afford them a safe shelter from the southwest hurricanes. It, however, happened that, although their instinct had admonished them that a tempest was impending, it had not taught them from what quarter that tempest would come, and it soon began to blow from the northeast, from which they had no defence. When I came to them in the morning, the wreath was higher than the dyke, and was leaning over upon the trees. Some of the strongest sheep had kept treading down the snow as it gathered around them, and were on the top of the wreath ; but many of them further back were quite immersed in the snow. However, by means of probing and digging, I got them all out, except two that had been crushed by the weight of the snow.” Instances are recorded showing an almost incredible te- nacity of life, when covered with snowdrift. A sheep near Kendal was, in the winter of 1800, buried in the snow thirty- three days and nights, without the possibility of moving, and yet survived. In the same winter, a sheep near Caldbeck, in Cumberland, was buried thirty-eight days ; when found it had completely eaten the wool off both its sides, and was re- duced to a skeleton.* Within the last twenty years much attention has been paid to smearing the sheep of the Highland districts with a com- position of tar and whale oil, which mats the wool, and shields the animal alike from cold and wet. * Annual Register. SHETLAND ISLAND SHEEP—IRISH SHEEP. 113 SHETLAND ISLAND SHEEP. The Shetland Islands are situated far to the north of Scotland. The sheep which inhabit them have long been celebrated for the remarkable fineness of their wool. They are not, however, aboriginal, but derived many centuries since from Denmark. They are small, seldom weighing more than ten pounds to the quarter, and yield about two pounds of wool, which has commanded as high as from three to four shillings sterling per pound. Mr. Youatt says—“ There is, perhaps, no part of the world in which the breed, or the few of it that are at present found, have remained, century after century, precisely in the same state. ‘This admits of a ready explanation. The pure Shetland sheep deserves not the name of a domestic animal. He is scarcely seen more than once in the year, when he is hunted home in order to be shorn. Often he is scarcely seen at that period, for he left his coat among the bushes, and is suffered to escape disregarded.” IRISH SHEEP. The sheep has been an inhabitant of Ireland from time immemorial, but history and tradition afford no accounts from whence the animal sprung. Few countries are better adapted than Ireland for breeding and perfecting the sheep. ‘The climate is removed from extremes of heat and cold, and the soil, even to the summits of its highest mountains, prolific of pasture. The primitive sheep were of two kinds, short and long wooled; the former are confined tothe mountains. In the county of Wicklow the short-wooled breed abounds, perhaps, at the present time, in the largest number. The fleece is represented as wavy, weighing from 2 to 3 lbs., and the fibre about two inches in length. The breed is valuable from the fineness of its wool, hardiness, and endurance of hard stock- ing. The cross of the South Down was attended with evi- dent advantage, yet, from the prejudice and jealousy of the Irish farmers, it was not carried to the extent its success deserved. A cross was also attempted with the Merino, but it failed principally because the Merino was not suited to the humid and cold pastures of the mountains. The native long-wooled breed, until about the beginning of the present century, had been sadly neglected. They 10" 114 BRITISH BREEDS. are described by Mr. Cully, thus: “I am sorry to say I never saw such ugly sheep as these—the worst breeds we have in England are by much superior. One would suppose that the sheep-breeders in Ireland have taken as much pains to breed awkward sheep, as many of the people in England have to breed handsome ones. I know nothing to recom- mend them except their size, which might please some old- fashioned breeders who can get no kind of stock large enough. These sheep are supported by very long, thick, crooked, grey legs, their heads long and ugly, with large flagging ears, grey faces, and eyes sunk; necks long, and set on behind the shoulders ; breast narrow and short; hollow both before and behind the shoulders ; flat-sided, with high, narrow, herring backs ; hind quarters drooping and tail set low.”* Mr. Youatt follows up this description with the remark, “that much must be set down to the score of prejudice.” Mr. Cully himself was at that time a successful breeder of the New Leicester, and no doubt was anxious to extend his favorite breed into Ireland. ‘This by others was soon effect- ed, and the cross established a sheep admirably adapted to the rich pastures characteristic of the country, and resulted in large increase of profits to those who embarked earliest in the enterprise. So much as 150 guineas were paid for the nire of a single ram of the improved breed of Leicesters. Mr. Youatt says—‘‘ The new breed struggled for a while against prejudices and difficulties of every description, and at length completely triumphed. ‘They gradually spread over the whole of Ireland; and the Irish sheep that are now brought so plentifully to the English market will scarcely yield to the best improved Leicesters that any part of Great Britain can produce.” ‘The improved fleece weighs from 5 to 7 lbs.; the fibre is the 560th part of an inch in diameter, and the serrations 1920 in the space of an inch. Irish wool is used for stuffs, bombazines, and bombazetts. * Cully on Live Stock. CHAPTER VI. BRITISH BREEDS. NEW LEICESTER, OR BAKEWELL—TEESWATER—ROMNEY MARSH— LINCOLN—BAMPTON—COTSWOLD—WELSH SHEEP—MERINO SHEEP IN ENGLAND. NEW LEICESTER, OR BAKEWELL. Some writers have contended that the valuable family of long-wooled sheep, now so extensively spread over Great Britain, was of foreign origin; but thorough investigation proves their assertions groundless.” With the short-wooled variety, from time immemorial, each was assigned a locality admirably adapted, from soil, herb- age, and climate, to itself; and thus their respective peculi- arities both of form and fleece, through many centuries, remained distinct. Both varieties have been essentially improved by the art of man, as has already been shown in reference to the South Down; and, if possible, a still greater improvement has been effected of the long-wooled breeds, especially as to profitableness of carcase, through the inde- fatigable efforts of Mr. Bakewell, of Dishby, Leicestershire, and Mr. Cully, his able coadjutor. The compiler will offer no apology for introducing to the reader nearly the whole of Mr. Youatt’s faithful and inter- esting history of this renowned breed, valuable to all as showing the means adopted by Mr. Bakewell by which the New Leicester was brought to its present perfection of car- case, and extraordinary early maturity. THE OLD LEICESTER SHEEP. “This was a large, heavy, coarse-wooled breed, common to most of the midland counties, and reaching from the south of Yorkshire, and as far as Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire. * Luccock. 116 BRITISH BREEDS. It had a white face, no horns—it was long and thin in the carcase, flat-sided, with large bones—thick, rough, and white legs—and weighing, the ewe from 15 to 20 lbs., and the wether from 20 to 30 lbs. the quarter. It was covered with wool from 10 to 14 inches in length, coarse in quality, and weighing from 8 to 13 lbs. The pelt and offal were thick and coarse ; the animal was a slow feeder, and the flesh was coarse-grained, and with little flavor.” NEW LEICESTER SHEEP. The following description of the New Leicester will show the reader in what respects Mr. Bakewell effected his im- provement over the old breed. NEW LEICESTER RAM. The head should be hornless, long, small, tapering towards the muzzle, and projecting horizontally forwards. The eyes prominent, but with a quiet expression. The ears thin, rather long, and directed backwards. The neck full and broad at its base where it proceeds from the chest, but gradually ta- ee NEW LEICESTER SHEEP. 117 pering towards the head, and being particularly fine at the junction of the head and neck; the neck seeming to project straight from the chest, so that there is, with the slightest possible deviation, one continued horizontal line from the rump to the poll. The breast broad and full; the shoulders also broad and round, and no wneven or angular formation where the shoulders join either the neck or the back, par- ticularly no rising of the withers, or hollow behind the situ- ation of these bones. ‘The arm fleshy through its whole extent, and even down to the knee. The bones of the leg small, standing wide apart, no looseness of skin about them, and comparatively bare of wool. ‘The chest and barrel at once deep and round; the ribs forming a considerable arch from the spine, so as in some cases, and especially when the animal is in good condition, to make the apparent width of the chest even greater than the depth. The barre] ribbed well home, no irregularity of line on the back or the belly, but, on the sides, the carcase very gradually diminishing in width towards the rump. The quarters long and full, and, as with the fore legs, the muscles extending down to the hock; the thighs also wide and full. The legs of moderate length, the pelt also moderately full, but soft and elastic, and covered with a good quantity of white wool, not so long as in some breeds, but considerably finer. “It was about the middle of the last century that Mr. Bakewell first applied himself to the endeavor to improve the then existing breed in Leicestershire. Up to this period very little care had been bestowed upon the breeding of sheep. “ Two objects alone appear to have engrossed the attention of the breeders: first, to breed animals of the largest possible size; and, secondly, such as should produce the heaviest fleeces. Aptitude to fatten, and symmetry of shape, that is, such shape as should increase as much as possible the most _ valuable parts of the animal, and diminish in the same pro- portion the offal, were entirely disregarded. “ Mr. Bakewell perceived that smaller animals increased in weight more rapidly than very large ones; and that they consumed so much less food, that the same quantity of herb- age applied to feeding a larger number of small sheep would produce more meat than when applied to feeding the smaller number of large sheep which alone it would support. He also perceived that sheep carrying a heavy fleece of wool 118 BRITISH BREEDS. possessed less propensity to fatten than those which carried one of a more moderate weight. “ Acting upon these observations, he selected from the dif- ferent flocks in his neighborhood, without regard to size, the sheep which appeared to him to have the greatest propensity to fatten, and whose shape possessed the peculiarities which he considered would produce the largest proportion of valu- able meat, and the smallest quantity of bone and offal. “‘In doing this, it is probable that he was led to prefer the smaller sheep, still more than he had been by the considera- tion above stated, because it is found that perfection of shape more frequently accompanies a moderate-sized animal than a very large one. ““He was also of the opinion that the first object to be attended to in breeding sheep was the value of the carcase, and that the fleece ought always to be a secondary consider- ation. The reason of this is obvious: the addition of two or three pounds of wool to the weight of a sheep’s fleece is a difference of great amount; but if to procure this increase a sacrifice is made of the propensity to fatten, the farmer may lose by it ten or twelve pounds of mutton. “'The sort of sheep, therefore, which Mr. Bakewell select- ed were those possessed of the most perfect symmetry, with the greatest aptitude to fatten, and rather smaller in size than the sheep then generally bred. Having formed his stock from sheep so selected, he carefully attended to the peculi- arities of the individuals from which he bred, and, it appears, did not object to breeding from near relations, when by so doing he put together animals likely to produce a progeny possessing the characteristics that he wished to obtain. “Mr. Bakewell has been supposed by some persons to have formed the New Leicester variety by crossing different sorts of sheep; but there does not appear to be any reason for believing this; and the circumstance of their varying in their appearance and qualities so much as they do from the other varieties of the long-wooled sheep, can by no means be considered as proving that such was the system which he adopted. Every one who has attended to the breeding of domestic animals must have experienced that, by careful se- lection of those from which he breeds, and with a clear and defined conception of the object he intends to effect, he may procure @ progeny in which that object will be accomplished. * * * cs NEW LEICESTER SHEEP. 119 * Such is the origin of the New Leicester breed of sheep, which have within little more than half a century spread themselves from their native county over every part of the United Kingdom, and are now exported to the continents of Europe and America. Such, indeed, have proved to be their merits, that at the present day there are very few flocks of long-wooled sheep existing in England, Scotland, or Ireland, which are not in some degree descended from the flock of Mr. Bakewell. A pure Lincoln or Teeswater flock is very rarely to be found; and although some flocks of the pure Cotswold breed remain, in the greatest number of instances it is probable that they have been crossed with the New Leicester. “No other sort of sheep possesses so great a propensity to fatten—no other sort is fit for the butcher at so early an age—and although they are not calculated for the poorest soils, where the herbage is so scanty that the sheep must walk over a great deal of ground for the purpose of procuring its food, no other sort of sheep, in soils of a moderate or superior quality, is so profitable to the breeder. “They vary much in size, weighing at a year and a half old, with ordinary keep, from 24 to 36 lbs. per quarter.* In this respect, therefore, they are inferior to the Lincoln, the Cotswold, and the Teeswater sheep. By crossing them with either of these breeds, the size of the sheep may be considerably increased; and it is said that this may be done without diminishing perceptibly either their inclination to become fat, or the early maturity for which they have always been remarkable. “The kind of meat which they yield is of a peculiar char- acter. When the sheep are not over fattened, it is tender and juicy, but, in the opinion of ia Bee somewhat insipid. * “The Leicester ene were never favorites with the _ butcher, because they had little loose inside fat. It ought, nevertheless, to have been recollected that the smallness of | the head, and the thinness of the pelt, would in some meas- ure counterbalance the loss of tallow; and that the diminu- | tion of offal is advantageous to the grazier, for it shows a * The heaviest pure Leicester, of which there is any authentic account, belonged to Mr. Morgan, of Loughton ; its live weight was 368 lbs., and | the weight of the carcase, 248 lbs. 120 BBITISH BREEDS. disposition to form fat outwardly, and is uniformly accom- panied by a tendency to quickness of improvement. “The New Leicesters, however, are not without their faults. They are not, even at the present day, so prolific as most other breeds. ‘This was too much overlooked in the time of Bakewell and his immediate followers. ‘Their ob- ject was to produce a lamb that could be forced on so as to be ready, at the earliest possible period, for the purposes of breeding or of slaughter, and therefore the production of twins was not only unsought after, but was regarded as an evil. * * * * * ¥ “Tt was likewise, and not without reason, objected to them that their lambs were tender and weakly, and unable to bear the occasional inclemency of the weather at the lambing season. ‘This also was a necessary consequence of _ that delicacy of form, and delicacy of constitution too, which were so sedulously cultivated in the Leicester sheep. “ The last objection to the New Leicester sheep was the neglect and deficiency of the fleece. There is little cause, however, for complaint at the present period. ‘The wool has considerably increased in length, and has improved both in fineness and strength of fibre ; it averages from 6 to 7 lbs. the fleece, and the fibre varies from five to more than twelve inches in length. It is mostly used in the manufacture of serges and carpets. “The principal value of this breed consists in the improve- ment which it has effected in almost every variety of sheep that it has crossed; but it has met with, especially in Wales, a powerful antagonist in the Cotswold.” The introduction of additional evidence showing the ne- cessity of providing luxuriant pasturage for the Leicester breed, will be proper. “‘T occupied a farm,” says a Lammermine shepherd, “ that had been rented by our family for nearly half a century. On entering it, the Cheviot stock was the object of our choice, and so long as we continued in possession of this breed, everything proceeded with considerable success; but the New Leicesters came into fashion, and we, influenced by the general mania, cleared our farm of the Cheviots and pro- cured the favorite stock. Our coarse bean pastures, however, were unequal to the task of supporting such heavy-bodied sheep; and they gradually dwindled away into less and less bulk; each generation was inferior to the preceding one; TEESWATER SHEEP—-ROMNEY MARSH SHEEP. 121 and, when the spring was severe, seldom more than two thirds of the lambs could survive the ravages of the storm.” Sir John Sinclair has also recorded his opinion on this point. “The Leicester breed is perhaps the best ever reared for a rich arable district ; but the least tincture of this blood is destructive of the mountain sheep, as it makes them incapable of withstanding the least scarcity of food.” The New Leicester breed have been extensively intro- duced into the North American British Provinces, and the United States; and when suitable localities have been chosen, their cultivation has been attended with success. TEESWATER SHEEP. This breed derives its name from the river which sepa- rates Durham from Yorkshire. It is supposed, from its simi- larity of conformation to the old Lincolnshires, to have orig- inated from that stock. “It was a tall, clumsy animal, poll- ed, and with white face and legs: the bones small compared with those of other large breeds, yet supporting a thicker, firmer, and heavier body than their size would indicate ; wide upon the back, somewhat round in the barrel, and yet yielding a heavier carcase than any other sheep, but propor- tionably longer in growing to perfection; the meat, how- ever, was finer-grained than could be expected from such an animal.” The old Teeswater was exceedingly prolific. Mr. Cully records a singular instance of a ewe belonging to a Mr. Ed- dison, which, at two years old, brought him four lambs, three in the following year, two in the succeeding one, and the extraordinary number of five, the next year. The fleece weighed about nine pounds previous to any improvement of the carcase by the cross of the New Leicester; and the wool was remarkably long, coarse, and thinly set on the skin. ‘ The improvement which followed the cross alluded to, at length superseded entirely the old breed; and the im- proved Teeswater sheep now rivals the Leicester, in dis- position to fatten, early maturity, as well as quality of fleece. ROMNEY MARSH SHEEP, OF KENT. Romney Marsh is an extensive tract of land recovered from the sea in a very early period of English history. Uh! 122 BRITISH BREEDS. A portion of the soil is poor and sandy, but very much of the marsh affords a superabundance of rich and valuable pasture for sheep. A long-wooled and highly profitable breed of sheep has been kept on these reclaimed lands from time immemorial, and which has undergone but partial change, until within a few years. NGI ROMNEY MARSH RAM. “The pure Romney Marsh breed of sheep are distin- guished by thickness and length of head, a broad forehead with a tuft of wool upon it, a long, thick neck and carcase. They are flat-sided, have a sharp chine, and tolerably wide on the loin, have the breast narrow and not deep, and fore- quarter not heavy nor full. The thigh full and broad, the belly large and tabby, the tai] thick, long, and coarse ; the legs thick, with large feet ; the wool long, and not fine ; they have much internal fat, and are great favorites with the butcher. ‘They have much hardihood; they bear their cold LINCOLN SHEEP. 123 and exposed situation well, and they require no artificial food during the hardest winter, except a little hay.”* The average weight of the fleece is from 6 to 7 lbs. The breed has been successfully crossed with the Leices- ter, and many of the bad points of the original stock rec- tified. LINCOLN SHEEP. From the fact that the Lincoln sheep have been intro- duced into this and other states, and are deservedly formida- ble rivals of the Leicester and Cotswold, the author, from motives of delicacy towards the respective breeders, prefers to render the account of the Lincoln breed in the language of Mr. Youat, which, on perusal, will appear an impartial one. After contradicting, on good grounds, the assertions that the breed was originally foreign, he says—‘ The Lincoln sheep, according to Ellis, who is the oldest agricultural wri- ter in whom any description of them is given, were the “longest legged and largest carcassed sheep of all others, and carried more wool on them than any sheep whatsoever.” “Tt is true that a larger quantity of wool was clipped from the Lincolnshire sheep than any other in the kingdom; and thence arose the error into which the Lincolnshire breeders fell; they bred for the fleece, and for the fleece alone. Bakewell neglected the fleece—the Lincolnshire farmer the carcase ; hence the opposite errors of each, and the reason- ableness and advantage of the plan by which both the car- case and fleece were at length brought to the highest degree of perfection. “If the Lincolnshire farmer too much neglected the car- case, there were times when the sheep, or when nature, would vindicate its claims. It is true that the form was gaunt and somewhat unsightly, but the excellence of the breed, as a grazing sheep, would occasionally appear. If the Lincoln would consume more food than the Leicester, it would increase in weight proportionably to the extra quan- tity of food which it ate; and this, together with the addi- tional weight of wool, rendered it nearly or quite as profita- ble to the farmer. “There was a long and acrimonious contest between the * Price on Sheep. 124 BRITISH BREEDS. Leicesters and the Lincolns for the point of supremacy. The continuance, however, of the contest, and the doubt which even now exists in the minds of some, with regard to the relative value of the respective breeds, show that the old Lincolnshire should not have been spoken of in a disparag- ing way. Before they were allied to the Leicesters, and ill-formed and rough as they were, they had attained no small degree of excellence both in the carcase and the wool. ‘“‘ At length a union was established between them. The Lincoln ewe was put to the Leicester ram, and the progeny certainly displayed, and to a very great and profitable extent, the excellencies of the male parent ; the wether attained its maturity a full year sooner than it was accustomed to do, and with less comparative expense of food even in that time; and when the ewe was drafted, she too was sooner ready to be sent to the market, and weighed considerably more than she was wont to do, and was in higher repute and more rea- dily sold. “ Mr. Clark, of Canwick, in 1827, exhibited two wether sheep in Lincoln Market, the fleeces of which had yielded, each, 12 lbs. of wool. They were slaughtered—the carcase of the larger one weighed 261 lbs.: the fore-quarters were, each of them, 73 lbs., andthe hind quarters 57 1-2 lbs.! On the top of the rib the solid fat measured nine inches in thickness ! “ The average weight of the fleeces of the Lincoln breed is from 8 to 10 lbs. It has since become finer and the co- lor is improved, but it is shorter, a material objection in some fabrics, and it has lost some of that toughness which is an indispensable quality in the best combing wool. The light and tender kind of wool is valuable in the manufacture of the rougher woollen articles, but it is not suited to the finer worsted fabrics. “The fibre is the 480th part of an inch in diameter, and the serrations 1280 in the space of an inch.” BAMPTON SHEEP. This breed is found extensively spread over the north of Devonshire, and also in Somersetshire. The name is derived from a village on the borders of the two counties, where they are supposed to have been first bred. In the Annals of Agriculture, a writer thus describes them : “They are the best breed in Devonshire, and have existed COTSWOLD SHEEP. 125 in the neighborhood of Bampton for centuries. A fat ewe of that breed rises to 20 lbs. a quarter on an average, and wethers to 30 lbs. or 35 lbs. a quarter at two years old. They are white-faced ; the best breed living, more like the Leicesters than any other, but larger boned, longer in the legs and body, though not so broad-backed. Eighteen lbs. of wool have been shorn from a ram of this breed that was supposed to be 40 lbs. the quarter. They have been crossed with the Leicester with evident advantage it is considered by some, while others contend to the contrary, the wool being lessened in weight, length, and toughness, and the lambs more tender and difficult to rear. VEE COTSWOLD EWE. COTSWOLD SHEEP. The following account of this breed is by Mr. Spooner :— “This is an ancient and celebrated breed, its wool being spoken of very favorably by many old writers. Cotswold signifies a sheep-fold and a naked hill. The Cotswold hills, the native tract of the breed, are of moderate elevation, pos- 11% 126 BRITISH BREEDS. sess a sweet herbage, and though formerly consisting mostly of bleak wastes, have been latterly much improved. Cam- den speaks of the breed as having fine and soft wool. Dray- ton writes of its fleeces as more abundant than those of Sa- rum and Leominster. Speed, writing 200 years ago, speaks of the wool as similar to the Ryeland, and rivalling that of Spain. Indeed, some imagine it was the origin of the Me- rino sheep, as in 1464 Edward IV. permitted a number to be exported to Spain, where they greatly increased and spread. Spain, however, before this, was celebrated for the fineness of its wool. Markham, in the time of Queen Eliz- abeth, speaks of the Cotswold as having long wool, and Mr. Marshall and other writers consider that they have always been a long-wooled breed. It is difficult to reconcile these differences of opinion; for my own part, I am disposed to think that the present are the descendants of the old race ; be this as it may, we have no evidence, either oral, written, or traditional, of the change having been made. The Cotswold is a large breed of sheep, with a long and abundant fleece, and the ewes are very prolific and good nurses. Formerly these bred only on the hills, and fatted in the valleys of the Severn and the Thames; but with the enclosure of the Cotswold hills, and the improvement of their cultivation, they have been reared and fattened in the same district. They have been extensively crossed with the Leicester sheep, by which their size and fleece have been somewhat diminished, but their carcases considerably improved, and their maturity rendered earlier. ‘The wethers are now sometimes fattened at fourteen months, when they weigh from 15 Ibs. to 24 Ibs. per quarter, and at two years old increase to 20 lbs. or 30 Ibs. The wool is strong, mel- low, and of good color, though rather coarse, six to eight inches in length, and from 7 to 8 lbs. the fleece. The supe- rior hardihood of the improved Cotswold over the Leicester, and their adaptation to common treatment, together with the prolific nature of the ewes and their abundance of milk, have rendered them in many places rivals of the new Lei- cester, and have obtained for them of late years more atten- tion to their selection and general treatment, under which management still further improvement appears very probable. They have also been used in crossing other breeds, and have been mixed with the Hampshire Downs. It is, indeed, the improved Cotswold that, under the term New or Improved WELSH SHEEP.—MERINO SHEEP IN ENGLAND. 127 Oxfordshire Sheep, are so frequently the successful candi- dates for prizes offered for the best long-wooled sheep at some of the principal agricultural meetings or shows in the kingdom. ‘The quality of the mutton is considered superior to that of the Leicester, the tallow being less abundant, with a larger development of muscle or flesh. We may, there- fore, regard this breed as one of established reputation, and extending itself throughout every district of the kingdom.” WELSH SHEEP. Little can be said of the welsh sheep to interest the American wool-grower. ‘The primitive breeds are of two kinds—mountain and valley sheep; the former producing a short fine wool, and the latter a coarse fleece with medium length of staple. Ellis, the ancient author of the “ Shepherd’s Sure Guide,” says—‘‘I am now come to write on the hardiest sheep there are for living in a cold country, and any where else, on that short bite of grass where a large sheep would pine and starve ; but they are not the choice of many, because they are apt to straggle and run away. ‘They are a small, short, knotty sheep, that come from the poorest living, and thrive and fatten quickly for the butcher, and become the sweetest of mutton, particularly for a private family’s uses, who de- light to eat the best and finest sorts.” The ewes of this breed average about 8 lbs. to the quarter, and the wethers 10 lbs, when at three years old. The mutton is particularly well-flavored, and in the months of October and November, commands a much higher price than that of other breeds of larger size. A considerable quantity of Welsh mutton finds its way to the London market. Since the introduction of turnip husbandry, the cross of the Leicester has been tested, and in many parts of the val- ley regions more productive of herbage than others, it has succeeded ; but the Cotswold, from greater natural hardihood, has contested the ground with the Leicester, and with mark- ed superiority over its formidable competitor. MERINO SHEEP IN ENGLAND. George the III. was distinguished as an ardent promoter of agriculture, and determined in 1787, to make a fair trial of this renowned breed ; and accordingly a few were ordered and placed on his farm at Kew. They were selected in Es- 128 BRITISH BREEDS. tremadura, on the borders of Portugal; and this, at that time, was a sort of smuggling transaction, as no Merinos could be sent from any Spanish port without a license from the king; therefore they were obliged to be shipped from Lisbon. The sheep were hastily chosen from different flocks and various districts, and consequently exhibited but little uniformity, and not fully the true character of the breed ; the king, therefore, soon disposed of them to others. Subsequently, it was determined to make a direct applica- tion to the Spanish monarch for permission to make a selec- tion from some of the best flocks. This was promptly granted ; and a small number was taken from the Negrette variety, then deemed the most valuable of the migratory sheep. This flock arrived in 1791, and was immediately placed on the king’s farm. From ignorance, they were at first badly managed. Hav- ing been placed on a moist and luxuriant soil, many soon became affected with foot rot, and others died from attacks of liver rot. This calamity was a triumph to the prejudiced, but a change to dryer pasture proved a remedy, which soon led to a change of opinion in their favor. In a short time it appeared that they were no more subject to diseases than British sheep. Crosses took place with several varieties of the native breeds, with various success. Doctor Parry crossed with the Ryeland, the most superior short-wooled sheep in Eng- land, and the fourth cross produced a wool equal to pure Merino. Mr. Coke, the renowned English agriculturist, also expe- rimented on both the Ryelands and South Downs, and af- firmed that the cross with the latter was superior to that of the former. It was but a few years afterwards, that he ex- pressed the following opinion, in an address before the Me- rino Society, at Holkham:—‘“I feel it my duty,” said he, to state my latest opinion of the effects of the cross of a part of my South Down flock with Merino tups, and I wish it could be more favorable. From the further trial which I have made, (this, the fourth year), I must candidly confess that I have reason to believe that, however one cross may answer, a farther progress will not prove advantageous to the breeder.” This opinion of Mr. Coke should be duly consi- dered by every American breeder. But, sometime antecedent to this decision of Mr. Coke, MERINO SHEEP IN ENGLAND. 129 very many who had entertained apparently insurmountable prejudices were bold to acknowledge the merits of the Me- rinos, and became fully satisfied that neither the climate or herbage of their new home were incompatible with perfect success. Sir Joseph Banks and Lord Somerville were amongst their staunchest and zealous advocates, and the lat- ter duly tested the sincerity of his opinions, by importing a considerable flock of them. Thirteen years after the king’s importation of the Negrette flock, a public sale by auction was made of Merinos. The rams averaged about fifty dollars per head, and the ewes thir- ty. In 1808, four years after, the prices averaged 130 dol- lars for rams, and 100 dollars for ewes. In 1810 the Me- rinos arrived at the climax of public favor. In this year, at another public auction sale, rams commanded nearly 300 dollars per head. ‘‘ One full-mouthed Negrette was sold for over 800 dollars, and another for nearly 700.” A Merino Society was instituted in the following year, at the head of which was placed Sir Joseph Banks, with fifty- four Vice Presidents, and local committees were established in every county in England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. Mr. Youatt observes—‘ No more striking instance can be produced of the fallacy of human expectations and judgment, than the establishment of this society. From this period is to be dated the rapid decay of the Merinos in public estima- tion.” After a passing tribute of just praise to the breed, he proceeds to say, “In Great Britain, nevertheless, where the system of artificial feeding is carried to so great a de- gree of perfection—where the sheep is so early and so pro- fitably brought to the market—that breed, however it may ulti-- mately increase the value of the wool, can never be adopted,’ which is deficient, as the Merinos undeniably are, in the prin- ciple of early maturity, and general propensity to fatten.” Other reasons for the abandonment of the Merinos are given by Mr. Plint, a distinguished agriculturist. He says — JT always thought the speculation of cultivating the Me- rinos a decidedly foolish and unprofitable one. We can con- sume all the coarse wool we grow, and more if we could get it; and taking carcase and weight of wool together, the long- wooled sheep is more profitable by far than the Merino. Be- sides, if the English breeds were to any considerable extent superseded by the Merinos, the price of that wool would fall, and long wools would rise ; and the advantage of grow- 130 BRITISH BREEDS. ing fine wool, on account of its high price, would slip through the fingers of the agriculturist. If we could grow more of both kinds, well and good; but in present circumstances, a profit by foreign wool is as good as a profit by fine wool, and we can only have one; and it is the part of wisdom to take that which is easiest got.” The above are the substantial reasons for the downfall of the Merinos in Great Britain, and not altogether, as many have supposed, from the humidity of the climate. Long after their introduction, the wool of the Merinos was carefully compared with the best samples of pure Spanish, and no deterioration was perceptible. A dry climate is best suited to the Merino, but many years would elapse before a humid one, without other causes, would produce any essential change in the properties of its fleece. High feeding is al- together a more potent cause of deterioration. The Table will indicate to the reader the comparative va- lue of the wools imported into Great Britain. ‘The prices were current in 1834, in London. f $ cts. $ cts: Spanish Merino, per lb. . oe a 60° 40" ae Portugal ditto - : - : ‘ 44 « 62 Lamb’s wool ditto . 3 s A 36. & 41 GERMAN, Saxon, anD SILESIAN :— ist and 2d Electoral . a ‘ Z 1.05... Gi 1S Prima «. . 3 : e i 4 88-6 . #210 Secunda . x 5 5 : 66 YW eriare : * ; . ; A 48 & 55 AustTRIAN, BonEMIAN, AND HUNGARIAN :— ist Electoral - ‘ < F 88k ‘1820 Prima. i ‘ - & Z 3 17% 200 Secunda . ‘ ; ; y 5 Hemet 78 Tertia . : 2 . 5 : P 44 “ 67 AUSTRALIAN :— Best fleeces . : ; . 2 s 40S =F Of Seconds . 5 : : 2 (oe) 88 Inferior flocks : 5 - : : 1) 0 62 Van Dieman’s Lanp :— Superior fleeces. - . - . bp 65 Middling . 4 : ! i XK 42 % 46 Inferior . : ‘ y . : ; a2 34. British FLEECES :-— North and South Down . E 44% 48 Leicester fleeces : : : : ab yee 44. Romney Marsh, Lincoln, and Cotswold 40 “ 44 Anglo Merino in yolk : 2 : ann 30 CHAPTER VIL SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. WOOLLY SHEEP OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS—OTTER SHEEP—ARLING- TON LONG WOOLED SHEEP—SMITH’S ISLAND SHEEP—REMARKS ON MERINOS AND SAXONS—PRAIRIE MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP— OBSERVATIONS ON WOOL CULTURE IN THE SOUTH, AND SOUTH- WESTERN STATES—CENSUS STATISTICS—SOUTH AMERICAN SHEEP —ALPACA, OR PERUVIAN SHEEP—WOOL CULTURE ON THE PAM- PAS. SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES. NerrHer North or South America can boast of any abo- riginal or primitive domestic breeds of sheep: those which have received the name of ‘‘native” having been brought over at various periods from Europe by the colonists. Before proceeding to notice several of these breeds, it will be proper to refer to an animal found among the Rocky Mountains, which is confounded with the Argali, and known as the “woolly sheep.” Captain Bonneville says, “This animal is found about the country of the Flathead Indians. It inhabits cliffs in summer, but descends into the valleys in the winter. It has white wool, like a sheep, mingled with a thin growth of long hair; but it has short legs, a deep belly, and a beard like a goat. Its horns are about five inches long, slightly curved backwards, black as jet, and beautifully polished. Its hoofs are of the same colour. This animal is by no means so active as the big horn; it does not bound much, but sits a good deal upon its haunches. It is not so plentiful either ; rarely more than two or three are seen at atime. Its wool alone gives it a resemblance to the sheep ; it is more properly of the goat genus. The fleece is said to have a musty flavor; some have thought the flesh might be valuable, as it is said to be as fine as that of the goat of Cashmere, but it is not to be procured in sufficient quantities.” 132 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. The colonists, coming as they did from various districts of their native countries, it is presumed brought with them breeds of sheep peculiar to those districts ; and having been promiscuously bred, at the period of the introduction of the Merinos, few of them conformed to any of the varieties of the more distinguished British breeds. They were long legged, narrow chested, comparatively slow in arriving at maturity, yielding a coarse white wool of medium length of staple, and the fleeces averaged from 3to4 lbs. The principal recommendation consisted in being prolific breeders and good nurses ; but their defects greatly predominated, being untractable, impatient of restraint, scaling high fences, and committing often serious depredations on the crops of the farmer. Happily this ungainly and unprofit- able tribe has disappeared, except in portions of the southern States, and their place has been supplied with more profit- able sheep, effected by crossing them with Merinos, Saxons, and the improved English breeds. For the gratification of the curious, rather than for utility, the compiler will notice a singular breed of sheep known as THE OTTER SHEEP. This unique breed have derived no little fame, not so much however, from their peculiarity of conformation, as from their fortuitous origin; this being the fact, as the sire and dame of the first individual of the breed were distinguished by the usual characteristics of the natives, long legs, &c. ‘This accidental origin, therefore, is valuable to the philosopher as accounting in part for the numerous varieties of the genus Ovis, now spread over almost every inhabitable part of the globe. Climate and herbage are also prominent causes of differences in conformation, but accident has undoubtedly had more to do in producing these differences, than is gen- erally conceded. The precise point where the Otter breed originated seems unsettled ; Chancellor Livingston states that it was on an island opposite the New England coast; another writer says it was in Massachusetts, and in a flock which belonged to Seth Wright, and occurred in 1791. It is however, of little moment, as the breed have been abandoned, and become extinct. A ewe gave birth to twins, one of which was a male, with legs so short, and being turned outward, that, as Chancellor ARLINGTON SHEEP.—SMITH’S ISLAND SHEEP. 133 Livingston observes, “they appeared as if they had been broken and set by an awkward surgeon.” When running, its gait was of a hobbling or rickety character, and painful to the beholder. ‘The body was long and round, and the ‘animal presented no other evidence of mal-formation. Cu- riosity induced, at first, breeding from it, and the progeny presented a striking resemblance to the sire. They were prized for no other reason than because nature had deprived them of the power to scale fences and commit depredations on the farmers’ crops, which was so characteristic of their progenitors. This is probably the only instance where man has availed himself of a defect in the animal kingdom, and turned it to his advantage. ARLINGTON LONG WOOLED SHEEP. Chancellor Livingston thus notices this breed: “From the Otter breed I turn with pleasure to the Arlington long wooled sheep. These, Mr. Custis, who was the original breeder of them, informs me were derived from the stock of that distinguished farmer, soldier, statesman, and patriot, Washington ; who had collected at Mount Vernon whatever he believed useful to the agriculture of his country ; and, among other animals a Persian ram, which Mr. Custis de- scribes as being very large and well formed, carrying wool of great length, but of a coarse staple. This stock, inter- mixed with the Bakewell, are the source from which the fine Arlington sheep are derived; some of which, he says, carry wool fourteen inches in length, and are formed upon the Bakewell model. * * * * The sample of wool which Mr. Custis sent me from this stock possessed every ingredient which is esteemed in combing wool. It was fine for the sort, soft, silky, and beautifully white.” This breed is still held in high estimation among some farmers in Virginia and Maryland, but are now very much inferior to their ancestors, and the improved long wooled British breeds, both for mutton and value of fleece. There is yet another breed of sheep to notice, which have been somewhat famous, and were doubtless abundantly su- perior to the average of other sheep of the day. They were called the SMITH’S ISLAND SHEEP. The island is on the coast of Virginia, and it, together 134 © SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. with the sheep, were the property of Mr. Custis, who stated the breed to be peculiar to that part of the country. The climate being temperate, and the soil producing a succulent and varied herbage, all being so well suited to sheep, the carcase and wool in process of time became greatly improved ; and hence the deservedly high estimation of the breed by Mr. Custis and others. ‘The wool was very white, and comparatively fine ; the staple from 8 to 10 inches in length, and the fleeces averaged about 8 lbs. The de- scendants of the flocks, though greatly degenerated, are dif- fused over a wide section of country in Virginia, and further south. From the foregoing brief description of the qualities of the native sheep, it will readily be conceived that they were susceptible of great improvement. ‘Their amelioration com- menced on the arrival of the Merinos introduced by Chan- cellor Livingston and Gen. Humphrey, but until the embargo of 1807, there was little stimulus to aid this laudable enter- prise. After that event and during the war with Great Brit- ain, which soon after followed, the nation was thrown upon its industrial means for the supplies of the staple necessaries of life ; and wool culture received such an impetus, and such consequently was the competition for the possession of the Merinos, that individuals of the breed sold for the enormous prices of from 500 to 1400 dollars per head. Manufactures had been commenced, and notwithstanding the little skill employed in them at that early day, they prospered ; but on the declaration of Peace in 1815, commerce brought to our shores the cheaper fabrics of Europe, and the Merinos and our infant manufactories were prostrated together. Remu- nerating prices could no longer be obtained for wool of any description, and this unfortunate state of things continued without intermission for many years. Notwithstanding this, however, the wool growers of the north were too sagacious not to appreciate the Merino fleece, and to see in the vista of the future a period when its culture would again be a source of profit. Hence the Merinos spread gradually over all the northern States ; and in all instances where the principles of breeding were properly understood and practiced, their fleeces suffered no deterioration. The policy of our National Government in 1824 being more in unison with the agricultural interests of the country, revived the spirit for extending the culture and improvement PRAIRIE MANAGEMENT. 135 of the fleece, which had been so many years prostrate and dormant. Accordingly the ‘Saxons were soon after intro- duced; and notwithstanding the gross frauds which were practised by bringing with them so many worthless speci- mens of the race, and the untoward circumstances which since then wool-growers have been obliged to contend _ against, the exertions to perfect the fleece have been crown- ed with much success, though by no means commensurate with its importance. The New England States, from the unkindness of the soil peculiar to large portions of them for the cultivation of crops, at an early day became distinguished for the growing of wool, and yet maintain their high rank, not only for the ex- tent of its production, but the fineness of its texture. There are Saxon flocks in Connecticut and New Hampshire which rival some of the best German; and Merinos also in nearly all of these States, whose fleeces surpass in weight and fine- ness those of Spain at the present day, and equal the far- famed Rambouillets of France. The State of New York has within her borders more than one quarter of all the sheep in the Union ; and in the aggre- gate, the wool of her flocks is unsurpassed in quality by that of any other State. The State of Pennsylvania, although she has fewer sheep by far than her soil is capable of supporting, yet on her west- ern borders, especially in the county of Washington, she has flocks that are rarely equalled. Ohio too is far advanced in wool culture, and the flocks descended from the celebrated sheep of Messrs. Wells and Dickinson, formerly of Steubenville, are of very superior quality, the wool of which is distinguished for length and silkiness of staple. From Pennsylvania and Ohio have sprung, principally, the colonies of sheep which are now present on the western prairies, and which leads to the subject of wool culture on those immense plains. The following extracts are from a pamphlet on the subject of Prairie Management, written by Mr. George Flower, and published in 1841. Mr. Flower has been a resident of Ed- wards County, Illinois, since 1817, and during the whole of this period, a manager and proprietor of fine-wooled sheep. “« A glance must now be taken at the difficulties and risks to which flocks are exposed in new countries, and which 136 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. have hitherto prevented their rapid increase upon any large scale. “The wolf is a great drawback on the pleasure and profit of sheep-keeping. It is not only what the beast destroys, but the expense incurred in watching against his attacks. But the greatest loss sustained is being obliged to pen the sheep every night, for safe keeping. * * * * Deaths, from unknown causes, have swept away whole flocks, newly brought into the State, which tends to dampen similar enter- prises. Many sheep are often purchased from drovers, which have been over-driven, and which has laid the foundation of disease. From whatever cause it may arise, if the sheep are poor in the fall of the year, great loss will accrue to the owner. ‘The dry, mild weather in autumn is often accompa- nied with scanty herbage, and sheep rapidly decline unob- served, the growth of wool concealing their poverty from an unpractised eye, and a mortal stroke is inflicted before the owner suspects it. It is a great point to procure sheep from healthy flocks, if possible. When they are brought from a distance, care should be taken that they are not over-driven. Twelve or fifteen miles a day is far enough, and should never be urged beyond their naturally slow pace. It behooves the farmer to see that he has an abundance of nutritious food on their arrival at their journey’s end. Keeping sheep of all ages in a flock, in a pasture barely sufficient for them, de- stroys the young and the old. ‘The strong, robust sheep eat up all the food. In winter feeding, not allowing sufficient trough and rack room for all the sheep to feed at once, with- out crowding each other, starves the weakest. These are some of the known causes of failure of success, and lest there should be others of a local nature, I would advise every new beginner to be moderate in the number of his flock the first year ; two or three hundred is enough for the ewe flock. “The Prairie grass is green, succulent, and nourishing, until the first part of July ; from that time onward it becomes less and less acceptable. If a flock is kept upon it, in the latter part of summer it requires a large range and fresh pas- turage. But a method is known to the frontier settlers, of retaining spring herbage, until the approach of winter. Se- lect a patch of prairie (some five or ten thousand acres) that has not been burned the preceding year. The mass of old dry grass, in the middle of June, is sufficiently combustible to PRAIRIE MANAGEMENT. 137 allow fire to consume it with the growing crop of green grass. Burn a patch in June, and the young grass will immediately spring up, which, in July, will afford a rich pasture of young, ' tender, juicy grass, about eight inches high. Burn another patch in July, which will afford another pasture in August; and a third on the first day of August, which will remain green and tender till killed by winter frosts, In this way juicy pasture may be secured from early spring until the succeeding win- ter. But some forecast is necessary to secure this. In the previous autumn these spots should be selected and made secure by burning round, as the hunters know how ; other- wise they might be consumed in the general conflagration, which often sweeps hundreds of miles of prairie grass in the fall of the year. Supposing no cultivated grasses are pre- pared, sheaf oats, or hay and corn, should be given at night ; the flock going out to pick what they can through all the fine days of autumn and winter. ‘In the summer the shepherd must have a cabin near his pasture ground, and a sheep-yard with a wolf-proof fence. The flock must be out at the first dawn of day, and graze late in the evening. During all the heat of the day they will shade in some neighboring grove. ‘The shepherd must have his horn and rifle, and a pair of good hunting dogs, to chase away the wolf and fox. The size of the flock may be limited only to the size of the pasture. For a summer establish- ment I should select an eminence on some of our extensive prairies, and build four cabins, for the families of four shep- herds—all under the eye of an experienced man. These four shepherds should each diverge with their respective ° flocks to the four points of the compass, and all return at night. r Where there are no cultivated grasses, there should be large fields of early sown rye, for winter and early spring food. Also oats, sown, perhaps, in the same field where oats grew before, by ploughing the field immediately after the crop is off, and sowing about a bushel to the acre. If no cultivated grasses are provided for sheep to feed on in autumn, it is difficult to keep up their condition in the latter part of the year. But the greatest advantage is to be derived from blue grass, which, if shut up in June, will keep green all winter; and, if a succession of pastures is provided, the sheep will do well upon them all the winter, and will only need feeding when the snow is frozen on the ground.” 12* 138 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. Mr. Flower states, that the diseases to which sheep are subjected on the prairies of Southern Illinois, are liver-rot and foot-rot; the former caused by “ suffering sheep to pas- ture on land that is overflowed with water; even a crop of green oats, early in the fall before a frost comes, has been known to rot young sheep.” He observes, that sheep fed exclusively on pasture are more liable to foot-rot than others. The following communication, written at the request of the writer, by J. Ambrose Wight, associate editor of the Prairie Farmer, sets forth the extent to which Northern I[Ili- nois is adapted to sheep culture ; and, in the maim, his re- marks are doubtless applicable to the prairies of all the North- western States and Territories. There is manifestly so much ignorance prevalent on this subject, no apology is necessary for the minuteness with which Mr. Wight has treated it. “Tt is but a little while since wool-growing was com- menced in Northern Illinois. Small flocks, of from ten to a hundred, have been kept here since the first settlement of the country, consisting generally of hardy, coarse-wooled ani- mals; and though the success of the business, when con- ducted in this manner, might be proof of the adaptation of the country to the keeping of sheep, to a certain extent, it would not be entirely satisfactory to one who should ask the question, whether the country were adapted to growing fine wool on a large scale. It is now about four years since a commencement was made of driving in large flocks for this latter purpose ; since which time the incrcase has been about one hundred per cent. yearly, until last season, when the in- crease was so much larger, that no accurate estimate can yet be made of it. “In order to answer your inquiries the more satisfactorily, I will take them up in their order. “ First—‘ I would be glad to know whether the pasture of the prairies dries so much in summer as to compel the removal of sheep from them to other localities ?’ “Tf the question relates, as I suppose it does, to summer drought, I answer no; the upland prairies—a term which I suppose embraces nineteen twentieths, if not more, of the prairie lands of Northern Illinois—sustain drought better by far than any lands I have ever known. A large component of all these lands—and the remark applies as well to what are here called ‘ barrens ’—is black sand; though the color varies much in different localities. The ashes made by the PRAIRIE MANAGEMENT. 139 annual fires are also no inconsiderable component, and aid in giving character to the soil. Most of the subsoil is a sort of hard-pan, made of clay or loam cementing together peb- bles and gravel, and is found from one to three or four feet below the surface, and is so tenacious as to require a pick to break through it. “In the lowlands, both of prairies and barrens, the subsoil is sometimes clay, and the soil more or less argillaceous. The timber growing on the barrens will very nearly deter- mine the character of the soil and subsoil. If the Burr Oak is plenty, the former will be sandy, and the latter hard-pan ; if black or white oak abounds, clay will be more likely to be found. Besides the resistance to drought, offered in the character of the soil, the roots of the wild grass run to an extraordinary depth; many of them reaching entirely through - the soil, however deep it may be. The grass grows in stools, at distances of from three to twelve inches apart, there being, in fact, where the wild grasses only are found, no such thing as a surface turf, such as is formed by red-top and kindred grasses. It will be seen that it requires a very dry summer indeed to affect such pasture, on such a soil. In the autumn of 1837, there was, in this latitude, for the five months succeeding the 5thof August, not rain enough to wet the ground perhaps an inch in depth; and yet potatoes and corn turned out well, and the prairies continued in ver- dure about as well as usual. “Tf, however, the question is asked,—Does not the pasture on the prairies fail early in autumn, so as to compel the re- moval of sheep to other pasture before it is time to go into Winter quarters? I answer, yes—long before. In many sections the prairies afford no adequate pasture for dairy purposes after the first of September. In other localities such pasture will continue in some vigor till as late as the first or even middle of October; this is the case with lands lying within thirty miles of Chicago; but such lands will be proportionably late in the spring. The wild grasses are ex- tremely vigorous while they last, but are all, without an ex- ception, short-lived. ‘This may be a habit or condition, induced by the annual fires, which kill out all but those with long roots ; and a prevention of fires and cultivation might, after a time, change the character of some of them in this respect ; but it never will. They are disappearing, a little 140 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. more slowly, but as surely as the Indians, before the plough- share and march of cultivation. “« Does the Prairie grass conform in habit to any of the English grasses ?’ “This question has been already pretty well answered. There are a large number of wild grasses here. The dif- ferent plants which go to make up the foliage of the prairies, in any township of land, are very numerous. I have heard them estimated by those who had paid attention to the sub- ject, at two or three hundred. Of these, though but an infe- rior proportion are, strictly speaking, grasses ; yet they all, or nearly all, afford herbage fit to be eaten by animals. An individual has but to cross any prairie, which has not been fed or mown, in a tolerably wet season, and note the endless prospect of blossoms, mingled with green, which wave un- der the wind like the surges of a sea of flowers; observe the ever-changing colors of the swells, as they come and go, to be sensible that there is variety enough. These flow- ers change throughout the season, a dozen or two varieties being in bloom at once, and continue in the fall long after the prairies are fit for pasture, the rear being brought up by blue and yellow weeds. These flowering plants diminish in number at once from feeding or mowing, and soon almost entirely, with the exception of the coarser ones, disappear. “<¢ What length of tume is foddering necessary in Northern Illinois ? “The seasons have been extremely variable since my resi- dence here—now nearly nine years. The winter of 1842 and *43 was the severest one since the settlement of the State, and the foddering season lasted from the middle of October to the middle of April. The winter of 1843 and 44 and the present one would require foddering for a less time, by full two months. This is on the supposition, how- ever, that good artificial pasturage is provided. If the wild prairies alone are relied on for pasture and hay, full two months must be added to the foddering season ; and stock would barely get through at that; and I think that sheep, in multitudes of instances, would perish. In this latitude, with timothy, red-top, and clover pastures, the average time would be from four and a half to five months. If a good blue grass pasture were provided, in such winters as the last and the present, it might be reduced to two months ; and I am told, that some so provided for, one hundred miles PRAIRIE MANAGEMENT. 141 south of here, have, the present winter, scarcely foddered at all. I apprehend, however, that our winters here will always be variable, and that it will be far more difficult to predict their length and intensity than in New England. In relation to the value of blue grass for fall and spring pasture, Thomas N. Welles, of Peoria, in a communication to the Prairie Farmer, remarks as follows :—‘ My sheep have had no feed of any kind, since the first day of April, except pas- turage, (blue grass,) and they are now (May 10th) fat. They were put upon it as soon as the snow would let their noses to the ground. Last fall my stock were kept upon the grass till the 12th of November, when the herbage was cov- ered with snow. Had the climate been open, the sheep would have required little else than the grass. The tame grasses, and especially blue grass, even if fed through the summer and fall, will afford good feed about six weeks later in autumn, and six weeks earlier in spring, than the prairie grass. If shut up all the summer and fall, the blue grass affords the best feed all winter, when the snow does not cover it.’ The winter adverted to was the severe one already mentioned. “«* What are sheep chiefly fed on?’ “tis doubtful if any fixed mode of feeding has been adopt- ed except in particular instances. Every sort of feeding, ac- cording to circumstances, is practised. Some feed almost en- tirely on the wild grass and hay of the prairies, which, when cut on uplands and well cured, is believed by sheep-keepers to be as good as any other, though more of it in weight will be required than of good English hay. Some feed this hay with a proportion of oats in sheaf, and roots twice a week, and this is undoubtedly, with salt, good treatment. It is found to be decidedly better to keep sheep up in small flocks, with very little ground to run over, while kept on hay, than to let them run outa part of the time, and get such grass as they can pick, while there is not enough to sustain them. They eat much dirt in such cases, are liable to be poisoned, and lose their appetite for hay. A settled course of feed of one character, embracing proper variety, is found here, as at the East, decidedly preferable. The old rule, to keep them at grass, while they can be with profit, and then to put them to hay and keep them at it, works as well here as anywhere. “It is reported that sheep removed from the old States be- 142 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. come very fat the first season on the prairies ; is this condi- tion kept up many years after ?’ “The first part of this question is true of persons, and is undoubtedly true of stock, and in part may be attributed to a change of climate. The change from an atmosphere which is surcharged with oxygen and which stimulates the lungs like that of the East, to one surcharged with carbon, and which stimulates the liver like that of the West, is at first generally attended with obesity. From other causes too, stock turned upon the clear prairies, become fat, and keep so till the feed fails. Some of the reasons are, that the grass, while it is highly nutritious, is somewhat astringent, and does not scour cattle when turned upon it in the spring, like the eastern grasses. Oxen can be put to hard work with no other feed, as soon as it is started in the spring, and will keep in good heart and become fleshy. Again, the air of the prairies is the freshest and purest on earth; and stock are less annoyed by insects while fanned by it, than any- where else. Sheep or other stock, but more particularly the former, put upon a given piece of wild prairie, and con- fined to it, unless the range be very large, would not con- tinue to keep fat one season after another, though they would the first; but if allowed a new range each season, they would always keep fat. The reason is this :—sheep in such cases will go over their range and select such food as they prefer, and will keep at it till it is gone. Hence the wild bean and pea vine, and a few other kinds of plants, will ob- tain their constant attentions, and will be kept so short that they will, on a given piece of land, die out the first year. Therefore if turned out upon the same grounds another sea- son, the best food will be gone, and the poorer, with which they must then take up, and which itself gets continually poorer, will not sustain them in their first condition. A small flock of sheep will thus run over a large extent of ground. “Hence the utter hollowness of a supposition which ap- pears to be common at the East, that large flocks of sheep can be sustained on the wild grass of the prairies alone. There are many places, it is true, where a farmer might keep a large flock on the wild prairies during the summer months with profit, provided he had not two many neighbors in the same business. But such flocks would continually lessen their own range, at the same time that it is lessening PRAIRIE MANAGEMENT. 143 by immigration, settlement, and extended culture. I have been in the country about nine years, having gone at the first into an entirely unsettled region, and have paid much attention to the matter; and it is my belief, that the wild prairies are desirable for wool growing to a very limited de- gree ; but that the cultivated prairies are desirable for this pur- pose to an almost limitless extent. When the cultivated grasses are fully introduced, and people get at the business in a proper manner, the prairies will supply wool of all qualities in inconceivable quantities. Hence I have con- stantly urged this view of the subject, and maintained the necessity of entering upon the cultivation of grasses at once. ““* Is there any deterioration of the wool of fine flocks ?’ “Tn a letter from George Flower, of Edwards Co., in this State, published in the Prairie Farmer, I find the following : —‘ When I emigrated to this country in 1817 I brought with me six of the finest animals of the wool-growing spe- cies ever imported into this country. This is the origin of my flock. ‘They have been kept on the same farm where I now reside ever since. No deterioration in wool has taken place ; on the contrary, the wool fibre of them is somewhat finer.’ If the above is true of Southern Illinois, it is doubt- less equally so of the northern part of the State; since that is nearly 400 miles south of this, and consequently much warmer. Very gross keep is supposed to render wool somewhat coarse. Even, healthy keep, not too high, is generally considered best for a good staple of fine wool. “<¢ Are shepherds and dogs indispensable when sheep are not enclosed.’ “On the open prairie, it would undoubtedly be unsafe to trust large flocks, without oversight. Many have kept small flocks, for years, without, by merely folding them at night. In small flocks, where feed is plenty, there is little dispo- sition to ramble. Sheep soon get accustomed to their homes ; but in large flocks the temptation is increased with the dangers of it. If the pasture is near the house, and a good dog is kept, any further care is generally dispensed with. ‘The prairie wolf is a term beneath which animals of considerable difference in size and fleetness are ranged. Now and then a black or brown one is found, and some of the grey ones equal them in ferocity. They are very sly animals; and I have known one, protected by a hazel bush, to enter a flock, while the keeper was with it, and kill quite 144 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. a number of sheep before he could be got out. The flock frequently does not seem to apprehend the wolf, or flee from him; and he will do his work without causing any commo- tion among them. Still the destruction by wolves is very limited, and they are easily exterminated. Settlement, and the common modes of war, would soon drive them out ; but there is a far more potent means of being rid of them. Strychnine, an extract of nux vomica, introduced into small pieces of meat, is a most insidious and deadly mode of ex- termination. A correspondent of the Prairie Farmer thus describes his mode of using it:—‘ Take a carcase of any kind, or in want of that, the offals of beef or pork, and lay them in a place likely to be frequented by wolves, as a bait or decoy. Then take a piece of fresh lean meat or liver, about the size of a small cracker, and cut, with a penknife, into the edge of it, to the centre, or a little beyond ; then put in the strychnine, in bulk about the size of a kernel of wheat, or the 1-8th part of a grain. Be careful that none gets on the outside, and lay it within a few feet of the bait.’ The strychnine in crystals is best; and a wolf will frequently fall dead on the spot where he eats it. Thousands have been killed by this means the present season, and if persevered in, the country will soon be rid of them. «Ts foot-ret common, and is not liver-rot a formidable dis- ease to which sheep are subject there ?’ “'The foot-rot, known as such in New England, has never, as far as I can learn, been discovered here. Sheep have sometimes had a disease of the hoofs, [the fouls], which has in all cases been cured by paring, with perhaps a little wash- ing In water. “The liver-rot has never, I think, made its appearance in Northern Illinois. I have never known but one instance of it in the West, and that was in another State, and far south of this. Frequent examinations have been made for it, this season, among sheep lately driven in; and though many have been found with diseased lungs, caused by over-driving, no diseased livers have, that I can learn, been found. I presume this question was prompted by the impression that many of our prairie lands are wet; but from the description of our soil already given, it can readily be seen that the liver-rot can never prevail to any extent here. Our lands are too dry and warm for that disease, unless under some new and unexpected development. The most common dis- PRAIRIE MANAGEMENT. 145 eases known among us, are what is called ‘the drying of the many-folds,’ and a sore face.* «<« What sections of your State are best suited to sheep ?? “It is impossible to say, for though the State extends in length about 400 miles by about half that distance in breadth, there is such a similarity in its general pastures, that the description of any three counties together would be a gen- eral description of the whole. There are particular differ- ences, it is true, but these are balanced more or less against each other. Those parts of which I can speak from obser- vation are the Fox, Rock, and Illinois river valleys, though the term valley has no particular applicability to the coun- ties lying near these rivers, unless a valley may consist of high, dry, warm, rolling land. The central counties of Sangamon, Cass, Morgan, Scott, and the adjacent ones, are likewise well adapted to wool growing ; nor have I seen any section of the State, unless the region lying within ten miles of this city, (Chicago) which is an exception. “There are in every county some wet lands, which are not suitable, but these form a very inconsiderable portion. ‘The flocks of sheep which have been driven in, have gone to every part of this, as well as to neighboring States and Ter- ritorles ; and though some losses have been experienced the past winter, from want of care and skill, and from the nature of the season last summer, when they were driven, they will doubtless continue to come in, as long as there is a market for wool. “Tt will be seen that the same general rules apply to sheep- keeping here as are applicable elsewhere. We have a good climate, can produce plenty of feed, have warm, dry soils, all of which are necessary for the business. Skill, enterprise, care, and attention will ensure success in it. But any launching out into wild experiments, predicated on ideas of the all-sufli- ciency of green savannas and South American pampas, will end in disappointment and disgust.” Mr. Wight’s concluding paragraph is very significant, and, in connection with his preceding remarks, at once dissipates the notion which has so generally prevailed at the East, that * The former of these diseases is doubtless caused by the astringent prop- erties of the prairie hay, and the absence perhaps of water. Green food occasionally, and frequent salting, with daily access to drink, will act as a prevention. The sore face can easily be cured by the external ap- plication of warm tar mixed with sulphur—Author Am. Shepherd, 13 146 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. the prairie grass was at all seasons of the year abundant, and consequently, that sheep could be sustained with very little fodder, and generally managed at /ittle cost and trouble. This, however, is fallacious ; and those who have embarked largely in the business, without previously having made the provision of cultivated herbage, have learned that that be- nignant decree of Providence—‘ by the sweat of thy brow shalt thou eat bread”—cannot be evaded; or in other lan- guage, that neither wool nor any of the necessaries of life can be procured without labor. The fulness with which Messrs. Flower and Wight have treated the subject, super- sedes further remarks. We will now advert briefiy te some of the Southern States where there are large ranges admirably adapted by nature for wool culture. The western part of Virginia can already boast of pos- sessing some of the finest wooled sheep in the Union; and from the nature of the climate, soil, and herbage of portions of that section of the State, it cannot be doubted that they are destined to greatly multiply. It is true, the climate does not permit of any considerable reduction of the time for foddering, compared with Pennsylvania and portions of New York, yet the mountain lands are cheap, and productive of herbage of a varied character, so well suited to sheep. If the natural grasses are not abundant enough, the deficiency can be supplied by sowing from time to time the seed of the cultivated kinds. This course may be necessary in all the mountain ranges of the South, when appropriated to sheep husbandry. Sheep pastured on such elevations, and trans- ported to the warmer atmosphere of the valleys during win- .er, cannot but be a source of profit; and if our Southern ‘riends do not choose to avail themselves of such natural advantages, they may rest assured, that, ere long, they will be wrested from them by the hardy and enterprising sons of the North. In large districts of the mountainous portions of North Carolina, sheep can be reared at perhaps as little expense as any section of the United States. The grass peculiar to them, it is stated by some, is not agreeable to sheep ; but this can be remedied in a very brief time by adopting the course above recommended. The following extract of a letter from the Hon. T. L. Clingman, of North Carolina, addressed to Mr. J. S. Skin WOOL CULTURE IN THE SOUTH AND SOUTHWEST. 147 ner, designates some of the districts of that State best adapted to wool-growing, which are embraced in the counties of Yancey, Haywood, &c. Mr. C. says the elevation of Burnsville, the county seat of Yancey, is about 2900 feet above the level of the ocean, and that the general level of the county is much higher. The climate is represented as being delightfully cool in sum- mer, the mercury seldom rising higher than 70 or 80 deg. Very little of the county is said to be too rough for cultiva- tion ; a large portion, it is said, is a sort of elevated table- land ; undulating, but not too broken ; “ even,” says Mr. C., “‘as one ascends the higher mountains, he will find occasion- ally on their sides, flats of level land containing several hun- dred acres of land ina body. The top of the Roan (the highest mountain in the county except the Black) is cov- ered by a prairie for ten miles, which affords a rich pasture during the greater part of the year. The ascent to it is so gradual that persons ride to the top on horseback from almost any direction. ‘The same may be said of many of the other mountains. The soil of the county generally is uncommonly fertile, producing, with tolerable cultivation, abundant crops. What seems extraordinary to a stranger, is the fact that the soil becomes richer as he ascends the mountains. The sides of the Roan, the Black, the Bald, and others, at an elevation even of five or six thousand feet above the sea, are covered with a deep rich vegetable mould, so soft that a horse in dry weather often sinks to the fetlock. The fact that the soil is frequently more fertile as one ascends is, I presume, attribu- table to the circumstance that the higher portions are more commonly covered with clouds, and the vegetable matter be- ing thus kept in a cool, moist state while decaying, is incor- porated to a greater degree with the surface of the earth, just as it is usually found that the north side of a hill is richer than the portion most exposed to the action of the sun’s rays. The sides of the mountains, the timber being generally large, with little undergrowth and brushwood, are peculiarly fitted for pasture grounds, and the vegetation is in many places as luxuriant as it is in the rich savanna of the low country.” The following extract of a letter received from the Hon. John A. Jones, of Paulding County, Georgia, shows the ease with which sheep, in process of time, can be maintained in that portion of the State. The wolf, formerly so destructive 148 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. at the North, will gradually disappear with the increasing settlement of the country.— I believe the pine forest in the middle and southwestern region of the State best adapted to the raising of sheep. The climate is so mild that they need no shelter during the winter; the wild herbage is va- ried, luxuriant, and succulent through the summer, and will keep them in high flesh; the hardy plants that stand the winter sustain them in healthy store order. I think, how- ever, there are still wolves in that region, which makes it necessary the sheep should be guarded ; indeed, I am con- vinced of this, from one or two years’ experience with a flock of five hundred, kept on the ‘ Lookout’ mountains (in the northwest corner of the State), that it cannot be safely done in a wooded country. If the range of the sheep is limited they become poor and sickly; if permitted to roam at pleasure, they scatter, and are lost and killed. In this re- gion we are obliged to afford them grain pastures, or feed them on corn or hay three months of winter. If we dared to turn them in the forest, one month’s foddering would suf- fice; but this the wolves will not permit us to do.” It is deemed superfluous to particularize further the vari- ous sections of the Southern States in which the culture of wool can be profitably carried on. Suflice it to say, that wherever the herbage is varied and suitable for the sheep, in summer and winter, the soil dry, and industrious men to manage, there can wool be grown, and probably with more profit than the great staple, cotton. ‘The influence of climate upon the fleece has already been considered ; and the reader will find fully discussed, under the head of “ Summer Man- agement,” everything appertaining to localities and herbage for sheep, thereby enabling each one to form an opinion as to the suitability of his situation for sheep husbandry. The following extracts from a communication, recently published in the American Agriculturist, by Judge Beatty, of Kentucky, conveys some valuable information for the benefit of those engaged in wool-growing in the South and South- western States, as well as sets forth the great facilities for that branch of husbandry in Kentucky, which, doubtless, is equally applicable to large sections of Tennessee. “ For some years after I commenced raising sheep (my cleared land and pastures being then very limited), I housed them during the winter months, and fed them with hay, sheaf oats, and occasionally with corn. But when my clear- WOOL CULTURE IN THE SOUTH AND SOUTHWEST. 149 ed Jand and pastures became more extensive, I found that I could winter my sheep to better advantage by suffering them to run on blue grass pastures, kept in reserve for them, haul- ing out and scattering on the turf corn fodder, when the grass became too short, or was covered with snow. This mode of feeding required less labor, and was less expensive, than housing them ; and experience soon taught me that my sheep passed through the winter in better condition than when housed, and fed on hay and grain. “T have now about 300 acres of cleared land ; nearly one of half of which is in meadow, clover, and blue grass—poa pra- zensis ; and the other half reserved for cultivation in corn, wheat, hemp, &c.; and 150 acres in woodland, the greater part well cleared up and sown in blue grass. I have been taught by experience, recently, that sheep will do remarka- bly well on the rankest clover, which will enable me in fu- ture to keep more of my blue grass pastures in reserve for winter feeding. During the last fall (the season being fa- vorable), my clover fields furnished my flock, of somewhat less than 400, sufficient pasturage till the month of January ; and they have been since kept on my blue grass pastures, without the necessity of feeding, except some four or five days when the ground was covered with snow ; and there is still grass enough to carry them through the residue of the winter. “The low price of hemp, and agricultural products generally, has induced me to sow down much of my cleared land in clover, which will enable me to keep double the number of sheep I now have, without interfering with my farming ope- rations ; and when I get the whole of my woodland cleared up and set in blue grass, I expect to extend my flock to 1000 sheep. ‘Thus you see we are neither under the necessity of incurring the expense of erecting buildings to shelter our sheep, nor of raising grain or hay for their food; nor even to employ laborers to feed them, except during the short time it may become necessary to haul out fodder for them, when the ground is covered with snow. And inasingle day enough may be hauled out on sleds to last them a week or more. “It is argued by some that our rich lands are too valuable to be appropriated advantageously to sheep husbandry. There would be much force in this objection if they were entirely appropriated to that purpose. But not so when sheep hus- bandry is combined with large hemp and corn crops. Hemp 13* 150 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. has hitherto been a profitable crop, though now it is too low to justify its extensive culture ; and large corn crops are ne- cessary with a view of raising horses, mules, cattle, and hogs. There is no system of husbandry so well calculated to pre- pare our lands for large products of corn and hemp, as feeding sheep on our clover lands. I had supposed, till I made the experiment, that sheep would not do well on rank clover. To satisfy myself on this point, I put about 150 wethers on a clover field, when in flower, early in May. ‘The clover was at the time nearly as high as the sheep’s backs (Merinos). I kept them on this during the whole summer, and in the fall they were fat enough for the butcher. It is true they trod down much of the clover; but, as I had an abundance of pasture, this was an advantage, as it left a thick mat of grass on the ground, intermingled with the droppings of the sheep, dis- tributed with much regularity. This thick covering prevent- ed a loss of manure by washing rains, and rapidly brought on a second growth of clover, which furnished my whole flock with an abundance of pasture till the early part of Jan- uary. The season was, however, unusually favorable, and hence the clover pastures lasted two or three weeks later than usual. In future I intend to keep my sheep entirely on my clover fields from the time they are in flower, and thus I shall be able to keep in reserve a greater supply of blue grass for winter feeding. “‘ But itis not upon our high-priced rich lands alone that we can carry on sheep husbandry to advantage. Kentucky has a belt of hill and mountain country, bordering on the Vir- ginia line, on the east, and on the rich lands of the State on the west, averaging about 75 miles in width, extending from the Ohio river and Big Sandy, latitude 38 degrees, 40 min- utes, to the Tennessee line, 35 degrees 30 minutes north. The whole of this region is admirably adapted to sheep hus- bandry. The most northern part but a few minutes north of my residence, and extending about two degrees farther south. The lands are very cheap, the State price of those not yet appropriated only five cents per acre, and those purchased second-handed, more or less improved, may be had from 25 to 50 cents per acre, and still less when unimproved, ‘This country, in a state of nature, furnishes, during the spring, summer, and fall months, a fine range for sheep, and is sus- ceptible of great improvement by clearing up and sowing the cultivated grasses for winter feeding. ‘This whole country WOOL CULTURE IN THE SOUTH AND SOUTHWEST. 151 is finely adapted to the Spanish mode of sheep husbandry. Very large flocks might be driven to the mountain region, some thirty to sixty miles from the rich lands, immediately after shearing time, grazed till late in the fall, and then brought back to be sustained, during the winter, on the luxuriant blue grass pastures of the rich lands of the interior. “ A very intelligent friend, residing in the southern part of the above district of country, speaks of it in the following terms: ‘One of the strongest proofs of this region of coun- try being favorable to the growing of sheep stock is, that we are situated in the same degree of north latitude with the sheep-raising parts of Spain—Leon, Estremadura, Old Cas- tile, &c.—only that our mountains are more richly and abun- dantly clad with luxuriant wild grasses and fern, pea-vine and shrubbery, than the mountain regions of Spain, where they raise such abundant stocks of sheep. Wayne county, witha few adjoining counties, affords more fine water power than any country of the same extent that I have ever known; and for health and fine pure drinking water, no country excels it on the face of the globe. Now is the time to commence the business of sheep husbandry, whilst land can be got almost for nothing. It is worthy of remark that our sheep which are suffered to roam and graze in the mountains altogether, produce about oNE FOURTH more wool at a shearing than the sheep that are raised and grazed altogether on our farms, and of a@ MUCH BETTER QuaLity!’ In another part of his letter he says, ‘ The tops of the mountains of Spain are sterile, without verdure, producing no food for sheep or other ani- mals to graze on; our mountains are quite different ; they are thickly clad from bottom to top, and all over the top, with fine rich wild grasses and shrubbery of every variety for stock to graze on. In the midst of our mountains are to be found a great abundance of salt water, and stone coal of the finest quality, together with a great variety of mineral waters and pure springs.’ “ Another friend, residing in Knox county, writes to me, ‘My sheep upon my farm, adjoining Barboursville, do not thrive, even with pasture and winter food, like the sheep in the extremities of the county, which have neither pastures nor winter food, except ‘what they get in the woods. Without cultivated grasses of any description, sheep will live and do well all the winter, subsisting on the spontaneous growth of the country.’ 152 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. “ Another friend, residing in the northern portion of the above described mountain region, writes that ‘the counties of Carter and Lawrence, and the eastern portion of the State, are admirably adapted to sheep husbandry. ‘There are sey- eral flocks of sheep in this neighborhood that thrive and in- crease wonderfully, running at large, at little cost or trouble to the owners. Many flocks have no other reliance, during the winter, but what they get in the woods. The great ad- vantages of this country for sheep husbandry is, the cheap- ness of the land, its adaptation to grasses, grain, and roots, its healthfulness—sheep delight in mountain or hilly land— the natural evergreens and shrubbery upon which sheep can feed and subsist in winter, though it is not safe to rely alto- gether upon these.’” The following conclusions of Judge Beatty are sound, and coincide with the views of many others: ‘“‘ A few remarks as to the probable future market for wool will conclude my letter, already, I fear, too long. ‘The re- turns of the late census show that the number of sheep in the United States in 1840 was a fraction less than 20,000,000. Twice this number would probably not furnish more wool than would be needed by a population of 17,000,000, if we were to manufacture all our own blankets, carpets, and every other description of woollen fabrics. ‘The period is not very distant when this will be done, with the exception of some very fine goods. We shall then need about 100,000,000 pounds of wool for a population of 17,000,000, and in that proportion for home consumption, even supposing none should be exported. Now as our population increases, as past ex- perience demonstrates, at a compound ratio of three per cent. per annum, we shall have a population of 34,000,000 in the year 1864; 51,000,000 in 1878; and 60,000,000 in 1888. We shall need at these respective periods, two, three, and four hundred millions of pounds of wool. If we estimate sheep, upon an average, to produce 23 lbs. of wool per head, we shall require in the year 1888, a little more than forty years hence, 160,000,000 of sheep. This view of the subject, without looking to a foreign market, holds out a strong inducement to engage in sheep husbandry.” ALPACA OR PERUVIAN SHEEP. 153 UNITED STATES CENSUS STATISTICS OF LIVE STOCK AND WOOL FOR 1839. Seite ; LIVE STOCK. States, &c. Eas OF, a Wool. Bonet Banal Sheep. | Swine. 1, (Maine, '.. 6-5 ays. s) ),1,465,551 59,208) 327,255} 649,264) 117,386 2 |New Hampshire,. . | 1,260,517 43,892) 275,562) 617,390) 121,671 3 |Massachusetts, . . 941,906 61,484) 282,574) 378,296} 143,221 4|Rhode Island,. . . 183,830 8,024 36,891 90,146 30,659 5 |Connecticut, . . . | 889,870] 34,650) 238,650} 403,462) 131,961 G|Vermont, . . . . | 3,699,235) 62,402] 384,341) 1,681,819} 203,800 7 |New York,. . . . | 9,845,295] 474,543] 1,911,244] 5,118,777] 1,900,065 8 |New Jersey, . . . 397,207 70,502} 220,202} 219,985 261,443 9 |Pennsylvania,. . . | 3,048,564) 365,129} 1,172,665] 1,767,620) 1,503,964 10 |Delaware, . ... 64,404 14,421 53,883 39,247 74,228 11 |Maryland, . . . . | 488,201) 92,220] 295,714] 357,922] 416.943 12°| Virginia, . 2. Ys 2,588,374 326,438] 1,024,148] 1,293,772] 1,992,155 13 |North Carolina, . . 625,044] 166,608) 617,371) 538,279} 1,649,716 14 |South Carolina, . . 299,170 129,921 572,608] 232,981 878,532 5 |Georgia,,.- o's 371,303] 157,540} 884,414) 267,107} 1,457,755 16 | Alabamay oo: % 220,353| 143,147) 668,018] 163,243] 1,423,873 17 |Mississippi,: : : : | 175,196} 109,227} 623,197} 128,367] 1,001,209 18 |Louisiana, : : : : 49,283 99,888] 381,248 98,072} 323,220 19 |Tennessee,: : : : | 1,060,332] 341,409] 822,851] 741,593) 2,926,607 20 |Kentucky, : : : : | 1,786,847) 395,853) 787,098) 1,008,240] 2,310,533 Q1 |Ohio, : °: : : : : | 3,685,315] 430,527) 1,217,874] 2,028,401] 2,099,746 Q2 |Indiana,: : : : : | 1,237,919} 241,036) 619,980). 675,982) 1,623,608 OSA VEliTIOIs sy): 2 tes 650,007} 199,235] 626,274) 395,672) 1,495,254 OF Missouri.) s ~shis, 7: 562,265] 196,032) 433,875] 348,018] 1,271,161 Qo | Arkansas, 3) 3, 2 .2 64,943 51,472} 188,786 42,151} 393,058 Boi Miehigans 9" .2 ? 153,375 30,144) 185,190 99,618] 295,890 Q7 |Florida Ter. : : : 7,285 12,043} 118,081 7,198 92,680 28 |Wisconsin Ter. . : 6,777 5,735 30,269 3,462 51,383 29 |Iowa Ter: : 3: : : 23,039 10,794 38,049 15,354! 104,899 30 |Dist. Columbia, : : 707 2,145 3,274 706 4,673 35,802,114} 4,335,669! 14,971,586 | 19,311,374] 26,301,293 SOUTH AMERICAN SHEEP. As has already been observed, no sheep are found in South America of an indigenous character. The Argali is not there, and the only native animal whose covering is ap- propriated to manufactures, is the Lama of Chili and Peru. ALPACA OR PERUVIAN SHEEP. This animal, which, from its great resemblance to the camel, was classed by Linneus in the Camelide, is the Lama of Peru and Chili. There are, according to Cuvier, three species of the animal; the Guanico, the Paco, and the Vicuna. It is the Paco or Alpaca which is under notice, and which, from the peculiar qualities of its long silky hair or wool, has obtained the name of Peruvian sheep. The following authentic description of this animal, and the uses 154 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. to which its fleece is applied, is from a late London Jour- nal :— “ Nine-tenths of the wool of the alpaca is black, the re- mainder being partly white, red, and grizzled. It is of a very long staple, often reaching twelve inches, and resem- bles soft glossy hair—which character is not lost in dying. The Indians in the South American mountains manufacture nearly all their clothing from this wool, and are enabled to appear in black dresses, without the aid of a dyer. Both the lama and alpaca are, perhaps, even of more value to the natives as beasts of burden than wool-bearing animals, and their obstinacy when irritated is well known. The impor- tance of this animal has already been considered by the English, in their hat, woollen, and stuff trade, and an essay on the subject has been publisbed by Dr. Hamilton, of Lon- don, from which some of these details are collected. “The wool is so remarkable, being a jet black, glossy, silk-like hair, that it is fitted for the production of fabrics differing from all others, occupying a medium position be- tween wool and silk. “It is now mingled with other materials, in such a singu- jar manner, that while a particular dye will affect those, it will leave the alpaca wool with its original black color, thus giving rise to great diversity. “The alpaca weighs, when full grown, from 160 to 200 Ibs. It yields annually a fleece weighing from 10 to 14 lbs., or more. The flesh is said to be wholesome and nu- tritious—the skin may be used for bookbinding and other purposes. “The alpaca is found in large herds on the Andes— sometimes at an elevation of 10,000 or 11,000 feet above the sea, where eternal snow rests on the mountain tops, where frequent and violent storms prevail, and where the scanty herbage is of the coarsest kind. ‘There they pros- per, meeting with but slight attention on the part of the shepherds. Disease is unknown among them; they are at- tached to their keepers, and never stray from their herds. ‘They brave the fiercest snowdrifts; the strongest of the herd advance first, bend down their heads to meet the com- ing storm, and trample down or leap over the hillocks of snow that obstruct their passage. “‘ Viewing the peculiar habits of this animal, the idea of the author is, that it might, with but little trouble or expense, ALPACA OR PERUVIAN SHEEP. 155 and with great advantage, be naturalized in those moun- tainous districts of Scotland and Ireland, and on the bleak and barren hills of England and Wales, which, from their nature, can never be brought into cultivation, and which now yield subsistence to no creatures fit for the use of man. From long and extensive inquiries he is convinced that the alpaca will live and flourish on the coarse mountain grasses, where an English sheep would starve; and he is satisfied that thus a large addition might be made to our na- tional wealth, as the alpaca would produce fleeces double the weight of those taken from an English sheep, and of a superior quality, while it would furnish a wholesome meat for general consumption. “The experiments which have hitherto been made for naturalizing the alpaca in England have not, it must be own- ed, turned out favorably ; but we must be careful not to con- found accidental casualties with a natural incapacity of the creature to flourish on our soil. The only trials yet made have been on too limited a scale to furnish any decisive re- sult. They have been kept in pairs, or groups of five or six, and have rarely been judiciously treated. In some in- stances they have received the seeds of disease during their long voyage, from which they have never recovered, and in others have been injured by being afforded rich pasturage, instead of the coarse and scanty food to which they are ac- customed. Yet, even under these unfavorable circum- stances, the whole current of testimony of those who have kept them is in favor of their prospering well on our high lands, if the experiment were fairly tried. “Mr. R. Bell, of Villa-house, in the county of Kerry, procured a small herd of alpacas, and his account of them is so curious and interesting that we extract a few of his sen- tences : “‘'The alpacas on his farm are of various colors, some be- ing brown, others black, and one perfectly white. They have not been shorn since the month of June, 1841, and the average length of their wool at this time is eleven inches, and so firm to their bodies that the smallest lock cannot be pulled off without great force ; therefore they never lose a bit. It is exceedingly fine and silky ; indeed, very much finer than any alpaca wool I have yet seen imported into England ; and, during the two years they have been here, there is a visible improvement in the texture of their coat, 156 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. and I think that the wool of the alpaca lamb here is superior in fineness even to that of the vicuna. I have never, even after a whole day’s rain, found them wet to the skin; for their wool, on becoming wet on the outside or surface, mats together, and becomes quite impervious to the heaviest showers. I certainly do not exaggerate when I say that each of the old alpacas here would clip at this time upward of thirty pounds of wool. “The alpacas are exceedingly playful, and, to see them to full perfection, a dog should be taken into the field beside them ; and as they run at play with the dog, their fine and noble positions are displayed to most advantage. From what I have observed of the nature and habits of the alpaca, I do most heartily confirm your statement, ‘ That they would live where a sheep would starve,’ and would be most valua- ble as a breeding stock in the United Kingdom. They are peculiarly well adapted to mountainous districts, however coarse the herbage, if the ground be dry; although, at the same time, I will say that the alpaca is as fond of a bite of good sweet grass as any animal I know of.” There are at present about one hundred of these animals in Great Britain, and efforts are making by an association to introduce more of them. In addition to the foregoing, it has been stated by Mr. Walton, a member of this association, “that the alpaca breed in the third year, the period of ges- tation is seven months, have one at a birth, attain the height of 31 or 4 feet, and usually live ten or twelve years. In Peru, they are generally shorn every third year, about April, when the wool is about eight inches long; it usually grows three inches in a year, but if shorn yearly grows six or eight inches. A male alpaca shorn three years ago had a coat from eighteen to twenty inches long; and instances are known of alpaca wool attaining the extraordinary length of thirty inches.” Considerable quantities of alpaca wool are imported into England, where much of it is spun, taken to France, and made into the finest Cashmere shawls. If the experiment is successful of propagating the alpaca in England, it surely can be done in the United States, as the climate is doubt- less more congenial to it, as well as the herbage. When American enterprise calls for its covering, the trial will un- questionably be made. WOOL CULTIVATION ON THE PAMPAS. 157 WOOL CULTIVATION ON THE PAMPAS. Almost the whole of the South American wool is the pro- duction of Spanish sheep that have been taken over there, and that have multiplied to a very great extent. Both the sheep and the fleece have considerably degenerated, pro- ceeding in part from unfavorableness of the climate, but probably more from unskilful management. Large quanti- ties of wool are exported to the United States, and also Great Britain, but so decidedly bad in quality, that very little of it, comparatively, can be used except for the most inferior manufactures. The extraordinary facilities for wool culture from climate and exuberance of herbage adapted to the sheep in parts of South America, have induced many enterprising foreigners to embark extensively in the business, and great improvement in a few years may be expected to result in the quality of the wool. The following account of sheep management in Buenos Ayres is by a correspondent of the Albany Cultivator :— “The fertile ‘Pampas’ in the interior of South America have been long celebrated for the immense herds of cattle and horses reared upon them. So abundant are they, and so easily reared, that they are slaughtered in many places for their skins and tallow alone. Sheep too of native breed, with coarse hairy wool, have been so plentiful that their car- cases were used for fuel in burning brick. ‘The expense of transportation and the absence of timber and salt for barrel- ing alone prevents us from the competition of their meat in our own parts. The attention of agriculturists there has been of late years turned to improving their stocks of sheep by large importations of Saxony from this country and from Eu- rope. An English gentleman began the business with a stock of 60 Saxons and 3000 ewes, and in the year 1835 he had increased the number to 45,000, and the grade was nearly increased to full blood. In the year 1837 he had 90,000, and intended to keep on until he numbered 200,000, which quantity he has doubtless attained before this time ; others were copying his example, until the business bids fairly to outstrip that of cattle, within a few years. The prices at which grade wools have sold have been from 8 to 12 cents per pound in Buenos Ayres. “The price of government lands there is ten cents per acre. It is laid off in ‘estancias; a league square, con- 14 158 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA. taining 5,760 acres English ; the face of the country almost a dead level, no timber, but a luxuriant coat of grass. “A cottage is erected in the centre of the farm for the shepherd, and an ample yard enclosed by driving the trunks of the common peach into the earth, and wattling the inter- stices with the branches. An ‘ estancia’ will support 3,000 sheep, which is about the size of their flocks. The only care they require is to guard them at night and during a storm. They will seldom wander beyond the landmarks during the day; at the approach of a storm they turn their heads to leeward, and feed on until turned by their keeper towards their place of security. An instance has been known where 900 of a fine stock, and the best sheep in it, were destroyed by being in a storm, pressed by the rear ranks into a run of water, until the chasm was filled with dead bodies, and the remainder of the flock passed over. The shepherd does not remain with the flock, but at the cottage, having a horse already saddled and bridled (ready for a sudden call) always at the door in the daytime. “Thus far very little attention has been paid to cleaning the wool for market. It is generally sold in the dirt.” 12* CHAPTER VIII. MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. SUMMER MANAGEMENT. A SUDDEN CHANGE FROM DRY TO GREEN FOOD IMPROPER—SEPAR- ATION OF THE WEAK FROM THE STRONG—TAGGING OF SHEEP— CUTTING OF HORNS AND HOOFS—DRAFTING—PARTURITION—SALT- ING—W ASHING—CASTRATION AND DOCKING. A SUDDEN CHANGE FROM DRY TO GREEN FOOD IMPROPER. As a starting point, let us imagine the time to have arrived when the duties of the flock-master relative to foddering his flocks are about to be suspended, by turning them to pasture. This period, in the Northern States, is from the 1st to the 20th of April. It is a critical time with sheep, owing to the rigor and vicissitudes of the climate, and their long con- finement to dry food, especially so with the finer-wooled varieties, and therefore claiming more than ordinary care. But many of the duties involved require to be exercised a month or more antecedent to the time under consideration, and which will be found fully detailed under the head of Winter Management. If sheep have been confined wholly within. yards, and not permitted to taste the young grass until it is sufficiently advanced to satisfy their hunger without the aid of other food, there is great danger in turning them upon it too sud- denly. ‘This results from its flashy and stimulating proper- ties, causing scours or purging, and unfortunately with that portion of the flock least able to endure the attack, namely, those in low flesh, and consequently feeble. In nearly all such cases, death will often follow, unless a timely arrest of the disease is made by a return in part to dry food. But it is better to attend to the prevention, which is, to allow the flock to graze an hour or two each day for at least 160 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. a week previous ; and during this time let the best of hay, accompanied with grain, be provided. If sheep, however, have been trained to eat roots, and have partaken of them freely through the month of March, the danger accompany- ing the too sudden transition from hay or other dry food, will in a measure be avoided. SEPARATION OF THE WEAK FROM THE STRONG. Notwitstanding the duty of the shepherd may have been faithfully discharged by taking out from time to time such as are failing in flesh during the winter season, and putting them to better keep, yet not a few in indifferent condition will be found in large flocks at this period, which had better be separated and treated accordingly. The two classes needing this attention perhaps the most, are generally ewes which have already or are about to yean, and yearlings. Whatever they are, let them be put upon the best pasture the farm will furnish, and a few only together. The separation will be quickest performed, by adopting the following method : Let the flock be stationed one or two hundred yards distant from a gateway or bars, and then, if called by the shepherd, moving on a run, the weaker sheep will soon fall to the rear, and when these are about to pass the gateway, let them be cut off from the others by some one in the vicinity. This mode is sure, and is preferable to pounding the flock, as mistakes are unavoidably committed by so doing, especially with yearlings, owing to the unusual length of wool in indi- vidual cases, which frequently hides from the shepherd their impoverished condition. TAGGING OF SHEEP.* At or about this time, is assigned the important and indis- pensable duty of the flock-master of thoroughly tagging his sheep. It is wholly neglected by many, and with the great majority of wool-growers the slovenly and half-way manner of performing it is extremely censurable. It is thus, because the manufacturer expects from us that the wool from about the dock and below it, as well as that between the thighs, all * In England termed elatting. SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 161 of which is generally of an inferior character, should be separated from the fleece. This being the case, by neglect- ing it, we commit a direct fraud upon him, which he does not fully detect, until his purchases fall into the hands of his sorters. Tagging should always be attended to before the sheep are turned off to pasture, for the reason that if any of them only slightly scour, the wool about the dock and thighs is rendered a mass of filth, and therefore is lost. In this situ- ation, too, they are liable to be fly-blown, and without timely discovery, the sheep is also lost. From these considerations alone, it is clearly the interest of all to have this matter sea- sonably and well performed. The easiest mode, and that which the writer has adopted for many years, is to place the sheep upon a table, resting on itsrump. The table should not be more than twenty inches in height, and about four feet in breadth; the length must be accommodated to the wants of the flock-master, three feet at least being required for each tagger. It should be as capacious as this, with a view to spreading the wool as it is cut off, which facilitates the separation of the good locks from particles of dung and other stuff wholly useless.* A stool should stand upon the floor beside the table, for the tagger to rest one foot upon; this brings his thigh in such a position as easily accommodates the back of the sheep against it, and is thus placed in a posture to perform the task without pain to himself. If it is a male, the first operation is, to cut the wool one or two inches from about the extremity of the sheath, for, if it is neglected, the wool being constantly saturated with urine, will cause soreness, and sometimes ulceration. After this, let the wool be shorn from the scrotum or testicle bag. Then the tagger with one hand presses upon the thigh joint, which forces the leg to lay in a horizontal position, he proceeds to shear from the inside of the thighs, and down the leg to the fetlock; the other being served in the same way, he then grasps with one hand both legs near the hoofs and draws them upwards and towards him, which enables him to cut all that is necessary from the dock and immedi- ately below it. With the ewe the process is the same, with the addition * The table can also be used for rolling the fleeces when shorn. 1 * 162 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP, of shearing all the wool growing on the udder, as well, if it is long, a little from around it, which permits the lamb, in its first attempts to suck, to find the teats without difficulty. This is very important, for if the lamb drops when the tem- perature is low, the sooner it receives nourishment the better ; but if delayed in finding the teats, from the cause stated, the cold prostrates it, and it soon dies. Ewes, if tagged at the period recommended, are generally, in the Northern States at least, heavy with lamb, and there- fore humanity demands that they should be handled with the utmost care, or abortion may follow. The tag wool should be placed in a dry situation until ready for use, and if wet, which is very common, it should be spread thinly over the floor, and at intervals of two or three days, stirred with a fork. There are many household purposes, such as flannels, stockings, and carpeting, to which this description of wool can be converted ; and the increased price the fleece wool will command, affords an ample compensation to the farmer for the expense of tagging his sheep as directed. He will find consolation, also, in having performed an honest part towards the manufacturer. CUTTING HORNS AND HOOFS. After the individual has performed his task of tagging, let him place the sheep upon its feet, and if the toes of the hoof require cutting, let another be at hand with a sharp chisel and mallet to do it. This will often be found neces- sary with the Merino and Saxon breeds; and the ground being usually wet at this season, the hoofs will be softer and more easily cut, than perhaps at any after period. The paring of the feet also, adopted by many in localities where foot-rot prevails, as a prevention of that disease, might now be attended to.* It is not unfrequently the case, that the horns of sheep are turned inwards, and from this cause likely to grow into the head or eyes, unless prevented. If neglected, a wound in the flesh ensues, causing great irritation; and if in the warm season, life is endangered by attacks from maggots. If the horn is large, a fine saw should be used; if other- wise, the chisel and mallet will perform it soonest, and in- * See Foot-rot. SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 163 flict the least pain. As to the use of a block on which to rest the horn, or placing it against a post or studd of the building, must be determined by its shape, and proximity to the head where it may be necessary to sever it. If the quick is touched, let it be anointed with tar. DRAFTING. Although drafting sheep for the drover and butcher is not confined to any particular season with farmers of the North, yet no period is preferable to the present, for selecting weth- ers and such ewes as have been condemned for breeding, for sale, after shearing. From the increased competition of drovers at the present day, more discrimination is exercised in their purchases than formerly, and consequently it will pay well to have such as are drafted put at once into good pasture. An increased price for the carcase, and some in- crease of wool, will be the natural consequence of this treat- ment. PARTURITION, OR LAMBING. The usual period of gestation with the ewe is five months, or an average of 152 days. The proper time for parturition must be determined by circumstances, of which climate and locality are the most prominent, and these the flock-master must steadily keep in view. ‘The month generally selected in the Northern and Middle States is May, the vicissitudes of the climate forbidding an earlier period, unless in instances where build- ings are provided for shelter, the expense of which is greater than the majority of farmers are willing to incur. The ewes during pregnancy should be disturbed as little as possible, and every attention paid to the quantity and quality of their food. Ewes, however, should not be kept fat at this stage ; indeed this state is injurious, as it predis- poses them sometimes to abortion ; but what is usually termed “ good store condition” should be maintained through the whole period of gestation. Neither should ewes be exposed to storms and cold during the winter and early spring months, but thoroughly protected from both. It can- not be expected from any domestic animal a healthy off- spring, in our rigorous climate, if the dam has been permit- ted to suffer the hardships of cold and starvation ; therefore it will be wise if the sheep husbandman will always hold 164 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. up to view the apothegm, “so the dam, so the offspring.” There must be good condition to sustain the mother in the trying hour of lamb-birth ; and like good condition is equally necessary to sustain the lamb subsequently, and impart to it sound constitution, size, and thrift. The field chosen for the ewes to fold should be dry, free from stumps, open ditches, and possess as level a surface as possible, as in little hollows ewes are liable to be cast, which is caused by lazily stretching themselves in sunny weather, when ina lying posture. In this situation they will often be found flat on their backs, and violently kicking the air, without the power of recovery, until aided ; and, if unseen by the shepherd, death will follow sometimes in a few hours. But perhaps no field affords that smoothness of surface to prevent these too often fatal occurrences, and therefore the duty devolves upon the shepherd of passing leisurely over every part of the field, several times during the day, to guard against them. But this duty must not be delayed until some of the ewes have dropped their lambs ; he must commence his career of watchfulness at least ten days before, for it is very common with ewes that are in over good condition to be found in this perilous situation some days before their time. Other duties obligatory upon the shepherd are lucidly set forth by Mr. Youatt, as follows : ‘“‘ The lamber should have with him his lamb-crook ; a bot- tle of milk—ewes’ milk if possible, and carried in his bosom or in an inside pocket, that it may be kept warm; some cords to tie the legs of the ewes that he may have occasion to as- sist or examine ; a little pot of grease or oil, to lubricate his hand, if he should have occasion to introduce it into the womb of any of the ewes; a sharp knife, with a round or rather curved extremity, should it be necessary to remove the lamb piece-meal from the mother; a piece of stout polished iron rod, of the size of a goose quill, twelve inches in length, and rounded at one end, somewhat like a button hook, in order to remove from the womb a dead or divided feetus ; a small quantity of cordial, consisting of equal parts of bran- dy and sweet spirit of nitre; and a strong infusion of ergot of rye. “The period of lambing having commenced, the attention of the lamber should be increased. He should carefully ob- serve every ewe that appears to be in labor. While she walks about and does not exhibit any extraordinary degree of SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 165 suffering, he should not interfere ; nor should he do so if she rises when he approaches, and walks away, unless her la- bor has been protracted twenty hours or more. He should not be in haste to render his assistance, although she should be continually lying down and getting up again, and showing more impatience or irritability than actual pain ; but if her strength appears to be declining, his immediate aid is required. If he has to drive her to the fold or pound, it should be as gently as possible, or he should drive some others with her, in order that she may not be frightened by being alone se- lected. ‘The early interference of the lamber is always prej- udicial, aud very frequently fatal. Nature, in the course of twenty or twenty-four hours, will, in the great majority of cases, accomplish that which cannot be hurried on by art without extreme danger. “ The state of the weather will cause a very considerable difference in the duration of the labor. When the weather is cold and dry, and especially if the situation is somewhat exposed, the progress of the labour will be slow—the throes will be comparatively weak and ineffectual, and the ewe may and should be left a considerable time before mechanical assist- ance is rendered. When, however, the weather is warm, and especially if, at the same time, it is moist, the throes will be vio- lent, and the strength of the sufferer will be very rapidly wasted ; there will be a dangerous tendency to inflammation, and the aid of the lamber is speedily required. Except un- der these circumstances, no motive of curiosity, no desire to know how the affair is going on, should induce the lamber to interfere while the throes are natural and the strength con- tinues, unless it is evident, without handling the ewe, that a false presentation, or some mechanical cause, prevents the expulsion of the fetus. When the ewe is nearly exhausted she will often suffer the lamber to kneel beside her and suc- cessfully afford the requisite assistance. If there isa violent struggle between the patient and the lamber, the fetus will often be destroyed; but his help, when she quietly submits to him, will rarely fail to preserve the mother and her off- spring. Let it be supposed that, from certain circumstances, she is driven to the pound, or that she is lying quietly by the lamber in the field. He should first endeavor to ascertain the nature of the presentation. Is the lamb coming in the right way with its muzzle first, and a fore-foot on each side of it? If the tongue is not protruding from the mouth and becoming almost 166 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. black, and her strengthis not quite wasted, a table spoonful of his cordial, with double this quantity of the infusion, will proba- bly increase or recall the pains ; and the lamb will soon be born. If this is not effected in a quarter of an hour, a second dose of the infusion should be given; and, that being followed by no good result, he should try what mechanical assistance will do. He should draw down first one leg and then the other, endeavoring with his finger to solicit or coax the head on- ward at the sametime. If he cannot readily get at the legs, he should push the head of the lamb a little backwards and downwards, when he will probably be able to grasp them. If he does not now succeed, the cause of the obstruction will be sufficiently plain, namely, the too great largeness of the head, which cannot pass the arch of the pubis; and, there- fore, either tying the legs of the ewe, or an assistant keep- ing her down on her right side, the lamber should grasp the two fore-legs in one hand, and with one or two fingers of the other, urge it forward with as much force as is consistent with the safety of the lamb. The young one will rarely fail to be extracted by these means, except the head very much ex- ceeds the common size.” In addition to the above sound observations, when me- chanical aid is employed, it is always accompanied with considerable fright to the ewe, and if she is permitted to es- cape immediately after the birth of her lamb, will often re- fuse to own it; therefore, should it be alive, let it be placed at once before her, and by its form and scent, she will, in most cases, recognise it as her offspring. On the whole, the surest way is, to secure the ewe in a small pound or shed, and there leave her for the day ; for, if she has a sup- ply of milk, rarely further trouble need be apprehended. Should she, however, under these circumstances, or any other, refuse to suckle, she must be held, and a teat placed in the mouth of the lamb. ‘This alternative seldom fails to conquer all difficulty. The lambs of fine-wooled sheep are extremely sensitive to cold and wet when they drop, and to guard against expo- sure, the sheep-master must endeavor to anticipate storms, and place his flocks beforehand under shelters. ‘These should be capacious, as the ewe dislikes too much company at the time of parturition, as will be noticed in her retiring often quite distantly, if in a field, from the rest of her companions, when the event is about to transpire. In such instances SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 167 where no sheltering is provided, greater labor and vigilance must be employed, the presence of the flock-tender being constantly needed, with his bottle of warm milk, and putting the more helpless in a large basket, lined with hay or straw, and bringing them before the fire for an hour or more, until animation is restored. When lambs are separated from their dams under such circumstances, care should be ob- served not to have them wrapped or touched with anything that is offensive, as its scent, when very young, is the prin- cipal source of recognition by the mother. A clean blanket or woollen cloth will be best, if swaddling should be found necessary. It is proverbial that the Merino and Saxon varieties are not as good nurses as the English breeds, and nature there- fore rarely overtasks, by supplying them with twins. When this occurs, however, if the ewe is in her prime, condition good, udder large, and her keep good, it will be proper to let both of the lambs run with the mother; but if the reverse of this, let one of them be brought up by hand, or, as is the Spanish custom, be destroyed. A different course will probably cause runts of both, and is one of the means by which many flocks, in process of time, are sadly deterio- rated. When the ewe loses her offspring, it is followed by a distension, and frequently an inflammation, of the udder. But such cases will be found by the reader fully treated of, in the chapter of diseases, under the head of garget. During the period of lambing, continuing as it does for a fortnight or more, the pasture for the ewes, if they are in fair flesh, should not be luxuriant; but when it is passed, then they may be removed to better keep ; and in all cases the situation should be dry, and free from too great exposure. If the season has been unpropitious for early grass, and consequently the keep during parturition too low, the flock should have the run of two lots, which should adjoin, and the communication between them at all times kept open. The adoption of this course prevents the confusion incident to changing the whole flock at once. The number of ewes herding together at this important period should not exceed one hundred, and a still less number will result advantageously to both the flock and mas- ter. He should at all seasons keep before him the fact, that 168 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. a few sheep kept together will do better than many, which will be more particularly enforced hereafter. The affection of the ewe for her offspring is often ex- ceedingly strong, as the following example will testify, al- though rather an extraordinary instance, related by the Et- trick Shepherd. “One of the two years while I remained on the farm at Willenslee a severe blast of snow came on by night, about the latter end of April, which destroyed several scores of our lambs, and as we had not enough of twins and odd lambs for the mothers that had lost theirs, of course we select- ed the best ewes and put lambs to them. As we were making the distribution, I requested of the master to spare me a lamb for a ewe which he knew, and which was stand- ing over a dead lamb, about four miles from the house. He would not let me do it, but bid me to let her stand over her lamb for a day or two, and perhaps a twin would be forth- coming. I did so, and faithfully did she stand to her charge. I visited her every morning and evening for the first eight days, and never found her above two or three yards from the lamb ; and often as I went my rounds, she eyed me long ere I came near her, and kept stamping with her foot, to frighten away the dog. “The weather grew fine and warm, and the dead lamb soon decayed ; but still this affectionate and desolate crea- ture kept hanging over the poor remains with an attachment that seemed to be nourished by hopelessness. It often drew tears from my eyes to see her hanging with such fondness over a few bones, mixed with a small portion of wool. For the first fortnight she never quitted the spot; and for an- other week she visited it every morning and evening, utter- ing a few kindly and heart-piercing bleats; till at length, every remnant of her offspring vanished, mixing with the soil, or wafted away by the winds.”* SALTING. An important duty devolves upon the flock-master to see that his sheep are regularly and plentifully salted from the tame they are turned to pasture till the commencement of the foddering season. Fortunately the question, whether salt contributes to the * Hoge’s Shepherd’s Calendar. . SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 169 health and thrift of sheep, is, at the present day, no longer mooted, its salutary effects being universally admitted. It operates to stimulate the appetite, dnd essentially aids the digestive organs in extracting the nutriment of food; and within a few years it has been ascertained that its free use to sheep has mitigated, if not wholly prevented in some lo- calities that terrible scourge to British flocks, the liver-rot. Its security against the attacks of other dangerous maladies, further time and observation will doubtless demonstrate. In Mr. Youatt’s work will be found the following remarks on the benefits of salting : “‘ Passing by the beautiful country of Montpelier and the mouths of the Rhone, the traveller can study the fine sheep and the sheep husbandry of Arles. The district of the Crau, in length nearly eighteen miles, and about half as much in breadth, extends from the mountains towards the seacoast. It is one uniform gentle declivity: in no part of it is there the slightest portion of stagnant water, and not a tree or shrub is to be seen. The soil is dry and apparently barren enough, but produces a varied herbage well adapted to the sheep. Not less than one hundred and thirty thou- sand sheep graze on this declivity.” A writer in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sci- ences at Paris attributes the thriving of the sheep on such a spot to the free use of salt, thereby enabling the digestive organs to extract every particle of nutriment which the food contains. He says, ‘“‘ On this spot, seemingly so sterile, by the free use of salt, more numerous flocks of sheep are bred and reared than upon any other common of equal extent throughout the whole kingdom; and, what is not less re- markable, the sheep are healthier, hardier, and endure the severity of the winter with less loss, though they have fewer sheep cots for covering, than those fed and bred on more co- pious pastures, and that have, besides, the advantage of more convenient shelter.” For a short time after sheep have been turned to pasture, precaution must be observed not to salt them too freely, as, in conjunction with the stimulating nature of young grass, scours or purging will follow; and its effects upon ewes shortly before parturition, if allowed access to it without limit, will tend to abortion, as will be found more fully no- ticed in another chapter. If common fine salt (say Salina make) is used, two quarts 15 170 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. , to the hundred, given about once a week, is a prudent quan- tity at that time, and may be increased to four quarts after the first of May, for every fourth or fifth day, during the re- mainder of the pasture season. If coarse salt (St. Ubes) is used, a quarter to one third less than of fine will be proper, it being of a much stronger quality. Salting in troughs would be well enough, provided the sheep could be stationary in one enclosure ; but the neces- sity of their removal frequently for change of pasture, re- quires the removal of the troughs also; and the flock-master with several hundred sheep will soon learn that that is quite too troublesome. Again, troughs are thought by many indis- pensable during the season when the Estris Ovis, or sheep gad-fly, is winging its tormenting career, for the reception of the tar (upon which salt is sprinkled) as a defence against its attacks. But this does not supersede their removal, and if time and their expense are considered, it will be found cheaper to pound the flocks several times during the flight of the fly, and with a common paint brush or swab, tarring their noses can very quickly be performed, and far more effectually than it can be done by themselves in the troughs.* The writer salts his sheep upon the ground, before the. dew evaporates, selecting a place which is clean, and the grass short, and divides a handful into two or three parts, as a large quantity thrown upon one spot will not scatter sufli- ciently the quantity used for the flock, and thereby the sheep are afforded a more equal chance. Salt is a fertilizer of the soil, and should any be left uneaten, which is not very like- ly, of course its effects will not be lost. Many suppose that sheep, late in the fall, require little or no salt. This is quite a mistake, it being the very period when it will prove most useful to them, by contributing to extract the little nutriment left in the decaying herbage, as well as causing its better relish. Salt is quite as necessary in the foddering season, if not more so, than at any other time, for the reason that dry food being harder of digestion than green, the stimulating proper- ties of salt is requisite to aid the process. It is not impor- tant that the hay, or whatever else may be fed, is salted, if the sheep have access to it in troughs or mangers. But if the hay is salted when it is secured, none else will be re- * See chapter on diseases, Estris Ovis, for further remarks. SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 171 quired. This is deemed by a large majority to be the bet- ter way, and coincides with the writer’s views and practice. WASHING. This is a branch of sheep economy which is wholly in- dispensable. The careless and slovenly manner with which it is per- formed by the great majority of American wool-growers, calls for severe reprehension ; the evil consequences result- ing from it, however, are inflicted mostly upon themselves. The most suitable time depends upon the latitude and sea- son; the latter causing sometimes, in the same locality, a considerable variation. At all events, the flock-master must be sure of one thing, namely, that the water and weather are comparatively warm. ‘The violation of this is very common, which is exceedingly cruel and inhumane, and often exposes sheep to disease. The day selected should be one of sunshine, if possible ; and as this work in the Northern and Middle States is com- monly attended to from the 10th to the 25th of May, it will rarely be the case, at that season, that the water will be of the right temperature before nine or ten o’clock in the morn- ing; and when only a few sheep are to be washed, it will be better generally to delay it until the afternoon. If the washing can be conducted immediately after a warm rain it will be easier, the effect of it being to soften and loosen the dirt; in this event, the yearlings should be selected first, as they are generally the filthiest. The flock-master should always be present; and if he does not possess the physical ability or inclination to “ bear a hand,” he should at least see that everything goes off properly, and is conducted on “temperance principles,” for rum has done its full share of mischief on such occasions. He should be provided with a pair of shears, and if any dung locks are seen, they should be severed before the sheep are put into the water. Where there is a running stream of pure water, with a gravelly or stony bottom, no better mode can be adopted for wool cleansing, and none other is so economical. For a number of years past the writer has used a vat, made of two inch pine plank, and held together by three inch oak gripes. It is about nine feet long, four and a half 172 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. wide, and three and a half indepth. It is placed at the bot- tom of a gentle fall, upon top of which is laid the troughs that conduct the water into the vat, the elevation of them be- ing about eighteen inches above the level of the top of the vat. The dimensions of this are much larger than is neces- sary for the farmer with a small number of sheep, as it ad- mits of the use of two sets of troughs, and therefore calcu- lated for the washing of two sheep simultaneously. All circumstances being right, five to six huudred can be well washed in it per day. On one side of the vat is a permanent platform made of stone and floored with plank, the surface having a gentle in- clination towards the vat, on which the sheep are held for a minute or more, after being washed, that the water may drain from the fleece. Beside the vat (not in it) and upon the platform stands one of the washers, and a temporary staging on the opposite side accommodates another. One man is employed to bring the sheep from a small pound close at hand, and put them into the vat, in which two are held at a time by another at the lower end, for two or three minutes, with a view to soften the dirt. ‘The washers then take them, and each holds one under the troughs or spouts, turning them in every position to receive the full benefit from the fall of the water, which proceeds with such force as to dislodge the dirt rapidly, and in a much briefer time than it can be done by squeezing. When the supply of wa- ter is full, no squeezing will be required, except, perhaps, the belly and thigh wool. As soon as the sheep held by the man for soaking pass from his hands to the washers, he is immediately supplied with others; and thus while two are soaking, two others are being washed under the spouts. One end of the vat being set a little below a level, the dirt passes freely off, and consequently the water is compara- tively pure, the good effects of which will be seen in the almost cotton whiteness of the inner portion of the fleece. As to eradicating all the dirt from the external surface of wool when upon the sheep, it is not expected, for it is im- possible to accomplish it; and therefore it must necessarily be left to the cleansing process of the manufacturer. But that much more can be extracted than is usual, cannot admit of a doubt; and if a general trial will only be made, those who undertake it will be sure to succeed, and rewarded not only with the grateful thanks of manufacturers, but a hand- SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 173 some advance upon the prices of their wool. In confirma- tion of this, Mr. Samuel Lawrence, of Lowell, Mass., an eminent woollen manufacturer, states the following: ‘“ These cheating practices are short-sighted, inasmuch as the ‘ clean thing’ brings a price proportionate. We always fix the price per lb. by the quantity of scoured wool it will yield. In our purchases we frequently make a difference of five cents per Ib. in precisely similar qualities.” This advance will amply compensate for the longer time required in wash- ing our sheep well, and if acted upon, with many of us, our characters for honesty will be considerably amended. Bucks, especially of the Merino breed, require an extra time to wash them, and if a little soft soap should be used, their fleeces will not lose anything in value in the estima- tion of the manufacturer. After the washing is completed, the sheep should be turned upon a thick-covered sward, that no dirt may collect on the fleeces, before they are shorn. Driving them along a dusty road must be avoided, if possible, when returning from the washing. The Spanish custom is to cleanse the fleece with soap, after it is shorn, the grease or yolk abounding to such a de- gree, with its concomitant dirt, as to preclude the possibility of cleansing it properly in the ordinary way. In England, the breeds having less of gum than others, washing is comparatively easy, and, where practicable, is done by swimming the sheep to and fro in a pond or stream, and gently squeezing the wool with the hands. The washing of Saxony sheep in Germany and other parts of the Continent, conforms to the better modes adopted in this country, but is performed with far greater nicety and care. On the authority of the manufacturer above named, Span- ish wools, after being washed with soap, as already men- tioned, lose 10 per cent. by the manufacturer’s process of cleansing ; German or Saxony wool 24 per cent., but if accom- modated, that is, the skirts and head taken off, only 16 per cent.; the Australian or New South Wales wools about 30 per cent.; American Saxony averages 36 per cent.,and Amer- ican pure blood Merino 421 per cent.* The waste from South American wools is enormous, being from 70 to 80 per cent.; * It is proper to state that all manufacturers do not agree with Mr. Lawrence in opinion, many of them estimating the waste of American, Saxon, and Merino wool to be a little less than above stated. ia 174 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. but it is exported “in the dirt,” which will explain it. The above statement proves conclusively the indifferent manner with which wools grown in the United States are washed by the growers, and calls loudly for a reform. CASTRATION AND DOCKING. This is an important and necessary operation to lambs, but im very many instances is cruelly and unskilfully per- formed. The proper time depends much on the weather, the size of the lamb, and varying from five to twenty days from its birth. As the ewes about washing time are, or should be, through parturition, two or three days after, a cool one may be select- ed for this purpose, although with the great mass it is de- ferred to the period of shearing. No matter, however, as to this, provided it is done very early in the morning, as a warm, moist temperature is very unpropitious, on account of the danger attending it. This arises from the extraordinary ef- fusion of blood in individual instances, which frequently re- sults in the death of the lamb. Let the lambs be brought from the field with as little bustle and hurry as possible, and immediately confined in a small pound, to prevent any exercise or running about when catching them. ‘This, and the observance of the following rules, have been the practice of the writer many years :— One catches a lamb and seats himself astride of a narrow plank or scantling, which is placed at an inclination of about 30 degrees, pressing the back of the lamb firmly against his belly, and with his hands grasps the hind legs, drawing them upwards and towards him, so that the scrotum is fairly ex- posed for the operation. ‘The operator with a sharp knife cuts off about one half to two thirds of the testicle bag; then drops his knife, and draws out one of the testicles at a time, till a portion of the connecting cord is seen, which he divides by friction of his thumb nail. This mode of division la- cerates the cord, and less bleeding will follow than if done by a sharp instrument. It may, to some, appear unnecessary, and therefore objectionable, to cut off so much of the scrotum or bag; but if dislodged of its contents it is certainly quite an useless affair, the little wool growing upon it being almost worthless, and a bother always to the tagger and shearer when tutting it off. No danger can arise either, if the ointment, which will presently be spoken of, is used. SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 175 After the testicles are removed, the operator grasps the tail of the lamb and severs it about one inch from the root. Here the writer may be again condemned for cutting off ap- parently too much of the tail, it being considered a necessary appendage which the God of nature has provided the animal to brush away annoying insects. But the evil consequences of a moderate length of dock, or indeed any at all, he has seen too often manifested, to induce him to swerve from his practice ; humanity, indeed, sanctions it. The sheep which carries a “natural tail,” or only half a one, is very certain not to take that care of it, in regard to cleanliness, which it ought ; on the contrary, it is often seen with large accumu- lations of dung attached to it, and presenting anything but a tasteful aspect. But the sheep is not to be blamed for this, for, unlike all other domestic animals, it can and does void its excrement in a lying posture; and a huge tail will not be removed, on such occasions, without an extraordinary effort. Hence it is, concretions of dung are formed, which attract the maggot-fly, and unless a timely discovery is made by the master, the sheep dies a horrible death. ‘Thus the life of the animal is often jeopardized, and therefore is it not humane to deprive it of so perilous an appendage? Again, if the old calculation of the farmer be true, that it takes one bushel of corn to fat a swine’s tail, it is a problem to deter- mine, how much feed is requisite to keep in “ store order” the undivided tail of a sheep. At the conclusion of the castration and docking, use is made of the ointment alluded to. It is composed of the following ingredients: say one quart of tar, two lbs. of lard, and after being warmed to a thin liquid, add a gill of spirits of turpentine, and apply it by means of a soft swab to the mutilations, and for one or two inches around them. This is very healing in its effects, prevents inflammation from colds, and, what is of most consequence, is an effectual guard against the attacks of the maggot-fly. None will approach it, so abhorrent is the effluvia of tar or turpentine to all winged insects. The lambs are put out of the pound as fast as each has passed the operation, and are disposed to be very quiet, which is quite right, as it checks the discharge of blood. Let them remain about for an hour or more, if the pasture to which they are to be turned is distant, and then they may be moved off, but very slowly. Be careful, before this is 176 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. done, to look in the corners of fences, behind trees or what- not, in the immediate vicinity, as some may be concealed, and the stiffmess consequent of their wounds will make them unwilling to return with the flock, unless discovered and aroused. Some work may be saved by this little piece of vigilance, as they may get mixed with other flocks subse- quently brought up. CHAPTER IX. SUMMER MANAGEMENT CONTINUED. SHEARING—INTERIM BETWEEN WASHING AND SHEARING—SORTING —MARKING THE SHEEP—ROLLING THE FLEECES—~ARRANGEMENT OF WOOL FOR SALE—SHEARING-HOUSE—BALEING WOOL—SHEEP TICK—MAGGOT-FLY—NOXIOUS WEEDS. SHEARING. Tuis event, the harvest of the shepherd, as the reader has been informed, in the “olden time” was celebrated at its conclusion with feastings and other demonstrations of rejoi- cing. But this goodly custom has for long been discontin- ued in this country, if we except the “ancients” of Nantucket, who yet pertinaciously adhere annually to its observance. It is very properly termed a harvest, for thus it is to the faithful and humane flock-master; but the reverse of this is the case with that unprofitable servant, whose slothfulness and negligence may be seen manifested in the emaciated and partly denuded forms of his flock, at this interesting period. The former reaps a bountiful reward, while the other gathers little else than burs and tag-locks ! The remarks of censure prefixed to the notices on tagging, washing, and castration, in reference to the heedless and unskilful manner with which these matters are usually at- tended to, by a large majority of wool-growers, will apply with tenfold force to the subject now under consideration. It will be proper to say, without ceremony or fear of contra- diction, that the shearing of sheep, as generally conducted in the United States, is utterly disgraceful. ‘The passing traveller, to be satisfied of the truth of this assertion, need not confine his observation to the “ poor man’s flock” as seen grazing by the roadside, but in the fields of those who sus- tain the reputation of good farmers in their respective neigh- borhoods, will often behold sheep whose appearance indicate 178 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP, that their fleeces were gnawed off rather than shorn. But with a view to repress indignation, the writer will not enter into further description of such slovenly-looking objects, but propose the question, Whose fault is this, and to whose door is it to be laid? Is it the shearer, or is it the master ? In the first place, the mass of wool-growers are themselves ignorant of the details of this important art, very few having ever learned it practically, and consequently are incompetent to teach it. ‘Therefore, when the shearer is proceeding with his work, the master looks on, and, if faults are committed, he is incapable of directing how they shall be avoided. He may, it is true, vehemently denounce the unskilfulness and cruelty of the shearer, but he has not himself the requisite knowledge to take the shears and personally direct how they should be held, and how far they should clip from the point, or the position the sheep should lie, in order to prevent its tearing the fleece with its feet. In addition to this, it is quite probable that the shearer, with a view to save a shilling or two, has been hired to perform the work by the lump, or so much per head; and under such circumstances he recklessly “cuts in” and dashes ahead to accomplish it in the most speedy time, regardless of the scolding of his employer, the manner of his work, or humanity to the suffering animal. There are shearers, but they are few, who can do their work quickly and yet do it well; but these have acquired the art correctly at the beginning, and have wisely adhered to its rules through a long experience. But the great ma- jority have been. spoiled when learning the rudiments, by the very class of farmers alluded to. ‘Thus even shearers who have had the benefit of some correct teaching, are made reckless performers by parsimonious notions on the part of those who have employed them. Bad habits are very easily acquired by a shearer, as the writer has had frequent opportunities of observing in those who have served him in this capacity for successive years ; but it has been in the employ of these shear-by-the-head or job flock-masters. Here is the root of the evil—urging shearers to do more than they can do well, and thereby con- firming the old but truthful adage, “ haste makes waste.” The axe must be laid at the root of ‘this evil at once, or good workmen will continue to be, as now, few and far between. The wool-grower must cease to entertain the false notion that by hiring his shearing done by the head or job, he is SUMMER MANAGEMENT. ~ 1/9 the gainer, for the very reverse is the fact in nine tenths of such instances, owing to the slovenly and half-way execu- tion which follows, the sheep carrying away wool enough to doubly pay the ordinary day wages. The fault, it will have been seen, lies at the door of the master, and not wholly to the shearer. Of those who can shear a large number in a day, and per- form it skilfully, there are very few ; but nothing precise can be stated, as it depends entirely on the breed. If they are Saxons or Merinos, or grades of these breeds, it will be very safe to say, from twenty-five to forty, taking the aver- age of a flock; the grown sheep fewer than of yearlings. In general terms, it may be said that he is a good workman who will accomplish about the largest number, cuts the wool with one clip of his shears, and not in twain, as one shear- ing too fast is apt to do, shears even and close without cut- ting the skin, and holds his sheep in those positions both easy to it and himself. The following instructions may be followed, intended for the novice :— Supposing that the floor of the shearing-house has previ- ously been thoroughly cleaned, the pound containing the flock littered with straw—the shearer proceeds to bring his sheep upon the floor. This he must avoid doing after a common method, which resembles, rather than anything else, the rough-and-tumble efforts of a dog dragging a wood- chuck from his burrow—but after catching it, to throw his right arm around the body, grasping the brisket with his hand, then lift it, and with his left hand remove dirt or straw, if any adhere to the feet. If the sheep is filthy about the tail, or perchance any burs are attached to the wool, at the threshold of the door, let all be cut off by a suitable pair of shears at hand for such purposes only. Then he may place the sheep on that part of the floor assigned to him, resting on its rump, and himself in a posture, with one knee on a cushion, and the back of the animal resting against his left thigh. He grasps the shears about half-way from the point to the bow, resting his thumb along the blade, which affords him better command of the points. He may then commence cutting the wool at the brisket, and, proceeding downwards, all upon the sides of the belly to the extremity of the ribs, the external sides of both thighs to the edges of the flanks ; then back to the brisket, and thence upwards, shearing the a 180 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. wool from the breast, front, and both sides of the neck—but not yet the back of it—and also the poll or fore part, and top of the head. Now the “ jacket is opened” of the sheep, and its position, and that of the shearer, is changed, by be- ing turned flat upon its side, one knee of the shearer resting on the cushion, and his other gently pressing the fore-quar- ter of the animal, to prevent any struggling. He then re- sumes cutting upon the flank and rump, and thence onwards to the head. Thus one side is completed. The sheep is then turned on to the other side, in doing which great care is requisite to prevent the fleece from being torn, and the shearer acts as upon the other, which finishes. He must then take his sheep near to the door through which it is to pass out, and neatly trim the legs, and leave not a solitary lock anywhere as a harbor for ticks. It is absolutely neces- sary for him to remove from his stand to trim, otherwise the useless stuff from the legs becomes intermingled with the fleece wool. In the use of the shears, let the blades be laid as flat to the skin as possible, not lower the points too much, nor cut more than from one to two inches at a clip, frequently not so much, depending on the part, and compactness of the wool. The above instructions being designed for a beginner, we will suppose that this is his first and only attempt. Let his employer, when he is about it, and it will be a good while, have an eye on all his movements, kindly and carefully di- recting them. After the pupil is through his maiden effort, you will see him smoothing out the crinkles and aches from his back and hips—for thus the poor fellow will feel—and if the weather is warm—and of course it should be—wiping the dripping sweat from his brow. But be easy; let him blow a while before he catches another sheep, for if you hur- ry him, long before night you will hear murmured from his lips, that “shearing is a back-breaking business—it’s not what it is cracked up to be,” &c. &c., indicating that he is already disgusted with it, and if so, adieu to his ever arriving at skilfulness. But if he has time afforded to straighten himself, and is patted with kind compliments ‘“ upon his un- expected well-doing—that he improves with each successive sheep—and that he will be sure to make a first-rate shear- er,” you will bring him under the yoke without his knowing its hardships. He will probably shear eight or ten the first SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 181 day, and possibly a few more the next ; at all events, guard him all the while, and see that he hurries not, or slights his work in any respect. In this way, and none other, can we properly educate shearers to do their work with tact, and increased profit to the flock-master. This is but a transcript of the writer’s course ; and to show its good results, he has now in mind an instance, among several, where he instructed a raw one, and the following season his pupil sheared forty per day, and performed his task admirably. Again: if this plan could be generally adopted, good shearers would be more plentiful, and wool-growers, aside from other evils, would not be compelled to delay shearing often beyond the proper time, for want of them. There is yet another mode of taking off the fleece, not un- common in this country, very generally adopted in England, and in nowise objectionable, and which is here laid before the reader. The following description of it is from the Farmer’s Series : «‘ A barn or shed into which plenty of light can be admit- ted near the shearers should be selected, and a part of the floor covered with a large canvass sheet, on which two shearers can operate. The sheet should be nailed down, and a little straw placed under it to soften it as a cushion. The floor of the barn should be swept out quite clean, and a light broom be at hand to sweep the sheet when necessary. Everything being arranged, a shearer seizes a sheep, and sets it on its rump, and keeps it in this position by resting the back against his own legs. He removes all straws, thorns, burs, &c., that may have adhered to the wool. While thus held, the wool is removed from the head and neck as far as the shoulders, and also from the belly, the scrotum, and the edge of the thighs. The head of the ani- mal is then bent down sideways, and the shearer, placing a leg on each side of the neck of the sheep, pushes out the opposite ribs by pressing his knees gently against the ribs that are nearest to him. He next shears the wool from the far side with his left hand, from the belly to the middle of the back, and as far down as the loins. ‘The sheep is now turned, and the right hand is employed to shear the wool from the near side. ‘The sheep is then laid flat on its side, and kept down by the shearer with his face towards the rump of the sheep, resting his right knee on the ground in 16 182 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. front of the neck, and his right toe being brought to the ground a little behind and below the poll; the head and neck of the sheep are thus confined by his right leg, while he uses his right hand to shear the wool from the hind-quar- ter. In this way the clips of the shears will appear in con- centric rings round the body of the sheep. The dirty por- tions of wool about the tail are then removed by the shears, and kept by themselves ;* the outside of the fleece is folded inwards, beginning at the sides, and narrowing the whole fleece into a stripe about two feet wide. ‘The stripe is then rolled firmly up from the tail and towards the neck, the wool of which is stretched out and twisted into a rope, and wound round the fleece to give it a cylindrical shape.” INTERIM BETWEEN WASHING AND SHEARING, ETC. The interim between washing and shearing should depend on the state of the weather; if cool and cloudy, the yolk or oil will not appear so readily, a substance, as the reader has been informed in a previous part of the work,which is high- ly necessary to confer softness and brilliancy to the wool. If the weather has been sunny, from a week to ten days from washing will be quite long enough; and when the work of shearing begins and is proceeding, the temperature, in the Northern States at least, cannot be too warm. But there are thousands who violate this, and thereby reap sad consequences to themselves, by the death of many of their sheep, which arises from the extreme sensitiveness of the animal to cold immediately after its fleece has been shorn. To guard against this evil as much as possible, it will not be safe to begin shearing, in this latitude, before the 1st of June, and will be yet safer, generally, to defer it a few days longer. After waiting till the last moment, if a cold rain storm should occur during the process, those which have been shorn should be put under cover without a moment’s delay, as death to many of them will infallibly follow, if it is neglected. ‘The extreme suffering of sheep under such cir- cumstances is inconceivable, and no one, unless wholly de- void of humanity, to say nothing of regard for his pockets, will refrain to fly to their immediate relief. Veteran flock- masters will duly appreciate these remarks, as there are few * This is exceptionable ; it should be done before anything else—Au- thor Am. Shepherd. SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 183 of us who have not in times past been losers, by inhumanly neglecting this important duty. If the cutting of the horns and hoofs has not already been attended to at tagging time, as has been recommended, it should be no longer delayed, but done now. Although the indications of scab at any time are infallible with the experienced flock-master, yet perchance a discov- ery has not been made, after the fleece is removed it can no longer escape. observation. Should any be found infected, a resort to the proper remedy must not be delayed for a mo- ment.* SORTING, ETC. To the breeders for mutton, and more particularly the cul- tivators of wool, no other occasion than the present is more favorable to institute thorough examinations of the forms and fleeces of their flocks. It is thus, because the wool will often conceal, when growing upon the sheep, minor imper- fections of the carcase; but after the fleece is shorn, they become more obvious. If the sheep are of the mutton vari- ety, those of the same age should be compared as to size, and the individuals having the greatest, with most approved proportions, should be marked, and retained for breeding purposes. Although the fleece can be pretty accurately judged by the experienced wool culturists for several months antecedent, yet not so well as now; ahd every one bearing wool distinguished for those properties most desirable, as well as possessing a symmetrical form, with indications of thrift and easy keep, must also receive a lasting mark, for it should not be parted with. Let the fleeces of the most ap- proved be weighed, and every other particular noted. In this way only can the wool culturist advance, whilst its neg- lect will soon manifest itself in a deterioration both of fleece and carcase. Although it is quite common, and withal very necessary, to classify sheep, by a division ito flocks of the sexes, at the beginning of the foddering season, yet if it has been neg- lected, it should be now done. Nothing should be permit- ted to run with the ewes and lambs, and their continuance on the best pasture will be of the highest advantage. The wethers and dry ewes selected for sale should also be tumed * See Chapter on Diseases. 184 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. to good keep; and indeed so of all others of the flock, if possible. MARKING, ETC. There is another incidental duty connected with shearing time—namely, marking the sheep before they are finally disposed of to the fields. It is usually done by the shearer or with his aid. This does not refer to ear-marks, but paint- ing the initial letter of the owner’s name upon the body of the sheep, which, however, is commonly performed in a very uncouth and ludicrous style. This can be obviated by hay- ing the letter cut in pasteboard, and thereby some degree of taste and uniformity will result. If a letter is not indispen- sable, it will be better to have an iron formed to represent a ring, triangle, or diamond, with a handle attached; then dip the iron in the paint, which should be deposited in a shallow vessel, and immediately apply it to the wethers on the right shoulders, ewes on the left, or vice versa, and the bucks on the rump. ‘This is practicable, if others near by do not adopt the same mark. Such marks of ownership are quite necessary, with a view to distant or more obvious recogni- tion, and more especially so if any of the flock are breachy and disposed to stray. [he manner in which it is done fre- quently reflects the character of the flock-master. If it is done neatly, the inference is that his other performances are likewise. The materials for marking should be lampblack and lin- seed oil, or, as a substitute for the latter, hog’s lard. Let the lampblack be “killed,” as painters term it, by using a very little of spirits of turpentine, before the oil is mixed. It will not rub off so easily if allowed to stand twenty-four hours before applied. It is common to use tar; but this is objec- tionable with the manufacturer, it being difficult to separate by the cleansing process. As soon as the flock is pounded for shearing, the lambs should be separated before anything else is done, lest the wound occasioned by severing the dock should be irritated by the squeezing and jostling of the old ones. An exam- ination of the altered tups may be made to see if all is right. If there are any worms (which is not very likely if the pre- caution has been observed to anoint thoroughly as recom- mended), let spirits of turpentine be applied, which the flock- master should never be without. SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 185 ROLLING THE FLEECES. After the shearer has performed his task, the fleeces must be carefully taken from the floor, and put upon the rolling ta- ble, the outside of it uppermost. ‘The valuable loose locks about the shearer’s stand must all be picked up, and the use- less stuff from the legs, &c., put into a corner, bag, or basket. It should not be swept out of doors, as it possesses valuable properties for manure. The roller then proceeds to spread out the fleece, which cannot be too carefully done, separates the ragged portions from the skirts and head, and then makes it as compact as possible by pushing from all sides towards the centre. The loose wool is then thrown upon the fleece, which is followed by turning over the sides and ends so as to form an oblong stripe, say about two or three feet long, and one and a half wide, which is moved to the front edge of the table. He then com- mences to roll the long side of the stripe, aided by a boy at the other end of it, who lay their arms flat from the elbow to press the wool as the rolling proceeds, till the stripe is re- duced to six or nine inches in width, depending on the size of the fleece. The boy then mounts upon the table, and each commences rolling from the ends of the stripe till the parts meet, when the boy rolls his portion on top of his assistant’s, firmly pressing it till the twine is passed round both ways and tied, which effectually secures the fleece, no matter how roughly handled. After it receives a slight pressure, it pre- sents somewhat the form of a cheese. There are other modes of putting up fleeces, performed without any aid; but the writer has yet to see that individ- ual who alone can roll a fleece as firm and solid as it should be, at the same time giving it a symmetrical and attractive form. If it is loosely rolled, the quantity of canvass used for pack- ing is necessarily much increased ; and this item of extra expense is more than equivalent to the services of a lad as an assistant. ARRANGEMENT OF WOOL FOR SALE, ETC. The slovenly manner in which wool is rolled and after- wards prepared for exhibition to the buyer, deserves a pass- ing remark. The wool-grower should keep before him the motto of Ko" 186 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. the shopmen, “ goods tidily kept are half sold.” This applies with equal propriety to everything saleable by the farmer, and to nothing with greater force than his wool. They are too prone to get along with this matter in a “rough and tumble” style, doing up the fleeces untidily, and then depositing them in dark and uninviting places for exhibition. If wool has been well cleansed, it will not be ashamed of too much light; if only half washed, a dark corner only aggravates its ap- pearance. ‘There is an art in disposing wool for sale, which enables the flock-master to put his best foot out, and yet be guiltless of artifice to deceive the buyer; on the contrary, increases his opportunity to judge accurately of everything appertaining to condition and quality. The adoption of the following will carry out the writer's views and practice :— First, against one, or all sides—if necessary—of the wool- loft, let four or five tiers of fleeces be placed upon top of each other, as nearly alike as to size as possible ; the next pile, one tier of fleeces less, and so on diminishing the succeed- ing piles one tier, till the last is reduced toa single one. In this way, the fleeces represent piazza steps, or perhaps more properly, the ascending seats of an amphitheatre. It will readily be conceived, that if the fleeces have been neatly roiled and adjusted, the whole is not only attractive, but saves the buyer much tine in overhauling it, which is unavoidable if disposed of in a bin, or piled in any other form. This constitutes one of those “ inviting appearances” which the world delight to gaze on, and which the world are some- times disposed to pay a little beyond the intrinsic value for the sake of possessing. Let the flock-master honestly tag his sheep and cleanse his fleeces, and put nothing within them but the “ clean thing,” and the inviting scene before the buyer cannot mislead, or deceive him afterwards. This leads to an exposure of other “ cheating practices” of wool-growers, alluded to by Mr. Samuel Lawrence, under the head of ‘ washing.” Inacommunication to the writer he states the following :—* The practice of enclosing in the fleece clippings, &c., is too common, and should be discour- aged by manufacturers. I have known sin ounces of this useless stuff taken from one fleece. ‘There is another prac- tice equally disgraceful—the use of five to twenty times as much twine asis necessary. A short time since I took sixty- six feet of large twine from one fleece.” SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 187 No further comment is*necessary, than to say, that any flock-master who will put tag or dung locks, clippings, &c., in the fleece, with a view to increase the weight, for such is the motive, is committing a gross fraud, and in every instance of discovery, his crime should be exposed to the public for reprobation, In addition to excessive quantity of twine, it is not unusual for the size to be adapted almost as well for rope-traces, as tying of fleeces. It should be about half the size of a pipe’s tail, as smooth as possible, otherwise, the fibres of flax, hemp, or cotton are intermingled with the wool; the carder cannot dislodge them—they receive the dye imperfectly, and con- sequently deface the surface of the cloth. SHEARING-HOUSE AND APPENDAGES. Flock-masters are subjected to many inconveniences for want of an appropriate place for shearing, with the necessa- ry appendages of pounds, &c. The expense of a shearing- house is not large, and will amply reimburse the expense in a few years, as it can be used for the reception of farm im- plements, &c., when the shearing is over, and wool removed. The fence for the pounds should be constructed of posts and boards ; two are required, and the one contiguous to the shearing-house need not be more than twenty feet square ; the other may be much larger. It is very important that the wool-loft should be well light- ed. No matter how well the fleeces may have been cleansed, yet if there is a deficiency of light, they present a dingy aspect. One window of good size is all that is necessary at the south end, and two will be required at the opposite or north end, for the reason that from that quarter the light is milder, and gives the wool, if fine, a softer and more silky appearance. Wool sorters always give a “north light” the preference. The trap door for suspending the sacks when packing, should be in a central part of the floor, which leads to the subject of BALEING WOOL. The article commonly used for baleing is termed by the merchant, burlaps, which varies in width from 35 to 40 inch- es ; the latter is preferable. The quantity necessary for a 188 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. sack is 3 yards. A truss hoop is used, around the rim of which the mouth of the sack is twisted, and is then placed on a square frame just large enough to permit the rim of the hoop to rest. The elevation should be sufficient to clear the sack from the lower floor, when suspended. Some half dozen fleeces are then thrown in for a layer, followed by a man who carefully adjusts and treads each successive layer, till full. Gener- ally, there is quite too much haste in this matter, and conse- quently the wool is too loosely packed, and an extra quantity of canvass is made necessary. It will be well before the packing commences, to stuff the bottom corners of the sacks with wool clippings, and tie them, which afford handles for lifting the bales. THE SHEEP TICK—(Acarus reduvuus.) This disgusting insect infests sheep of all ages, but none others so much as yearlings. While they tend to impoverish the animal, if collected in large numbers, they stain the wool in such a manner as to make it difficult to cleanse. But they are so easily and effectually eradicated, it is inhu- mane in any flock-master to permit their torments to any portion of his sheep. The following is the modus operandi for destroying them: For 100 lambs, use 5 lbs. of inferior plug tobacco, or 10 Ibs. of stems; the former should be chopped into small pieces, that its strength by boiling may be more fully extract- ed. This will require some hours to do, and the most ef- fectual way will be to apply at first two pails of water, which may boil for half an hour, and then take one pail of liquor from the kettle, and at the same time add another of water, and so on till 30 gallons of decoction is made, for which the quantity of tobacco named will be adequate. A half hogshead will be the best thing for the deposite of the liquor, upon one side of the top of which should be fast- ened a rack, to rest the lambs after their immersion, in order that the liquor may drain from them. If this is not done, much of it will be unnecessarily wasted. About a week after shearing the ticks will have left the ewes and fastened themselves upon the lambs, which will be the proper time to have them got up for this purpose. The lambs must be held by the head with both hands, and then dipped to the ears, using great care that none of the decoction passes into the eyes or mouth. SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 189 There are some flock-masters who immerse all their sheep, but if the lambs are faithfully attended to every year, at the period recommended, few, if any, of the remainder of the flock will ever be infested. Good condition is one of the best preventives for this nuisance. The tobacco decoction will also be found excellent for slight wounds of the skin, and cutaneous irritations from johns- wort. MAGGOT-FLY. Sheep during the summer months are subjected to extreme annoyance from flies—principally the Estris Ovis, or gad- fly, and the several varieties of worm, or maggot flies. Fine-wooled sheep, from the close texture of their coats, do not suffer from the attacks of the latter, unless dirty from scours or wounds; but the English long-wooled varieties are especially exposed. The following observations are copied from Blacklock : “The insects passing under the name of “ Fly,” though most troublesome in August, attack the sheep from May to September, inclusive, depositing their eggs among the wool, in general about the tail, the roots of the horns, or any part which affords, from its filthy appearance, a prospect of suita- ble provision for the maggot. When these eggs are hatched, a process which is, in sultry weather, almost instantaneous, the maggot erodes the skin, and speedily brings the adjacent parts into a fit condition for the reception of succeeding mem- bers of its species. The backs of long-wooled sheep are, from their exposure, more liable to be selected by the flies, as a receptacle for their eggs, than the corresponding parts in such as are coy- ered by a short, thick fleece. No sooner has the maggot begun its operations, than the sheep becomes uneasy and restless, rubbing itself on stones and trees, and endeavoring, by every means in its power, to free itself from the annoyance. ‘Teased by the constant ir- ritation, fever soon sets in, and, if the sheep be unrelieved by the shepherd’s aid, death will inevitably follow. It is only lately that attention has been paid to the history of the insect pests which originate the mischief, so little damage do they appear to have occasioned in former periods. In a valuable paper, containing the result of observations made on this subject in the Highlands, and published in the 190 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. second number of the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, they are thus described : “The fly which is so troublesome to sheep, as far as my observations could extend, consist of four species, viz.—the Muscar Ceasar, Cadaverina, Vomitoria, and Carnaria, of Linneus. ‘“‘ M. Ceasar is of a shining green sine “ M. Cadaverina, the thorax shining bluish, the abdomen green, like the Ceasar. “« M. Vomitoria, thorax black, or dark-blue grey, abdomen dark glossy blue. This is the common Blue-bottle or Flesh- ae M. Carnaria, grey ; the thorax has three black longitu- dinal markings on the upper surface ; the abdomen is chec- quered, in some positions shining whitish. “In all instances in which I observed them, the green flies were the first to attack, and this is the common opinion among the shepherds. After a time, when the larve (mag- gots) commenced gnawing the flesh, the putrid stench, which was thereby occasioned, attracted other species. The Blue- bottle was very common, more numerous than both the for- mer species, and perhaps contributed most to accelerate the death of the animal, after the others had commenced. * * “In five days after the larve are hatched they arrive at full growth, provided they have plenty of food; they then cease to eat, and seek to assume the pupa state, crawling under ground two or three inches. Here they remain about fourteen days, when the shell cracks, and the imago, or fly, appears.” The correctness of this description of their transformation Blacklock attests, from having watched their habits during his anatomical pursuits in the summer months. To ward off the attacks of flies, various substances ob- noxious to them have been recommended. Tar, with spirits turpentine, may be applied about the ears, horns, and tail ; while others prefer a little melted butter, thickened by flour of sulphur, put also along the sheep’s back, which is, on the authority of Blacklock, an effectual preventive. Flock-masters cannot be too vigilant during the summer months, in watching closely every individual, and if any are seen with scours, they should be got up, and tar and turpen- tine applied. Rams should be still more closely observed, especially the Saxon and Merino, whose pugnacious tempers SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 191 incline them so frequently to battle, often inflicting wounds around the base of the horns which are certain to call the flies. Many valuable rams have been lost from this cause, which watchfulness might have prevented. NOXIOUS WEEDS. Sheep, from their fondness of variety of herbage, are often disposed to pluck weeds possessing poisonous qualities ; and to guard against this evil entirely, the only remedy is, for the flock-master to eradicate everything of the kind from his sheep-walks. The low Laurel, Kalmia Angustifolia, is always fatal to sheep, and Johnswort also, if partaken of too freely ; but the reader is referred to the chapter on Diseases for further observations relative to these. The burs of the common Burdock and Tory-plant are both injurious to the appearance of the fleece, and much vigilance is requisite to destroy these weeds, as their most congenial places of growth are in fence corners, and beside old stumps and logs, and therefore not so easily seen. But it is an old observation of wool-growers, “if you want to find a bur- dock, put a sheep on the track,” and the trophies of success will soon be seen carried in its fleece. Burs in wool injure materially its sale, and a reduction in price frequently fol- lows. If a burdock is early severed near the root, and a handful of salt applied, it will never again “ rise and report progress.” The common thistle should also be kept down, for which the washer, shearer, and especially the roller of fleeces, will return their grateful thanks CHAPTER X. SUMMER MANAGEMENT CONTINUED. LOCALITIES FOR SHEEP—SOIL — HERBAGE — DEDUCTIONS—VARIETY OF HERBAGE—REVIEW OF PREMISES—FREQUENT CHANGE OF PAS TURE—INCIDENTAL DUTIES—REMARKS ON THE LOCALITIES OF ENGLISH SHEEP—GRASSES AND THEIR RELATIVE NUTRITIOUS PROPERTIES—SHADE TREES—WATER—WEANING OF LAMBS—EAR MARKING—WHEAT STUBBLE—OVERSTOCKING—PASTURING IN THE FALL—SORTING SHEEP FOR WINTER QUARTERS. LOCALITIES FOR SHEEP. On right locality mainly depends the ultimate profits of sheep culture, which, among other prominent circumstances, embraces that of climate, which will be found fully consid- ered in a subsequent chapter. Until within the last hundred years no extraordinary at- tention had been paid to sheep husbandry in Great Britain ; but when the nation became aroused to its vast importance, it was discovered that the prominent breeds, with their nume- rous subdivisions, were placed on localities admirably adapted by nature toeach. ‘The light-quartered, long-legged, restless Welsh sheep were gambolling upon the mountains, and pick- ing the uncultivated herbage, peculiar to them. ‘The Down sheep were upon the hill slopes feeding upon a soil afford- ing adequate sustenance for a medium-sized breed; the heavy-quartered, long-wooled varieties were consuming the fat pastures of the plains and valleys; and the Cheviot and iron-constitutioned black-faced sheep were sustaining them- selves among the heather of the North mountains of Eng- land, and Highlands of Scotland, where other breeds would have perished from starvation and cold. The pliancy of constitution of the sheep, unequalled by any other domes- tic animal, which adaptates it to almost every transition of climate and soil, will account for the difference of conform- ation of the several breeds, as observsd in these varied lo- eT A Le SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 193 calities. But centuries were required to accomplish this, for nature, when left to herself, is slow in effecting radical re- sults. But thus the English husbandman found them at the commencement of the era of improvement, and he under- stood quite too well his interest to transfer the sheep, whose accustomed walks for centuries were on the slopes and mountain tops, to the abundant herbage of the valleys, or exchange the rich keep of the: larger varieties for poorer and more scanty. He was content to improve the forms, and increase the disposition to fatten and earlier maturity, but to go no farther; and long experience has attested his practical wisdom. But this commendable example, from various causes, is too often lost sight of by the American breeder, and will presently be alluded to. The first point appertaining to locality which will be con- sidered, is SOIL. The soil most suitable for the sheep is a dry one. It is emphatically an upland animal, and loves the short and varied herbage of hill and mountain slopes, provided the soil is not poachy from an excess of moisture. To no other do- mestic quadruped is water more repugnant, unless when ne- cessary to lave its thirst, as will be seen in its aversion to crossing streams, and always selecting the driest points for feeding and rest. Whether it is thus, because it is endowed with the instinctive knowledge, that the presence of too much moisture in a soil engenders diseases too fatal to it, cannot conclusively be determined. But there is strong presumptive evidence that it is so, from the fact that this in- telligent principle abounds in all the brute creation to that degree, when free from the restraints of man, which induces the formation of such habits only as conduce for the most part to their welfare and safety. _ The chalky districts of England, on which so large a por- tion of the Down sheep are fed, causes a harsh and inelas- tic feeling of their wool, as has already been remarked in a former part of the work. Blacklock says—* Soil, also, has much influence on the pliability of the wool. Chalky lands, which are so notorious for injuring the fleece, are supposed to act in the manner of a corrosive, but the correct explanation is, not that the chalky particles attack the fibre in a direct way, but that they render it brittle, by absorbing the if 194 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. oily moisture with which it is naturally imbued. More- over, the plants growing in such situations cannot but be in- jurious to sheep, owing to their impregnation, though a slight one, with calcareous matter ; for grooms know well how soon a horse’s coat becomes disordered by the frequent use of hard or well water, and prefer, therefore, the river for their steeds.” His last remark is true, and is worthy of much consider- ation with the wool-grower. By careful observation and comparison, it will be found that where sheep are fed on limestone soils, and, consequently, the water hard, the wool from them does not possess that peculiar softness, as that from sheep of the same stock kept on lands deprived of cal- careous matter, and the water soft. Exceptions, however, to this exist, if the herbage materially differs of the respec- tive localities, as for instance, if in the latter it is very lux- uriant, and coarse, and the former short, and abounding in aromatic plants. The presence of too much moisture in soils being a para- mount objection, other than very chalky ones, none are wholly exceptionable for the purposes of sheep culture but those of the opposite extreme, viz.—too dry, from their po- rosity. This is the case in nearly all sections where sand greatly predominates ; and is thus, to a considerable extent, south of the Middle States, in light loams, from exposure to too much heat. That soil, to furnish a uniform supply of pasture, should have a due admixture of clay, to cause such a degree of adhesiveness as will prevent the herbage, du- ring the summer months, from withering, by drought. ‘Too much sand in a soil is a fatal objection to sheep culture wherever it is found, and especially so in the South and Southwestern States, as nothing contributes so much, not only to perfect the several properties of wool, but early ma- turity and perfection of carcase, as a uniform and plentiful supply of food at all seasons ; and this a soil too porous can- not be expected to furnish during the warm parts of the year, scarcely in any section of the United States. The next essential thing connected with locality, is HERBAGE. There is nothing beyond this in importance to the sheep- breeder, as from the quality and quantity of the herbage produced on his lands necessarily, in a measure, influences I _———_E_—————EEE SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 195 his choice of breeds, and determines the number he cap keep. The question has been conclusively settled, that food ex- erts.a more immediate and radical influence upon the car- case, and especially so upon the fleece, than any other known circumstance, which is confirmed by every sheep his- torian. Mr. Youatt states the following: ‘“ Pasture has a far greater influence than climate on the fineness of the fleece. The staple of the wool, like every other part of the sheep, must increase in length or in bulk when the animal has a superabundance of nutriment ; and, on the other hand, the secretion which forms the wool must decrease like every other, when sufficient nourishment is not afforded. * When little cold has been experienced in the winter, and vegetation has been scarcely checked, the sheep yields an abundant crop of wool, but the fleece is perceptibly coarser, as wellas heavier. When the frost has been severe, and the ground long covered with snow—if the flock has been fairly supplied with nutriment, although the fleece may have lost a little in weight, it will have acquired a superior degree of fineness, and a proportional increase of value. Should, however, the sheep have been neglected and starved during this prolongation of cold weather, the fleece as well as car- case is thinner, and although it may have preserved its smallness of filament, it has lost in weight, and strength, and usefulness.” There can be no doubt that in Great Britain wool has materially changed its character since the introduction of artificial food, and the adoption of the forcing system. Mr. Nottage states,* of the Western Down sheep, “that he used to get one-eighth part of the finest English wool from each fleece ; but that now the quantity is so small he does not throw it out; he does not set a basket for it at all.” Mr. Sutcliffe says, that—* Thirty years ago there was, in some South Down flocks, nearly as good wool grown, as the fine German that now comes into the country.” Mr. Varley adds, that “‘ he used to throw his wool extremely high to the sort—very good to the sort—but he found that the qualities generally were getting so low, that if he continued that sort of practice, he should have been looking into two of his best bins without finding a bit of wool in them.” Mr. Fison * Testimony before a committee of Parliament. 196 MANAGEMENT OF SHEED. states of the Norfolk sheep, that “in 1780, 420 Ibs. of clothing wool grown in Norfolk would produce 200 Ibs. prime—in 1828, it would produce only 14 lbs.” ‘These are certainly convincing proofs of the effect of high keep. Dr. Parry, an English writer on sheep, and distinguished as a patron of the Merino, says—* The fineness of a sheep’s fleece of a given breed is, within certain limits, inversely as its fatness, and perhaps also as the quickness with which it grows fat. A sheep which is fat has usually comparatively coarse wool, and one which is lean, either from the want of food or disease, has the finest wool; and the very same sheep may at different times, according to these circum- stances, have fleeces of all the intermediate qualities from extreme fineness to comparative coarseness.”* The facts and deductions set forth in the foregoing ex- tracts are applicable wherever sheep are kept, as may be seen manifested in very many flocks which have been re- moved from the old States, to the prairies of the West. A large, and intelligent wool-growert of Washington, Penn., who with others has kindly favored the writer with his course of management, after alluding to the effect of climate upon the fleece, says, ‘‘ Much also, in my opinion, depends on the soil; high, poor lands will produce better wool than rich low lands. I sent a flock a few years since to Warren County, Illinois, of about our latitude, and after three years’ experience [ scarcely knew my own wool ; the quantity of fleece and size of the sheep have increased, but the wool has not retained its fineness. This no doubt arises from the pasturage ; they become very fat in summer, which in- creases the harshness of the wool and destroys that delicate texture it has in the more eastern and high lands.” But the effect of rich keep is not peculiar to the prairies ; and therefore forms no objection to them for wool culture, simply because there is a decidence in fineness, since the carcase is enlarged and with it the quantity of wool, the fil- ament or fibre made stronger, as, also, the fabric from which * Columella, whose sheep were cultivated principally for their fleece, mentions the hungry lands about Parma and Modena, as feeding the most valuable sheep ; and Virgil was perfectly aware of the influence of lux- uriant pasture in giving coarseness to the fleece when he warns against the “ pabula leta :” ‘Nor in too rank a pasture let them live.” t John H. Ewing, Esq. SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 197 it is made. But it is not now the business of the writer to discuss the policy of removing the finest breeds to the prai- ries ; suflicient for him is it to make known the result from ordinary to high keep, and that the effect everywhere is precisely the same where experiments have been made. It may, however, be remarked, that the cheap uplands, not easily made arable for general agricultural purposes, will eventually be occupied for the cultivation of the finest wool, simply because they are best suited to the object. It is on these localities the Saxon and Merino can be maintained in healthy store order, and beyond this nothing more is requi- red. On the other hand, the rich valley lands will be in re- quisition to fill our granaries, and large districts of the prai- ries, unneeded for this purpose, will grow the medium and coarser wools, of which, owing to the competition of the ex- treme fine qualities of Germany and other large portions of Europe, no redundancy can be produced, for very many years at least, to over supply the wants of the American manufacturer.* No other domestic animal is known to manifest that fond- ness for variety of herbage equal to the sheep. Blacklock, after properly rebuking the English breeders for not providing a greater allowance of straw or like mate- rials to mix with their turnip feeding, proceeds to say— We find, from a perusal of the works of travellers, and from the anatomical peculiarities of the sheep, that it is fitted for res- idence in countries precipitous in surface, and scantily sup- plied with herbage ; consequently, it must range over a vast extent of ground for a subsistence, and its food must, owing to the varied features of the country, consist, not of one or a few plants, but of a most extensive mixture of herbage. Ex- periment also points out that the deductions from these ob- servations are correct. Sheep, in fact, consume a greater number of plants than any other domestic animal. Linnzus, in examining into this subject, found, by offering fresh plants to such animals, in the ordinary mode of feeding, that horses ate 262 species, and refused 212; cattle ate 276 species, and refused 218; while sheep took 387 species, and only refused 141. We find, too, great difficulty in preventing sheep from springing over the dykes and hedges that we place as boundaries to their rambling habits, yet how seldom * For further remarks, see Sheep of the United States. Wing 198 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. do we see the true cause of their determination to set them at defiance. We may partly account for it by considering their analogy to the goat, and their propensity to scale rug- ged eminences ; but I think these movements rather indicate an anxiety to change a pasture already exhausted of variety, for fresh fields, and herbage abounding in that miscellaneous provision which nature apparently reckons essential for them. Shepherds own as much, and will tell you that frequent change of pasture is the soul of sheep husbandry.” In explanation of the philosophy of variety of food; an English author* briefly remarks,—< It is also well worthy of remark, that various herbaceous plants which spring up among others that are esculent, yet are rejected by cattle when offered alone, give a higher relish and even salubrity to the fodder with which they are intermixed. As man cannot live on tasteless, unmixed flour alone, so neither can cattle in general be so thrifty by mere grass, without the ad- dition of various plants in themselves too acid, bitter, salt, or narcotic to be eaten alone. Spices and a portion of animal food supply us with the requisite stimulus or additional nu- triment, as the ranunculus tribes, and many others, season the pasturage and fodder of cattle.” In reviewing the premises set forth appertaining to local- ities, with a view to further practical conclusions and com- ments, it is manifest in the first place, that the sheep cultu- rist must beware of soils too wet, and, consequently, poachy. Lands of this character are found quite to as great an extent, indeed more so, on mountain declivities as in valleys; it therefore is clearly to the interest of those in possession of such, if they contemplate embarking in sheep hus- bandry, to have them made as dry as possible, by drain- age, before they are stocked. If the adoption of this course does not succeed (as is often the case from being “ springy”), they should be abandoned for sheep culture, and converted to dairy or other purposes. If persisted in, the owner may expect those consequences which are inevitable, namely, foot-rot and other diseases incidental to such local- ities. It will also have been seen, that the short and yet nutri- tious hebrage of uplands is best adapted to the Merino and Saxon varieties, as being most conservative of those peculiar * Sir J. E. Smith. + See Liver and Foot-rot. SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 199 properties of their wool which adaptates it to the manufacture of the finest and softest fabrics; but on the other hand, if these breeds are removed to rich pastures, these valuable qualities of the fleece become in a measure deteriorated. This is unquestionably true if the removal is permanent, but will prove in nowise injurious if a change is made from up- land to valley herbage at short and frequent intervals. In- deed, this is highly proper, as that variety of food, so con- ducive to the health and thrift of the animal, is thereby af- forded. From old or natural to the cultivated grasses, alternately once a week or fortnight, the flock-master will learn, from observation, suits well the inclinations of sheep. In keeping with this, they should be allowed occasionally the range of open wood-lands, to brouse upon forest shoots, the slight acidity of which is much to their liking. A further argument in favor of frequent change of pasture, is the fact that if sheep are confined too long on one enclo- sure, no matter how good the feed may be, it becomes taint- ed by their constant wanderings over it; and hence, from their nice habits and extraordinary keenness of smell, will neglect it. When the flock is seen nosing here and there without eating contentedly, lose no time in removing them, even if the pasture to which they are taken is shorter and less abundant. It will be fresh and untainted, which is al- ways reason enough for the change. Connected with frequent shiftings of their pasture, is the necessity of small enclosures. This is well understood to be the right policy in England, and, where feasible, is rigidly adhered to. ‘In an enclosed country sheep generally do best when they are separated into small parcels; they feed more quietly, and they waste less. When as many sheep are put upon a fair-sized pasture as it will properly keep, they will be cleared off for market considerably earlier than if they were put in large numbers on extensive grounds. Grass land, in small divisions, will keep and fatten many more sheep than when they are of a greater extent.”* Some of the writer’s fields are large, but mostly from ten to fifteen acres—and he has learned the fact that 100 sheep will do better on twenty-five acres if divided, than on thirty acres with no division. * Farmer’s Series. 200 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. There are several incidental duties to notice when chang- ing sheep from one pasture to another, or removing them for any purpose, namely—where gates are not provided, to take out three or four of the lower bars. It is quite common to drop only one end of them; and if an hundred or more> sheep are to pass through, they lose their good manners and patience, and rush with such impetuosity that the weaker ones are frequently thrown down and injured, as, also, liable to have their feet caught in the bars, and legs thereby broken. This is of still more consequence, if the flock consists of ewes and young lambs. Again: when flocks of this description are changed, the master should go thoroughly around the field to see that all the lambs are aroused, as, when quite young, they sleep much in the daytime, and therefore are liable to be left. The better course is, not to remove them beyond an adjoin- ing lot if possible, and still better, until after shearing to leave the communications open to change themselves at pleasure As has been before observed, this obviates all confusion and trouble. Before proceeding to enumerate the various grasses, and detail their relative proportion of nutritive properties, it will perhaps be well to recall the introductory observations to the present chapter, respecting the appropriate localities of the different breeds of sheep in Great Britain, intended as hints to the American breeder. It is always of paramount importance to adaptate the breed to the quantity of feed the particular locality on which they are placed is capable of furnishing. But, in this and other States, this consideration hitherto, in very many instances, has been lost sight of. ‘The American farmer hears of the amazing size, weight of carcase and fleece of some of the English breeds, and makes undue haste to purchase, in some instances without previously knowing whether their wool is suitable for felting or combing purposes, and without duly considering the fact that the relative quantity of food sheep consume is in the ratio of their size. ‘The herbage of his farm is of the upland character, or their situation is too much exposed to cold, or, on the principle that a “sheep is a sheep,” he stints them to the quantity of feed which is capa- ble of supporting a similar number of the smaller breeds ; and from one or more of these causes, his expectations are disappointed, and he abandons them with execrations. This SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 201 has arisen from placing them on too low keep—the locality was not adapted to them, because the soil was not capable of furnishing that rich and abundant herbage requisite to support and fatten such large animals. He was not aware that the profits of the English breeds must be looked to from the carcase and not so much from the fleece ; and therefore, to bring around quick and remunerating returns, that they required large and continuous supplies of succulent food from the start. One of the grand improvements effected in the English mutton sheep, is an earlier maturity, in order that they may be cleared off to the butcher in the shortest time ; but to accomplish this the English breeder takes spe- cial care not to place the famed Leicester, Cotswold, or Lin- coln breeds on the stinted feed of mountain sides, but in such situations where ample provision is found for full feed and quick fattening. In such localities as are near to a market where fine fatted mutton is appreciated and paid for accord- ingly, the heavy British breeds will be found profitable ; un- der other circumstances, the Merino, Saxon, and grades of these varieties will bring the largest returns of profit to the American sheep culturist. Connected with the general observations of the present chapter, is the consideration of the various grasses, with the amount of nutriment they respectively afford. The following summary was compiled by Mr. Youatt from Sir Humphrey Davy’s distinguished work on Agricultural Chemistry. Their times of flowering differ not essentially in this country and England, and in this order they will be mentioned. The Sweet-scentaD VERNAL Grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum) is found om almost every kind of soil, and is a true, permanent pasture grass for general purposes, and for early appearance ; but it is not liked by sheep, who will scarcely touch it if there are any white clover or meadow foxtail. Merapow Foxtait Grass (Alopecurus pratensis). This flowers about May 20, and the seeds are ripened about June 24. Ona clayey, loamy soil, at the time of flowering, will yield about one and a half tons to the acre (in this country), every half pound yielding 1 1-4 drachms of nutritive matter. The aftermath affords 2 drachms of nutritive matter from every half pound. Sheep are fond of this grass during May and June. Snort Brut Meapow Grass (Poa Cerulea), common 202 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. in the drier parts of peaty meadows; nutritious, but not sufficiently productive for the purposes of hay. Sheep and cattle are exceedingly fond of it. Roven-staLtKeD Merapow Grass (Poa trivalis). In rich, moist soils, and sheltered situations, it is a highly valu- able grass ; but on high and exposed ground its produce is inconsiderable. It flowers about the middle of June, and seed ripens July 10. It is highly nutritive, and sheep are exceedingly fond of it. The nutritive matter is, at seed time, 5 1-2 drachms to the pound. Its superior value when fully ripe is very striking, and should not be forgotten. Kentucky Biur Grass, JuNE Grass, SPEAR Grass, &e. (Poa pratense), supposed to be indigenous to this country. It is one of the most nutritive of grasses, either for pasture or hay; and on rich soils, particularly those of a calcareous nature, is one of the most valuable that can be cultivated. It is this variety which gives name to the far-famed “ blue grass” pastures of Kentucky, and the fertile valleys of Ohio. Sueep’s FEescue (Festuca ovina). Flowers about June 25, and the seeds ripen about July 10. The produce is com- paratively small, and the proportion of nutriment is not more than 3 drachms to the pound; but sheep are exceedingly fond of it. Linneus affirms that sheep have no relish for hills and heaths that are destitute of this grass. Sheep are so fond of it, they thrive wherever it is found. Cocx’s Foor, or Orcuarp Grass (Dactylis glomerata). This is an exceedingly productive and nutritive grass ; af- fording in the flowering time 5, and when the seeds are ripe, 7 drachms to the pound of nutritive matter. ‘The leaves of the aftermath are very succulent. It is valuable for per- manent pasture, and sheep eat it very readily. Wetsu Ferscue (Festuca Cambrica). The sheep are as fond of it as of the common sheep’s fescue, while it is more productive and succulent. It is most valuable when the seeds are ripe. Narrow-Leavep Meapow Grass (Poa angustifolia). Flowers at the end of June ; and the seed perfect at the end of July. On account of its early and rapid growth, it is very valuable for permanent pasture, and sheep like it. Harp Fescur (Festuca duriuscula). This grass is most prevalent on light rich soils, but is always found in the best natural pastures, where the soil is retentive. It is one of the best of the finer or dwarf-growing grasses ; and is most — - EE ee a_i SUMMER MANAGEMENT, 203 valuable for the feeding of sheep. It flowers about the be- ginning of July, and at this time it affords 7 drachms of nu- tritive matter to the pound. Mrapow Frscur Grass (Festuca pratensis). It con- stitutes a very considerable portion of the herbage of all rich natural pastures, and makes excellent hay. It is much liked by cattle, but sheep comparatively neglect it. At flowering time it yields about 3-4 of a ton per acre, and affords 9 drachms to the pound of nutritive matter. Rye Grass (Lolium perenne). Mr. Sinclair says of this grass: ‘‘ Sheep eat it when it is in the earliest stage of its growth, in preference to most others ; but after the seed approaches towards perfection, they leave it for almost any other kind. A field in the park at Woburn was laid down in two equal parts, one part with rye grass and white clover, and the other part with cock’s foot and red clover. From the spring until midsummer the sheep kept almost constant- ly on the rye grass, but after that they left it and adhered with equal constancy to the cock’s foot during the remainder of the season.” This grass is of almost equal value at the flowering and seed season—the latter at the end of July. It may, however, be objected to, as it exhausts the soil. Fertite Meapow Grass (Poa fertilis). In early growth, the proportion of nutritive matter, and the nutritive quality of the latter math, this grass will yield to few. It continues to send forth a succession of flowering culms until the frost arrests their growth. Itis therefore an excellent meadow grass combined with others. Meapow Car’s-rTaiL, or TimotHy Grass (Phleum pra- tense). This is of much value, for permanent pasture, mixed with other grasses, on account of its early herbage, its great productiveness, and the superior proportion of nutritive mat- ter which it contains. Ata little before the seed is ripe, when it should be cut, it affords noless than 11 1-2 drachms of nutritive substance to the pound. It is most useful for sheep in the form of hay. Mr. Youatt proceeds no farther than the above, except the mention of some of the artificial grasses, such as tares and the several varieties of vetches ; but very many years must elapse, before necessity will require their culture in this country. Of the Clovers, the most valuable variety for general pur- poses is the common red clover (Trifolium pratense). Sheep, 204 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. however, eat it sparingly before the first flowering, if any of the natural grasses abound in the same field. But the after- math or rowen they eat greedily, and is exceedingly nutri- tious to all domestic animals. Clover will be alluded to again hereafter, and the comparative quantity of nutriment it affords, mentioned. Waite Ciover (Trifolium repens). This grows spon- taneously on dry uplands, after they have been manured with gypsum or with bog marl. It is a very sweet grass for pasture, but not productive. Sheep eat it readily when mixed with other varieties, and proves salubrious to them. But, of the various natural grasses common to the United States, none appear to be so much relished by sheep, or afford a greater degree of nutriment, than the blue or poa pre- tense and timothy grasses. Unlike some of the others, sheep consume these with avidity from the earliest to the latest period of the pasturage season. A tolerably well-conducted experiment, made several years since, satisfied the writer that the sheep-grower must rely much on timothy, as being for pasture and hay combined, unsurpassed by all others. SHADE TREES. For the purposes of adornment and utility, shade trees are not sufficiently appreciated by the American husbandman. To sheep, particularly just after shearing, they are pecu- liarly grateful ; and, during the warm season, are indispensa- bly necessary to promote thrift, inasmuch as they contribute to greater quietness. If the axe has been ruthlessly laid to the roots of those which have been natural tenants of the farm, their places should be supplied by others. The com- mon maple, linden, and sycamore will be found valuable for this purpose. A few of the second shoots of forest clear- ings, which grow with great rapidity, and consequently, in a few years, afford an abundant shade, should be left, and the most thrifty ones selected for this purpose. If the flock- master is careful in his observations, he will learn that sheep which have had the benefit of woods to retire to during the heat of the day, will be in better condition in the fall, than others deprived of such grateful retreats. WATER. Water is not deemed so absolutely necessary for sheep as other domestic animals, since their instincts lead them to SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 205: graze early in the morning, before the dew evaporates, and again for a while in the evening, when the temperature of the season is warmest. In the hot month of August, how- ever, when the feed is less succulent, they appear eager for it, and should be gratified, if possible. But the lambs, when suckling, will do better if the mothers have access to it at all times. Therefore, since every pasture is not supplied with water, the master should appropriate those which con- tain it to his breed ewes. It should be considered, that the milk secretions cannot be so abundant if the ewe suffers too much from thirst, nor in any wise do as well. WEANING LAMBS. This period necessarily varies somewhat with locality, the particular breed, the time of parturition, and the disposi- tion afterwards to be made of the lambs. The time usually allotted for the lamb to suckle is about four months, and if the weaning takes place about Septem- ber 1st, which is about the common period in the Eastern and Middle States, it supposes the birth to have been in the early part of May. If the lambs are of the mutton breed, a longer or shorter time is taken, depending on the condition they are in for the butcher. But with sheep kept for wool culture, in about this latitude, weaning should not be delay- ed beyond August 25th, or at most a few days after. As early as this is quite necessary, as the time is full short for the ewes to recover their wonted order for renewed gesta- tion, and pass with safety through the rigorous winters inci- dent to our climate. The first thing to be attended to, is to remove the lambs and the ewes as far as possible from each other. There will be plenty of confusion and unhappiness for a while, and which would be prolonged until it was injurious both to the mother and the offspring, if they were able to hear each other’s bleating. The lambs should be placed on better pas- ture than that to which they had been accustomed, in order to compensate for the loss of the mother’s milk. But it must not be too luxuriant, otherwise, they overgorge them- selves, and acute diseases in some form will follow. From this cause flock-masters often complain of losing their lambs soon after weaning, which might, however, have been pre- vented, if they had previously been trained to eat salt, 1 206 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. which, when given freely, operates much to counteract hoove, and some other diseases of the digestive organs. When lambs are first placed on clover rowen, let them have all the salt they will eat. If this is done, the gases evolved, instead of acting as in cases of hoove, will pass naturally through the intestines. This is applicable to every class of sheep, and the course recommended is found- ed upon the writer’s experience. When the weaning takes place, let one or two tame sheep be put with them, to subdue their wildness, learn them to eat salt, and aid in conducting them through bars for change of pasture. A contrary course must be adopted with the ewes, in ref- erence to their pasture, for a week or more after weaning. It can scarcely be too poor; otherwise, it is frequently fol- lowed by great distension of their udders, and inflammation or garget. Under any circumstances they should be watch- ed, and if this is likely to occur with any of the flock, they should be separated and milked for a day or two, and during this time fed with hay or other dry food. After the lapse of a week or more, the ewes should be placed on such pas- ture as will hasten their return in the most speedy time to good condition. Should there be a few, which is often the case, much below the order of the majority of the flock, they should be taken out, and put on better keep than the others. The loss of valuable ewes from poverty during the winter, may be traced frequently to a neglect of this. This admo- nition is applicable also to the lambs. EAR-MARKING. The duty devolves on the flock-master, at the time of weaning, to mark the ears of his lambs, and putting the ini- tials of his name on their bodies, if deemed necessary. One, or both, is quite indispensable, as, from their anxiety to get to the mothers immediately after their separation, they will creep through fences, in places, too, where it would not be supposed possible, and stray. This is quite likely to happen, if placed in enclosures adjoining the road in which sheep are permitted torun. It is quite common to crop one of the ears, which is not proper, as it gives the sheep an un- natural and ungainly appearance. It requires no special in- genuity to devise a mark which will leave the length of the ears entire. SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 207 . WHEAT STUBBLE. Permitting sheep to run on ungleaned wheat stubble is exceedingly dangerous, and should be avoided. This arises from the inflammatory nature of wheat, if eaten in too large quantities by herbivorous animals. Swine should always precede sheep, unless the field is small, and the flock a large one. Even under these circumstances it will conduce to greater safety, if the sheep are full salted at the time, and light- ly for one or two days following. ‘There is no danger to be apprehended by allowing sheep to glean other stubble. The lambs and least fleshy portions of the flock should have the run of them. OVERSTOCKING. Said a foreigner to the writer, ‘There are two important errors committed by American agriculturists—they overdo, and underdo ; the former consisting in cultivating too much land, and overstocking,—and the latter in the slovenly per- formance of their work, and heedless management of their an- imals.” There is no want of sagacity or truth in these as- sertions, however unpalatable they may be. If overstocking is an “ overdoing,” few of us can escape the charge, for it is confessedly quite too common an error; and to this cause, perhaps, more than any other, the passing traveller may at- tribute the emaciated carcases of sheep during the winter which he sees around the dwellings of numerous farmers. Too many of us imagine that sheep can be supported on little or nothing; while others suppose the larger the number they can assemble on their premises, the greater, consequently, must be the returns of profit, not being sensible of the fact that 100 sheep well fed and well managed are more lucrative than the addition of one quarter more, if ill fed and otherwise indiffer- ently provided. Charity should be extended to the inexperi- enced under such circumstances, but withheld from those who pertinaciously cling from year to year to this unprofita- ble, and it may justly be added, inhumane policy. ‘The well- ordered husbandman will gather wisdom from seeing his er- rors ; but the “ overdoing” and “ underdoing” not from his, un- til gradual reduction to poverty make them too tangible lon- ger to escape his observation. The number of acres required for the annual support of one hundred sheep of the Merino and Saxon varieties, or 208 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. high grades of these, it is scarcely necessary to say, depends entirely on the quantity of feed the soil is capable of furnish- ing. If the writer may judge from his own experience and of the many with whom he has corresponded, the average may be stated at thirty-five acres. One flock-master made provision, last season, by the aid of some straw and chaff fed through the winter for the above number, from off twenty- five acres. But his locality is of the fertile region of West- ern New York, and his example therefore will not be safe generally to follow, without the hazard of incurring the charge of “overdoing.” In considering his success, the straw and chaff must be taken into view, which of course grew not on the area of land stated. BAD POLICY IN KEEPING SHEEP TOO LONG ON PASTURE ALONE, LATE IN THE FALL. It is the practice of a large majority of flock-masters to allow their sheep to run upon the fields in the fall, as long as the ground is uncovered with snow, without the aid of a little hay or grain. ‘This is bad management, and cannot be too strongly condemned. ‘The grass, it is well known, after repeated freezing, loses much of its virtue to nourish, and therefore fails to keep up good condition, unless accompanied with a modicum of hay, or grain. ‘The diminution of flesh may not be very apparent, yet nothing is more certain than that the sheep are losing their stamina. If some are expos- tulated with on this subject, they reply, ‘“‘ We do offer hay, but the sheep refuse to eat it;” but on further investigation, it proves to be the tops of their stacks, somethimg not worthy the name of hay, and therefore no wonder the sheep rejected it, preferring the decaying grass to such trash. It would not have been thus, if it had been barn hay; which is an item proving the great utility of barns to the flock-master. Many sheep are sent owt of this “ breathing world before their time ;” and if their ghosts were permitted to return and un- fold the cause, they would shake their woolly locks, and say, “We did it,” by starvation late in the fall. Let us reform in this matter altogether. SORTING, PREPARATORY TO WINTER. This very obvious and essential duty is strangely unheed- ed, yet nothing scarcely is more important. ‘To put the a eS a ae ee — SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 209 weak with the strong, spring lambs with adults, or wethers with breeding ewes, should always be avoided. The writer, about the 10th of November, assembles his lambs, and classifies them as to condition and size, and herds them in flocks of about one hundred each. The older sheep are already divided with respect to sex, as he never permits wethers and ewes to run together, at least not after their first shearing. Of these, 100 constitute a flock. The least fleshy are selected, and, from this time onward, receive attentions accordingly. Wethers, designed to be turned off the following summer, are thrown out, and fed a little grain daily, as these are pro- vided through the winter mostly with oat or wheat straw, with an allowance of grain ; therefore, early graining is some- what necessary. The breeding ewes should be sorted with great care ; but this duty will be found adverted to in the chapter on Breed- ing. en early preparation for winter, in this latitude, is quite indispensable ; otherwise, from the vicissitudes of the cli- mate, a premature depth of snow will find the flocks unsort- ed and many little duties undischarged. After the Ist of November, the master should be speedy in making all repairs necessary about his barns, yards, &c., for the reception of the flocks into their respective quarters. It is better to be a few days too early, rather than even a few hours too late. “Ever ready” is the motto of the thrifty and well-ordered flock-master. i3* CHAPTER XI. WINTER MANAGEMENT. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS—OBSERVATIONS ON CLIMATE—PRO- TECTION OF SHEEP—PRODUCTION OF ANIMAL HEAT. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. On reviewing the subject of Summer Management, it will be perceived that the duties of the flock-master are far from being few, and that nothing short of unremitted care is re- quired to ensure that degree of condition and health with his sheep, to enable them to withstand the hardships of Northern winters. If it has been thus, it will be well with them, and the truthful adage, “‘ well summered, half wintered,” will be verified. On the other hand, if they have not suffi- ciently occupied his thoughts, and have been permitted to “‘ sherk” for themselves; while the rest of his stock only have eaten of the fat of the pasture,—it will not be so well with them; and consequently, it will be a vain expectation that, at the proper time, they will make grateful returns for attention and humane treatment which they have not re- ceived. But whatever may be the condition of the flock when winter arrives, to carry it through with safety and profit, greater skill and attention will be called in requisition than during any other period of the year, as will be fully demon- strated before the detail of duties involved is concluded. OBSERVATIONS ON CLIMATE. Although the influence of temperature upon the sheep has been partially considered in the early part of the work, yet a few additional remarks are deemed necessary, with a view to establish certain premises, from which useful deductions will be drawn, having an important bearing on the duties in- terwoven with winter economy. WINTER MANAGEMENT. Q11 The history of the breeds with their distinctive peculiari- ties, found dispersed over so large a portion of the world, exhibiting such diversified forms and coverings, naturally excites our wonder, and staggers the belief of a common origin. But this perplexity is easily unravelled. In con- sideration, it would seem, of their great utility to man, na- ture has endowed them with a pliancy of constitution, which accommodates them to every variety of climate, becoming impressed at each transition with some peculiarity suited to their welfare. But where the climate is temperate and equable, the sheep, if long accustomed to it, seems almost to defy our efforts to model it at will; but whatever the local- ity, if a change is wrought in any important particular, na- ture constantly battles to return to the original point, unless the alteration attempted is in unison or compatible with the temperature and other circumstances which surround it. Thus, if any given breed, distinguished for its compactness of fleece, is transported to a latitude materially warmer than that to which it had been accustomed, nature flies to its aid by relieving it of a portion of its superfluous coat, to prevent the suffering consequent of an oppressive degree of heat. To this may be referred the cause of the annual falling off of the fleece, when unshorn, of the coarser breeds, in nearly all parts of the world, at the approach of summer. There is an exception to this, in the Merino variety, but its fleece becomes thinned by removal into regions too warm, and man’s efforts are in vain to counteract it. And thus it is, too, if the heavy British breeds are taken to a climate ma- terially colder than its native, the carcase losing its rotun- dity, unless precautionary measures are adopted to protect them against the cold incident to their new locality ; the fleece, also, is shortened in staple, but proportionally thick- ens, to check the escape of warmth from the body, and thereby guarding against a rapid waste of the system. It will be deduced from the foregoing, that plants and ani- mals are analogous, and that however pliant may be the con- stitution of the sheep, there are geographical limits, out of which it does not attain perfection. It is true, the animal propagates in Iceland, and districts within the tropics ; al- though there are certain localities in the last, in which sheep have been taken to from temperate latitudes, and per- ished from the excessive heat of the climate. This was the case in Batavia, as also on the plains of South America, 212 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. near the equator. Extremes of temperature, then, being un- suited to the animal, the question arises, How does it happen to have spread over so many parts of the world in spite of such extremes? Simply for the reason, that when under the dominion of its instincts, and free from the restrictions of man, it will not subject itself to the danger of an ex- treme in anything, for it will not remove to remote points in a single season, and thereby expose itself to sudden changes. A writer happily remarks—‘ The natural dispersion of all animals is gradual, so that their constitutions are enabled, from the slowness of the transition, to accommodate them- selves, by an alteration in covering and habit, to surrounding circumstances, which would, were the variations abrupt, speedily destroy them. The reason why a race of animals occasionally thrives so well in a country to which it may be removed, appears to lie in its being suited, I may say, acci- dentally, by peculiar conformation, to the temperature to which it is transplanted. There are some happy climates, where, introduce what animals you will, no matter how stunted they are, or how different the degree of warmth may be, the offspring will thrive, proving large and vigor- ous, and every way worthy of being placed at the head of the species. ‘These are, however, cases where the transition is from an extreme heat or cold to a temperate one.” ‘The writer quotes in corroboration of these views the report of Mr. Dawson, of the Australian Agricultural Company, as follows : “ Both the climate and the soil appear by nature to produce fine wool, and fine animals too, even from the worst beginnings. 'Uhe latter seems a paradox. The exten- sive range afforded to every animal keeps it in good condi- tion, and, perhaps, the natural grasses have more of good in them than their appearance indicates. However this may be, the climate clearly has a wonderfnl effect on the size of all animals, even upon man, who is universally tall here, though born of diminutive parents. From this I am led to believe, that the climate governs chiefly, and thus every breeding animal introduced here will attain a size not known in Europe.” Notwithstanding sheep are forced to submit to extremes of temperature, there is a happy medium of climate which it delights in, and which greatly disposes it to yield the largest profits, and this is found in the countries of the vine. The western parts of continents also are more congenial to WINTER MANAGEMENT. 213 its habits than the eastern; and the Southern hemisphere than the Northern, for the reason, that in the former situa- tions the temperature is milder and more equable. Degrees of latitude, in reference to temperature, correspond in the ratio of elevation or declination on mountains ; and thus it is that at an altitude on the Cordilleras, under the equator, of from 3,500 to 7,000 feet, sheep propagate scarcely with- out care during the entire year, while at the base, the heat is so excessive they perish. On elevated points, the south- ern side is very much warmer than the northern, as will be seen on the Alps at identical degrees of height, the north aspect presenting the Glacier, and the southern the vine- yard yielding a perfect fruit. From the foregoing premises, somewhat incoherently sta- ted for the sake of brevity, as also in consideration of the subject having been heretofore partially treated, the reader will readily deduce, that the temperature of the Eastern and Middle States is not so well suited to the nature of the sheep, as in sections where the climate is more temperate. It will therefore appear, in order to counteract the injurious effects of exposure to the rigors of Northern winters, that shelters are indispensably necessary ; which leads, without further preliminary remarks, to the subject of PROTECTION. There is nothing appertaining to sheep economy, in the Northern States, more generally neglected than the provision of ample and warm accommodations for shelter, and from no other cause does such large losses annually accrue. It is rigidly practised in all climates corresponding to our own, in Prussia, and throughout all Germany, as well as in Scot- land and the northern parts of England; and every sheep historian earnestly recommends it. Mr. Youatt frequently alludes to it as a very necessary point of good management, and the Mountain Shepherd’s Manual (a Scotch publication) speaks thus :—‘ Shelter is the first thing to be attended to in the management of sheep. While every good shepherd is decidedly hostile to their being confined, or to their being forced into shelter, whether they wish it or not, it cannot be too strongly recommended to all sheep farmers, to put the means of avoiding the severity of stormy weather within the reach of their flocks at all times.” The remarks of Mr. 214 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. Spooner on the subject, with the examples he adduces, will be quoted hereafter. The opponents of shelters assert, without, however, ever having made any experiments to decide positively, that they tend to make sheep tender, induce disease, &c., which is about as reasonable as it would be to contend that man phys- ically degenerates by having a comfortable dwelling to protect him from the cold inseparable from northern climates. But before offering any philosophical reasons to sustain the ques- tion of the necessity of shelters, the writer begs to obtrude his own experience touching this matter, and if more space is occupied than many think necessary, his apology must be found in his belief that nothing is more conducive to the health and thrift of sheep, and, consequently, profit to the flock-master, and which he will endeavor to demonstrate. Until within the last ten years, the writer’s flocks, like thousands of others at the present time in this and other States, were denied the benefits of shelters; and the loss, in proportion to the severity of winters, varied from five to ten per cent. The diseases caused by their exposure were scab, pelt-rot, dysentery, and colds, which caused an exces- sive discharge of mucus from the nostrils, while many died from no other cause, apparently, than sheer poverty of con- dition. Since, however, his sheep have been protected, the deaths have not exceeded one and a half per cent. in regard to number, and if comparative value were the standard, it would not be considered of any moment, as the loss has been mostly among diminutive spring lambs—so from bad nursing, and old ewes which, from superiority of fleece or carcase, were retained thus long, to breed from. If this is contrasted with the per centage of loss before the resort to protection, it will readily dispel the delusion that shelters enervate the constitution of sheep, or are in any wise an inducing cause of disease ; for, since protected, no epidemic has prevailed among them, and disease of any kind is rare indeed, and only occurring in individual cases. The next strong argument in favor of protection, is the fact that it materially increases the weight of the fleece, as well as improves its properties, which arises from the better con- dition which it is the means of producing. All farmers are aware that in fattening swine, or other animals, mildness of temperature is of paramount importance to hasten the process—and why? The philosophical reason WINTER MANAGEMENT. 215 will be duly assigned hereafter; but in common parlance, the answer is, because the comfort of the animal is thereby promoted ; and it will not be denied that this is equally ap- plicable to the sheep. Hence, if the animal will better retain its flesh, or be likely to receive accessions from being shel- tered, because it conduces to greater comfort, it follows that its fleece will be increased proportionally ; for the flesh se- cretions and the wool fluids are derived from the same source ; and any cause which will increase or diminish the one will operate thus on the other. But the following facts will supersede for the present further theorizing : The clips of the writer’s flock, (which is of the Saxon Merino blood) before sheltering, varied from 2 lbs. 5 oz. to 2 Ibs. 9 oz. per head, the latter, under the most favorable cir- cumstances, being the maximum. but since then, notwith- standing material advances have been made in fineness, it has averaged 2 lbs. 12 oz., and the last season arose to 3 lbs. 2 oz.; and thus the aggregate amount of increase, within about nine years, exceeds 2000 pounds, which has amply re- imbursed all expenses incident to the construction of barns, shelters, and their appendages, to say nothing of other profits derived from the same cause. The additional softness of the fleece, and also evenness and soundness of the fibre, may be traced to the same cause which increases its weight; for if the cutaneous glands are full and healthy, which follows good condition, greater sup- plies of yolk are imparted to the wool, conferring greater pliability, elasticity, and brilliancy, and, at the same time, promoting greater equality in the growth of the filament. Hence it is that in Spain, Australia, and other countries cor- responding in mildness and equability of climate, the wool of the sheep possesses a degree of softness and uniformity of growth unequalled by any other, which arises, for the most part, from the evenness of the condition of the sheep through the year, and consequently regular supply of yolk, not being checked in its flow at any period by extreme cold. From this cause, the true Spanish, Merino, and Australian, to use the phraseology of manufacturers, “ work more kindly” than all other fine wools; and less wastage follows in the process of cloth making, occasioned by their soundness and toughness, Another material source of profit, induced by better con- dition from sheltering, is the increased number of lambs. 216 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. Very many of the ewes, from their exposure, and in spite of full feeding, were sadly impoverished at the time of yean- ing, and consequently were unable in many instances to fold without assistance. In all such cases, the character of the offspring may easily be conceived; for, if they lived, they were puny and ill constitutioned, from the deficiency of nutriment afforded by the mothers. It is needless to add, that when winter came it made terrible havoc with these. But an entire change came over the ewes after they had experienced the benefits of protection. Rarely mechanical aid is now needed at parturition, the lambs are alike healthy with their dams, and receive a “ good start” from the greater amount of nutriment afforded them; and thus the foundation of all good animals, in all cases, is laid. Another source of profit originating from protection, is the saving of provender. Facts, the result of thorough experiments, which will hereafter be adduced, satisfactorily confirm this position, al- though the writer regrets that he has none to offer deduced from his own experience. But nevertheless, he is as well persuaded of its truth, as though he had made hundreds of * experiments, for it is founded in the very nature of things, and made conclusive by only ordinary observation. Every practical farmer is well aware, that every description of stock will consume more food in severe, or moderately cold weather, than when it is otherwise. Now nature is always exerting herself with everything, from man to the reptile, to promote its physical welfare for the preservation of the prin- ciple of life. Hence when any animal is exposed, or sub- jected to extreme hardship, and our climate is the greatest natural one, it is prompted to partake of greater quantities of food in order to combat, or counteract it; therefore, inasmuch as sheep, from the severities of our winters, are subjected to more hardship, without protection than with it, the inference is legitimate that they will consume a larger amount of food with a view to their welfare. But further reasoning here will not be necessary, as this position will be again advert- ed to. Again, shelter for sheep is a means of making additional manure, which is the mine to which the farmer must look as the main source of his wealth. Indeed, this is his capital stock, and whether it is to be increased or diminished, de- pends wholly on his bad or good management. If the ma- WINTER MANAGEMENT. Qe nure is protected from the weather, its virtues are not dissi- pated by the winds ; and, being amassed at a single point, can be distributed when and where it best suits the interest of the husbandman. In Germany, England, and elsewhere in Europe, this matter is deemed of such consequence, it is customary to fold the sheep nightly in convenient places, that their manure may be concentrated, and subsequently deposited where it is most needed. Thus the American wool-grower, if he chooses, can make his flocks efficient auxiliaries to increase the productiveness of his lands, and thereby reap greatly additional profits from his labors. What has been advanced in support of the policy of pro- tection, it is apparent, has been with entire reference to pe- cuniary gain; but does not humanity urge us to its adoption? If the sheep had not been tamed to man’s submission, its in- stincts would not have led it to regions like ours. No, the God of nature would have protected it from the sufferings inseparable from northern winters, by guiding its wandering steps to warmer climes. Therefore, since man has ap- propriated it to his use, does not the great Dispenser of good require of us that we should deal kindly towards it? It is, indeed, a religious obligation thus to do, which it would seem none but barbarians would violate, When the storm howls, and bitter cold urges around the “blazing hearth,” let us feel happy in the reflection that we have provided the animal, which clothes and warms us, with the means of making its situation alike comfortable with ourselves. Before entering into further details of a mere mechanical nature connected with management, it will be proper to il- lustrate the foregoing results by some familiar reference to the principles of chemistry, and which will serve also as a fit prelude to observations on feeding and fattening. PRODUCTION OF ANIMAL HEAT, Animal heat is produced by means of respiration, the chemical process being carried on in the lungs. An extremely subtle fluid pervades all nature denominated caloric, the particles of which have a tendency to repel each other and unite with other substances. This is apparent if we touch a body the temperature of which is lower than that of the hand, caloric passing rapidly from it to the substance, and a sensation of cold is experienced; and, on the contrary, 19 218 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. if the temperature of the substance is higher, we feel a de- gree of heat from the passage of caloric into the hand. Fire or heat is the derivative of caloric. It is one of those singular phenomena of nature, that caloric exists in two different states, the one in a free or sensible form, the other in a latent or combined form. Thus two bodies may have apparently the same degree of temperature, yet one contains a larger quantity of caloric than the other, but from its pecu- liar combination with the body, it is not sensible to the touch. For instance, if sulphuric acid and water be mixed, although each fluid may be before cold, a high temperature will sud- denly be effected, and caloric will be evolved. In the process of fermentation of malt liquors, the temper- ature is elevated, and carbonic acid is produced, the sub- stance expired by the lungs; indeed, whenever this is formed, heat is evolved. Now heat is produced and supported by the chemical union of two substancces, oxygen and carbon, which cause combustion of wood, coal, and our candles. Carbon is the fuel, not only in ordinary combination, but also in the animal economy ; while oxygen may be regarded the fire. Carbon is furnished by the food, whether in man or beast, and if a sufficiency is not taken in to counteract the consuming ten- dency of the oxygen, a gradual waste of the system follows, and life eventually ceases. Now in cold climates the air is dense, and in proportion to this is the amount of oxygen in- spired by the lungs, and greater waste of the system would take place were it not counteracted by an increase of appe- tite, and consequently more food is required, especially that which contains within it the largest proportion of carbon. Thus in the icy regions the inhabitants consume largely of oily or fatty substances which consist chiefly of carbon; while those living in hot climates prefer vegetable diet. So we perceive the functions of the lungs and the stomach sin- gularly agree. In cold weather large fires are necessary to keep up the animal warmth; otherwise the tissues of the body would be rapidly wasted by the consuming properties of the oxygen. Without proceeding further, the above will afford a ready solution of several of the positions under the head of protec- tion. It will be deduced that, if the equilibrium of the sys- tem in reference to animal heat is deranged, unhealthy ac- tion surely follows. Ifthe sheep is permitted to breathe too WINTER MANAGEMENT. 219 dense or cold an atmosphere, the excess of oxygen with which it is surcharged, if the language may be used, be- comes proportionally voracious for the carbon of which it preys on; and if it meets not with an adequate supply in the food, it flies to the tissues of the body. In this case the equilibrium is overcome—the carbon of the food is not a match for the oxygen, and the consuming fire—for thus it is aptly termed—gradually wastes the system, and life sooner or later terminates in the last stages of exhaustion or impov- erishment. ‘To this may be ascribed what every farmer has borne witness, namely, when extreme cold occurs for a few days together, during its continuance, but more particularly at its subsidence, his stock, if exposed, present a lank and haggard appearance ; and hence the common saying, “ Cold impoverishes animals.” Here is the reason at hand, fur- nished by science, why all animals thrive better in temperate latitudes ; as also, why it is proper, if transported to colder ones, the means recommended should be adopted to guard against the waste incident to exposure. If the effects of low temperature can thus be avoided, it follows that the equi- librium will be preserved—the general organization unim- paired, and thus disease will be warded off. Here too is the ready explanation, why the sheep yields a heavier fleece —no larger quantity of carbon being abstracted from the food than is needed for respiration, having portions adequate for nourishing the frame ; and thus the lacteals or absorbents carry through their fructifying channels ample provision to expand and increase dimensions at every point. And thus too we learn, why protection, by modifying the temperature of the air inhaled, sheep will consume less provender, for the reason that less oxygen is imbibed, and consequently a smaller portion of food will supply the requisite quantity of carbon it unites with to engender animal heat through the act of respiration. CHAPTER XII. WINTER MANAGEMENT CONTINUED. FEEDING—SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES APPLIED—FATTENING. FEEDING. WE are now about to enter a department of winter econo- my of the highest importance, and will require at the outset a brief development of a few fundamental principles, a know- ledge of which is indispensably necessary to correct prac- tice. It is a law of nature that nothing is lost or annihilated. In the combustion of wood or straw, the elements which compose them only change their form by assuming a gase- ous character, and thereby become active agents in repro- ducing other bodies of like nature. ‘The majestic tree, Springing into existence from the tiny acorn or nut, in at- taining its huge bulk, does not produce any new elements ; its growth is derived from the power it possesses to assimi- late that which floats in the atmosphere or exists in the soil. These are the sources of nourishment to plants; on the other hand, animals derive their sustenance from the food taken into the body, and through the process of digestion converting the nutrient part of the food into flesh and blood. The animal mass, with its various organs, is formed of the constituents of the herbage upon which it feeds. The ex- ercise cf animals to obtain subsistence, and for other pur- poses, requires a certain force, to produce which is attended with loss or waste of the system—“ the living parts become dead parts, and are at length cast from the system.” To counteract this tendency to waste food is required, and when the supply of food and the waste are equal, the weight of the animal is unaltered. Food has a twofold purpose to effect: one is to nourish the system, the other affords the means by which animal heat is WINTER MANAGEMENT. 221 supported. ‘The temperature of the body is considerably warmer than the surrounding atmosphere, and varies but lit- tle throughout the whole year. ‘The cause of this high tem- perature has already been explained. According to the theory of Liebeg, in carnivorous animals the carbon required for the purposes of respiration and warmth, is supplied by the waste of the tissues of the body, which waste is materially greater than in herbivorous ani- mals ; but in the latter the greater proportion is supplied by the food itself. In the carnivora the whole of the food is converted into flesh ; but in the herbivorous species a part only is thus assimilated, other portions being required for animal heat, and the formation of fat. But this will be bet- ter understood by the following analysis of these several sub- stances. Flesh and blood consist of the following elements, subject to some variations, and to the water being removed. To avoid decimals, we will suppose the substance to consist of 10,000 parts. Flesh. Blood. Carbon - - 5182 - - 5195 Hydrogen - - 757 - - Ole Nitrogen - - 1501 - - 1507 Oxygen - - 2137 - - 2139 Ashes - - 423 - - 442 10,000 10,000 By comparing the above, it will be perceived that the relative proportions of constituents is very nearly the same, especially those of carbon and nitrogen. ‘These, then, are properly the proportions in which these elements unite in the tissues of the body, and hence nitrogen being a distin- guished element of flesh and blood, no food destitute of ni- trogen can nourish the body. By the following analysis of mutton fat, it will be seen that the principal difference between flesh and fat consists in the absence wholly of nitrogen. Carbon - - - _ 7,900 Hydrogen = otsyei 55870 Oxygen - - - 930 10,000 Thus it is that such articles of food as sugar, starch, gum, ie 222 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. oil, or butter, will increase the development of fat, yet not so the flesh; consequently animals confined wholly to such diet, will certainly die. The analysis of hay is thus: 1162 parts being dried in the air will contain 162 parts of water, which, being deduct- ed, leaves 1000 parts, which are thus composed : Carbon - - - 458 Hydrogen - - - 50 Oxygen - - - 387 Nitrogen - - - 15 Ashes = eth -Ai os 90 1000 A scientific writer comments on the analysis of blood and hay as follows :—‘ It is evident that an animal, to make 10 Ibs. of blood, must eat 100 lbs. of hay before he acquires sufficient nitrogen to compose it. By consuming this 100 Ibs. of hay, which we will suppose divided into 10,000 parts, he will take 4580 parts of carbon, whilst not more than 520 parts are required by the blood, leaving 4060 por- tions not required for nutrition ; there will also be 424 parts of hydrogen unrequired, and 3656 of oxygen; what then be- comes of these superfluous elements? Why, they are re- quired principally for the purpose of sustaining the heat of the body; the hydrogen and oxygen form water, and the carbon unites with the oxygen taken by respiration, pro- ducing heat by the combustion, and is given off by the lungs in the form of carbonic gas. The nutritious portions of the blood are fibrine and albumen, whose elements are almost ex- actly the same, and correspond also with the fibrine and al- bumen found in vegetables. Although nitrogen forms such an essential part of nutritious food, yet it cannot, in any way, enter the system or afford nourishment in a simple or uncombined form, but only in such combination as we find in albumen. It is evident, therefore, that to form blood food must be taken which contains albumen, or substances analo- gous to it, in order to be nutritious, and in proportion to the amount of albumen it possesses will be its nutrient properties. Modern chemists designate food which is thus capable of nourishing as nitrogenized or azotized, from its containing nitrogen; whilst other varieties of food, such as starch, gum, sugar, fat, wine, beer, and spirits, which contain no nitrogen, are denominated carbonized or unazotized.” WINTER MANAGEMENT. 223 Albumen is thus composed : Carbon - - ~ - - 550 Hydrogen - - - - 70 Nitrogen - - - - .159 Oxygen - - - - - 221 1000 Fat, we have seen, contains no nitrogen ; it is clearly, therefore, produced from the excess of the carbon of food beyond that which is required for respiration. Starch, gum, sugar, and other similar substances, are converted also into fat by the abstraction of their oxygen. Young animals are not disposed to take on fat like adults, much of their food being assimilated into blood, for the de- velopment of size. Another cause may be assigned, the additional waste from their playful exercise, which is pecu- liarly so with lambs. This arises from their breathing be- ing increased, thereby consuming a larger amount of oxy- gen, and more carbon consequently is expended. The milk of sheep contains a much greater proportion of nitrogenized matters, than the food partaken by the lamb after its wean- ing. The following shows its analytical composition : Ewe. Ass. Cassem - - 40 Si veriege: wre ay curt WO) Butter = nisin 46 a eee mee ee: Sugar ihe chalet wh oe hw per’ 9) BS Ashes - - 6 a ibe Water - - 890 = = = - = 905 1000 1000 Of the above, Cassein is the only nitrogenized substance, and this with butter form cheese. Cassein resembles albu- men, into which it can readily be converted in the system. The butter and the sugar are the carbonized constituents for respiration, and the ashes contain phosphate of lime and common salt, for the formation of bone and the gastric juice. The writer will now proceed to spread before the reader a series of tables, exhibiting the relative proportions of nu- triment of the various kinds of food consumed by sheep, which were prepared by distinguished scientific men. The 224 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. first will show, that the usual food of sheep abounds very considerably with the carbonized constituents. Water. Organic matters. | Ashes. 100 lbs.of Hay contain- - 16 - - 763 - “VE ge Turnips Sat Oy oe oe =e | Ms Swedes a a <> a 3 - = of ie White Carrots - 87 - - 12 oe a Potatoes Se ieee a eee = eet Hy Peas woo, DOr cen hae - - 3h 2: Oats we EB ie ee - - 3 ¢ Oatmeal - Gat atehlidie “cnlteeeee - - 2 The organic matters thus separated are found to consist of the following proportions :— Albumen. Unazotized matters: Hay eat 8 OB - - - - - 68% Purnipsy, re sed bye? Ya Dae Po ee Carrots ape. ae SRS NERS aes | Potatoes - - 2 - = - = - 24% Oats RP 0 al ae try Sagi eH Peas - - 29 Shera ek ere omen The next table, showing the nutriment of a large num- ber of articles of food, is translated from the French, by W. Rham, of England, and is said to be “the result of the ex- periments made by some of the most eminent agriculturists of Europe in the actual feeding of cattle.” Mr. Rham ac- companies it with the following observations : “* Allowance must be made for the different qualities of the same food on different soils and in different seasons. In very dry summers the same weight of any green food will be much more nourishing than in a dripping season. ‘The standard of comparison is the best upland meadow hay, cut as the flower expands, and properly made and stacked, with- out heating; in short, hay of the best quality. With re- spect to hay, such is the difference in value that if 100 lbs. of the best is used, it will require 120 lbs. of a second qual- ity to keep the same stock, as well as 140 lbs. of the third, and so on till very coarse and hard hay, not well made, will only be of half the value, and not so fit for cows or store cattle, even when given in double the quantity. While good hay alone will fatten cattle, inferior hay will not do so with- out other food. WINTER MANAGEMENT. 225 “TI shall give the table as it stands, and add the notes which accompany it. lbs. Good hay - - 100 is equal in nourishment to Lattermath hay —- 102 Clover hay - - 90 made when the blossom is completely expanded. Ditto - - - 88 before the blossom expands. Clover, second crop 98 Lucerné hay - - 98 Sainfoin hay - - 89 Tare hay . - 91 Clover hay, after the seed - - - 146 Green clover - - 410 Vetches or tares, green 457 Shelter wheat straw 374 Rye straws- - 442 Oat straw - - 195 Pea straw - - 153 Bean straw - - 140 Mangold-wurtzel_ - 339 Turnips - - 504 Carrots - - 276 Swedish turnips = 308 Wheat (cleaned) - 45 Barley - - - 54 Oats - - - 59 Vetches - - 50 Peas” - - - 45 Beans - . 45 Wheat bran - - 105 Wheat and oat chaff 167 “ Lattermath hay is good for caws, not for horses. Raw potatoes increase the milk of cows, but they must be given with caution, and only a few at first, till the stomach is ac- customed to them; boiled, they fatten every kind of stock ; mixed with cut chaff, they are excellent for horses; 14 lbs. of boiled potatoes will allow of a diminution of 8 Ibs. of hay ; hence their value in this way is calculated. “ Every kind of cattle eat turnips except horses. Turnips will feed store pigs, but they will not fatten them. Carrots and parsnips are excellent for horses, and, when boiled, will 226 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. fatten hogs. Ruta-baga is liked by horses; it makes their coats fine, but it must not be given in too great quantity, or it will gripe them.” In the German Farmer’s Encyclopedia, Perri, an hono- rary and corresponding member of many societies for the promotion of agriculture, contributed a valuable paper on “The keeping, care, and breeding of Sheep,” in which will be found the following table of the comparative nutriment of vari- ous kinds of food. [matter. 100 lbs. of aromatic meadow hay contains 50 lbs. nutritious 100 “ Clover hay, - - 55% ditto. TOD RE Tender vetch hay, - 55% ditto. 100 “ Wheatstraw, - - 14 ditto. 100 “ Corn straw (stalks), 20 ditto. 100 Barley straw, - - 27% ditto. 100 Oat straw, - - = 25 ditto. HOO = Pea straw, = '* 2a ditto. 100 “ Vetch straw, - - 25 ditto. 100 * Millet straw, - - 26% ditto. 100 “ Chaff, - - = 272 ditto. LOO: < Potatoes, - - = 25 ditto. 100 “ Cabbage turnips, - 25 ditto. 100 * Yellow turnips, « 25 ditto. 100 ‘ White turnips, - - 124 ditto. 100 * Beets, - - - 164 ditto. 100 “ Corn, - mis is WO ditto. 1OO\£ Wheat, - alain) 8 ROG ditto. 100 “ Rye, - - - 90 ditto. 100 “ Barley, - - = 82 ditto. 100 # Buckwheat, - - 78 ditto. 100.¢ Oats; s~. =802-7,. 2.70 ditto. 100 «“ Peas, =. ).40h- >. —g8 ditto. LOO» Vetches, - - - 93 ditto. 100 « Wheat bran, - - 48 ditto. 100 “ Rye bran, - - - 46 ditto. Perri confirms what has already been said in relation to the fondness of sheep for variety of food, by enumerating 252 plants which they eat with salutary effects, and 39 others they partake, of an injurious tendency. He gives the following as examples of average of fodder for a ewe in the month of January, when the yeaning com- mences in March: a a WINTER MANAGEMENT. 227 ist day,—In the morning, 4 e of good oat straw. 2d day, 3d day, 4th day, 5th day, 6th day, noon, 4 evening, 3 “ morning, } “ noon, 2) evening, } “ morning, } “ noon, g 6 evening, 1:* morning, # “ noon,iae us evening, # “ morning, # “ noon, se evening, 3 “ 3 1 ce morning, + of good hay or clover. of good barley straw. of millet straw. potatoes with 4 oz. chopped straw, and 4 oz. of oats. barley straw. hay. hay wheat, oat, barley or buck- wheat straw. summer straw. chopped straw, with 3 oz. oats and 3 oz. bran, moistened with water. winter straw. of hay. of potatoes with + ped straw. winter straw. of hay. Ib. chop- noon, as in 4th day. evening, 1 “ of straw. He has likewise given the following table of variations of Fodder, which may be successfully practised with sheep: ft et et i ae es hay rye straw bean straw oat Ue artichoke stalk turkey wheat b’kwheat straw oat red clover sainfoin millet straw lentil straw pea straw barley straw horse bean str. rye straw wheat “ ee hay 21 hay hay 1 1 rye straw vetch hay 23 bean ‘‘ sainfoin 1 \wheat straw hay 1 6 oat red clover 1 6 artichoke stalk luzerne 1 8 turkey wh. str. hay i 8 \b’wheat straw horse beans 1 | 6 oat red clover 19 red clover sainfoin 18 ‘sainfoin millet straw 1 6 | millet straw hay 30 |lentil ‘ hay 30 (pea a artichoke stalk 30 |barley “ horse bean str. | 1 10 |horse bean str. oat straw 1 1 |\rye straw ood ane 1 3 | wheat “ turkey wheat | 1 Te pe Ride “ “ce 1 6 oat “ artichoke stalk ; 1 Gets cs vetch straw | a 30 |lentil “ wheat “ 1 6 loat “ 228 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. Perri allows on an average to a sheep, of hay, 3 to 34 lbs. per head, and says: “In the winter a full-grown sheep of 70 lbs. live weight, eats, in fattening-fodder, 3 lbs. of hay, or with some hay 3 to 4 lbs. potatoes, or 14 to 18 Ibs. of cab- bage leaves, by which he weekly gains 14 lbs. of flesh and wool.” The following example, of a slaughtered sheep weigh- ing 116 lbs., gives the proportions of the parts: Flesh and tallow, - - - - 54 lbs. Fat taken from the entrails, - - 7% Liver, lights, and milk, —- - - 5 Blood, - - - - - - on Head, paunch, and other entrails, : 424% 112 Leaving for blood and waste, 4 ——— Total, 116 THarER was a long time at the head of the distinguished agricultural school of Mogelin, in Prussia, where many ex- periments were conducted in sheep management under his own eye. The late Judge Buel, in his Farmer’s Companion, speaks of himas one “ who has not, perhaps, his superior in the practical and scientific business of farming anywhere.” Thaer says, “ The quantity of hay which is given to sheep is very different. In poor sheep-folds it is considered much to allow 3,000 or 4,000 lbs. of hay to 100 sheep for a win- tering. In better conducted ones 7,500 Ibs. is considered the minimum for 100 sheep: 34 lbs. of dry fodder for a sheep daily are necessary, and the greater proportion of this in nu- tritious hay, compared with dry straw, the better. Where hay is not plenty, it is usual to have recourse to grain-fodder ; oats, rye, and barley are equally good; where peas, beans, and vetches are largely cultivated, these may be used. The grains are given them either threshed or unthreshed ; more frequently they have the rough grain mixed with chaff some- what moistened. It is customary also, especially with the ker- nels of the leguminous fruits (peas, beans, &c.), to soak them; others prefer to fodder with the pods strewed on chopped straw, &c. Sheep which have daily 1} lbs. of hay, and 1 Ib. of potatoes, or 1 lb. of hay and 2 lbs. of potatoes, and some straw, can be kept in a well-fed, wool and milk-producing state.” WINTER MANAGEMENT. 229 Verr was Professor of Agriculture in the Royal institution of Bavaria, and his work is full of experiments and calcula- tions at that seat of agricultural science. He makes the following observations :— “The need of fodder is proportioned to the live weight of the sheep, and two and a half pounds of the value of hay is required daily for every 100 lbs. live weight, to keep the an- imal in a profitable state. Hence the following amount of fodder is required :”— Live eke of. Daly: ae Bian: Winter. For a long-wool German sheep, 100 2.50 912 532 380 Infantado Merino, 88 2.20 803 473 330 Electoral species, (grade Saxons,) 75 1.87 682 A402 280 Escurial electoral, (pure Saxon,) 62 1.55 566 334 232 One-eighth electoral, 66 1.65 602 355 247 In juxtaposition with the above the writer will place the estimate given in Mr. Spooner’s work on sheep. « An ox requires 2 per cent. of his live weight in hay per day ; if he works, he requires 2 1-2 per cent.; amilch cow, 3 per cent.; afatting ox, 5 per cent. at first; 4 1-2 per cent. when half fat; and only 4 per cent. when fat; or 4 1-2 on the average. Sheep grown take up 3 1-3 per cent. of their weight in hay per day, to keep in store condition.” It must be understood by the reader that, in this estimate as well as all others, good hay is the standard of nutriment, and that if any grain or other food is used as an equivalent, allowance must be made for the quantity of hay accordingly. The following remarks relative to the different kinds of straw, by Ver, are worthy of attention by the feeders of every kind of stock. “1. The straw of the usual liguminous fruits, and espe- cially of lentils, vetches, and peas, is more nutritious than the straw of seed-clover. The greener the tips are, the less it is lodged the better can it be dried and brought in, the more nourishing it is. The fine stalk vetch straw is also very nutritious, behind which stands somewhat the pea straw, with its thicker stalk. All straw of liguminous fruit is particularly a welcome fodder to sheep, on which account therefore it is greatly prized by many sheep-owners, and considered equal to hay. “2. Oat and barley straw is the straw for fodder of the cereal fruits. Oat straw is most agreeable, and also most nutritious, on account of its peculiar taste, for all species of 20 230 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. cattle, because on the tips of the panicles are usually found unripe grains, and oats are cut before they are fully ripe. Barley straw has, on account of its moisture, and short pe- riod of vegetation, a high value as fodder, and other things being equal, is as nutritious as oat straw, if it were not, as is the case, fully ripe before reaping. Yet it is more liable to in- jure than oat straw, because it imbibes more moisture from the air and soil. “3. Straw of summer wheat, summer speltz, and summer rye, for fodder, stands after oat and barley straw. “4. The stalk of maize or Indian corn contains much sac- charine matter, and therefore is very nutritious, used fine, and agreeable to all kinds of cattle. The cobs, after the corn has been taken off, ground up, are likewise a very nutritious fodder, and the hard stalks may be chopped up for the pur- pose. ‘Taking all these things into view, it stands next to the straw of summer rye in value as fodder. “5. Millet straw has a hard stalk, but contains at least as much nutriment as the winter straws. “6. Buckwheat, on account of its quantity on a field of less fertility, and if of fine stalk, in which its value as fodder from its straw being rich with leaves, is enhanced, is as gocd as the straw of winter grain. “'7, Bean straw, in case its leaves have not fallen off or decayed, and the ends of the stalk are green when it is cut, as many experiments have shown, is more valuable than gen- erally supposed.” Observations naturally suggested by a review of the tables of feeding, as well as some comments on German manage- ment of sheep in general will be found in the succeeding chapter. FATTENING. As an introduction to the subject, the following interesting observations by Mr. Spooner will be considered very appo- site :-— “Though in many countries the principal value of sheep is to be attributed to their woolly covering, yet in this coun- try (Great Britain), for some years past, the flesh has been the greatest source of profit, and the carcase, therefore, the paramount consideration. “This has naturally led the attention of breeders to the consideration of what particular breed has the most aptitude WINTER MANAGEMENT. 231 to make flesh and fat, how these qualities could be improved, | and what particular shape or form is connected with this propensity to fatten? But though the above has been per- haps the principal consideration in view, there are other subordinate ones springing out of it of scarcely inferior im- portance—such as which breed, or individual sheep, will fat- ten soonest on good pasture? Which on indifferent or bad pasture? Which has the earliest maturity? Which can bear wet and dirt with the greatest impunity, or can best endure exposure to the weather ina cold and severe lo- cality ? “These several points must all enter into the consideration of the sheep-owner, who must of course pay the utmost at- tention to the nature and quality of his land and its suitability for particular sheep, being, after all, governed by the ultimate calculation as to which brings in the greatest return of profit. “The various points in the form of a sheep, connected with the aptitude to fatten, have received the utmost atten- tion from practical and sagacious breeders, although some of these points are still matters of dispute. The superiority of particular improved breeds is now generally acknowledged, and may be considered to be established on certain principles, though in arriving at these principles it must be confessed that we are little indebted to science, but to the long and at- tentive observation and correct reasoning of sagacious and practical men. It is, indeed, only very lately that anything like a correct explanation could be offered for the various phe- nomena that attend the fattening of animals, or why one description of food should be more suitable for the purpose than another. It had, indeed, been laid down as a fact, that a large capacious chest and lungs were necessary for the production of fat, and that its secretion depended in a great degree on the quantity of air that could be respired ; whilst the researches of modern chemists have shown that nothing could be further from the truth. And now that the fallacy has been exposed by chemistry it can also be readily shown by anatomy, for we find that whilst the horse and the camel have eighteen ribs, the ox and the sheep have only thirteen. The absence of these five pair of ribs must of course mate- rially diminish the cavity of the chest, and its greater breadth (necessary for another purpose) does not by any means com- pensate for its diminished length. Animals of speed have rarely a propensity to fatten, but in greyhounds, foxes, deer, 232 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. &c., we find the chest is long and deep, though not wide, whilst in pigs, sheep, and oxen, we notice an opposite con- formation. ‘The fact is, in proportion to the activity of the animal is its respiration and demand for oxygen, and in pro- portion to the consumption of oxygen is the wear and tear of the system and the consumption of the elements of the food. If the exertions are therefore excessive, that portion of the food that would have increased the weight of the body is called for to support respiration. “In animals having a propensity to fatten, we find the chest of a circular form; the ribs spring from the spine more horizontally than in others, almost at right angles; this is observed in the ox, compared with the horse, and still more so inthe sheep. The effect of this conformation is certain- ly in one respect to increase the width of the chest, but an- other important effect is to increase very considerably the size of the abdomen; for in order to obtain the greatest pos- sible nutriment from the food, it is essential that the organs of digestion should be capacious, which cannot be the case un- less the cavity in which they are situated is large. The abdominal muscles and membrane which support the bowels are attached to the cartilages of the ribs, and the short ribs in some measure cover the abdomen. It must, therefore, be evident that in proportion to the width between the posterior ribs must, in a great measure, be the size of the abdomen; and this width must be in proportion to the horizontal direc- tion in which the ribs are given off. The loins must cor- respond with the ribs; the transverse processes are long and horizontal in proportion to the horizontal manner in which the ribs spring from the spine; for, in fact, they are but a continuation of the same roof, and must possess the same relative proportions. We must illustrate this point by comparing it with an umbrella, which, when thoroughly open, the whalebone ribs, so to speak, coming off at right angles, may be compared with the broad circular animal, and, when half extended, to the narrow-chested, flat-sided beast. In its former state the umbrella forms the roof of a much larger space of ground than it does in its latter state; and, in the same manner, the long transverse lumbar processes must form the roof of a larger abdominal cavity than the short transverse processes found with narrow loins. The same form that extends the roof of the abdomen, also gives a larger surface for the muscles of the back and loins to rest WINTER MANAGEMENT. gaa on; and thus we find*in sheep of this description a very considerable development of the flesh or muscles of the loins —the primest part of the carcase. It is a common observa- tion with judges of. sheep, that one’ of the best points is a channel between the shoulders and along the back. This is, indeed, a desirable form, for it is connected with those ne- cessary qualifications for producing flesh and fat. The channel along the back is owing partly to the large develop- ment of the muscles of the loins and back arising from the form we have commended, and partly to the shortness of the upright or spinous processes of the vertebre of the back. Now the use of these processes is to afford leverage to the mus- cles, and their length, therefore, enhances the activity of the animal. Sheep, however, do not possess nor require these active powers, and they would, in fact, be very detrimental to the principal object of the animal’s existence; it is a quiet state and a quiet disposition that disposes an animal to increase in flesh and fat. ‘The shortness of these processes is illustrated in the sheep as compared with the goat, and in the improved breeds of the former as compared with those of the mountain and the forest.” With a view rather to confirm principles already stated, the following remarks by Mr. Spooner, and the examples in illustration, are quoted. It will be proper to add, that in no other country is the system of fattening better understood than in England, established by numerous experiments of her many enlightened and sagacious breeders. “ Quietude and warmth greatly contribute to the fattening process. This is a fact which has not only been developed by science, but proved by actual practice. The manner in which these agents operate is simple and easily explained : —motion increases respiration, and the excess of oxygen thus taken requires an increased quantity of carbon, which would otherwise be expended in producing fat. So like- wise, cold robs the system of animal heat, to supply which more oxygen and more carbon must be employed in produ- cing extra combustion, to restore the diminution of tempera- ture. Nature enforces this restoration of warmth by causing cold to produce both hunger and the disposition for motion, supplying carbon by the gratification of the former, and ox- ygen by the indulgence of the latter. The above facts are illustrated by Lord Ducie :— “One hundred sheep were placed in a shed, and ate 20 20* Q34 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. Ibs. of Swede turnips each per day, whilst another hundred, in the open air, ate 25 lbs., and at the end of a certain period the former animals weighed each 3 lbs. more than the latter, plainly showing, that, to a certain extent, warmth is a sub- stitute for food. This was also proved by the same noble- man in other experiments, which also illustrated the effect of exercise :—No. 1. Five sheep were fed in the open air, be- tween the 21st of November and the lst of December; they consumed 90 lbs. of food per day, the temperature being about 44°; at the end of this time they weighed 2 lbs. less than when first exposed. No. 2. Five sheep were placed under shel- ter, and allowed to run at a temperature of 49°; they con- sumed at first 82 lbs., then 70 lbs. per day, and increased in weight 23 lbs. No. 3. Five sheep were placed in the same shed, but not allowed any exercise ; they ate at first 64 lbs., then 58 Ibs., and increased in weight 30 lbs. No. 4. Five sheep were kept in the dark, quiet and covered; they ate 35 Ibs. per day, and increased in weight 8 lbs. “A similar experiment was tried by Mr. Childers, M. P., and is thus related by that gentleman in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England for that year. He says, ‘1 last winter enclosed a small yard with posts and. rails, and erected a low thatched shed, just large enough to allow a score of sheep to lie down at once. ‘The floor of this shed was boarded with rough slabs, and was raised eighteen inches above the surface of the ground, the boards being placed three-eighths of an inch apart, in order to allow the free passage of water and keep the boards dry, as my great fear was that the sheep might get the foot-rot. ““*T then proceeded, on the Ist of January, to draw forty wethers out of my flock of Leicesters, and divided them into two lots, as equal in quality as I could get them. On weighing each sheep separately, I found the weight of one score to be 2565 lbs., and that of the other 2580 lbs. I put the first lot into the yard, and placed the other lot on turnips. The field was a dry sandy soil, well sheltered, and peculiar- ly favorable and healthy for sheep. Each lot had exactly the same quantity of food given them, which was as fol- lows :— “* 1st. As many cut turnips as they could eat, which was about 378 lbs. per day for each lot. “«2d. Ten pounds of linseed cake, at the rate of half a pound per sheep per day. WINTER MANAGEMENT. 235 *©¢3d. Half a pint of barley per sheep per day. “<¢4th. A little hay, and a constant supply of salt. “¢ For the first three weeks both lots consumed equal por- tions of food; but in the fourth week there was a falling off in the consumption of the wethers in the shed of 52 lbs. of turnips per day; and in the ninth week there was also a falling off of 28 lbs. more; of linseed cake there was also a falling off of 3 Ibs. per day. ‘The wethers in the field con- sumed the same quantity of food from first to last. The re- sult of the experiment was as follows: 20 Shed Wethers. _Increase. 20 Field Wethers. Increase. January 1, 2565 lbs. 2580 lbs. February 1, 2870 “ 305 lbs. 2794 “ 214 lbs. March 1, 3020 Por 2914 * 120). 3 April 1, gaa00 goer, 3092 “ AB afl Total increase, 790 lbs. 512 lbs. “¢ Consequently the sheep in the shed, though they con- sumed nearly one fifth less food, made above one third greater progress. The circumstances of the experiment were, if anything, unfavorable to the sheep in the shed. The turnips, by being stored in a house for their use, be- came drier than those consumed by the sheep in the field ; and also in February the shed wethers were salved or rub- bed with mercurial ointment, which is generally supposed to give a check to feeding sheep. The floor of the shed was kept clean by fresh straw litter after every rain.’” Mr. Spooner adds the following :—“ The result of these important and valuable experiments is precisely what we should expect from theoretical reasoning on the principles of the subject. It shows the pecuniary advantage of attending to the comforts of sheep and other animals, the expediency of providing proper sheds, and affording shelter when the weather is severe, and lessening, as much as possible, their exercise.” Quietness, as has been observed, is indispensable to rapid fattening of sheep, or cattle, and to contribute as much as possible to this object, regularity is requisite not only in the quantity of the food, but the time which it is given. It is not a little surprising how quick animals, especially when fattening, will learn the stated hours when their food is to be supplied ; and if it is transgressed, they become restless, which greatly retards the process. ‘The observance of this, with full measure of feed, are of paramount importance. 236 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. Again: it is essential that the sheds or buildings in which they are confined should often be supplied with fresh litter, and plenty of it; in short, everything must be done to promote complete rest, ease, and contentment. Sheep, when fattening, should not be fed oftener than three times a day—namely, when day has fairly dawned, at noon, and an hour before sunset. The interim between feedings will enable them to fill themselves leisurely, and to have time sufficient for that quiet digestion which is inter- rupted by too frequent feeding. Water should be given without limitation, and that immediately after their meals. The sheep-fattener must not lose sight of that peculiar habit of the animal exhibited in its fondness for variety of food. Indeed, change is very essential, as otherwise it may become cloyed on one species of diet. In fattening all ani- mals, the shortest time in which it can be accomplished, the most profit will result. ‘To effect this, we will suppose that it will take at first only of one kind of sustenance sufficient to maintain good store order; if it can be induced to eat one quarter more of another sort, then it begins to acquire fat ; but if in addition to this, its appetite can be stimulated to eat yet another quarter of something else, it will readily appear that the animal will fat all the sooner. A great point to gain, is to induce it to eat as largely as possible of the most nutritious food; but we shall fail in this if the appetite of the sheep is not courted and stimulated by variety. An au- thor remarks—* Variety of food, with animals, operates like cookery in the human subject, enabling more sustenance to be taken.” When sheep are put up for fattening, care should be ob- served at first not to feed in full quantities of grain or meal, as, in so doing, acute diseases of the intestines will be avoided. Again: those of the same age with similarity of condition should be put together, as better calculations may be made of the aggregate quantity of food they will require daily. This is suggested for the reason that animals, when growing, require longer time and additional feed to make them fit for the butcher, as a portion of it nature appropri- ates for the development of muscle or flesh. Hence the great excellence of some of the improved English breeds, whose early maturity allow of fattening when only eighteen months old. The following sound observations by Mr. Spooner will WINTER MANAGEMENT. 237 conclude the subject :—‘‘ With respect to the most advanta- geous food to be given, there is some difference of opinion, some preferring oil-cake, some beans or peas, and others oatmeal or barley-meal. It must, of course, depend, in some measure, on the nature of the farm, as it must, to a certain extent, be preferable to use the product of the farm. Sheep certainly prefer beans to oats; and where the former are grown they can be undoubtedly used to advantage. They abound in that principle in which turnips are most deficient, and thus are adapted to counteract, in a measure, the too weakening effect of the turnips ; and the latter, abounding more in the elements of fat, prevent the beans from harden- ing the flesh too much, which they are otherwise apt to do. Oats and barley are more fattening than beans, both contain less albumen ; and oil-cake nourishes but little, but possess- es the principle of fat in a concentrated form. Perhaps the best plan would be to begin with beans, gradually mixing oil-cake, and finishing with that. and turnips alone ; or it may be prudent to mix other grain with the beans ; or, if more convenient, substitute peas. Mr. Childers states that sheep fed with the addition of half a pint of barley per sheep per day, half a pound of linseed-cake, with hay, and a con- stant supply of salt, become ready for the butcher in ten weeks, and gain of flesh and tallow 33 lbs. to 40 lbs. per head (one sheep gained 55 lbs. in twelve weeks) ; and that, with artificial food, 30 tons of turnips will feed 60 sheep ; while, on the usual plan of feeding on turnips alone, out of doors, the average of the country is that 20 tons of turnips will feed, in sixteen weeks, 10 sheep, with a gain of only 20 lbs. of flesh and tallow.” Although the ruta-baga turnip is the essential food for fat- tening sheep in Great Britain, yet in localities in the United States unadapted for its culture, the American breeders have ample substitutes in potatoes, Indian corn, as well as all other grains usually appropriated to this purpose abroad. By reference to the tables of comparative nutritiousness of the different kinds of food, and by weighing a few of the sheep when put up for fattening, a ready calculation will be made of the quantity required for feeding daily, which is highly necessary to know, in order to prevent waste. Profit being the ultimate object in keeping sheep of any kind, small things must be kept steadily in view. Handfuls make bushels, and ounces make pounds. : CHAPTER XIII. WINTER MANAGEMENT CONTINUED. REVIEW OF THE TABLES OF ANALYSES—WHAT FOOD WILL PRO- DUCE THE MOST WOOL—DE RAUMER’S TABLE OF EXPERIMENTS— OBSERVATIONS ON GERMAN MANAGEMENT—VARIATIONS OF FOD- DER—FODDER PROPORTIONED TO THE LIVE WEIGHT OF THE SHEEP —IMPORTANCE OF GREEN FOOD—WATER NECESSARY—MANAGE- MENT OF LAMBS—TWO-YEAR OLDS—BUCKS—HOSPITAL FLOCK— MODES OF FODDERING—RACKS—TROUGHS—BARNS AND SHELTERS —PLANS OF SHEEP BARNS. Ir the reader will now pause, and recall that which has been set forth in the two preceding chapters, but more par- ticularly the last, he will perhaps concur with the writer, that there is much matter for reflection, and much to form the basis of correct practice in winter economy. Let us take a brief and familiar retrospect. From the analyses of fat, flesh and blood, and of the vari- ous kinds of food consumed by sheep, although very clear conclusions may be drawn by the better educated, yet per- haps it will be well, for the benefit of those whose informa- tion is limited in the rudiments of science, to glance at these things again. It will have been seen, that there is quite a distinction in different plants in regard to the relative proportions of the nitrogenized and carbonized constituents they respectively contain ; and that food destitute of the former can afford no nutriment to the blood, and consequently none to the body ; but those which furnish carbonized properties most abun- dantly, make much fat. Hence all kinds of food which are + highly carbonized, to be which they must possess much of sugar, starch, gum, &c., in combination, are fitted for fatten- ing purposes. Therefore it will appear plain that wheat, barley, corn, rye, oats, buckwheat, and ruta-baga, are better for fattening, than the leguminous grains—such as peas, WINTER MANAGEMENT. 239 beans, &c., simply for the reason that their chemical prop- erties correspond more nearly with the elements of fat, and the organs of the system therefore readily assimilate them for its formation. ‘I'he question now presents itself, WHAT FOOD WILL PRODUCE THE MOST WOOL ? Peas, beans, vetches, &c., are useful for the purpose of enriching the blood, by furnishing it with large supplies of albumen, which is its principal constituent. It will be re- membered that in the analyses of flesh and blood the relative proportions of their constituents are nearly identical ; con- sequently, whatever food contains nitrogen, and the greatest amount of albumen, is best adapted to the development of flesh or muscle, and is therefore the most nutritious. Wheat, rye, barley, and buckwheat, contain large quantities of albu- men, especially the first two; while oats, it will have been seen, contains 10} per cent. of its organic elements of albu- men, and peas and beans no less than 29 per cent. What conclusion, then, is to be drawn from this? In Chapter I. it is seen that the chemical composition of horns, hoofs, hair, wool, and even feathers, is substantially the same ; their organic elements are coagulated albumen and gelatin, and their inorganic, silica, carbonate, and phosphate of lime, and the oxides of iron and manganese. Hence it will read- ily appear that that food given to the sheep which will sup- ply the greatest proportion of albumen, in the same ratio will increase the wool secretions, and consequently be pro- ductive of the most wool, provided, however, they also hold in suitable combination the inorganic substances of wool, with- out which they assimilate mostly for the formation of flesh or fat. This may be exemplified thus—a soil may be highly productive of corn, as well as a few of the cereal grains; yet for the production of wheat it may lack the proper proportion of the phosphate and carbonate of lime, and consequently the berry will not only be deficient in quantity, but quality. The following table exhibits the results of the experiments of the distinguished agriculturist De Raumer, on the effects produced by an equal quantity of several substances in in- creasing the flesh, tallow, and wool of sheep: 240 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. ae 23 3B EB EE EE Ibs. lbs. Ibs. 1000 lbs. potatoes, raw, with salt, 463 64 124 do. do. without salt, 44 64 1g do. mangel wurtzel, raw, 384 54 64 do. wheat, 155 14 594 do. oats, 146 10 424 do. barley, 136 wy 60 do. peas, 134 14} 41 do. rye, with salt, 133 14 35 do. do. without salt, 90 122 435° 1% do. meal, wet, 129 131 a7t do. buckwheat, 120 10 33 These results are said to agree with those of De Dombale, and with those of a number of other agriculturists. It will be perceived by the above table, that wheat pro- duces the greatest increase in the flesh of the sheep, though but little greater than oats; that peas, wheat, and rye, pro- duce the greatest increase of wool; and that barley and wheat cause the greatest increase of tallow. That, as an average, grain generally gives about three times the increase in the flesh, that roots do when in equal weight; that grain produces about twice as much wool as is caused by an equal weight of roots, and several times the amount of tallow, The legitimate conclusion from the foregoing is, that the flock-master, whose object is wool only, must rely on good hay and some straw, whose constituents are admirably adapted for the growth and perfection of wool, with a mod- erate allowance daily of ground peas and oats, and some po- tatoes as green food, for the greatest amount of wool; and those gross substances, oil-cake, corn-meal, and ruta-baga, may be turned over to the producers of fat mutton. ‘This will presently be adverted to again. OBSERVATIONS ON GERMAN MANAGEMENT. The Germans are unrivalled in their scientific and practical knowledge of every department in agriculture, and in no one superior to that of sheep management. Economy is the grand basis of every species.of cultivation, and their profits are rigidly determined by the expense of means employed WINTER MANAGEMENT. 241 in production. A writer who is familiar with the subject speaks thus: “ The great distinction in German agriculture, compared with our own, is economy. ‘The question is not, whether a great crop can be produced, or a fine story can be told, what large animals can be raised, é&&¢c.—but what is the whole cost, the expenditure of labor, of land, of manure, &c. For this reason computations have been made, and the proportion of all the parts and processes has been fixed. Economy compels them to weigh and measure their fodder. The minutest details have been entered into, the most diffi- cult points examined, and the results brought out.” The variations of fodder, daily, with the quantities of each duly weighed and proportioned to the size of the animals to be fed, as observed in the different tables, is not a solitary experiment to determine a point only; but having become confirmed by thousands of experiments, is the basis of uni- versal practice among her numerous wool-growers. The late Mr. Henry D. Grove, in seasons of scarcity, was accus- tomed to weigh daily the rations of his flock ; and thus per- mitted nothing to waste, which exhibited the economical practice of his native country. These remarks are deemed essential, in order that the tables may be appreciated by those whose information is limited relative to the perfection to which sheep husbandry has attained in Germany. The first thing which will strike the reader is the daily VARIATIONS OF FODDER, in which we see manifested the principle of economy prac- tically carried out. The grain fields, and not almost wholly meadows, as in this country, are made greatly the means of maintenance of their flocks during winter ; thus not a pound of straw nor a pound of anything valuable is permitted to be wasted. Hence the cultivation of sheep and crops in a meas- ure are mutually dependent on each other. The manure of the flock augments the quantity of grain, and thus a larger quantity of straw is provided for it in return. We also ob- serve displayed, their knowledge of that habit of the sheep as seen manifested in its eagerness for varieties of food, and of its love of frequent change. In this habit of the ani- mal we behold that wise economy of nature in endowing it with instincts to promote its welfare to the greatest extent in every point of view. One kind of food may develop flesh, 21 242 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. and another make fat; but it seems to be aware that several kinds are required to enable its digestive organs to effect such chemical combinations as will not only nourish the wool, but assimilate the inorganic substances which compose the external parts of the filament. From thousands of experi- ments made in Germany, it has been demonstrated that hay alone will not produce as much wool, as when straw is mixed, which cannot be philosophically explained on any other prin- ciple than that which has been laid down. It must be re- peated, that variety only will furnish those perfect proportions of organic and inorganic materials of which wool is composed. If we give the animal too much food of a carbonized or fat- tening character, the fibres of wool, being tubular in their conformation, distend or become coarser, and the weight is certainly increased ; but on the contrary, if fed several kinds, and each abounds as largely as possible with albumen, the fibre is materially increased in length, though not so much in bulk, simply because the variations of food supply to a greater extent the substances requisite to form the filament This may be termed natural wool, the quantity or weight of which will be as great as that produced by feeding grosser food, which has the effect to increase the diameter of the fibre at the expense of the length, and therefore is coarser, as well as harsh and wiry. ‘The Germans abhor feeding large quan- tities of fattening food in growing Saxon wool, as it destroys its delicate texture, and its value is lessened accordingly for the manufacture of the finest and softest fabrics. The American wool-grower need not overfeed simply with a view to make heavy fleeces, as the wool of the sheep, when fat, is comparatively coarse ; and the expense of the food used in placing them in this condition, together with the reduction in the value of their wool, will more than counterbalance the gain from the increased weight. The wool of the Saxon and Merino variety is never so beautiful and perfect in all respects, as when it is natural ; and this follows only from keeping the sheep in healthy store order, and nothing beyond that. The feeding of grain by the Germans is simply as equiva- lents, hay always being the standard, by which the quantity of any kind of food, daily, is determined. ‘Their aim is not to increase the flesh and fat at the expense of the wool or any of its valuable properties ; and if we ever expect to rival them in the extensive production of the most beautiful wool in the world, and at the least sacrifice, we must imitate their a WINTER MANAGEMENT. 243 economy in feeding, and unsurpassed mode of management in all things. The next point which will claim attention, from a review of the tables, is, that the quantity of FODDER SHOULD BE PROPORTIONED TO THE LIVE WEIGHT OF THE SHEEP. That animals, after arriving at maturity, consume of food in the ratio of their size, is a fact which admits of no dispute. Petri, it appears, estimated 3 lbs. of hay, or with some hay 3 to 4 lbs. potatoes, or 14 to 18 lbs. of cabbage leaves to be necessary for a sheep of 70 lbs. live weight, when fatten- ing—and with this amount daily of food would gain 14 lbs. of flesh and wool weekly. Thaer’s estimate is 33 lbs. of dry fodder for a sheep daily, and “the greater proportion of this innutritious hay, compared with dry straw, the better.” Veit, from numerous experiments, determined that 24 lbs. of the “ value of hay” is required daily for every 100 lbs. live weight, to ‘keep the animal in a profitable state.” Now we will suppose, taking Veit’s estimate as the stand- ard, that the average weight of a flock of sheep to be 80 lbs. per head, and the foddering time 150 days ; this will give 2 lbs. daily to each, and for 150 days 300 lbs., and consequent- ly for that period 100 will eat 30,000 lbs., or 15 tons. This certainly seems a low estimate as to the quantity a sheep requires daily, it being ;*)ths less than the English standard, as rendered by Mr. Spooner. But different breeds and their subdivisions vary so materially in weight, that to form a proper estimate, the sheep-master should weigh some of each of different ages of his flock, and by classifying them according to their relative size, he may feed with greater ac- curacy. He must remember, however, that sheep when growing, of any breed, require nearly as much food as when they haye arrived at maturity; and sheep growing should never be stinted. Another very important consideration must not be lost sight of, namely, the quality of the hay. If it is coarse, much of it sheep will reject ; and consequently an allowance of from 10 to 25 per cent. must be made accordingly. It is for this reason, old meadows produce a better quality of hay for sheep, than new ; that of the former being finer, and more miscella- 244 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. neous. Sheep love clover hay, and will increase more rap- idly in flesh if it is provided for them, than by any other de- scription ; but the quantity in bulk, comparatively, they re- quire of it,is enormous. If farmers will top-dress their meadows with sheep manure, and occasionally harrow them, and early in the fall sow a little of timothy and other grass seed, the herbage will maintain a vigorous growth, and full crops for successive years may be expected. ‘The manure, however, from the sheep-folds will, if hay has been used for fodder, afford generally the required quantity of seed. From the above premises we are enabled to deduce an ex- ceedingly important fact, which, if always duly considered, will be the means of avoiding the serious blunders hitherto so frequently committed by American breeders, namely, that it requires an equal amount of food to produce a pound of flesh, or a pound of wool, without regard to the size of the sheep, or the breed. ‘This is indeed a truism, and therefore self-evi- dent. But by way of illustrating the point, let us select one of each of the rival breeds of England—the South Down and Leicester; we will suppose the live weight of the former, when in store condition, to be 100 lbs., and that of the Lei- cester 150 lbs., which is probably, in general, the relative disproportion. Now it is clear, taking the estimate of Mr. Spooner, which is the standard of England, the Down sheep will consume 3 1-3 lbs. of hay daily, while the Leicester will need 5 lbs. Is the latter, however, more or less profit- able than the Down? Clearly there is no difference, for the offal is relatively the same, and so is the proportion of the valuable parts—the flesh and the wool. The expenditure of food for the Leicester is greatly the largest, but only in proportion to the difference of value derived from the addi- tional size of its carcase. ‘Thus it is seen, the pound of everything in both animals costs alike, and all circumstances being equal, the profits are the same.* But we will go farther, and instance the Merino and Sax- on, alike distinguished for wool-growing purposes. The Saxon, it will be remembered, is of the same race, being only a sub-variety of the former. Let a selection be made of one of each, which combines to the greatest extent their * Let it be understood by the reader that the point is wool and flesh, and not fat, which it will readily be conceded several breeds of animals will gather more rapidly than others, arising either from improved con- formation or more quietness of habit. j =... — ee ae Se WINTER. MANAGEMENT. 245 perfections respectively. By taking the standard of Veit, as shown in his table, of the live weight of a pure Merino, say 88 Ibs., and that of a pure Saxon, say 62 lbs. (which is per- haps the comparative weights of the breeds when pure), the Merino, if fed at the rate of 2 1-2 lbs. of hay per 100 lbs. of live weight, consumes 2 ;4%,ths lbs. daily, and the Saxon 1 ~%)ths Ibs., a difference, it will be noticed, of nearly 40 per cent. less than the Merino. Now, both being supplied with this pro rata of ration daily, the Merino will produce 40 per cent. more of wool and flesh, at an expenditure, how- ever, of 40 per cent. more of feed. ‘Thus it is clear that the pound of wool and flesh, in both cases, costs precisely the same. Hence it may be laid down as a rule by which the unwary may learn, that, after knowing the usual average weight of carcase and fleece of a given breed, if he hears of any very extraordinary individual instances of either, generally it may be ascribed to extra feeding, and at a cost accordingly. Let not the reader, however, misapprehend the point in question. ‘The breeds of sheep vary much in the quanti- ties of wool they respectively produce, and individuals of a given breed will often outstrip their fellows, although fed in the same fold, in the amount of wool they will yield. But if two are selected of the same breed and of equal weight, and fed precisely alike, and all other circumstances equal, if one shears a heavier fleece than the other, it will be found, on weighing, to lack an equal amount of flesh, which his comrade has acquired at the expense of his covering. ‘This has arisen from the difference in the assimilation of the food —in the one case, more for the formation of wool than the other. IMPORTANCE OF GREEN FOOD. The feeding of green food, such as potatoes, apples, hem- lock or pine bows, &c., is strangely disregarded by a large majority of American sheep-growers. ‘This is a prominent point of attention in German management; indeed, it is thus in every section of the Continent where fine-wooled sheep are cultivated. ‘The sheep, if placed in localities suitable to its general habits, at no period of the year is it so perfectly healthy and thrifty as during the season of pasturage; and from this the inference should be deduced, that succulent food is the prominent inducing cause. Confinement wholly to dry 21* 246 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. food does not comport with that variety of condiment, which has so frequently been urged; and consequently, if a pro- vision is not made of something else, it will be followed by disorganized action of the digestive functions, producing costiveness and constipation. The disease so frequent and fatal in American flocks, called the “ stretches,” results from costiveness ; but this is scarcely known in England, which arises from the large quantities of succulent food the sheep are supplied with during the winter months. In addition to this, further proof may be found in the fact that it is never known to attack the animal during the grass season. The writer speaks from personal observation, in stating that a supply of green food is indispensably necessary as a pre- ventive of this disease. In addition to green food operating thus, it has a tendency to increase the wool and yolk secretions, and thereby those valuable properties of wool, such as elasticity, softness, and soundness, are increased and perfected; and withal, being | conducive to health, the condition is improved, and conse- quently an augmented quantity of wool is a certain result. WATER NECESSARY. That water during the foddering season is of paramount importance to the health and general well-doing of sheep, is no longer a mooted point. It is true that the animal will quench its thirst, as far as it is possible, by eating snow ; but if tested by experiment, it will readily be seen which it prefers. Some object to provide water, for the reason, that when the weather is very cold, it drinks too much, and there- by is robbed of much animal heat. ‘This is somewhat true, but if warm shelters are provided, as they should be, it is counteracted. If the experiment is made with a given num- ber, a portion being permitted access daily to water, and the others only the poor privilege of eating frozen snow to be dissolved in the stomach, it will be discovered that the first are more healthy, and will yield a greater crop of wool, which will be distinguished for those properties named under the preceding head. It cannot be expected that the wool fluids will be abundant if the sheep is denied water, unless roots form.a good proportion daily of its consumption. In this case they will rarely drink, provided they are not salted too profusely. If the reader will refer to the chapter on the WINTER ‘MANAGEMENT. 247 “ Structure of Sheep,” he will discover that a large supply of saliva is needed in the process of rumination, which must be afforded, mostly, either by green food or water. In con- clusion, humanity demands our practical attention to this subject. Having introduced sufficient to answer as a basis for what the writer deems a correct system of practice in winter, he will now proceed briefly to set forth some general instruc- tions for the management of the different classes of a flock —and first— MANAGEMENT OF LAMBS. The necessity for making ample provision of pasture for lambs from their weaning until the approach of winter, has already been urged. ‘This, however, is not properly at- tended to by many, and when winter is at hand, their condi- tion is by no means what it should be. It may be set down as a rule never to be transgressed with impunity, that all an- imals when growing should be bountifully fed, as well as receive all other proper attentions conducive to their welfare ; otherwise, it will be in vain to expect, when at maturity, they will exhibit the perfection of their species. The general qualities of any domestic animal, however perfect nature may have done her work, can always be further improved by art, or otherwise, by judicious feeding, and strict attentions in every other regard. It is very much from this cause, that celebrated breeders have gained their renown for improve- ments effected in breeds of cattle, as well as sheep. If we would have perfect animals, we cannot commence too early to lay the foundation of their excellence. It is a custom with quite a large majority of sheep farmers to delay graining their lambs until the approach of spring, when they are sometimes far gone in poverty. Is this wise? Would it have been thus if they had been grain-fed at the beginning and through the early part of winter? Is it not better to begin as soon as this, in order to furnish them with the necessary stamina to withstand the severities of northern winters, which is always greatest in the months of January and February? Put them early in a condition to pass through those terrible months, and subsequently all will be well. Truly the course of flock-masters, in this regard, is like giving the patient his medicine when he is on the con- fines of death! Therefore, viewing the matter in this light, 248 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. the writer has no hesitation in saying that a single peck of grain fed in December is worth the bushel fed in March. As was remarked at the conclusion of Summer Manage- ment, the grass at the beginning of November loses much of its nutrition from repeated freezing; therefore at this pe- riod the lambs should be assembled, and classed relative to size and condition, divided into flocks of about 100 each, and feeding them grain should forthwith commence. As it is sometimes impracticable to call them into the sheep-folds without considerable trouble, the feeding-troughs should be removed to the field in which they are confined; then the flock-master may begin feeding them about four quarts of oats, daily, which he should be careful to distribute the en- tire length of the troughs. They will be very shy for a day or two, but the example of approaching them by the tame sheep which were placed among them at weaning time, will be the means of soon overcoming it. After the lapse of a week, the quantity of grain may be gradually increased to a half a bushel, which should be the minimum quantity for the residue of the season. When the major portion have par- taken of the oats, the troughs may be removed back to the sheep-yards, and the time fixed for feeding should be about sundown, after which they can retire to the shelters, should the weather require it. At this time, a little hay should also be given early in the morning, which may be pursued until circumstances demand a change wholly to fodder. About the middle of December, or before, let the feed be somewhat changed, by mixing with the oats a portion of pea-meal or wheat shorts ; at all events, let it be meal of some kind which they may fancy, for in order to induce them to eat potatoes it will be necessary to cut them into delicate pieces and sprinkle the meal well over them. If sheep are wholly unaccustomed to potatoes their aversion to them will not be overcome without the adoption of this course. Beets and ruta-baga may be substituted for the potatoes ; but the reader has been informed that they are better adapted to the purpose of the sheep-fattener. If it is our wish to grow wool and not fat mutton, it will be wise in us to use those means which will afford the largest returns. Half a bushel of potatoes given at intervals of twice a week will be the right quantity, which it will be well to continue to sprinkle with meal, as well as with a small quantity of salt. On other days the pea- meal and oats may be fed. WINTER MANAGEMENT. 249 The hay given them should be of fine stalk, and of the choicest quality ; but in its place may be substituted once or twice a week, for a single foddering, oat or barley straw. If the lambs are thus provided through the winter, and have the benefit of warm shelters, their size at shearing time will equal the majority of two-year olds, whose treatment has been only ordinary. TWO-YEAR OLDS. The class of sheep thus designated refers to those passing into their second year; therefore they require extra atten- tions, on account of not having yet attained their maturity. The quantity of food they need is quite as much as will suf- fice for mature sheep, which proceeds from that law of na- ture, when the animal is growing, the dead parts of the sys- tem thrown off are not in the ratio of increase of the living parts, demanded for the development of size; and to effect this, additional food is necessary. Here is the reason why animals are stunted—the food given them was only equal to the natural waste, whereas, an extra quantity was needed not only for this, but an extension of the system and its va- rious organs. When animals become matured, this exten- sion or growth ceases, and the waste parts and the new for- mations are equal, when adequately provided with food. It will be proper, therefore, to make provision for this class, and especially the ewes, approximating that of lambs. The measure of grain, however, must be determined by cir- cumstances ; if they have attained good size, and the season has been favorable for the accumulation of flesh, a less quantity will be required. Let them have pine or hemlock brouse, which has a very salubrious tendency with sheep, cut apples, or potatoes, and also pea, oat, barley, or wheat straw once or twice a week. They should have a variety, at all events. BREEDING EWES. This portion of the flock demand no especial attention beyond a full measure of food, until the approach of spring. The course of management then will depend on the time of. yeaning, which, if fixed for the month of April, they will re- quire a large measure daily through March of potatoes, for the assimilation of milk. In addition, nothing better can be sup- plied them than a half pint each of wheat shorts, mixed with a 250 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. little barley or oat-meal. Oil-cake and corn-meal are not so suitable, as they do not afford as much cassein, the only ni- trogenized element, as the reader has been informed, of milk. Their fodder through the winter should be of a miscellaneous character. Pea and buckwheat straw are highly agreeable to them, especially the former, which, from its succulency, is well suited to their situation. The reader is referred to the correspondence in the Ap- pendix for many valuable hints on the management of breed- ing ewes, when the yeaning takes place in April. In con- clusion, comfort, quietness, and generous feeding are cardinal points of attention with breeding ewes, through the whole period of gestation. WETHERS. The proper treatment for wethers must be determined by their ages; when growing, however, they should receive better attention than is usually bestowed. If turned off after their third year, which is usually done if of the Saxon or Merino variety, during the previous winter some graining will be necessary for profit’s sake. At this age the writer confines his wethers mostly to oat and wheat straw, feeding, in addition, to each hundred half a bushel of corn-cob and oat- meal mixed, or that quantity of unground oats and corn, daily, with half a bushel of cut apples, thrice a week. Apples are much relished by sheep, and withal are very nutritious. After partaking of a mess they manifest greater eagerness for other food, which is quite conclusive of their being stimulating to the appetite. ‘They are an excellent substitute for roots and brouse. Half a bushel (quartered before fed) to the hundred, thrice a week, will be proper. BUCKS. After the tupping season is over, the bucks should be sep- arated from the ewes, and fed a generous allowance of good hay, with some grain. The latter is especially necessary, if they have performed extra service; and whether thus or not, those which have not yet attained maturity, should re- ceive the best of attention. For development of the greatest size and the fairest proportions, which are certainly objects of the highest importance, no other policy will accomplish. It will be wise, therefore, in the flock-master not to spare WINTER MANAGEMENT. 251 his attentions, at no period of the year, to his stock’s rams. For some other observations on this subject, the reader is referred to the chapter on Breeding and Crossing. HOSPITAL FLOCK. This is the general appellation of such sheep as are in low condition, proceeding either from poor keep, or temporary illness. The attentive and well-ordered sheep husbandman will not be troubled with many of this class, for he will not over- stock, neither will he permit any to remain on his hands till they have become too old; thus few will enter the “ poor house” to reflect unskilful management. It is scarcely ne- cessary to say, however, that every good flock-master will provide a place for the reception of sheep under consider- ation, as often, in spite of his humane care, disease will make its way to some individuals, which, in that event, require removal from their strong and healthy comrades, and treated accordingly. After the disease is subdued, their diet should depend much on the character of the malady. Asa general rule, their food at first should not be of an exciting nature, especially if the disease was seated in the stomach, or intes- tines. But all suitable advice in this regard will be found in the history of diseases. When a sheep is seen declining in flesh, let it be removed forthwith to the hospital, and after a few weeks perhaps it may resume its place in the flock from whence it was taken; this is often so, if the removal is instant in the early stages of decline. Variations of the food will greatly contribute to restore invalids, as well as those in poverty of flesh. MODES OF FODDERING—RACKS. The custom so general among sheep-farmers of strewing fodder on the ground, is attended with a vast waste in the aggregate, and a corresponding ill-doing of the flock. No animal is more nice in its habits, or more keen in its sense of smell, than the sheep; consequently, if their fodder is thrown upon the ground, in moist weather, two or three passing over it, will cause the whole flock to reject the great- er proportion, and thus from day to day their appetites are unsatiated. The waste from this slovenly practice during one season only, will more than counterbalance the cost of suitable racks. 252 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. FIG... Pe UMQUAURLUOASAONADDLEOUIVCANGULTVVR UU UOCRUTOOCWRCUUUGHOCURATVUUNee rn UuQOOUTUuannnt enone UNL The kinds of rack most generally approved conforms to those represented in the cuts, or are very similar. Figure 1 is a model of those used by the writer for many years. They cost but little, and little waste can result from their use ; and are also light, and therefore easily removed, which is sometimes necessary whether feeding is done under cover or not. Where, however, the severity of the climate compels feeding wholly under shelter, the kind designated by figure 2, appears admirably adapted for the purpose. The writer, however, never having used any of this description, vannot speak confidently whether their superiority is greatly over the other kind, and must therefore refer the reader to the remarks concerning them of several of his correspond- ents. The upright pieces or posts of figure 1 should be of pine or hemlock scantling, 2 by 3 inches, and at least 2 feet 9 inches in length. ‘The lower boards 12 inches in width, and the upper 10 inches; the spaces between them 9 inches ; the width of the rack 2 1-2 feet. The most convenient length is about 12 feet, and if thus, 6 will be required for 100 sheep of the Saxon and Merino varieties, or grades of these, when full grown. For lambs, the width of the lower boards may be reduced two inches, the top board not any, and the space between, less about two inches, the width of the rack four inches less, and the posts shortened three inches. WINTER MANAGEMENT, 253 From the length of the posts, an allowance, it will be seen, is made for nailing the lower boards two or three inches above the bottoms of them, which is proper. Five racks, if each is 12 feet long, will be required for 100 lambs of ordi- nary size. There should be no crowding when eating. The front and upper edges of the lower boards should be planed slightly, to prevent the wool from the breasts and necks of the sheep from being rubbed off. ‘To secure the boards permanently to the posts, spikes should be used of sufficient length to clinch. Four spikes to each side and end board are necessary. Figure 2. The most correct idea of the construction of this is given by the cut, which represents one sawed in two crosswise. Six pieces of 3 by 4 inch scantling and 33 inches each in length are required for a rack. ‘The shelv- ing boards, as seen above the heads of the sheep, are of 3 inch stuff, and 14 inches in width, and are very necessary to prevent hay seed and chaff from falling into the necks; and further, the hay, if pulled down faster than eaten, cannot waste, as it is saved by the troughs. The front board of the troughs should be 9 inches in width; the space for the heads of the sheep 10 inches ; and from the top of the space to the end of the support, 14 inches. The triangles A A represent the troughs. This is a double rack, but on this principle they can be made single, and placed against the sides of the shelter. ‘They are more expensive than the kind first de- scribed, but have decided advantages for feeding within doors, as troughs are connected. TROUGHS. The boards of the trough (Fig. 3) may be of hemlock, or pine ; the former, however, are not only cheapest, but hold nails more firmly. ‘They should be 10 inches in width, one inch thick, and nailed at right angles, or, simply the edges of two nailed together. A notch must then be sawed pre- cisely to correspond with the flare of the trough into a two- inch pine plank, a piece of which 12 inches wide and 15 inches long constitutes the proper dimensions for the end pieces, or legs of the trough. (See end piece, Fig. 4.) FODDER PENS. In connection with the subject in hand, pens for the re- ception of the fodder when thrown from a stack or barn, are oo Ae 254 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. very necessary. Let four pieces of 3 by 4 inch scantling be used for posts, to which slats or boards 4 or 5 inches in. width should be nailed, and sufficiently close to prevent the sheep from putting their heads between them. On each side of the pen should be fastened a slat diagonally, which adds to its strength. The posts may be 3 feet high, and the pen about five feet square. ‘Thus the hay is not run over by the sheep when thrown down, and injured; and if the quantity should exceed a foddering, it can remain in the pen, and the trouble of pitching it back is saved. REGULARITY OF FODDERING. The remarks as to regularity of feeding when fattening are equally applicable to store sheep. At a given hour na- ture calls for the allowance of food, and the careful shepherd will see that it is not transgressed. But it is not more a fixed time, than regular quantity, which needs observance. Quantity, however, varies with temperature, as well as the quality of the fodder, of which the reader has already been made acquainted. There are not afew who think it necessary that sheep should be fed four times per day; but this is wholly un- necessary—three is quite often enough. If fed early in the morning, at noon, and, in the heart of winter, an hour and a half before sunset, it affords them ample time between feed- ings for quiet rumination and rest, which is interrupted by more frequent attentions. Let the roots, grain, or whatnot always be fed at noon; after which the sheep will work at the stubbs or coarser parts of the hay or straw left of the morning foddering ; and thus all is consumed. If, however, the temperature is severe, let a little fresh fodder be given in addition to their grain. BARNS AND SHELTERS. Of the utility of barns for the protection of fodder no one will question, and that a well-constructed barn is conducive to economy, is susceptible of demonstration. Hay is often essentially damaged when stacking, by a sudden and violent rain; whereas, whatever is secured in a barn is freed there- after from harm. Again, a skilful stacker is rare, and there- fore much hay is subjected to damage from this cause ; and when unthatched, of course much is injured on the surface. Taking only these into view, the inducement is ample for = WINTER MANAGEMENT. 255 every sheep-farmer to build commodious barns for the recep- tion of his provender. ‘That they will reimburse their ex- pense in a few years, by the saving of hay, and the better order of the flock can be sustained from the improved quality of the hay, all who have had the opportunity to judge, will at once testify. The construction of barns, as with dwellings, will always vary, depending on the taste and means of the proprietor. Where the climate is severe, and subject to considerable depth of snow, making it difficult at times to travel a distance to the sheep-folds, a large barn capable of sheltering all the sheep, as well as their provender, is certainly desirable, and would be preferred to several, especially if placed remotely from each other. But it is a question, however, whether the extra time consumed in carting the hay to fill one of these mammoth barns will not more than overbalance this inconvenience. Again, in case of conflagration by lightning, which, if ever, is almost always after being filled with hay, the loss is very considerable. The prudent flock-master, therefore, will duly consider everything before he makes his decision. The locality of the writer being favorable with regard to climate, and the snow rarely of much depth, he gives the preference to single barns, which are situated on the borders of his meadows, and therefore very convenient for the re- ception of hay. These barns are 32 by 24 feet, with 16 feet posts. The sheds are placed at the east end of the barns, and front the south. The latter, however, is objectionable ; they should be on the west side, and front the east. By this plan the barn affords ample protection from the cutting winds of the north while the flock is feeding. The writer would rec- ommend, in reference to the sheds, the north gable ends to be placed in a line with the south sides of the barns, with single roofs, the peaks of which may ascend to the eaves of the barns, and the lower ends elevated ten feet from the ground. The space for the sheep to occupy should be six feet in height, with a view to easy removal of the manure by carts; and above, there will be abundance of room for the stowage of straw and pea vines, for the variations of fodder, and for the deposite of litterings. For 100 sheep the shed should be 20 by 30 feet at least. By this plan, it will be seen that the feeding racks must be placed in the yards. To those whose circumstances forbid the expense of the 256 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. erection of barns and framed sheds, the writer would recom- mend the following :—For the consumption of 100 sheep, during the foddering season, two large stacks of hay are necessary ; let those be placed in a north-east and south- west line; and when they are about to be built, place two poles 35 feet each in length on the top of the stack pens, the centre of the poles to be supported by strong crotches. Before winter the hovel may be completed by putting rails crosswise of the poles to support the straw necessary for the roof; the back can be made of common boards, or by placing rails or poles parallel, and about one foot apart, and stuffed with old or partly rotted straw. This description of hovels are warm, and made in a very brief time. Wind-breakers may be built at right angles of the hovels, of the materials and manner as the back of the hovel, which afford much protection from winds when the sheep are feeding. The following plans of sheep-barns are submitted, and which were selected from a large number forwarded to the writer, nearly all of them possessing considerable merit. Fig. 1 represents a side-hill barn with underground apart- ments, which are unquestionably warmer for sheep than any other, and probably can be erected at as little expense. Where, however, it is not feasible to build after this model, the kinds represented by Fig. 2 and 3 may be substituted. In regard to Fig. 2, the carriage-house and horse stable may be dispensed with, and a shearing and wool house substi- tuted. DESCRIPTION OF FIGURE 1. BY M. Y. TILDEN, OF NEW LEBANON, COLUMBIA CO., N. Y. A. Well with pump. B. Water tubs. C. Boxes for hay 4 by 6 ft. directly under a trap-door, through which hay is thrown from the mow; this prevents the sheep running into it before feeding, and also keeps the dust and seed out of the wool. mae a section is a shearing floor, 13 by 40 ft., and wool room 14 by 18 ft., plastered. Racks are placed around the sides of each apartment. WINTER MANAGEMENT. 257 { whe A silts. a ae Se mM i Mt Ml Cf ALLL A VLE me = in Hills Hii i) | it] MHA N Util N | NaN N ) rx = | 08 a ion o j ne) HI oa (HH SC i\|| 5 Wilh os | S nw go 0 258 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. DESCRIPTION OF FIGURE 2. BY RICHARD MORGAN, OF AURORA, CAYUGA CO., N. Y. I have adopted the plan of bringing alZ of the buildings upon the farm into one compact body instead of being scattered promiscuously over the farm. You will discover that I have drawn four sheep-barns in connection with each other, a de- scription of one of which will answer for all. Sheep barn No. 1 is a building fifty feet in length by twenty in width, with fifteen feet posts, the first room or sheep room to be six feet and a half in height from the bottom of the sill to the floor. A tight floor overhead to keep owt all dust and seed. The sheep are to be on the ground, it being better than a floor of wood. A pen three feet high, and to contain a space equal to five or six feet square, to be placed as shown by the letter P on ground plan, for receiving the hay when pitched from the mow, that the sheep may not trample upon it, and for holding the surplus hay that may be pitched from the mow. A rack for hay, grain, and roots, to extend entirely around the barn, except- ing at the doors; one door opening into the interior yard and one into the outer yard. The outer yard, in which the sheep are to go into, for their daily exercise, extends around the barns upon three sides, to be subdivided into small yards for the accommodation of each flock ; to be enclosed by a fence five or six feet high, close boarded; the division fences are each to have a gate near the barn for passing with a team, as the barns are to be filled with hay from that side; yards No. 1 and 4 are thirty-five feet by fifty; Nos. 2 and 3 are thirty-five by eighty-five feet. The mow is sufficient for twelve or fourteen tons of hay each. The sheds, if built all at a time, may be divided by a fence between flocks, and the mow be left all in one. Each sheep barn gives room for one hundred sheep; fifteen inches of rack for each sheep; sufficient room for all to lie down in, without being too much crowded ; the room should be well ventilated by funnels running up through the roof, or by windows near the upper floor, with blinds, or slats. The barn I believe to be a good size for one hundred sheep, but to those who are willing to add two or three feet more in width, in order to give an alley between the sides of the barn and racks, would find it convenient and profitable ;—but with the size given there would not be sufficient room. I will give you a description of the barn and carriage room attached. The barn, carriage-house, and stable, occupies thirty-five by one hun- dred feet ; K, is a granary for oats; J, is a bay for oats in the sheaf; a cellar under both for roots, with stairs at S, to enter the cellar, to be closed by a trap door, to be hung with hinges; I, is threshing floor; G, is bay for hay; H, is a stable for four cows or oxen; a passage way leads from the stable into the barn floor; a small door opens out of the stable into the yard; a small door also, from the threshing floor, with large door in front for driving in with hay and grain: the whole occu- pies forty-four feet of the building; F, is a covered road-way into the yard, twelve feet in width; D, is a grain room for the horses; C, is the horse stable with five stalls, racks for hay and grain, &c.; B, is an alley, for mixing feed, enclosed tight to keep dust and dirt out of the wagon-room; OQ, is stairs leading into the hay mow;; A, is carriage room, a deposit for farm implements, &c. A tight floor covers the carriage room and stable, leaving the room nine feet in the clear. At N, stairs lead intoa room for storing wool. Let aroom of sufficient size be partitioned off in the loft, and be made tight against rats, mice, and dust, lighted by a window in the end of the barn. Let there be a window or door at each end of the mow for filling the same with hay. When the sheep are to be shorn let them be housed in sheep barn No. 1; let the wagon and tool room be cleared out for the purpose, and be used for a shearing room; V, V, V, are tables, or leaves made smooth, and to be hung with hinges to the side of the room near the floor, to be used for shearing upon, eight and a half feet wide; when not in use to be fastened back against the side of the room, taking up but two inches of the room; the roller to place his table in such a place near the stairs, that he may throw the fleece, when tied up, directly into the wool loft; let there be a trap door in the wool loft for sacking the wool. The sheep, when “ fleeced,’”? may be turned into the interior yard. If the barns cannot be supplied with water by pipes, let the well be dug as shown in the yard. Yard No. 5 would answer a good purpose for fowls, and yard No. 6 for the hog- pen, or if needed, erect a shelter, and keep the bucks safe from the other sheep, or such other purpose as may be most convenient. The interior yard is fifty by sixty feet, and may be used for young cattle. I should have given the height of the barn and carriage house, which is eighteen feet posts. The expense of erecting one sheep barn would be about $150. The expense of erecting all of the buildings would be about eight or ten hundred dollars, depending entirely upon the price of lumber, and of labor. 259 WINTER MANAGEMENT. YARD YARD N°. YARD Ne? 5. GATE. Ne2. SHEEP BARN, NS2. BARN. Ne°4, GATE. SHEEP BARN, N@S: INTERIOR SHEEP YARD N24. 260 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP, DESCRIPTION OF FIGURE 3. BY JOSHUA BICKNELL CHAPIN, PROVIDENCE, R. ISLAND. No. 1—A, represents the main building or store-house—of the following dimen- sions: length 45 ft., width 34 ft., height to the eaves 16 ft. The front internal arrangement is shown by supposing this end open. B, B, are grain bins for convenience of daily distribution. They are 3 1-2 ft. wide, 12 ft. long, 3 ft. deep in front, and 3 ft. 8 in. at the back, with one or more divi- sions. The bins are placed in lobbies—that lead, from either side, to the sheep-folds. At the farther end of the main building on the left is a granary (not shown in the drawing) 12 by 15 ft. and 8 ft. high. Adjoining this may be constructed a wool room, of like dimensions ; and over these two rooms, as well as over the lobbies, are spaces for depositing the straw of the different grains. The space at the right, C, C, beyond the lobby, and occupying the entire re- mainder of that side of the barn, forms a capacious bay for the deposit of clover hay, &ce. The width of the lobbies, including the bins, is 7 1-2 ft. The width of the main floor is 10 ft. Under this, and descended to by a trap-door, is the cellar, capable of containing 2500 bushels of roots. It is intended that the main floor be used for the operations of cutting or other- wise preparing the food, shearing, &c. The entrance at each end is the same. The barn will contain from 60 to 80 tons of hay, and 2000 bushels of grain. On the right and left of the main building are two wings, E, E, which are the sheep barns. These are 75 ft. long (they may be longer or shorter according to the number of sheep desired to feed), 25 ft. wide, and 6 ft. high at the eaves, and will amply accommodate 400 or 500 sheep. : F, F, are the racks, which pass all around the folds, with the exception of an entrance at either ends: the one for the ingress and egress of the sheep to the yards, the others for the convenience of the shepherd. Between the racks and the outer walls of the fold is a passage way, of 2 1-2 ft. width, passing all around, the floor of which extends under the racks, and four feet beyond them, into the fold proper. This is designed for the sheep to stand upon while feeding—by this plan they eat better and waste less. The platform is elevated about 8 in. above the ground—(represented in the drawin gby the shaded part). The windows, hinged shutters, and doors, are sufficiently well shown in the drawing. The shutters should be kept open, except during storms, and severe cold weather. No animal suffers sooner or more seriously from imperfect ventilation than the sheep. Allowing a fold on either side of the main barn, admits of a divi- sion of the flock, which is of much consequence. The disposition of the yards is also shown by the drawing. Racks and open sheds may be arranged around these if desirable. A small house may be attached, and a division yard made at the outward end of either fold, say at G, for diseased sheep. At H is a pump. No. 2 is an enlarged view of the rack, f, &c.; a is the platform spoken of above, b is the back of the rack, c the feeding trough in front, d the feeding hopper to the trough. 261 WINTER MANAGEMENT. = = SSS SST —— = z a —- agua ome CHAPTER XIV. BREEDING AND CROSSING. INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS—QUALITIES OF A GOOD MUTTON SHEEP—QUALITIES OF PURE BRITISH BREEDS—LELCESTER—SOUTH DOWN—CHEVIOT, &c.—REMARKS ON THEIR CULTIVATION—IN-AND- IN BREEDING—CROSSING— BREEDING REGISTER—INFLUENCE OF SEX—GOOD POINTS OF A MERINO AND SAXON—TUPPING SEASON. INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. THERE is no department connected with the management of every description of stock of such paramount importance as the one we are about to consider ; and comparative success or failure must depend in a measure on the degree of knowl- edge of physiological principles the breeder may possess, to- gether with that information acquired by perseverance, and close and discriminating observation. Those principles which form the basis of successful stock breeding are not wholly the results of scientific investigation, but in part by having the particular points to be added or changed in the form and fleece well defined in the mind, a ready perception of minute blemishes as well as good points, and indefatiga- ble attentions in management in every regard. The breed- er acts on that general law of nature, that “like produces like,” a knowledge of the anatomical structure of the animal, with a thorough acquaintance of its habits ; but art or skill is equally necessary to make everything available to his pur- pose. So it is an union of art and science which forms the perfectly successful breeder. The jostling incident to a redundant population necessarily begets excessive competition in every department of industry, which sets invention at work, and wit accordingly is sharp- ened to aid in every enterprise. Hence, in England, to sup- port her numerous subjects, everything is brought into requi- INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS, 263 sition—every rood of ground is made subservient to grazing or tillage—the form of every animal is studied, and if sus- ceptible of improvement, with a view to additional profit, is persevered in till accomplished. Perfection, therefore, in tillage and stock can only become very general where com- petition is excessive at all points, in order to secure individ- ual competency, and the support of an overgrown population. Thus we have only to refer to countries sparsely settled, and the means of support consequently ample and attainable with little effort, to find indifferent agriculture, as well as indiffer- ent animals, and therefore little knowledge possessed, or at- tention paid, to correct principles of breeding. Our own widely-extended country unfortunately affords incontroverti- ble evidence of the truth of this position ; hence it is appre- hended that we shall not practically avail ourselves of all the light which has been afforded on breeding, to a very general extent, for many years to come, because stern necessity is not at our backs, as in overgrown Europe, to require it. This is the fact at present, and it is feared the cause stated will long operate to retard the progress of general improvement in stock, commensurate with its importance. England is indebted to Bakewell and Ellman for extraor- dinary reformations in her breeds of sheep; but it is hazard- ing little to say that she numbers hundreds among her breed- ers at the present day quite as enlightened as their illustri- ous predecessors. Bakewell and Ellman acted as pioneers in a new and unexplored enterprise, and are worthy of the renown they have so justly acquired ; but their efforts were bent to improve the form and hasten its maturity, while the American Bakewells and Ellmans have a twofold and far more important object to accomplish—improvement of form and fleece. Both are within the reach of American enter- prise and skill, and in process of time will be attained. As hitherto remarked, the carcase engrosses almost ex- clusively the attention of British breeders, mutton being the great object, and the fleece therefore takes secondary rank, while in the United States it is thereverse. ‘The subject of breeding consequently will be divided, and that which will claim attention first, is the consideration of the English breeds of which the writer has no personal experience in their culti- vation, and therefore is necessarily compelled to rely on such authorities as his best judgment approves. The following sound observations of Mr. Spooner will open the discussion ; 264 BREEDING AND CROSSING. QUALITIES OF A GOOD MUTTON SHEEP. “There are various points that are sought after by breed- ers, not because of the particular value of those points, but because they are evidence of other valuable qualities, such as aptitude to fatten and early maturity. Thus, in the South Down breed, small heads and legs, and small bones, are es- teemed, as they are qualities which are found connected with fattening properties. Black muzzles and legs are also val- ued, probably because they denote the good constitution and hardihood of the animal. We must, however, take care lest, in carrying these points to an extreme, we neglect other val- uable qualities. Straightness of the back, breadth of loins, and rotundity of frame, are points which cannot be disputed, and are not merely signs of good qualities, but good qualities themselves. ‘The straightness of the back, so perfect in the Leicester, is by no means natural to the South Down, in an unimproved state, but rather the contrary. In the improved breeds, however, it is present, and is justly regarded as an excellent point, giving a better surface for the laying on of flesh, and affording larger scope for the abdominal organs. Its converse, too, a round or convex back, is produced or in- creased by the eflects of poverty and cold, and is almost sure to follow if the breed is neglected and exposed. “The development of bone, of course, requires nutriment as well as any other part, though not, perhaps, in the same degree. Large bone, therefore, abstracts nutriment which would otherwise be more profitably employed, and thus is anything butadesirable point insheep. Horns, for the same reason, are much better dispensed with. One point in sheep, which is justly regarded as extremely favorable, is a soft, mellow feeling of the skin and parts beneath. ‘These parts are the cellular, or rather adipose membranes, which in fat sheep are full of fat, and in lean sheep, when possessing this mel- low feeling, denote the plentiful existence of these membra- nous cells ready for the reception of fat, which is deposited in them almost in the form of oil. “‘ Breadth of loin and rotundity of frame are qualities that require no observation, having been before alluded to. The former denotes the presence of a large quantity of flesh in the spot where it is most valuable, and it also bespeaks a large and roomy abdomen. A round frame is also the sure attendant of a large abdomen, and an extended surface for the QUALITIES OF PURE BRITISH BREEDS. 265 muscles of the back and loins. A general squareness of frame bespeaks large muscles, particularly of the quarters. ‘¢ What, indeed, is wanted in a good-formed animal, is as much flesh and as little bone and gristle as possible, and this flesh is required where it is most valuable ; for instance, it is much more valuable on the loins and quarters than about the head and upper or scrag-end of the neck. A large de- velopment of flesh is pretty sure to be accompanied by a disposition to fatten; but for profitable feeding it is essential that these qualities should be developed early—constituting early maturity.” QUALITIES OF PURE BRITISH BREEDS. The three pure breeds which claim so large a share of attention in Great Britain, are the New Leicester, South Down, and Cheviot. It is universally conceded that, so far as propensity to fatten and early maturity are considered, the Leicester outstrips all competition. These qualities may be regarded as a model, and other breeds are proportionally valuable as they approximate these prominent points of the Leicester. Placed on a fertile pasture, and free from expo- sure, its quick and large returns of profit will ever make it the favorite of a large majority of English sheep-farmers. Its drawbacks, originating from the extreme refinement of its breeding by Mr. Bakewell and his successors, are, com- paratively, a weak constitution, incapacity to endure travel and exposure to bleak situations, and great liability to inflam- matory disorders. Again, the assimilation of its food tends so greatly to the production of flesh and fat, the milk secretions are proportionally injured, and its qualities therefore for nurs- ing are decidedly inferior to the South Down, Cotswold, Lincoln, Cheviot, as well as some other varieties. Its prom- inent good qualities, as mentioned, have been turned to the improvement of other breeds deficient in these qualities, and to such an extent that an original Lincoln or Cotswold is quite rare in all England; indeed it is thus with all other of the ancient long-wooled varieties. Mr. Spooner observes, “ That the Leicester have been extensively employed in im- proving the breed of other sheep, and so successfully has this practice been in many instances that the result of the cross has produced a breed more profitable than the Leicester itself, retaining the fattening qualities of the sire with the greater hardihood and adlapiation to the soil possessed by the 2 266 BREEDING AND CROSSING. native breed.” ‘This is applicable to the Lincoln, Cotswold, and Romney-marsh breeds. The mutton of the Leicester (on the authority of Mr. Spooner) is by no means so good as the South Down, which, however, is partly, not wholly, owing to the early period (twenty months) at which they are fit for the butcher, and partly to the very large proportion of tallow compared tothe lean. ‘Thus it is not a favorite in the London markets, and accordingly, of late years, the first cross between the Leicester and the Down has been produced instead of the Leicester; and it is contended that this cross is the most profitable sheep that can be fattened, making greater and more rapid progress than the Down, and better meat than the Leicester. In the history of the South Down the reader is made aware that between the original Down and the Improved there is a wide difference, the latter possessing most of the important requisites which constitute the perfect mutton sheep. With a propensity to fatten inferior only to the Leicester, but with later maturity, this breed are good travellers, hardy compared with the Leicester, and capable of thriving on short pas- ture. ‘Their mutton is second only to the mountain breeds in fineness of flavor, and instead of their fat being concen- trated as in the Leicester, it is dispersed through the flesh, or “ well mattled,” according to the butcher’s phraseology. Mr. Spooner says, ‘‘ Nothing can afford a better proof of the sterling qualities of this breed than the fact that some twenty years since, the price of South Down wool rendered the fleece a matter of great importance ; and now, although the price is reduced to one third, and it can never expect to real- ize much advance, yet, notwithstanding this, the valuable qualities of the animal, and the improvements that have been made, have enabled the breed still to retain a foremost rank in public favor.” The South Down ram is extensively employed at the pres- ent day in Great Britain for perfecting the more inferior breeds, and with the long-wooled sheep to produce a first cross, the mutton of which is so highly esteemed. A dis- tinguished breeder in Hampshire some years since crossed the improved Cotswold ewe with the Down ram, and to such perfection has he brought the product, that he now challen- ges all England to produce a breed that will yield larger returns. The Down is evidently making rapid progress in the estimation of American breeders, and thus far, the cross QUALITIES OF PURE BRITISH BREEDS. 267 with low grade sheep has been attended with much success, which, however, considering its marked superiority, is by no means a cause of wonder. Wherever the pasture is not over-abundant, this breed is likely to take precedence over all others for mutton. The third pure breed is the Cheviot, which are inferior to the South Down in fattening powers and early maturity, but greatly superior in hardihood and endurance of cold. Their excellence as nurses is pre-eminent, and consequently in instances where it was desirable to push forward lambs for market, the cross with the Leicester has been resorted to with complete success. In the northern parts of this State, as well as through the New England States, the Cheviot is admirably adapted to the climate, and ordinary modes of Management. The next breeds of the long-wooled varieties which will be very briefly noticed, are the Lincoln and Cotswold. These, however, have lost some of their original characteristics by extensive crossing with the Leicester ram, and by it have been made as greatly superior to their ancestors, as the modern Leicester is over the old breed. In many respects the Lin- coln and Cotswold are better suited for American breeders than the Leicester, being hardier, carrying heavier fleeces, and withal, are better nurses; and, as observed of the Lei- cester, where ample provision can be made for quick fatten- ing, and placed in localities which afford facilities for easy access to a good mutton market, they are worthy of much consideration with those who cultivate sheep for the carcase. The above brief summary of the qualities of the prominent English breeds, whichis but a recapitulation of what the reader has remarked in their history, is for the purpose, in part, of calling the attention of American breeders to their great and undisputed merits. It will at once be conceded, that they are not as profitable as the fine-wooled breeds, if placed in situa- tions unadapted to them, and such localities have already been pointed out. Butit is scarcely necessary to say, that it would be unwise for all to turn their attention to raising fine wool, and wholly neglect the production of an article which is be- ginning to be so highly appreciated, and paid for accordingly, in our city markets. Fine mutton must always be in requi- sition as well as fine wool; and with a considerate choice of breeds which produce the former, and of such as are partic-* ularly adapted to the products of the farm, the growing of 268 BREEDING AND CROSSING. mutton can be made quite as profitable as the cultivation of wool only. In addition to the value of the carcase, the new American enterprise for manufacturing the combing wool of English sheep, has already materially advanced the value of their fleeces, as good combing wools are now commanding as high as thirty-seven cents per lb. ; and the average weight of fleece of the long-wooled breeds may safely be estimated at six lbs. The prejudice entertained against the British breeds by American farmers originates in ignorance and mismanage- ment. In many instances they have been abandoned and unjustly condemned because they could not be supported on the same amount of feed which is requisite for smaller breeds. Now let the American breeder for one moment consider the fact that the expenditure of food is in the ratio of the size of the breed; and if the same amount of flesh and fat can be grown on three English sheep, that can on five or six grade Saxons, or Merinos, pray why are not the three as profitable as the six? The English breeds consume, we will suppose, double the quantity of an equal number of the ordinary American varieties, but when they are butchered the proportion of valuable parts to the offal is greatly the largest, and the weight of carcase is occasionally three times greater, and almost invariably more than double. All that it is necessary to do in order to test the truth of these remarks, is, to weigh accurately an equal number of English and Amer- ican sheep, and also their daily rations till fit for the butcher. This is the only way for every farmer to do, who doubts. The turnip system of feeding so universal in Great Britain for fattening sheep should be resorted to in this country wherever it is practicable, and conformity in all other respects to English practice. ‘This we should not despise and reject simply because England is one thing and America another. English animals and agriculture are second to none in the world; and in whatever point we imitate these, when prac- ticable, will result in the largest returns of profit. ‘The fol- lowing observations, by Mr. Spooner, are in keeping with the above remarks : “The management and selection of any breed of sheep must, after all, become a matter of pounds, shillings, and pence. The question the farmer has to consider is, what description of sheep will in the long run return the most profit; and this question must be viewed in relation to the management he IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 269 will be able to adopt on the particular farm on which he may be located. It is not therefoxe a simple, but a compound question. It is not merely which breed will make most flesh and fat, but which will make it in the shortest time and on the least food; which can bear the weather, or hard keep, or travelling, or a particular mode of management, with the greatest impunity. All these considerations must enter into the farmer’s mind before he can come to a sound conclusion. From the want of making these considerations many fatal mistakes have been made, and a flock has been selected al- together unsuitable to the soil, and incapable of bearing the severity of the weather.” IN-AND-IN BREEDING. No point connected with breeding has elicited so much controversy, and much of it certainly of a random character, as the one we are about to consider. There are grounds, to a certain extent, both for an aflirmative and negative of the question ; and therefore, the writer, with due deference to divided opinion, will present some of the views and argu- ments entertained and advanced on either side, which will enable the reader to draw his own conclusions from the premises. By breeding im and in is properly meant choosing indi- viduals to breed from of the same family between which exist propinquity or relationship of blood. The objects sought to be accomplished by breeding in and in, are to strengthen good qualities and get rid of bad ones as soon as possible ; it is therefore very evident that it requires a mas- ter’s skill in selection of individuals, for if any possess im- perfections, these, however slight at first, become hereditary, and will go on assuming a worse and worse type till the breed become worthless. Mr. Cully, the eminent sheep breeder, entertained the opinion, that less risk was run by breeding in and in than is generally supposed; yet at the same time was slyly procuring his rams frem Mr. Bakewell, and selling his own at high prices to others. Blacklock contends that breeding in and in is as “ destruc- tive to flocks, as marriages of near relations to the human kind. We would not witness an every-day entailment of diseases, if people would forego their unnatural love of money, and cease their endeavors to keep it in ‘the family,’ by forming matrimonial alliances with those who are near of 23* 270 BREEDING AND CROSSING. kin. The law of God forbids us to wed those who stand in certain degrees of propinquity ; but, if we and our descend- ants avail ourselves of the limits of this law, and marry on its verge a certain number of times, misery must infallibly be the lot even of the tenth generation ; and instead of be- ing fathers of a mighty people, few and full of sorrow will be the days of our children ; while in place of retaining in their possession our darling wealth, it will, ere long, pass into the hand of the stranger.” In 1800, Mr. Ezra L’Hommedieu, Vice-President of the New York State Agricultural Society, collected very many observations and facts on the breeding of sheep, which went to show the degenerating tendency of breeding in and in. Mr. Dick, of Edinburgh, states, on information given him by many intelligent farmers, that cattle bred im and in are sub- ject to clyers in the throat after they have attained their first year. Blacklock says—“ Clyers are enlarged lymphatic glands, which are a sure sign of what is termed a scrofu- lous habit, and a breaking up of the constitution.” Mr. Dickson asserts the following, which will be found in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, of Edinburgh :—* The evil of breeding iz and in, or, in other words, producing too great refinement of tone, is manifested in the first place by a tenderness of constitution; the animals not being able to withstand the extremes of heat and cold, rain and drought. If the evil is prolonged through several generations, the forms of the animals become affected, the bone becomes very small, the neck droops, the skin of the head becomes tight and scantily covered with hair, the expression of the eye indicates extreme sensibility, the hair on the body be- comes thin and short, and the skin as thin as paper; the points continue good, and predisposition to fatness increases, but the whole carcase becomes much diminished in size, though retaining its plumpness and beautiful symmetry. The evil, however, does not terminate in the production of these symptoms. Internal diseases ensue, such as disorganiza- tion of the liver, or rot, polypi in the trachea, clyers, and malformation of the neck and legs.”