es Paniin) heii yea om asi hit by the it baal Ria Si AMERICAN SPIDERS AND ISR SPEN NING W ORK. mw NATUR AM, HASTORY ORBWEAVING SPIDERS OF THE UNITED STATES WITH SPECIAL REGARD TO THEIR INDUSTRY AND HABITS. BY HENRY OC. McCOOK, D.D., VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA; VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY ; AUTHOR OF “THE AGRICULTURAL ANTS OF TEXAS,” “THE HONEY AND OCCIDENT ANTS,” ETC., ETC. PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR, ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. ‘ A. D. 1889. AUTHOR'S EDITION. This Edition is limited to Two Hunprep anp Firry copies, of which this set is THE PRESS OF ALLEN, LANE & SCOTT, PHILADELPHIA, THESE STUDIES IN NATURAL HISTORY ARE DEDICATED TO THE VENERATED MEMORY OF MY FATHER, JOHN McCOOK, M. D., A LOVER OF NATURE, A FRIEND OF SCIENCE, A GOOD PHYSICIAN, A SERVANT OF HIS FELLOW MEN WHOSE FAITH IN THE UNSEEN NEVER FALTERED. Se b ~ y & eck jh 3} & : _ ma / ve “y/ PREFACE. THE studies whose results are here given have been prosecuted throughout the last sixteen years. I have largely limited my investiga- tions to the habits and industry of spiders, as the matters which seemed most important at this stage of scientific knowledge. None but the field naturalist can fully know and appreciate the diffi- culties of my task. To these ordinary obstacles have been added special hindrances of my own. The cabinet or laboratory student, with A Field his pinned and alcoholic specimens, is largely independent of Natural- Nie : Bae : ist’s Diff outward conditions; but he who studies nature as a living thing culties, iS the servant of seasons, hours, moods. He must live amidst the life which he would see, and seize the opportunities as they come, or lose his venture for that season or year, or perhaps wholly. The duties of my calling in a large city have held me rigorously away from the open country except during two months of the year. Summer vaca- tions, and such leisure hours as a most busy life would allow, have been given to the pleasant task of following my little friends of the aranead world into their retreats, and watching at the doors of their fragile domi- ciles for such secrets of their career as they might happen to uncover. Occasional excursions at other times were unavoidably brief, and often broken off at the point of promised discoveries. I haye, in part, indeed, overcome this obstacle by transporting and colonizing specimens, and by directing the observations of others. But, at the best, artificial conditions fall short of Nature’s fullness, and no faithfulness of assistants can quite equal personal investigations. Then, again, the natural disposition of the spider is a great hindrance to the prosecution of field studies. It is a solitary and secretive animal, and the most ingenious device for winning its confidence is as The apt to drive it into hiding as to persuade it to revelations. In Spider’s . : : : . F : this respect there is a great difference between these solitary Solitary ) Nature, Creatures and those sociable and demonstrative insects, the ants, whose life history I have heretofore been permitted to give to the scientific world. The success which was readily obtained by spending a few weeks or months encamped among formicaries of emmets, contin- ually eluded me when trying like methods with araneads. (5) 6 PREFACE. To be sure, in some respects the Orbweayers and Lineweayers are more approachable than other tribes of spiders; for, as they are sedentary crea- tures, and are found continuously upon their webs, one often has the oppor- tunity to observe them with comparative freedom and comfort. But this is only true of the commoner species, and of that part of their life which concerns the structure of snares and trapping of food. In other, and even more interesting fields, these sedentary spiders, like all the wandering groups, persistently conceal their manners. When it is considered that most of the facts presented in my books consecutively, as a connected history, have been collected under such diffi- culties, and at widely separated periods and places, it is not strange that some gaps in the life record may be found. But, if in some parts the connecting links are lacking, and the story is incomplete, it is no more than ordinarily befalls other naturalists when investigating the habits of other animals. While, therefore, no one can regret more than I the blanks which here and there occur in the pages of that wonderful his- tory of industrial life and art which I have attempted to unfold, I ven- ture to urge the above reasons for indulgence towards any failures which may appear. The general plan of my work, as it will be given to the public, may briefly be stated as follows: The first volume is chiefly taken up with de- scriptions of those parts of aranead spinningwork which are gen- General rally known as the web or snare, and the nest or den. The Plan of ns eee the Work former concerns the nurture of the spider, as the snare is its manufactured tool for capturing insects. The latter concerns the protection of the animal from changes of weather and assaults of enemies. In my studies of the snares of Orbweavers, I have tried to obtain the full- est possible details of the spinning methods of every species; to mark the striking differences which exist among the various groups; and to associate these, as far as my knowledge would permit, with the general habits of the various families. Furthermore, I have brought to bear upon these, in a comparative way, the spinningwork and habits of other tribes, so that the reader may be able to trace resemblances and differences, and to perceive what relations, if any, exist between the general life habits of all spiders. The consideration of these topics has necessarily suggested the degree of intelligence and the variety and adaptation of methods shown by spi- ders in their ordinary and special behavior. Thus have come into view the profound and interesting problems relating to animal mentalism. Finally, I have endeayored, in the closing chapters, to present a bird’s eye view of the entire field of industrial life treated of in the volume, with special bearing upon a common origin, whether from the one stand- point of a single originating Mind, or from the other standpoint of a genetic evolution from common ancestral actions and tendencies. Plan of Volume I. PREFACE. 7 In the second volume I shall take up and treat in the same way the habits and industry associated with mating and maternal instincts, the life of the young, the distribution of species, and other general Plan of habits indicated in the appended table of contents. The third Volumes 2 * : : I. anatir, Volume of the series will be a systematic presentation of the Orbweavers of the United States, and this I hope to make toler- ably complete. The descriptions will be accompanied by a number of plates drawn in the best style of lithographic art, and painted by hand in the colors of nature. The above plan is the result of an entire change in my original pur- pose, which was to write a natural history of all American spiders, following consecutively and separately the several tribes, beginning with the Orb- weavers. A vast amount of material has been gathered with this purpose in view, but I have found that the work thus marked out is so great that I doubt my ability to accomplish it all. For, even should my life be sufficiently lengthened to overtake the entire field mapped out, the expense of the undertaking appears to be an impassable barrier. I have, therefore, concluded to introduce, in the com- parative way referred to, such notes of tribes, other than Orbweavers, as seemed most desirable and important for solution of the various problems which have arisen as my studies progressed. Thus, while the Orbweavers are treated fully, the natural history of all other tribes of our spider fauna comes well into view. Although I confess some regret at the abandonment of the original plan, I am confident that most naturalists will agree with me that the present treatment adds to the value of the volumes now pub-— lished, and is, perhaps, after all the best that could have been adopted. There is another point at which this work departs from my original plan. As my observations have especially traversed the spinning habits of spiders, it seemed important to make a careful study of the spin- Study of ning organs, not only of Orbweavers, but of all other spider cae tribes. It was thought that such a comparative study would not only give valuable hints in the systematic determination of the animals, but would haye an especial bearing upon the variations in spin- ning habit. It was inferred that there must be some connection between special function and the organs thereof. In this line work was begun and prosecuted far enough to see how promising and interesting is the field. But a severe attack of sickness, whose consequences were felt for several years, compelled an entire cessation of work with the dissecting knife and microscope. I was, therefore, reluctantly compelled to omit from the open- ing chapters much material which I had hoped to present, and to limit my illustrations to the few which are really necessary to give the reader a correct idea of the structure of the spinning organs and the manner in which the spinning material of spiders is formed. Even these illustrations I have borrowed in part from others. I venture to express the hope that Original Plan. 8 PREFACE. some one who can thoroughly prosecute this line of studies will be led to take it up and give the results to the scientific world. I have made a point of illustrating all descriptions with drawings whenever the proper material was in hand. During my studies of ara- nead spinningwork, I haye made thousands of original sketches in my note books, from which I have selected those that seemed best suited to make clear the points treated of. Judging by my own experience, even an outline drawing is better to communicate certain facts than pages of verbal explanation. Acting upon this belief, I have preferred to risk excessive illustration rather than fall upon obscure descrip- tion. Indeed, I cherish the hope that the contents of some of the follow- ing chapters might be fairly understood by a simple examination of the cuts with their explanatory legends. I have not been unmindful of the artistic sense of my readers, which, I trust, has been measurably satisfied; but I take it for granted that those who honor me by looking at my work will understand that the chief object of the engravings is to make plain what I have to say. In other words, the figures are for illustration and not for embellishment. Many of the cuts have been redrawn by competent artists, but a large number remain as figured by myself on block or paper. Among those who have assisted in making the drawings are the well known artists and arachnologists, Mr. J. H. Emerton, of Boston, and Dr. George Marx, of Washington ; also, Messrs. Edwin Sheppard and Frank Stout, of the Acad- emy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia; and the Misses Bonsall, of this city. It may not be out of place to allude to the fact that, in order to give my investigations to the public in any form that would satisfy me, I have been compelled to undertake the entire burden and expense of Why the publication. Few things could be more inconvenient and dis- SUthOr is cestatul than the business details thus imposed; but I have ac- Publisher : é ? cepted them as a part of the sacrifice required of one who, as a prophet of the mysteries of Nature, feels called to declare, at whatever cost, the truths known to him. Those who have undergone a like experience need not be told that the amount of loss to fall upon an author will be largely determined by the interest which friends and associates take in procuring for his book a place on the shelves of scientific societies and leading libraries. I have received many favors and much generous help in procuring in- formation and specimens from yarious naturalists and friends, for which anes I express my thanks. I have tried to give full credit to all in the appropriate place in text or foot note, but will make de- served personal acknowledgments in a succeeding volume. Full Illus- trations. He GaMcC: Tue Manse, PHILADELPHIA, November Ist, 1889. TABLE OF CONTENTS OF VOLUME T. PART IL—STRUCTURE AND SPINNING ORGANS. CHAPTER I. GENERAL CLASSIFICATION AND STRUCTURE. PAGES The Origin of the Name Spider—Principal Groups, Sedentary and Wandering—Tribal Divisions—Blackwall’s Classification—Thorell and Bertkau—Highest Forms—Superi- ority of Lycosids—Orbweavers and Lineweavers—Anatomy of a Spider—Caput— Eyes—Mandibles —Sternum—Labium—Maxille and Palps—Legs and Claws—The Abdomen—Pulmonary Sac —-The Epigynum and Male Organs—Hints to Collector— A Spidery—How to Observe Spinningwork and Habits—Preserving Specimens. . 15-33 CHAPTER II. THE SPINNING ORGANS. External Spinning Organs—The Spinnerets or Spinning Fingers—The Posterior Spin- nerets—Middle Spinnerets—Anterior Spinnerets—Bucholz and Landois’ Studies— Studies of Meckel—Spinning Spools—Internal Spinning Organs—Silk Glands—Liquid Silk—Pyriform Glands and Ducts—Cylindrical Glands—Treeform Glands—Spinning Spools of the Pyriform Glands—Spigot Spools—Spools of Middle and Anterior Spin- nerets—Generic Differences in Spinning Spools—The Muscular System for Expelling See em ee ee ee EN cant, Yn seca iee) Se PA ss FoR at es ae NE vee 8 LOSE OL PART II.—GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS, CONSTRUCTION, AND ARMATURE OF WEBS. CHAPTER III. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ORBWEAVERS SNARES. Popular Errors—An Orbweb Defined—Great .Groups of Orbwebs—Parts of the Orb— Forms of the Hub—The Free Zone—Notched Zone. $1 ara Z=Oo) CHAPTER IV. CONSTRUCTION OF AN ORBWEB. Laying Out the Frame—Dragline—The Prime Foundation—Foundations by Air Currents— Bridge Lines—Webs Between Trees—Webs on Water Plants—Cobweb Bridges—Trial Air Lines—Swinging Inspection Baskets—Jonathan Edwards as an Arachnologist— Double Foundation Lines—Placing in Radii—Alternate Apposition of Radii—Form- inewihes Notched Zonegemr tts aol: foncy 0) sean Re Co bn ogee otes . 60-78 10 TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER VY. ARMATURE OF ORBWEBS: VISCID SPIRALS. PAGES Spiral Scaffolding—Corner Loops—Spinning Viscid Spirals—Cutting Away the Scaffold— Size of Beads—Elasticity of Spiral Line—Formation of Beads—Beads Dissolved by Rains—Tortion of Spirals by Rain—Number and Adhesiveness of Beads—Medicinal leans)n-\9 (co OMC CCE CeICW aS eceanc, oo chokold So da 6 Jeavols A-eto o. WHI) PART III.—CHARACTERISTIC FORMS AND VARIATIONS OF SNARES. CHAPTER VI. ARGIOPE AND HER RIBBONED ORB. Full Orbs—Argiope cophinaria, the Basket Argiope—Distribution and Habitat—The Zig- zag Ribbon—The Central Shield—How the Shield is Spun—Spinning the Zigzag Ribbon—A Spider Diary—Swathing Insects—The Notched Zone—Fenders or Pro- tective Wings—Web of the Male Argiope—Size and Details of Orbs—Argiope argyraspis, the Banded Argiope—An African Argiope—The Silyered Argiope, A. haus) \/ 20) ie erro aan GA OsG td De OLaeo ora btasa Guc-4. 6G 5 0 6 o a SADolN) CHAPTER VII. EPEIRA AND THE ROUND VERTICAL WEB MAKERS. Familiar Orbwebs—Epeira Strix, the Furrow Spider—Spider Stowaways—The Head Downward Position—How the Feet Command the Snare—‘ Under Her Thumb ”— Natural Sites of Snares—Epeira domiciliorum, or the Domicile Spider—The Insular Spider, Epeira insularis—The Shamrock Spider, Epeira trifoliuam—Tents in Hedge- rows—Hpeira yertebrata—A California Colonist—Epeira trivittata—Gasteracantha— Tufted Webs—Orbs with Open Hubs—Acrosoma—The Mitred Spider—Epeira cau- data, the Tailed Spider—Meta—A Cave Dweller. ........+- .|..--. - 110-129 CHAPTER VIII. COMPOSITE SNARES AND SECTORAL ORBS. The Labyrinth Spider—How the Maze is Made—Uses of the Labyrinth—The Orb—The Trapline and Hub—Favorite Sites—Epeira triaranea—Open Sector and Free Radius — Orientation of Trapline—Spirals Spun in Loops—The Spinningwork of Three Tribes in One Web —Epeira thaddeus—Zilla and Her Snare—A Scotch Colony—Wilder’s Nephila—Nephila’s’Snare 7: Ssactclcreenieiere senueinciit el icestivee oeatsnrew eee eewery enna a OU) 512.0 CHAPTER IX. HORIZONTAL SNARES AND DOMED ORBS. The Orchard Spider—Variations in the Orb Plane—Protective Apron—The Hunchback Spider, Epeira gibberosa—Hunchback’s Hammock—Tetragnatha extensa—Cosmo- politan Distribution—The Stilt Spider, Tetragnatha grallator—Snares Over the Water—Tetragnatha as a Sailor—Influence of Distribution and Environment— Climate as Influencing Distribution—Domed Orbs—The Basilica Spider—Basilica Spider’s Domed Orb—Basilica and Linyphia—Triple Domed Snare of Linyphia— Spinningwork Analogies . SO CEC itis 6 Ome ct te Sh of car lata al TABLE OF CONTENTS. 11 PART IV.—UNBEADED ORBS AND SPRING SNARES. CHAPTER X. THE FEATHERFOOT SPIDER, ULOBORUS PLUMIPES. PAGES Distribution—Character of the Snare—Ribboned Decorations—Circular Decorations— Snares in Hollow Trees and Stumps—Webs Among the Laurel—No Viscid Beads— The Floceulent Spirals—Calamistrum and Cribellum—Position of the Snare—A ALleiey OO OVTEDNE ‘6 .4..0 0 Mid onded Ceol cmnne. -c finoytitoe Gr Omnwc! cucnpenmcmioss 172-179 CHAPTER XI. THE TRIANGLE SPIDER AND ORB SECTOR. Hyptiotes cavatus—Her Favorite Site -Geographical Distribution—Construction of the Web—Making the Frame—Mode of Spinning the Spirals—The Radii—The Floccu- lent Spiral Thread—Using the Spring Net—The Coil of Slack Line—Springing the Snare—Securing the Prey—Feeding Habits—Muscular Rigidity ...... .. 180-194 CHAPTER XII. THE RAY SPIDER AND HER SNARE: ACTINIC ORB. Name and Systematic Position—The Peculiar Snare—Bowing the Snare-—How the Snare is Operated—Springing the Snare—Locking the Rays—Wear and Tear of the Web—Affinities with Hyptiotes—The Spirals are Viscid—Insects Entangled upon the Snare—Genesis of the Trapline—Both Trail and Telegraph—Multiplex Trap- lines—Natural Habitat of the Ray Spider—Distribution. ...... 5 6 0 0 6 TO PART V.—MECHANICAL SKILL, INTELLIGENCE, AND EQUIPMENT. CHAPTER XIII. ENGINEERING SKILL OF SPIDERS. Geometric Arrangements Imperfect—A Wind swept Snare —Anthropomorphism—Counter- poising Webs—Zilla Leaf~Counterpoise —Professor Parona’s Case—Meta’s Counter- poise—Special Adaptations—Swinging Sawdust Nest—How Labyrinthea Braces her Roof—Pitching a Leaf Tent—Alternate Apposition—The Trestlework of Therid- ium—Skill of the Speckled Tubeweaver, Agalena nceyia—Dysdera’s Tubular Nest— A Srllker Bogan IGS 6 Bb oo boo 6 co a a cea ero > pep oo ayo a Soilless CHAPTER XIV. MECHANICAL STRENGTH OF WEBS AND PHYSICAL POWERS OF SPIDERS. Size of Orbwebs—Modified by Site—Modified by Weather—Structural Requirements— Strength of Snares—Webs that Entrap Birds—Argiope as a Bird Catcher—Endurance of an Orbweb—Physical Power of Spiders—A Spider Captures a Fish—A Snake En- snared by a Spider—Medicinal Spider's Snare—Theridium Captures a Mouse—Mr. Hopper’s Testimony—Hon. Proctor Knott’s Testimony—The Conclusion—The Inci- dent Proved—The Aranead Heroine .............+..+.-+.. - 229-246 iby, TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART VI.—PROVISION FOR NURTURE AND DEFENSE. CHAPTER XV. PROCURING FOOD AND FEEDING, : PAGES Food taking Tools—Handling the Snare—Accuracy of Perception—Treatment of Insects— Swathing the Prey—The Banquet Room—Deporting Swathed Insects—Trussing Cap- tives—Acrosoma Trapping Flies—Order and Subordination of Instincts—Flies Ban- queting with a Spider—Location Controls Food—Prolonged Abstinence—Comparative Feeding Habits—How the Tarantula Feeds—Need of Water—Drinking Habits— Does the Spider Eat Its Web?—Wear and Tear of Snares—Mending the Web—En- tangling Insects—The Spider as a Philanthropist—Man as an Ingrate . . . . . 247-267 CHAPTER XVI. EFFECTS AND USES OF POISON. The Fangs and Poison Bag—Blackwall’s Experiments—Effect of Epeira’s Bite—The 7 Inoculation Test—General Harmlessness of Spiders—The Other Side—The Venomous Spider of New Zealand—Latrodectus mactans—The Popular “Black Spider ”—In- definite Testimony—Phidippus morsitans —Effect of Spider Venom on Insects— Poison as a Reserve Weapon—-Popular Notions—Medical Imaginings—Queer Reme- dies—Upeless: Mears... 2 = citer f ye ele, Site ym re et aoe Satan sR PART VII.—NESTING HABITS, PROTECTIVE ARCHITECTURE, AND DEVELOPMENT. CHAPTER XVII. NESTING HABITS AND PROTECTIVE ARCHITECTURE OF ORBWEAVERS. Varieties of Spinningwork—The Nests of Epeira insularis—Leaf rolled Habitations— Woven Tents—Shelter Tents—Spider Seamstresses—Variations in Individual Habit— Special Adaptations—The Shamrock Spider’s Nest—Epeira domiciliorum and _tria- ranea—The Angulata Group—How the Spider Makes a Nest—Sewing Leaves To- gether—Spider Upholstery—Nest of the Young—The Nest of Epeira thaddeus—The Domed Tent of Triaranea—Labyrinthea’s Nest—The Leafy Canopy of Labyrinthea— Origin of the Nest making Habit—Intelligent Selection—Design Showed in Sewing— Nesting Industry Protective—Various Forms of Tents Summarized... . . . . 284-512 CHAPTER XVIII. NEST MAKING: ITS ORIGIN AND USE: DEVELOPMENT IN VARIOUS TRIBES. Comparative Studies—Nests of Tubeweayers—Saltigradés—Lineweavers—Theridium ripar- ium, the Prince of Spider Architects—Mode of Building —Use of Artificial Material— Nesting Snares of Linyphia—A Tent Among the Morning Glories—Territelarian Tubes—Atypus and Cyrtauchenius—Nesting Habit of Citigrades—Of Laterigrades— One Common and Typical Form of Nest—The Modes of Making Nests—Method of Atypus—Of the Mygalidee—Of the Water Spider—Of Speckled Agalena—Unity of Method in All Tribes—Nest Parasitism—Squatter Sovereignty—Comparison with Other Orders—Tube making Larvyze—Nests of the Caddis Fly Larva—Leaf thatched Nest of the Bag Worm—Nest of a Theridioid Spider—The Leaf roller Tortricid Moth—Shamrock Spider’s Nest in the Ferns—The Shell of Difflugia—Catholic Re- semblance in External Architecture—Creation’s Harmony. ........ . . 313-335 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 13 CHAPTER XIX. GENESIS OF SNARES. . . . . . an - . . PAGES Spinningwork Relations—A Hypothetical Standpoint—Genesis of a Trapline—A Simple Trail—Trail Telegraph—Foot Lines Commanding Snare—Acrosoma at Her Hub— Utilizing Web Fragments—Stellate Spider Trapping with a Fragment—Multiplex Traplines—Hyptiotes’ Trapline—Ray Spider’s Trapline—The Original Thread—Drag- line—Trestlework of Theridium—Theridium’s Parental Snare—Beautiful Snares of Linyphia—Snare Among the Morning Glories—From Sheet to Dome—From Dome to Tube—Linyphia costata’s Snare—Influence of Maternity—Cocooning Nest of Dolo- medes—Codperative Housekeeping—Origin of Orbwebs—Dictyna’s Orb like Snare— Orbweavers’ Curled Spirals—The Ray Spider’s Link—Viscid Lines of Dictyna and Amaurobius—Are Theridium’s Threads Viscid?—Another Starting Point—From Tubeweaver to Lineweaver—Agalena and Theridium—Epeira and Theridium—Sec- toral and Horizontal Orbs—Unity of Industrial Habit... ....... . . . 336-356 CONTENTS OF VOLUME II. Cuaprer I. Wooing and Mating of Orbweavers. II. Courtship and Pairing of the Tribes: Love Dances of Saltigrades. II. Maternal Industry: Cocoons of Orbweavers. IV. Cocooning Habits of Spiders: Comparative Industries. V. Maternal Instincts: Motherhood. VI. Coeoon Life and Babyhood. VII. Aeronautic or Ballooning Habit: Distribution of Species. VIII. Senses of Spiders, and their Relations to Habit. IX. Color and Color Sense: their Relations to Structure and Habit. X. Toilet, Moulting, and General Habits. XI. The Orbweavers’ Enemies. XII. Mimicry. XIII. Death and its Disguises. XIV. Fossil Spiders: Habits and Habitat of Ancestral Araneads. Orb eB eae, GENERAL CLASSIFICATION AND STRUCTURE. II, Tue order Araneze has given the name of the true spiders, which it embraces, to the class of invertebrates to which it belongs, Arachnida. This name, again, is due to that special function by which the spider is and has ever been popularly known. According to the Greek myth, Arachne was transformed into a spider by Pallas Minerva because she had boasted her superiority over that goddess in the use of the distaff. Hence the Greek name for spider (dépdyvy), arachne. The Eng- lish name is doubtless derived from the same function which led the un- happy Arachne upon her doom.! Spider is a corruption of “spinder,” the spinning one. The word suryives in a different form in the term “ spinster,” by which the virgin mistress of the distaff was commonly known in the days of our grand- sires. There is therefore a popular and phil- ological as well as natural fitness in the gen- eral classification of the order Aranez which we adopt after Thorell,? who in turn has substantially followed the arrangement of La- treille.* This classification is based upon the web making characteristics of the various groups and is as follows: The order may be Origin of the Name General divided into two principal groups, Classifi- A ie a é the Sedentary spiders and the Wan- cation. dering spiders. The former group includes those whose habit it is to remain, for the most part, upon or within their webs and take their prey by means of snares. The second group includes those which stalk or pursue their prey Fic. 1. An Orbweaver, Epeira gemma. 1 See Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Chap. vi. The story is told in the first 150 lines. 2 On European Spiders, by T. Thorell. Nova Acta Reg. Soc. Scientarium Upsaliensis. Upsala, 1869. 3 Latreille: In Cuvier’s “Le Regne Animal,” edition 1817, Paris. Sedentaires (Sedentary), page 79; Vagabondes (Wandering), page 95; Territéles, page 79; Tubitéles, page 81; Inequi- téles (Retitelari), page 84; Orbitéles, page 86; Laterigrades, page 91; Citigrades, page 95; Saltigrades, page 98. (15) 16 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. afield, upon the ground, water, or trees, and as a rule have no fixed domi- cile, except at the brooding time and during winter. These principal groups are subdivided into seven secondary groups, sections or suborders.! Seden- The four tribes comprising the Sedentary spiders are named strictly Gees from the chief characteristics of their spinningwork, viz.: the Orbi- telarie, from their orb shaped web; the Retitelariz, from their net like web or snare of crossed lines; the Tubitelariz, from the tubular web which they spin, and from the opening of which, in some species, a close textured snare spreads out in all directions; the Territelariw, from the silken cylinder with which the typical species line their burrows in the ground. The Wandering spiders include three tribes, which are conspicuous by their ordinary independence of snares for the capture of prey, and have been named from certain pe- culiarities of motion. The Laterigradz have legs so inserted as to permit a motion sidewise, as well as forward or backward. For this reason La- treille called them also Crab spiders. The Citigradee include those species that keep chiefly to the land and water, upon which they run with great rapidity. The Saltigradee, or vaulting spiders, are named from their hopping moyement in ordi- nary progress. The individuals of these three tribes are almost equal- ly entitled to be called citigrades, for they all move swiftly, but the Citigrades technically so termed are Fic. 2. Territelarie ; Burypelma Steindachnerii Ausserer. habitually running spiders, keeping OF PS TN ea closely upon the ground, while the Laterigrades and Saltigrades are arboreal, habitually dwelling upon plants and vertical surfaces. The three are also quite distinct in their structure, and the systematic position of any one, as far as above indicated, can com- W ander- ing Group monly be told by a glance at the form. ' Thorell uses the term “suborders” in his European Spiders for these principal groups, but adopts the term “sections” in his “Descriptions of the Aranez of Colorado” (Bulletin U.S. Geological Survey, Vol. III., No. 2, page 477, note), and still later the name tribe (tribus). GENERAL CLASSIFICATION AND STRUCTURE. Uf, The following tabular exhibit is given of this classification, or group- ing, if that word seems to any one more suitable — : Crass ARACHNIDA. ORDER ARANE®. I. First Division.—Sedentary Spiders. Tribe 1. Orbitelariz,! Orbweavers. Tribe 3. Tubitelarie, Tubeweavers. “2. Retitelariz,? Lineweavers. “4, Territelarize, Tunnelweayers. II. Second Division.—Wandering Spiders. Tribe 5, Citigrade,? Citigrades. Tribe 6. Laterigradee, Laterigrades. Tribe 7. Saltigrade, Saltigrades. This arrangement is the best, perhaps, that can be adopted, and seems more natural and satisfactory than that which commanded the approval of such a distinguished arachnologist as Black- Blackwall, and which is based upon uae the number of the eyes. Blackwall cation, founded three tribes, within which all the species known to him are includ- ed. They are: (1) Octonoculina, eyes, eight; (2) Senoculina, eyes, six; (3) Binoculina, eyes, two. In the first tribe, Octonoculina, which is the most extensive of the three, he included all the genera having eight eyes, without regard to other characteristics or to the considerable dif- ferences in organization and economy. ‘The Fic.3. Laterigrade Spider, Misume. Second tribe, Senoculina, as known to Black- na rosea Keyserling. wall included but ten or eleven genera, and embraced all tribes having six eyes, with the same disregard to other char- acteristics. The third tribe, Binoculina, contained the single genus Nops, instituted by Mr. W. S. McLeay for the reception of two remarkable species of extra European spiders. The Latreillian classification, which Thorell 1 Aranee Orbitelarize: Perty, Delect. Anim. Art. Bras., page 193. * From retus,a net. The word “net” very well expresses the knotted and meshed char- acter of most spinningwork of this group. But since it is used popularly as a general term for the webs of all spiders, I have preferred “ Lineweayers” to “Netweayers” as a dis- tinctive popular name of this tribe. $ Prof. Thorell assigns the Laterigrades to the fifth tribe, the Citigrades to the sixth. I have ventured to so far change this arrangement as to reverse the positions of the Lateri- grades and Citigrades. The Citigrades appear to me to approach the Tunnelweayers and Tubeweavers, both in structure and economy, more nearly than the Laterigrades. So also the step from the Citigrades to the Laterigrades through the genus Dolomedes appears more natural than the reverse,as Thorell has it; and the step to the Saltigrades from the Lateri- grades is quite as, if not more, natural than from the Citigrades. From the standpoint of economy alone the passage is certainly easier. * Blackwall, “Spiders of Great Britain and Ireland,” Preface, page 6. 18 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. has so admirably expressed as above, will at least be preferred by those who set as much store upon the habits and functions of the creatures as upon their forms. The latter indeed will not be undervalued by a wise and careful student; but the systematists and anatomists will doubtless bear with those who would fain keep natural history from swinging too far away from the paths which earlier naturalists trod, and which so thoroughly traversed the life history of created things. A general classification based upon the spider’s behavior, especially in relation to its chief function, has the advantage that it compels attention to the creature’s habit without at all neglecting its structure. It The Clas- js not claimed that this classification is without objections. There sification : , cout i ; : Justified, 2%, indeed, some incongruities, more or less serious, which will appear hereafter. But until these interesting animals shall have received from naturalists that attention which their character and impor- tance in nature justify, and which will enable some future arachnologist to show us a better way, we shall, perhaps, be best repaid by accepting this general grouping of the great families of the spider fauna. At least it is that which best serves my own purposes in the special lines marked out for this treatise. Students who are interested in a more thorough consideration of this point will find the objections to the above system well stated, and a classi- fication proposed based more upon anatomical structure, by Dr. Philip Bertkau, of Bonn.1 A yery satisfactory answer to these objections has been published by Prof. Tamarlan Thorell, M. D.,2 who adheres substan- tially to his former system but, confessing his indebtedness to Prof. Bert- kau for certain modifications, proposes a rearrangement which, he thinks, answers to our present knowledge of this order, as follows :=— Orpo ARANE®. Suporpo I. TrerrRAPNEUMONES. Tribus I. Territelarie. Susorpo II. Drenrumones. Tribus I. Tubitelarie. Ecribellatie. Cribellatie. Tribus III. Retitelarie. Tribus IV. Orbitelariz. Cribellatie. Keribellatee. Tribus V. Laterigradee. Tribus VI. Citigrade. Tribus VII. Saltigrade. The scheme embraces European families for the most part, but includes a few exotic ones. ‘See especially his “ Versuch einer natirlichen Anordnung der Spinnen,” in Archiy fiir Naturgeschichte, xliv., i., page 351, sq., 1878; and his treatise “Ueber das Cribellum und Cala- mistrum. Ein Beitrag zur Histiologie, Biologie, und Systematik der Spinnen,” ibid., xlviii., i. page 316, et seq., 1882. *Annals and Magazine Nat. Hist., ApL, 1886. “On Dr. Bertkau’s Classification of the Order Araneze or Spiders,” by Prof. T. Thorell. GENERAL CLASSIFICATION AND STRUCTURE. 19 IN. The propriety of beginning the series of spiders with the Orbweavers has been generally recognized by authors. Perhaps some have had no better reason than that which popularly associates this group with the name spider; but others have thought that the highest forms in the order Arane are really included within the Orbitelarie. The suggestion of Thorell can hardly be allowed that the more artistic construction of web shows higher development of instincts in Epeiroids than in other families of the order. Surely the nests of some Lineweavers, as Theridium riparium and Liny- phia marginata; of such Citigrades as our Turret spider, Lycosa arenicola Scudder; and such Tunnelweavers as our California trap door spider, Cteniza californica Cambridge, show a grade of instinct quite as high as that of the Orb- "¢- Ballets weavers, and which, moreover, as it seems to me, exhibits a mum scenicum wider range of voluntary action and variation than the more mechanical spinning of a geometric web. With greater justice Thorell, when speaking to the point of structure alone, disallows the claims of the Orbweavers to the highest position in their order. If we consider (he says) as we reasonably ought to do, more the harmonious development of the body’s various parts, the superior de- velopment of the organs of sense, and such like, we see that the Epeiroide, with their weak cephalothorax and heavy abdomen, their slow and clumsy motions, and their compara- tively small eyes, are surpassed by more than one of the other families usually looked upon as lower. ‘The Lycosoidee are distinguished by their well proportioned forms, their powerfully developed cephalothorax, by the quickness and force of their movements, and highly developed organs of sight. The Attoide also, as may be easily remarked by a casual observer in the little striped, jumping spider (Epiblemum scenicum) familiar around all our rural and suburban homes, have a strik- ing expression of intelligence. This may be an optical effect solely due to the peculiar eyes and nervous jerking action of the animal, but certainly mig. 0. Tubeweaving Spider, one is strongly reminded thereby of the “expression” naphosa variegata Hentz. (Marx, del.) Much magni Of the Hymenoptera, as ants and wasps, the most an highly developed of the order of insects. As regards the other reasons adduced to support the preéminence of the Epeiroids above all other spiders, such as the number and beauty of the species, the small number of transition forms, ete., they hold equally true of the Attoids. These form a unit quite as close, compact, and rich Highest Forms. Thorell’s Views. The Attoide. 20 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. in species as the Epeiroids; in brilliancy and yariety of colors they sur- pass both these and other families of spiders, and may even be compared with the showy families of Coleoptera.! Great as is the weight which this justly distinguished arachnologist car- ries toward the Attoids, I am inclined, in consideration of both instincts _ and structure, to place the Lycosids at the head of the order, Superior- Phe organization of this family is, to say the least, but little sae inferior, if at all, to that of the Attoids; and in their spinning habits I have no hesitation in pronouncing them to be superior. Indeed, the Saltigrades are by no means remarkable for their spinning- work, in this respect scarcely equaling the Tubeweavers, perhaps the lowest of the spiders. The Citigrades, however, exhibit most interesting industries; and especially in the personal care of their young, from the egg cocoon to the period when the spiderlings can shift for themselves, the Lycosids seem to me to show a higher order of instinct than the Attoids, certainly one as high. The whole subject, however, is one which in- cludes difficulties too numerous and serious to allow a full discussion in yy¢.7. Lineweaving Spider, Therid- these pages. ium tepidariorum. (Marx, del.) The Orbweayers have their nearest rela- tions in the Lineweayers, whose snares of netted lines are familiar in the Orbweav-angles of our houses, forming ers and : Line largely the domestic “ cobwebs.” ee In most cases the two tribes can be distinguished by a practiced eye by the general form. But they can Fig. 6. Citigrade Spider, Lycosa scutulata Most easily be separated thus: The Epei- sa ag a roids haye a low forehead, not transversely impressed ; from the margin of the clypeus to the middle front pair of eyes the distance is less, or at any rate not greater than the distance be- tween the middle front and middle rear eyes. In the Retitelariz, on the contrary, the distance from the margin of the clypeus to the middle front eyes is greater than that from the middle front to the middle rear eyes.? ? European Spiders, page 40. * There are exceptions in the case of some Epeiroid males with strongly projecting fore- head, and in the genus Tapinopa, among the Retitelariz. GENERAL CLASSIFICATION AND STRUCTURE. PAA Thus Fig. 8 represents the eyes of an Epeira, and Fig. 9 the eyes of the Retitelarian genus Theridium. Dr. Bertkau distinguishes these two tribes by the presence in the Epeiroids of what he calls a basal spot (Basalfleck) upon the mandibles. IIT. For the convenience of readers not acquainted with the anatomy of spiders, a general description of the animal is here given. It is not in accord with the purpose of this work to enter into the details of structure; for these the studies of anatomists and histologists must be consulted. But some knowledge of the principal organs, especially in their relations to the spinning industry, is necessary to the understanding of much of what follows. The principal parts are the cephalothorax and abdo- men. The cephalothorax consists of the cephalic part (ep, Fig. 11) and the thoracic part, tp; the two parts Fic. 8. Face of Epeira. gre united directly, and not by a neck, the caput being set immediately upon the thorax, whence the name cephalothorax. ‘The point of juncture is marked by a suture, more or less distinct, extending along the lower margin of the caput backward, on each side, and con- verging in a depression more or less profound at the summit of the thoracic part. The cephalothorax is externally a hard, chitinous case composed of two principal plates, resembling more nearly than any other part of the body the tough shell of true insects. The front and upper portion of the cephalic part is the caput, which in Orbweavers is sometimes depressed, more frequently elevated. On the fore part of the caput are situated eyes, which in this group are eight, but in other groups sometimes number six and even two. The arrangement of the eyes upon the caput forms good generic and specific characters. The eyes in the Orbweayers are disposed across the caput in two rows of four each, known as front and rear rows (Fig. 8) ; they are again divided into three groups, of which the middle group contains four eyes, known as the Fis. 9. Face of middle eyes, those in front being mid front or middle para front (M.F.) and those behind, the mid rear or middle rear Pidariorum. eyes (M.R.). The remaining four eyes, known as the side eyes (or lateral eyes), are placed in two’s on either side of and equidistant from the middle group. They are known as the side front (S.F.) and side rear (S.R.); they are generally quite near to each other, frequently touch, but occasionally are well separated; for the most part they are smaller than the middle eyes. They, as well as the middle group, are often placed upon tubercles The Caput. The Eyes. more or less prominent. AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. The part of the caput included between the two rows of eyes is called the eye space. The space between the front row of eyes and the lower margin of the face where it joins upon the mandibles is the clypeus Fic. 10. Ventral view of Argiope argyraspis. ps, palps; mb, mandible; dg, digital joint of palps; ra, radial joint; hu, humeral; cu, cubital; ax, ax- illary; mx, maxille; Ib, labi- um; sm, sternum; ex, coxa of the leg; gl, breathing gills; ep, epyginum; sp, spinnerets rep- resented closed; ac, anal clos- ure. to secrete a poisonous The falx is covered with hair, especially near the base, and at the apex is formed into a Falx. when at rest. The sternum (sm) is a cordate plate which forms the under part of the shell of the cephalothorax. Sternum. Labium. organ of the mouth. Opposed to the labium and above it is the upper’lip, a slight hair tipped projection, which is the termination of the palate. labium is placed one of the maxilla or lower jaws. Maxille. in form, the variation giving good generic characters. toothed groove into which the fang is folded down tations on each side, which mark the insertion of legs. ward part at the middle is placed the labium or lower lip (1b), a subtriangular or semi-oyate (Cp). That between the upper row of eyes and the vertex (v) of the caput is the forehead. The entire space thus occupied, from the vertex to the margin of the clypeus, is the face or facial space. The mandibles (mb) are two jaw like organs attached to the head beneath the margin of the clypeus, within which they articulate lat- Mandi- : bles erally. They are placed perpendicularly, ‘ or inclined more or less backward or toward the sternum. In shape they are conical or suboyate. Each mandible is composed of two parts, the base or falx (fx) and the fang (fg). The fang is a curved movable tooth, smooth, hard, and pointed. It is hollow, pierced on the iner side near the point with a small hole, which opens into a slight furrow. The hollow of the fang is occupied by a membra- nous duct which leads upward to a gland lodged within the falx. This gland is supposed liquid. or sheath It has four inden- fre. 1. Dorsal view of Epeira insularis. ab, abdomen; b, base; ap, apex of ab- domen ; pt, pits which mark the attach- ment of abdominal muscles; cp, ceph- alic part of cephalothorax; tp, thoracic On the for- part; mb, mandibles. 1, 2, 3, and 4, the legs represented in their order, first, second, third, and fourth. Tch, trochanter of the leg; cx, coxa; fm, femur; dg, digital, ra, radial, cu, cu- bital, hu, humeral joint of palps. (See Fig. 10.) On either side of the They vary They have a =, GENERAL CLASSIFICATION AND STRUCTURE. 23 rotary motion upon the fore part of the sternum, moving toward and against each other, thus crushing the interposed prey. The palps (ps) or palpi are two organs inserted into the free end of the maxille, of which they are an organic part.1 Each palp has five joints of various lengths named in order from the maxilla, (1) axillary, ax, (2) humeral, hu, (8) cubital, cu, (4) radial, ra, and (5) digital, dg. The axillary joint is the shortest of the five and corre- sponds to the second joint of the leg or trochanter, the maxilla being the equivalent of the coxa.? The humeral joint is much longer than the axillary; the cubital again is short, being a sort of knee joint. The radial is one and a half or twice as long as the above, and the digital is usually the longest joint of all.® The palps vary greatly in the two sexes. In the female each digital, dg, ter- Palps. Sexual minates like the foot Forms of ae : and is usually armed Palps. with a well developed curved claw (palpal claw) pec- tinated or serrated. These or- gans are prehensile, are used va- riously as hands or feet to hold and turn the prey, to dig, to sustain the body when suspend- ed upon webs, to grasp the co- Fic. 12. Male of Agalena ncevia: the speckled Tubeweaver. coon, etc., and even to aid in (METS GEN) locomotion. In the male the digital joint contains the genital organ; it is enlarged, often very greatly, into a bulb whose structure is complicated and subject to great specific variations. (Fig. 12.) It is always more or less covered on top by a plate, which may be distinguished from other parts by a more or less dense pubescence scattered upon the superior surface and 1 On account of the curved process upon the top of each maxilla whose convexity is toward its fellow, the palp may be said to issue from the side instead of the end of the maxilla. 2 Westring, “Aranez Svecie,’ Termini Technici, page 11. ’ 7 have adopted the terminology of Walckenaer, which is followed also by Blackwall and Cambridge. That of Westring is (in the same order as aboye): (1) basal, (2) femoral, (3) patellar, (4) tibial, (5) tarsal. The analogy between this terminology and that of the legs, perhaps has some advantage to the memory, but the Walckenaer names appear to me to be preferable, as being quite distinctive, and thus preventing confusion with names given to the joints of the legs. 24 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. sometimes under the apex. This genital plate or lamina corresponds to the apical part of the female digital, but the digital claw is entirely wanting, or rudimentary and hidden by pubescence. The genital organ is placed under the base of the lamina. It is furnished with processes vary- ing in form, size, and number, and with a hook or tube (or tubes) which fit into corresponding cayities in the female organ, and transfer the semi- nal fluid thereto. This peculiar formation does not appear until the last moult, when the spider is mature. Previous to that the male digital is simply a hairy bulb. The term genital bulb is also applied to the genital organ. Sometimes the bulb is quite one with the lam- --cl : : ; Ras ; : 5 ina in which it is mufled, in which case the bulb is EPS called the claya.1 During the interval between the third and fourth moulting a considerable change takes place. In the male the extremities of the palpi swell like clubs and th..- develop into different indentations, teeth, threads, or . _ leaves, which later on serve as transmitters of ee the semen, At first the clubs are filled with hes semitransparent fluid, while the forming inner organs are yellowish or brownish; at first the skin is ch quite soft, but soon hardens and forms a shell, which turns darker by the action of the air. Inasmuch as Fic. 13. Leg of Epeira these organs are almost devoid of soft parts it follows magnified. Cx, coxa, the joint which unites the leg with the ster- num; tch, trochanter, small joint by which the femur articulates upon the coxa; fm, fe- mur; ptl, patella; tb, tibia; mt, metatarsus; t, tarsus; cl, claws. naturally that as the shell cannot come off, no further moulting can take place. At the time the palpi become fully developed a great change takes place also in the female genitals ; the immediate surroundings become roughened and somewhat hardened, presenting little humps which serve partly as rests for the male palpi and partly as recep- tacles for the semen, and is what is designated as “vulva.”? When fully matured the sexes, hitherto separated, come together, and the copulation takes place in a different manner by different varieties.* The legs of the spider are eight, symmetrically disposed, four on each side of the sternum to which they are articulated. Their relative lengths give one of the best characters for systematic arrangement. They are numbered from the face backward as first (1), second (2), third (3), and fourth (4) pairs. (Fig. 11.) The relative lengths are indicated by a formula composed of the above numerals arranged in the order of greatest lengths from highest to lowest, thus: 1 2 4 3 is the formula which expresses the prevailing order among Orbweayers and de- The Legs. ‘ Westring, Araneze Svecize, page 12. . * Menge, “Die Preussische Spinnen.” *See Chapter on “Wooing and Mating Habits,” Vol. II. GENERAL CLASSIFICATION AND STRUCTURE. 25 -elares that the first leg is the longest, then the second leg, then the fourth leg, and lastly the third leg. When two pairs of legs are of equal length the numerals expressing them are united by the sign of equality; thus, 12—43 indicates that the second and fourth legs are of equal length.! For the most part the third leg is much the shortest of the four, and the first pair decidedly the longest. This rule, however, varies in certain genera, as Acrosoma, in which the fourth pair is as long as, or longer than the first, a variation which seems to be adapted to the peculiar form of the spider. The males have legs longer and slighter than the females, and in some species have a special armature in the shape of a comb of stout spines upon the tibia of the second pair, which probably serves as a clasping organ in the act of pairing. The legs have seven joints, which are arranged in the following order, counting from the point of union with the sternum: First, the coxa (cx, Fig. 13), the short joint which unites the leg to the body. It is partly concealed beneath the cephalothorax, and sometimes carries short, pointed processes. Second, the trochanter (tch), a minute joint which really serves for the articulation of the leg upon the body, the coxa being fixed. Third, the femur (fm), usually the longest and stoutest joint of all. Fourth, the patella (ptl), which nearly corresponds in length with the coxa, and serves as yi, oot of He a sort of knee joint. Fifth, the tibia (tb), whose length insularis. s.cl, superior is usually a little less than that of the femur. Sixth, See eee the metatarsus (mtr), the penultimate joint, which ap- — icl,inferiorclaws; au.cl proaches the length of the femur, is commonly longer fayS"7Us"stpontie than the tibia, but much slighter. Seventh, the tarsus (tr), the ultimate joint, which is usually shorter than the metatarsus. The last five of these joints are armed with a great number of spines, bristles, and hairs, which are placed more freely along the inner surfaces of the legs, and thus are disposed for the greatest advantage of the animal in manipulating its prey, embracing its mate, or fighting its enemies. They are also used in spinning the snare. Orbweavers have three strong, genuine claws upon their tarsi, of which the two superior are pectinated, and (with rare exceptions) the inferior is armed with two close and blunt comb teeth (cb.th). The supe- rior claws are of equal size, placed side by side. The inferior claw is smaller than the others and is below them, bent down near the base. The extremity of the tarsus is always provided with two or more auxiliary claws (au.cl).2 One of these, a strong spine, has the Tarsal Claws. 1] haye taken this formula as more convenient for expression in type. In most authors the equal members are joined by a bracket above, thus: 1 2 4 3. * Thorell, European Spiders, page 47. Reka Z\ Se Bs 26 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. power of motion toward the claws beneath which it is situated, thus act- ing as a sort of thumb, which is used especially in grasping the spinning- work.! In the armature of the legs must be reckoned also the calamistrum which characterizes the family Uloborine among the Orbitelariz, in com- mon with certain Ciniflonide. This is a double row of curved spines, placed upon the inside of the metatarsus of the hind pair of legs, in form not unlike the old fashioned “flyers” of a spinning wheel. (Fig. 15.) They are used for the flocculation of the threads as they pass from the spinning tubes, thus forming the peculiar cross lines which characterize the spinningwork of the above families, and serve the purpose of viscid beads. The second principal part of the spider is the abdomen. Among Orbweavers it assumes widely varying forms, being globular, ovate, subtriangular, cylindrical; sometimes flat, some- times convex above; on the ventral surface nearly flat or slightly convex. Thus, the face of a section cut transversely through the middle would, for the most part, be properly or approximately described as semicircular, except in the case of gravid females. The integument is soft, some- a rie oe times leathery; usually hairy, but not densely so, sometimes Ciniflo. (at. Naked and glossy. The organ is generally smooth, but in some res: species is marked with conical tubercles upon the base, and in upper row some genera is bordered with sharp, hard, spinous processes, p snes’ and in some is ridged or striated along the rear. The base row; ¢, the generally overhangs the cephalothorax as much as one-third or eam even one-half the length of that organ with which it is united by the pedicle, a short cartilaginous tube through which pass the organs of nutrition and circulation. In the female the size of the abdomen is large, as compared with the cephalethorax, a proportion which is greatly increased during the period of gestation. In the male spider the relative size of the abdo- The Abdomen. riche men is eyen less than, or is equal to the cephalothorax. The olore Z ; Hairs. markings upon the tergum are various, and are more or less uniform with eyery species, though subject to some decided specific variations. They are caused, when present, by a pigment under ‘This arrangement gives a strong color of justification to the use of the word “hands” in the familiar quotation from Holy Scripture, Proyerbs, xxx., 28: “The spider taketh hold with her hands, and is in king’s palaces.” In various palaces in Europe, and in many pub- lic buildings of America, I have never failed to observe spider’s webs, usually some species of Lineweayer, whose occupants hung by their “hands” within their silken domiciles. I hesitate to think, notwithstanding the philological objection that the Hebrew 2)’ (Semamith) means “lizard,” that Solomon had any other animal in view than the spider. The natural history of the text so exactly harmonizes with the habits of spiders, especially Lineweavers and Orbweayers, that I have difficulty in believing that so careful an observer of nature as the Royal Proyerbialist could have used the above language concerning any other animal. GENERAL CLASSIFICATION AND STRUCTURE. Pail the translucent epiderm, rather than by pubescence. These colors are often very bright, shades of yellow and red prevailing, and bright metallic white or silver being frequent. ; The tough integument which covers the abdomen consists of three layers; the external one is a thin, transparent, horny membrane, nearly colorless, but more or less densely covered with colored hairs. Beneath this lies the soft layer of pigmentary matter upon which the peculiar color of the body largely depends. The third or inner layer consists of an expanded network of muscular fibres, which are irregularly interlaced, and which must enable the spider forcibly to compress the abdomen. The muscles forming this layer are very faintly, if at all, marked with trans- verse strice. (Meade.) On the ventral side or venter near the base (anterior part) are situated two gills, breathing holes, or pulmonary sacs (bg). They are scales or plates symmetrically apposed on either side, form- ing the covering of cavities com- municating with the trachez or air tubes. Externally they present the appearance of simple transverse slits in the venter. Each cavity contains about fifty extremely thin, triangular, white leaflets; fast- ened together at the edge of the breathing hole. Each is double, being in fact a flat 5... 16 piagram of location of spinning pouch with an opening on the lower side organs and their relations to other organs communicating with the outer air. The spi- 0% (ne abgomem: Spm dae ag pyriform glands; tr.g, treeform glands; racular plates are usually conspicuous objects cys, cylindrical glands; ep, epigynum upon the venter, differing in color therefrom, gree agers, Sar ee tees sometimes shightly pubescent, but more com- Ben cx, cephalothorax. (After Under- monly smooth, and of harder substance than the surrounding surface. (Cambridge.) In the male spider a minute orifice which leads to the seminal organs is located between the spiracular plates. In the same situation in the female is an aperture usually rather conspicuous, which is surmounted or surrounded with a corneous process of greater or less development. This aperture is the vulva. The process is known as the epigynum, and probably has the function of an ovipositor. The form and structure of the epigynum are characteristics highly valued by systematic arachnologists in the determination of species. But the organ is not present in immature spiders, and until the female reaches maturity no aperture is visible. The organs of reproduction in the female consist of two long ovoid plates, longitudinally placed within the ventral surface of the abdomen. These unite and form a short broad oviduct, whose external opening between the spiracular orifice is the epigy- num (ep), Fig. 16. The ovaries, which shortly before the deposition of eggs occupy a large Pulmona- ry Sacs. Epigy- num. e) aC AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. portion of the abdominal cavity, are seated in the central and posterior part. The intestinal tube runs through it in nearly a straight direction from the base to the apex, and the sacs and tubes which elaborate the material for forming the webs are placed in the lower, lateral, and anterior parts. In the male, the organs for the secretion of seminal fluid consist of two long, narrow, convoluted tubes, occupying the same relative posi- tion as the ovaries in the female. They also open outwardly into the minute orifice noted above. The manner in which the act of pairing between the sexes occurs is a matter of doubt, and probably differs among different species. Mr. Cam- bridge! reports a case in which a perfect apparent coition was effected between sexual apertures of the male and female spider, the palpi not being used at all; and I have observed what seemed to be a similar act in the pairing of the sexes of Agalena neevia. On the other hand, it is evident that the spermatic fluid is conveyed to the female parts of gener- ation by the male palpi. IT have seen and recorded this action in the case of Linyphia marginata. Menge and Ausserer have observed that the male spider before the act of union emits from the sexual aperture a drop of sperma on a web made for the purpose, which drop he then takes up in the genital bulb of the palpi and then communicates it to the female. With regard to the function exercised by the remarkable organs con- nected with the digital joint of the palpi of male spiders, there exists some difference of opinion. Taking anatomy as his guide, Treviranus Male Organs. ¢ Fig. 17. Collecting a spider in a box. Digital arrived at the conclusion that the parts in question are used for of Male fhe Plaats Ploe oat rely) PLEDALALOLY, he actual a. Palo 1e purpose of excitation merely, preparatory to the actual union of the sexes by means of appropriate organs situated near the anterior part of the inferior regions of the abdomen. This view of the subject, which is very generally adopted, is opposed to that derived from physiological facts by Dr. Lister and the earlier systematic writers on arachnology, who regarded the palpal organs as strictly sexual; and_ re- cent researches, conducted with the utmost caution, have clearly established the accuracy of the opinion advanced by that distinguished Englishman.? 1 for valuable anatomical notes see his “Arachnida,” Encyclopedia Britannica. 2 Blackwall: “Reports 14th Meeting British Association Ady. of Sci.” pages 67-69. Also “Spiders of Great Brit. and Ireland,” Introduction, page 5. GENERAL CLASSIFICATION AND STRUCTURE. 29 IV. Perhaps a few of my readers may become sufficiently interested in the subjects considered in this volume to wish to make personal observations on the habits of spiders, and collections of species. A few hints for the benefit of such persons may be given. For collectors a small satchel or hand-bag with a strap by which it can be slung across the shoulder is a most convenient arrangement. This should be furnished with a number of small paper or wooden boxes, such as are used for putting up pills and like drugs. Wide mouthed yials and bottles may also be used. In capturing a spider, the lid should be removed from the box and the two parts placed one upon one side and another upon the other side of the orb, or above and below, as circumstances may require. pen When they are gradually approached they may be suddenly ee closed, and the spider will be captured inside the box. Care should be taken to get the spider well inside before the cover is closed, as there is danger of crushing the specimens. Any note or record may briefly be made upon the top or bottom of the box, or it may be numbered and the memoran- dum kept in the note book. \® The imprisoned spider will \& keep without injury until the collector has reached his home, when he can make a further personal examination by opening the box carefully : Be] and dropping the spider into BiG-S1s ee Elana lel Ona uy UE Ox. a glass vessel with steep sides. Long test tubes of several sizes are very conyenient for decanting collections from the boxes and, after examination, into alcohol. If one wishes to observe the habits under artificial conditions, a series of wooden boxes may be made with sliding glass covers, as represented in the accompanying cut. These may be ventilated by fine wire cloth or gauze. Such boxes may be made of sizes to suit the habit of the species. For cocooning purposes, eight by ten inches will be large enough ordinarily, and also quite large enough to observe the spinning habits of the smaller species. Large glass jars of any sort make good homes for trying the manners of many species. When the creature’s habit requires, earth and sticks should be inserted. (See Fig. 18.) What is still better, if circumstances will permit, the collecting boxes may be opened upon vines and shrubbery in the garden or grounds. It is not a difficult thing to establish a spidery in this way. The observer may open the boxes promiscuously and allow the spiders to settle their Tmt Trying Boxes. 30 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. own habits in their own way; or if he wish, he may deposit all those of one species upon certain parts of the ground, in which case they will be very sure to permanently colonize. In this manner the most interesting species of an entire neighborhood or district may, in the course of a couple of years, be so thoroughly domesticated upon a small space that observation of habits will be greatly facilitated. There are many other points of practical value which might be men- tioned, but, as a matter of fact, the collector's experience will soon show him what is the best thing to do. A few failures in capturing prizes will teach caution, and successes will in like manner show the best way of procedure. Caution is always necessary. While looking for spiders one needs to move with his eyes thrown well in advance, and to be careful to disturb as little as possible the bushes and surrounding shrubbery, upon which the greatest prizes may be domiciled and may be lost by careless or too rapid approach. In searching for spiders, one should take such a position toward the sun as to enable the light to fall upon the webs in the direction towards which he is moving. Frequently the head should be turned to one side and lowered towards the ground in order to catch the sheen of the spimningwork hanging in secluded places, or even in quite open places. success. I have often noted similar defects in various spe- tilation, 21" Success. ve ous spe cies always with the same result. Mr. Romanes’ inference as to the plasticity of instinct needs a little more confirmation. Indeed, the inference was long ago fully exploded by the observations of Dr. Heineken, a surgeon in the Island of Madeira during the early part of this century. This gentleman, in order to test the ability of orbweaving spiders to spin after mutilation, removed at intervals, successively, the legs of various individuals, with the following results: Epeira (Argiope) fasciata, with all the legs removed except the second and last on the left side and the last but one on the right side, thoroughly mended its web when two- thirds of it had been torn away. It maintained the same position and attitude as before mutilation, and in every respect had the manner of an Orbweaver. = Another Epeiroid spider had all the legs removed except the first on the right side and the second and last on the left side, leaving the spider with but three legs. On the following day, filaments appeared in several directions. ‘These were constantly added to, and in the course of two weeks a geometric web was formed equally perfect, but more sparing in quantity than one made by a spider in the same species and under the same mode of confinement, but healthy and unmutilated. The entanglement and taking of flies, and the conduct of the two spiders was in every respect similar. They were confined in large glass jars. A number of individuals were experimented upon with the same result. In the case of one tubemaking spider, the number of limbs was reduced to two, and the web entirely de- stroyed. Even then enough web was spun to coyer the spider imperfectly and occasionally to entangle an exhausted fly. It lived for five weeks after mutilation.” } Transactions Linnzean Society, Vol. XT., page 393. * Dr. Heineken, On the Reproduction of Members in Spiders and Insects. Zoological Journal, Vol. IV., page 428. 1828-29, Ge Wad ede Wie THE ARMATURE OF ORBWEBS: VISCID SPIRALS. le THe next step in orbmaking is to prepare for the spinning of the con- centric lines or spirals. This is done by starting a line at or near the _ notched zone and carrying it around spirally toward the circum- The Spi- ference, attaching it by the spinnerets to the intersected radii. meee This forms the spiral scaffolding. The distance between these lines is about equal to the width of the notched zone, the space between which and the first scaffold spiral is in fact the free zone. The absolute width differs of course according to the size of the web. In large orbs of Epeira domiciliorum from which the explanatory figure (Fig. 77) was drawn, the distance was about an inch between any two of the eight spirals (I-VIII) except between I-II, where it was about three-fourths of an inch. These wide spirals, as will presently be seen, are the scaffolding upon and by which the true spirals are laid in, and from which they differ by being destitute of viscid beads. Before the beaded spirals are spun, however, which is the completion of the snare, a preliminary act some- times occurs. Very many orb- webs are not perfect orbs; in some the entire space circumscribed by the foundation lines and the foliage or other Fic. 77. Spiral scaffolding. LinesI-VUIare objects to which they are attached, is filled the scaffold; ix, a section filled in; x, cor- ant Res ee ; 5 merileops: with true viscid spirals, thus nearly elimi- nating the Foundation Space proper. In Corner Loops. other orbs only the lower part of the snare is netted with spirals to the very foundation lines. In others again the angles formed by the interior margin of the Foundation Space (the inner foundation lines) represented by letters ix and x, in the figure, are filled with spirals. In such cases these corners or angles have usually been covered first. For example, in the orb at Fig. 77 the animal first spun the spirals which fill up the angle ix. She then passed to the right hand corner x which was in like (79) 80 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. manner covered; and so moved around the web until all the corners (at x) were filled in, leaving the open circular space occupied by eight scaffold spirals. The lines thus covering the angles are not strictly “spirals” although they belong to the spiral space, and have precisely the characteristics of the true spirals from which often they cannot be separated by the eye, without close attention. They are put in by “loops;” that is, the spider passes back and forth over the ends of the radii, as at x, ix, carrying her thread, and looping it at the extremities of corner spaces. These lines have therefore been designated corner loops. In point of fact the concen- tric lines are complete circles only when the framework of the snare allows an unobstructed movement entirely around the centre. This exam- ple is not the invariable rule of procedure, for spiders vary their modes. Some start at once upon the spiral concentrics and make loops (particu- larly at the lower part of the orb) before the final finish. The case is simply illustrative of the ordinary method of dealing with the cor- ners and angles. In the act of spinning the spirals the spider moves from the circumference toward the cen- _ tre, precisely the reverse of the direc- Spinning tion taken when placing in the spiral Viscid 31,415 eX. " : Sora scaffolding. The rapidity with which the spiral line is spun and the pecul- jar manner in which the spider’s eight legs ap- pear to be intermixed, make it extremely diffi- cult to observe and describe the actual method. But the process, as it is ordinarily pursued, is substantially as follows: The two hind legs are used exclusively to aid the spinning fingers in the work of spinning. The other legs are used for locomotion alone. The moment one string is fastened at the upper point upon a radius, which is done by the application of the spinnerets thereto (see Fig. 78), the spider lifts its abdomen, thus of course drawing out after her a thread, one end of which is the last point of attachment (x, Fig. 78) to the radius (R 2), and the other the closed spinning fingers. The hind foot (4 0) nearest the spinnerets is now bent under and grasps this thread, which, as the spider moves, it holds and appears to pull out with great rapidity. Next, the inner hind foot (4 i) is bent under and seizes the thread, which it holds aloft, stretching it out until it is almost double its proper length, as represented in Figs. 79 and 80. If the distance between the radii be great, and the spiral string therefore much lengthened, the two hind legs will be used alternately several times to draw out the line. In the meantime, the outer hind leg, which had first aided the spin- nerets In paying out the thread, is reached downward towards the radius, Fic. 78. Starting a spiral string. THE ARMATURE OF ORBWEBS: VISCID SPIRALS. 81 which the spider all the while has been rapidly approaching, and grasps it with the claws just beneath the point where the new string will cross. This then is the attitude of the spider at this point of her operations. Fig. 79. One hind foot (4.0) grasps the radius near and below the point (xx) just opposite the last point of attachment. The other Paying hind leg (4.i) is reached out the : 5 F meen Thread, out beyond and above the spider’s abdomen, hold- ing the new string (us) so that the two parts form an angle. Now the abdomen drops towards the radius. The raised foot lets go the stretched string at the very moment that the spinning fingers grasp the radius (at xx) and clamp the string there- to. The string being released at the same moment, contracts with a sudden snap, and thus forms the little interradial or portion of the spiral line between the two radi. Fig. 80 shows the first action in this process. The strings I I, II II, are sections of a finished spiral line, and III x II is a string in the act of being spun. The line x is caught up by the claw, cl, upon a tarsal spine, ts, (apparently) or a metatarsal spine, ms, and pulled out from the abdomen to which it is attached by ab. The foot (here greatly exaggerated) moves rap- idly towards ab, and the line is fastened at the point III, indicated on the right hand radius, r. The large tarsal spines which arm the terminus of the tarsus of Argiope coph- inaria are continually used by that species to hold the beaded string as it is thus drawn out. In the meantime, of course, the remaining lmbs of the spider have been carrying her forward. The SS k Fig. 79. Clamping a spiral string. The legs on the side towards the cen- Forward aft tre of the hub reach upward and Progress. grasp the spiral scaffold (ss) if the scaffold happens to be within reach. This is frequently the case during the whole process of spinning; but frequently also during the placing in of the first spiral strings included between two scaffold lines the spider is unable to reach so far, and therefore must go around the radius, as will be described presently. The legs on the side of the body towards the Fic. 80. Drawing out a beaded spiral. The leg much exaggerated. 82 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. circumference of the orb grasp the radius as it is approached. This describes in a general way the method of locomotion. In other words, the legs towards the circumference reach forward toward the approached o> radius. At the immediate instant when the spinnerets clamp the new made string upon the radius the whole body is at rest and is balanced by the legs in the posi- tion just described (Fig. 79), that is, on the upper side supported by the two fore legs; on the forward side (towards the head of the spider) by the other The two fore and third legs, holding String } . ara se ae to the radius; and on the lower Clamped. . j : ; side by the hind foot, which also grasps the radius just below the point of intersection. Of course, this period of FiG. 81. Movements of the body while spin- poise as ¢ rule, is so brief that it is ; : se, as & : Ss § } 5 US ning spirals. scarcely noticeable. At times, however, when the spider appears to be moving more sluggishly, for one reason or another, the moment is sufficiently prolonged to permit the observation. I have often seen that the spider would make a quite noticeable pause before the hind foot let go the new spiral string, permitting it to snap into its position between the two radii. Sometimes the position of the spider will differ from the above in detail; for example, when the beaded strings have been brought up close to the scaffold line, they can be fastened while the spider hangs with her sides nearly parallel with the scaffold. In such case the legs on one side will hold on Sit y to the scaffold, while at least two legs on the under side remain free, and grope about with the restless motion of feeling after something, heretofore described. In these operations the scaffold line is generally well bent downward instead of being taut as,shown in the cuts. The general line of progress of the Orb- weaver’s body while spinning the spirals is il- : lustrated at Fig. 81, where R represents the « . Le radii, SF, SFx, SFy are spiral scaffold lines, zs and SP true beaded spirals. The spider en- gaged upon the spiral A fastens it to the Fic. 82. Dropping action on the down- radius 1R at the point of contact; then the ward coaree. course of the body is upward along 1R to the spiral foundation SFx ; thence across the section B thereof; thence downward along radius 2R, until at the point C opposite A she can tighten and fasten the line THE ARMATURE OF ORBWEBS: VISCID SPIRALS. 83 which she has carried around with her. This makes one section or string of her beaded spiral. The next string, C-D-E, is completed in the same way, the general course being in the direction of the arrows. As the space between the newly made viscid spirals (as spider meanwhile still climbing, the third point, 3, will be higher than the ARGIOPE AND HER RIBBONED ORB. 101 preceding attachment. The figure represents the species in the act of ascend- ing the line and swmging her abdomen from the point 3. The natural uplift of her body, combined with the crosswise motion of the abdomen, will cause the direction to be along the dotted line towards the point 4, where the next attachment will be made. After that attachment the abdomen, still manipulated in the same way, will be carried across and upward to the point, 5, and so on until the band is completed. As the spinning is thus repeated alternately from side to side, and the ribband first fastened to one radius and then to its opposite, there nat- urally results the pecuhar zigzag formation known to all observers of this web.? The habit of spmning the white shield and zigzag ribbons is deeply imbedded in the species. One sees it continually in very young spiders, and at all the ages of the ara- nead until its death. It is extremely persist- ent, and it is rare to find any individual under normal conditions that does not make the whole or a considerable part of this char- acteristic spinningwork. I venture to give some extracts from notes of observations upon the daily move- ments of Cophinaria. They were made at : my request, by a gentleman, Mr. ead Benj. H. Hunt, resident in Frank- Fic. 95. Manner of spinning the zigzag ribbon. ford, one of the outer wards of ae Se ae ae spn tt Philadelphia.? Since this journal was made make 3-4, swinging the abdomen across from I have been able to follow the life of this eee ee ere’ te zeos Bae species through long periods, even up to her death, by means of colonized individuals. But at that time I was not so situated as to make such consecutive observations, and I insert these notes of a “lay observer ” because they are not only accurate and piquant, but vary the point of view and thus add value to the study. The spider was reported as first observed on August 30th. I will take up the journal at a little later date. The spider was at the time fully mature 1 This description is the result of a number of observations. It was several years after IT had described before the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences the manner in which this spinning was done ere I was able to see the actual operation. It was pleasant to find that I had anticipated the mode with absolute accuracy, and thus again shown that the naturalist can at times truly “ predict.” 2 Mr. Hunt became interested in one of these spiders observed on his premises, reported the fact to me, and following my instructions was able to place in my hands several new facts. Many persons living in rural parts and suburbs could render valuable service to natural history by thus taking up one creature and following its behavior closely and continually, taking care to record everything seen, with such rough drawings as might be possible. 102 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. and was doubtless a female. “September 7th.—The web is of the ordinary form, consisting of irregular concentric polygons, suspended from a strong breastwork of thick thread which forms the base of a triangle, the other two sides consisting of the two garden fences.. A diary of the spider’s move- ments would be rather monotonous. Nearly all the time she would seem to sit quietly in the centre of the web. One morning she was absent for an hour or two, and I supposed she had fallen a victim to some of her enemies, either the ‘thick or thin billed birds that gladly eat them,’ or a solitary toad which has lately appeared about the place. But the next time I visited the web she was in the centre again. “The rain seemed to be her greatest enemy. After a violent shower which took place a few mornings ago, about three or four o’clock, I found that _. the bit of zigzag lace had entirely disappeared. In the course of eed the morning she began to repair it, and when I found her at zag. the work she rapidly ran off to the extreme end of the breast- work. However, before two o’clock, she had entirely replaced her bit of lace, though it was less straight and symmetrical than before. Since then she seems hardly to haye moved from her position. I had supposed that the violence of the rain had swept the bit of lace away, but I now think that the rain acts chemically upon it and dissolves it. This morning it rained gently for a couple of hours before five o’clock. Directly after that hour I went to see the spider, and found that half of the lace strip above the centre of the web, and also above the spider, had disappeared entirely at the top, and nearly disap- peared close to the spider’s abdomen, which is always uppermost. Below, the parallels and zigzag were but little impaired. She also seemed uncom- fortable from the wet and was scraping her legs and body, somewhat as a fly does, until at least one drop of water fell. There are no wasps about the place, and if the sparrows had been inclined to eat the spider they would have done it before now. She hangs too high for the toad, fights between whom and spiders I think are oftener read of than seen. “ Monday morning, September 11th, 1876.—The spider has replaced the zigzag strip for the sixth time, four times after rains, and twice on morn- ings when no rain had fallen over night. In the latter cases little cottonlike tufts were left, which seemed to form her bed (shield). Possibly, the strip, on these two occasions, had been destroyed by the dew, though it was by no means heavy. Each renewal of the strip is more imperfect than its pred- ecessor. This morning it is very slight indeed, of inferior architecture, and not three inches long. She always forms it very rapidly, not by drawing out single threads, as in making the web, but by producing little iar bands, one-sixteenth of an inch wide. The difference between the Fae, threads and the bands is similar to that between the ‘roping’ and the yarn turned out by the old fashioned hand cotton spin- ning wheel in use fifty odd years ago. The ‘roping,’ it will be remembered, Effects of Rain. ARGIOPE AND HER RIBBONED ORB. 103 was formed of the cotton rolled together and twisted a little, the rolls being too short to be spun into yarn without the intermediate roping process. The use of the strip I cannot see. Not a fly has been caught in it, while the web catches a few flies and many mosquitoes and gnats, which two latter insects I do not perceive that the spider notices. Yesterday I saw a fly struggling in a part of the web, distant from the centre; the spider did not move towards it while I was looking, but a few minutes afterward I found her deyouring it. She replaces her strips, on an average, in less than five minutes. “Wednesday, September 13th.—Something, apparently a cat, jumped through the lower half of the spider’s web yesterday morning, of course carrying away the meshes and part of the zigzag strip, deranging the rest. The spider did nothing all day, seeming to be discouraged; and I found her still sitting on the remains of her rumpled bed! (shield) early this morning. But during my absence for some fifteen minutes she had removed these rumpled remains as rubbish, and had begun to repair damages. She was replacing her bed by bringing forth congeries of very minute fibres, and kicking? them into place with her foot. This work was very soon fin- ished. There is nothing architectural, so to speak, about the bed; it is a mere tuft. “She then let herself down about two inches and a half below the bed, fixing a thread to the web as she proceeded, and then turning about began to crawl up again, arranging behind her as she went her zigzag strip. This is not confined, as I first thought, between parallel threads (radii), but is attached on one side to the thread made in descending, and on the other side, to the general mesh. The strip is irregular in width, just as all the late ones haye been, and when the spider had brought it up and attached it to the lower part of her bed she did not, as heretofore, continue its reconstruction above the bed, but, turning round, settled herself quietly into her old position, head downwards, possi- bly somewhat exhausted by the late demands on her spinning resources. I omitted to say that since five o’clock yesterday afternoon she has replaced a portion of the web carried away by the cat. The long strong thread from which the whole depends, and which was broken by the cat, she has not replaced, but only mended, and it is now a little out of line. “Thursday, 14th.—A cat again jumped through the web last night, dam- aging it badly, breaking the main beam, which throws the web quite off its balance. I found the spider, early this morning, prospecting among The Zig- zag Strip. 17 have several times seen the crumpled remnants of an old shield left, like a rude boss, on the outside of a new one, which had been woven underneath it. This is probably the “rumpled bed” alluded to. 2 The rapid motion of the hind leg to and from the spinnerets in seizing and pulling out the thread, has certainly the appearance of “ kicking.” 3 This is sometimes, but not always, the case. 104 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK, the morning glory leaves which cover the board pile, apparently for the purpose of making fast to something in order to place her main bean. But she soon gave over and went back to her bed, seeming discouraged. Towards noon I found her with a miller or moth in her clutches, wrapped in what seemed to me a scrap of her bedding. As I looked, a fly became entangled about three inches from her. She directly went towards it, but in no great haste, no doubt because sure of her prey, and when near enough she reached out, hauled it into close quarters, and before I could see how, the fly also was wrapped in a bit of white gauze.! She took it to her bed, and I suppose fed on it and the miller. “Tn the afternoon I found her on her bed on the-inside of the web, exactly opposite to her old place on the outside, and there she remains this eyening. Perhaps she thinks the inside the safer place of the two in the dilapidated state of her dwelling. This spider is certainly subjected to great trials. “Friday morning, September 15th.—There was a heavy rain last night, with wind, and the spider has disappeared. I haye shaken the conyoly- ulus leaves roundabout, but find no sign of her, and the wreck of the web has the appearance of being utterly deserted.” The journal here ended, and I heard nothing more of the creature whose life and trials had been followed with so much interest and intel- Swathing Insects. ligence by my Frankford correspondent. The above quotations throw some interesting side lights upon the humble daily life of this representative of the spider world. It may interest the reader to know what caused the sudden disappear- ance of the Argiope at this point. The date (September 15th) is the co- cooning season; and no doubt Cophinaria had retired to some shaded nook among the leaves or adjacent lumber, to spend the last forces of life in weaving the beautiful basket shaped cocoon of the species, within which the young are reared. The Central Space of the Basket Argiope’s snare consists of the hub and its adjuncts, as described, and several (there are four in Fig. 89) un- beaded spirals. These are more widely separated as they ap- proach the beaded spirals, and they occupy nearly the entire space, so that there is little or no Free Zone. Some of the notched spirals are nearly always covered by the shield, and when the spinning- work thereon is light they may be seen beneath it. The fact that they are without viscid beads explains Mr. Hunt’s wonder that no insects were en- tangled in this part of the web. The architecture of the entire snare is shown at Figs. 47, 89, 90. An interesting feature in the construction of Cophinaria’s snare is that which I have called “protective wings” or fenders. These are outlying Notched Zone. ‘The swathing of the insect is often done rapidly, by one outgush of silken filaments from the spinners, and a quick motion of the feet revolving the captive. ARGIOPE AND HER RIBBONED ORB. 105 lines spun on either side or in front of the orb at the distance of one or more inches from it. In certain positions these wings are thrown on either side of the orb, as represented at Fig. 96, where the web is eee hung within a conical or pyramidal mass of cross lines, a retite- or O- ] ] ° ] J . € “A 6 =) Ty (a rer SPCC. rae tom larian web, in fact. In this snare both the upper and lower sec- Wings. tions of the orb were attached to strong foundation lines set within this mass, which was itself attached to the surrounding foliage. This structure appears to be common as to the upper half of the orb, but the lower part is frequently fastened directly to the foliage or other objects of the site. Such an arrangement adds to the elasticity of the snare, and must materially contribute to its powers of resistance. When the webs of Argiope are spun in such a posi- tion as to expose the spider from either side, the wings are thrown out on both sides, as in the figure. But in a great number of cases only one side is thus de- fended, and it will be found in such cases that the other side is protected by the fohage against which the orb is’ spun. These fenders or wings are by no means universal. Indeed, I have examined scores of snares on the same day and for several successive weeks without noticing one ex- ample. The Banded Argiope makes the same kind of protective wings, and I have found several half grown individuals of this species on the seashore of Cape Ann, Massachusetts, whose webs were all thus Fic. 96. Protective wings or fenders of Argiope’s snare. (Side view.) characterized. Sometimes the fenders are wholly separated from the spimningwork of the orb itself, and are thrown out well upon the flank, and attached to projecting parts of the foliage. They then commonly consist of very strong thick lines resembling those spun for the foundation of the snare. The purpose of this outlying spinningwork is probably protective. The scaffolding of crossed lines is thrown over both faces of the orb lke wings, chiefly over the middle and upper parts, thus covering the point where the spider domiciles. The wings are several inches distant from the orb. Any large hostile insect or other enemy hovering around the web must first touch the outlying wings, whose agitation telegraphs a warning to the occupant. The detention resulting, trifling as it would be, might yet allow sufficient time, in many cases, for the occupant to escape. The protective wings might even happen to ward off wholly some assailants. On such provisions as this often hangs the LO06 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. preservation in nature of the individual and even the species. The wings do not appear to impair the efficacy of the orb as a snare for trapping the natural prey of the spider. Such insects break upon and through the web with an elan bred of un- consciousness of danger quite different from the perceptible caution and hesitation which mark the conscious approach of hymenopterous foe. In the snare figured above (Fig. 89), the number of radii was twenty-five. The number of spirals in the lower part of the orb was twenty-six; in the upper part it did not exceed nine. The hub was thus placed well above the geometrical centre of the orb. This snare was spun by a female colonized upon a young tree. After the ordinary preliminary prospecting, she spun Fic. 97. Rudimentary web of female Argiope. a rudimentary web, Fig. 97, consisting of a few perpendicular lines looped and crossed, upon which she hung in the natural posture. She remained thus until evening and then spun her characteristic orb. This manner of resting upon a few straggling ratlins is quite habitual. The male of Cophi- naria appears very small by the side of his adult mate. He is not very active in his predatory habits after ma- turity; at least the snares upon which I have always found him appear to be poorly adapted to the capture of insects, although I have occasionally seen a_ fly entangled in one of them. The drawing of one of these rudiment- ary webs, given at Fig. 98, was made from a pencil sketch kindly furnished Webs of 1 the Male. ™e several years ago by Mr. Em- > WLALE, : : erton, and is a fair representa- tion of the ordinary character of the web upon which I have found the male Coph- inaria. It may be noticed that the snare quite closely resembles the meshed hub spun by the female before the shield is made, and which is characteristic in most orbs of the genus Epeira. However, there is a good deal of variety in the form of : Fic. 98. Male of Argiope cophinaria on a the male wi bs, and some ot them are much rudimentary web. ARGIOPE AND HER RIBBONED ORB. 107 more elaborate than that shown at Fig. 98, having well defined radii and a spiral system at least in the lower part; but I have never seen one that extended beyond the bounds of what in a perfect orb is the central space. The zigzag ribbon is present, but scant and ill defined. The habits of the male and another drawing of his snare will be found in a subsequent chapter. The following are measurements of several webs of Cophinaria: No. 1. Radii, 35; notched spirals, 13; beaded spirals, 24. Specimen half grown. No. 2. Radii, 26; notched spirals, 13; beaded spirals, not counted. No. 3. Radii, 30; beaded spirals, 16 above the hub, 31 below; the orb 12 inches in length, 10 inches wide. Shield and ribbon 5 inch- es long. 12x 12. 2The following counts will illustrate this: No. 1, radii, 55; spirals, 31 above, 82 below. No. 2, spirals, 8 above, 55 below, 47 at the sides. No. 3, radii, 75; spirals, 80. 3 Measurements of Fig. 117, orb 9 in. long by 7 wide; hub } in. long, § wide; centre of hub 2} in. (about one-third the length of the orb) from the top margin of the orb. The hub is meshed, oval, narrowed at the top. The notched spirals fill the Free space, three being close to the hub, the others widening as they wind. Traplines about 23 in. long. 134 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. The trapline of the Labyrinth spider differs from that of Trifolium and Insularis in being composed of several threads instead of a single line. Fig. 118. These threads usually diverge at the nest, with which they are united, and again sometimes at their attachment to the hub. Most frequently the trapline is a ray of threads converging upon the hub. The hub is characteristically meshed (Fig. 117), the sides of the meshes being in part the ends of the radii as continued within the hub, where they are of course greatly contorted. This feature is also observable in the notched zone, where the lines of the radii are often broken or zigzagged, and much bent out of their course, as may be seen at Fig. 119. I have observed the Labyrinth spider in the act of spinning her maze. The process appears to be a simple one to the observer, although it is diffi- cult to describe and yet more difficult to figure. The strong foundation lines are first spun, and these lines, after having been once made, will be pre- ane served carefully for a long pe- paar eae riod of time. Indeed, unless rene broken by external violence, a spider might preserve this sort of household prop- erty through an en- Trapline and Hub. tire season. From these lines, by drop- Fic. 119. Bent radii in the ping and carrying a oa zone of Epeira laby- draglines, by crawl- ing around upon the foliage, by establish- ing here and there central intersecting cables, and then by dropping and striding from one to another, the labyrinthian maze of crossed lines is in the end evolved. Fic. 118. Multiplex trapline of Labyrinthea. However, the complete condition of the maze is a matter of growth through a longer or shorter period. When a comparatively few lines have been spun, the spider will take her place at the central part therein. She begins here to spin out a few short lines, which in the course of a few moments present rudely the appearance of the dome of Linyphia. By pushing her body and her spinnerets against the top and sides of this domelike framework, she gets it into a somewhat con- sistent shape. This is the foundation or scaffold upon which Framing the Tent. eventually is built her silken tent, which acquires consistency of tissue as the threads are gradually spun up against it. Here now she estab- lishes herself, and from this point stretches out her traplines and pro- ceeds to spin her orb, swinging it upon the strong cables or foundation lines of her retitelarian system. Her method, as far as I haye been able to judge, is precisely the method of Theridium and other true Lineweayers, COMPOSITE SNARES AND SECTORAL ORBS. 135 and, indeed, may be described as the method which Agalena also uses when spinning the retitelarian supports of her long sheeted snare. The peculiar snare of Labyrinthea and other spiders making a composite web appears to be a larger development of a habit which is seen to a greater or less degree in the genus Argiope. In considering the particular spinningwork of this genus I have already called attention to the fact that both Cophinaria and Argyraspis suspend the upper foun- dation lines of their orbs to a series of intersecting straight lines which are spun with more or less consistency to the overhanging and sur- rounding foliage. This sys- j tem of crossed lines is very frequently carried downward to one side of the orb and sometimes upon both sides, so that it forms what I have called the protective wings or fenders. If the reader will compare the more perfect and \\ permanent spinning habit of \ Labyrinthea and Triaranea with that which is described and fig- ured as the work of Argiope, he will see the close resemblance be- \ tween the two. One may therefore — say that what appears as a rudimentary habit, or a habit more or less developed in the case of Argiope has appeared as a per veloped and fixed habit in the spinning behay rinthea. There is a marked peculiarity in the fa 4 vorite site that .,_ Labyrinthea chooses for her snare. This SQ) — is noticeably a eee dead and leafless bush, or a leafless part of \W. a tree or dead branch. The habit is quite persistent, and I \\\/ have seen it in every well established habitat of the species.” It is true \\\ that she will spin her snare among leaves, but her preference is for a locality not so obstructed. In such sites she is often seen in little )\} groups or colo- A Devel- oped Habit. fectly de- ior of Laby- nies. In one such colony at Radnor, Pennsylvania, I ( counted thirty adult spiders, whose snares were spun upon a dry rie. 120, Coop- brush heap nithi ac ix ; 7a Bewa| (oR erative house- a Na within a space six feet long, six wide, and five eee ae high. To this “clearing” every individual settler had no Labyrinth spii doubt been attracted by the same favorable conditions for an un“ obstructed habitation. Perhaps the instinct which induces this choice is under the same influence as that which urges many Theridioid species to seek similar sites for their retitelarian snares, which exactly resemble the maze of Laby- rinthea’s web. Certainly, it is interesting and curious to find these two 136 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. habits existing side by side in the Lineweayers and an Orbweaver which affects a lineweaving spinningwork, On one leafless bush I found two individuals established whose several premises had been merged into one by the blending of the two labyrinths. (Fig. 120.) It was quite a case of codperative housekeeping ; or, eeu to make a closer analogy, it suggested the double houses one ative aS ie ; House. tten sees in city architecture, with united party wall and com- keeping. ™on porch separated by a rail. The cross lines of the two mazes completely blended; one spider was domiciled under a leafy roof, the other under a woven tent; one orb faced toward the front, the other toward the side of the united labyrinth. The Labyrinth Spider has a very wide distribution through the United States, and will probably be found to inhabit our entire territory. It has been traced from New England south and westward to Colorado ee , and California, and I have specimens from seyeral States of graphica. . F : aaa South America. These last, ike numerous examples from South- Ae ern California, differ from the more northern fauna in being larger and somewhat more brightly marked. Their cocoons are also larger, and probably their snares are more formidable; otherwise, they are substantially the same species. It, therefore, must be added to that class of our aranead fauna whose physical elasticity enables them to occupy with equal facility a far northern and far southern home. However, in questions of geographical distribution, the factor of vertical distribution ought not to be forgotten. A far southern species may haye a practically boreal habitat by elevation upon a mountain range. I cannot speak positively as to this point concerning South American Labyrintheas, but the specimens from Southern California were taken from the seashore and the ordinary level of San Diego. Il. One of the most abundant of the small group of spiders that weave sectoral orbs is Epeira triaranea, so called because of its composite snare, which combines with that of the Orbweaver a decided retitelarian web, and a quite good approximation to that of the tubeweaver.! I have found the orbs of this species, from June Ist throughout the summer, on bushes, shrubs, trees, hedges, on and between fences, and in Epeira triaranea. ‘This spider was first noticed by me under this name in Proceedings Academy of Nat- ural Sciences, Philadelphia, 1876, page 201. Subsequently, in the same journal, 1878, page 127, I gave a full description of the animal and its spinningwork, with figures, under the name of Epeira globosa, a spider closely resembling my species, which had been described by Key- serling, Verhand. d. zool.-bot. Ver., X.X., 1865, page 820. I had the name changed at that time in the page proofs of my paper, but being now less certain as to the identity of Keyserling’s species I follow Mr. Emerton in returning to my original name. It is not improbable that Keyserling’s name will be finally given priority. COMPOSITE SNARES AND SECTORAL ORBS. 137 great numbers on the lattice work and open slats of the corn cribs and other outhouses of farms. In the last named site very many young spiders were seen in the first week of June, having but recently issued from the cocoon, They were distributed along the lattice work for several yards, forming a goodly colony. As late as June 21st a similar colony was found in like position, the spiders being from one-half to two-thirds grown. In July and August I found many individuals located within the interstices of a stone fence near the seashore, at Cape Ann, Massachusetts. Triaranea persistently makes a web with an open sector and free radius, that is, a prolonged line not crossed by viscid beads, which, although it may occupy \ the position of a radius, is free from the general Fic. 122. Epeira radial sys- triaranea (glo- fem, Exams "o": ples occasionally occur, particularly among adult webs, in which the spi- rals entirely cover the orb space, but the gen- eral habit is otherwise. Among young Triaraneas I have very rarely no- ticed such an exception. For example, in the col- ony just alluded to I counted consecutively fifty-two snares, every one of which had the free radius. The same fact was true of the colony of June 6th. In these young webs the radius was always entirely free, with four exceptions, in three of which there was one thread stretched across the opening near the top of the web, and in the other case there were two lines so placed. Occasionally I have found a colony in which the tendency to a full orb was much stronger than usual. One such was noticed at Niantic, Connecticut. In the interstices of a stone wall bordering the beach of Niantic Bay, on the country seat of one of my brothers, many Triaraneas Free Radius. Fic. 121. Tent and sectoral orb of Epeira triaranea. SPINNINGWORK. Orienta- +,sjon on of 3 ator cuor. =? 1 Y t i t econ- my £ ; = ler r even t ei re tS stru ut mMasac- tes l SkKet = O©: weds I Ps rae tter jc , the shelter tent. Some S t I N l — i; i = ees Hecciiietad 3 No. 2 (Fig. 124), ab= : ‘ z = £fth- = N = f : -hali -fifth: No. 4 (Fig. 125 = - BS fifth- No. 5 = s e S ft = N 27 = — COMPOSITE SNARES AND SECTORAL ORBS. 139 three-eighths inch, one-fifth the orb space. These were all webs of young spiders. It will thus be seen that there is no fixed rule by which Triaranea is guided in this outlay of her web, and that she allows herself a wide range of variation, although the greater number of orbs show a sector of about one-fifth the orb space. Through the open sector passes the free radius or trapline, for such FIG. 125. Illustrations of the orientation of the trapline, and width of the open sector. it is, its use being precisely that of the trapline Fic. 126. Bell shaped tent in which in full orb making spiders. Near the point of Phe peeve terminals a attachment to the hub this is deltated, diverging into several lines that are fastened at various points to the meshes of the hub. The other end of the trapline enters a little bell shaped silken tent swung amid a retitelarian maze, where it is held by the spider. (Fig. 126). Sometimes several spiral lines will cross the upper part of the open sector (Fig. 127); again one may see the variation shown at Fig. 128, where two radii (dr dr) detached from the hub (H) are lifted out from the plane of the orb, leaving an open space (O) through which the trapline (T) passes. Another variation differs from this in having but a single de- tached radius (dr) to which cross loops (cl) pass from the marginal radii R, R. (Fig. 129.) When weay- ing in the spirals this spider does not pass entirely around the orb, as is the case with the full orb makers in the major part of their snare, but moves back and forth between the radial borders (Fig. 125, ¢ and d) of the open sector, spinning her spirals in successive ’ horseshoe loops. This Fig. 127. Fic. 128. Fic. 129. is the method observed by Zilla, and all sectoral orb makers in fact. The necessity for it is at once apparent. Of course, in this case the term “spiral” has only a technical application to these lines. (Fig. 130.) The number of both spirals and radii varies greatly. The latter are more numerous, often far more numerous below than aboye the hub, which frequently is situated well above the geometric centre of the orb. Thus, in an orb six inches wide by seven long the spirals in the upper part of the snare numbered nineteen, in the lower thirty-two. The lower Trapline. Spirals in Variations in the open sector; detached radii. Loops. 140 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. spirals were thus drawn in shorter loops with much less curve, and the centre of the hub was well toward the top, two inches therefrom. In an- other adult web the orb measured eleven inches long by eight wide, the number of radii was forty-one, of spirals forty-five, of notched concentries nine. The centre of the hub was five inches from the topmost spiral. The following measurements give some idea of the size of Tri- Web aranea’s orb: Web No. 1, about four inches diameter; radii sae forty-three; spirals thirty-five. No. 2, radii twenty; spirals twenty. No. 3, diameter six and a half inches; radii thirty-five ; spirals thirty-five. No. 4, seven inches long by six wide. No. 5, six and a half long by five and a half wide. Radii forty; spirals, forty-eight below, twelve above. No. 6, forty-one radii; forty-five spirals. No. 7, two and a half by two and a half. No. 8, eleven by eight inches, central five inches from top, three and one-fourth from side; radii forty-one, spirals forty-five, notched zone nine. Triaranea is frequently found in the neigh- borhood of human habitations, around barns and yarious outbuildings of farms, but also loves the field, and is frequently found therein. It does not appear to have in so marked a de- gree as Labyrinthea a preference for nest sites naked of foliage, when such can be conyen- Fic. 130. The looped spirals, L.S., in iently procured, Zilla’s orb. The maze or snare of netted lines in the web of Triaranea is, on the whole, not quite so prominent as that of Lab- yrinthea, but in some cases it is very heavy, and generally is decidedly marked in the adult spider. The variation in this portion of the snare may be seen from the following extract from my note book, made during one day: No. 1, retitelarian lines not heavy ; No. 2, little or no retitelarian lines; No. 3, slight retitelarian lines above; No. 4, retitelarian lines quite abundant in a protecting wall behind and above but not before the orb. These, like other differences in webs, may often be accounted for simply by the fact that they exhibit different stages of completion. Spiders do not invariably finish secondary parts of their web at the same Cause of time that they spin the primary one. The nest or tent, for ex- Differ- : 3 : ae anon ample, will sometimes be a matter of growth, and it is probably the case that the netted cross lines of composite snares are developed in the same way. Young spiders also differ from adults in the degree of attention which they pay to the secondary parts of their snare. The principal part, however, the orb in the case of Orbweavyers, is invari- ably completed, if circumstances will permit it, before the spider settles herself to the pursuit of prey. Retitelar- ian Maze. COMPOSITE SNARES AND SECTORAL ORBS. 141 It is certainly interesting to find these Orbweavers possessing in so marked a degree the spinning habit of the tribe most closely related to a not be possible to munity of habit and the com of these snares and their weay the weayers of the Retitelarian hereafter when I come to con of the Basilica spider; but it that they both possess very de- cidedly the Epeiroid character- istics. In the meantime, there is another interesting peculiarity of Triaranea’s web which needs to be noted, namely, the bell shaped den or tent of white silk hung amidst the maze (Fig. 131), and connect- ed with the trapline. A struct- ure of this kind, within which the spider constantly dwells, is not confined to this species. Many Orbweavers have a sim- ilar tent or some flossy uphol- stered crevice, hole, or leafy nest, within which they con- ceal themselves frequently or habitually. Triaranea often shows a remarkable addition to this ordinary bell shaped tent. There is an open and quite distinct tube attached to the mouth of the tent, from which it to the centre of the free radius is fasten runs through or along the floor ally kept taut, and is clasped fore feet of the spider. This fect, shortened, or even whol ly found as in Fig. 182. In Tube- weaving Tendency themselves in general structural characteristics, although it may trace a Close relation between the com- munity of structure. The affinity ers with the spinningwork and tribe will be more fully traced sider the Domed orbweb may be here remarked reaches almost orb to which the ed. The free radius of this tube, is continu- at the upper end by the Fic.131. Asnareof Epeira oanoway is at times imper- triaranea, showing the looped spirals and elon- ]y omitted, but is frequent- gated lower part of the : orb. this bell shaped den and connecting tube one may see a germ or modification or suggestion of the typical snare of the tribe of Tubeweavers. We thus see that our spider 142 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. represents in her spinningwork three separate tribes of spiders, namely, the Orbweavers, to which she herself belongs; the Lineweavers, whose spinningwork she imitates in her netted maze of crossed lines; and the Tubeweavers, whose snare is represented by the structure just described. See also Fig. 123, g. The distribution of Epeira triaranea has not been very satisfactorily determined; but it probably inhabits all the northern, central, and northern-southern portions of our continent between the two é oceans. It has been located by collection in New England, the Middle and Western States, Utah, and Santa Cruz, California. Among the spinners ; of sectoral orbs is Epeira thaddeus Hentz. In size i 1B and habit it closely re- sembles Triara nea and weayes a simi- lar orb. As far as my observations ex- tend it affects wooded locations more persistently than 'Triara nea, or at least shuns the neighborhood of human habitations. It is inclined to screen itself beneath a curled leaf or within a leafy tent, and in such sites spins a strong silken tubular nest within which it dwells, holding to the trapline of its snare. The maze of right lines in the midst of which Triaranea hangs her bell shaped nest is wanting from the ie eS : web of Thaddeus. These are the chief variations "JAN Ne in general habit and spin- ningwork between the two 4 spiders. Thaddeus is : 0 c Fic. 132. Tubular gangway (n.c) C widely distrib “ petween the tent and orb of Uted, its southern loca- tions being A] Triaranea. g.1., guy lines sup- abama, South Carolina, porting tube. 5 : as far as to En terprise, Florida; north- ward it has been found in New England, Wisconsin; and in the Middle States at least to the prairies. It probably has range over the entire At- lantic slope and Mississippi Valley. Distribu- tion. Epeira thaddeus. Distribu- tion. HU During the winter of 1882-3 Mrs. Rosa Smith Eigenmann sent me from San Diego, in the extreme southern part of California, a few spiders, among which were several of a species which proved to be Zilla x-notata. ee In subsequent correspondence I ascertained that the snare of this Snares of Se ; Zilla. aranead was distinguished by a free sector, and several cocoons were forwarded, from which I succeeded in raising fine broods of younglings. These I located upon plants and various elevated objects within a warm room, and as they freely spun their characteristic orbs I soon had a number for study, of which an example is figured. Fig. 1383 was spun underneath the handle of a small basket, and is drawn natural size. The COMPOSITE SNARES AND SECTORAL ORBS. 143 spirals were carried around in loops, quite as represented; the hub was meshed and surrounded by a notched zone. . : cae Fig. 140. A diagramatic snare of Nephila, composed from bodied spider with brush tufted the descriptions and sketches of Prof. Wilder. 1 Proceedings American Association, 1873, page 265. * This has led Emerton, Structure and Habits of Spiders, page 66, to the erroneous state- ment that her snare “consists of loops running round about quarter of a circle.” Prof. Wilder, in his paper, Proceedings American Association, 1873, page also Galaxy, page 111, 1869, and on the Triangle Spider, Popular Science Monthly, page 653, 1875, gives an outline cut of Plumefoot’s orb, which corresponds with that of Fig. 140. COMPOSITE SNARES AND SECTORAL ORBS. 149 feet, Nephila clavipes. If one succeeds in pushing his way with much difficulty through the briers, his face is pretty sure to come into contact with the strong threads of these spiders, which are spread over the bushes and between trees along the roadside. The web is perpendicular, the part on which the spider sits, head downward, is geometric, but this is sur- rounded on all sides by a vast array of irregular lines, the frame of which consists of compound threads, stretching from the surrounding trees and shrubs. Some of these threads are twelve feet long, of a yellow color, and nearly as thick as sewing silk; Mr. Gosse found them able to resist a great pressure without breaking; but thought it utterly improbable that the rapid and powerful flight of even the most minute hummingbird could be for a moment arrested by the web of this or any other spider.? 1 P. H. Gosse, “ Naturalist’s Sojourn in Jamaica,” page 240. Cio Waw Abi des: IX HORIZONTAL SNARES AND DOMED ORBS. He THe Orbwebs heretofore considered all belong to the general division described as vertical orbwebs. The snares to be considered in this chapter are known as horizontal orbs. The horizontal orbweb in all es- ae sential particulars is woven like the vertical orb and differs chiefly berosa, im the fact that it is usually hung wholly or partly in a horizontal position. In the species making vertical webs, the habit is so firmly fixed that the spiders rarely deviate therefrom, and never, except under circumstances which constrain a departure. Nevertheless, it is interesting to remark that sometimes they do spin orbs that more or less approximate the horizontal. Occasionally these orbs are entirely horizontal. For example, I have known a brood of young Epeira sclopetaria, freshly escaped from the co- coon, to spin upon the same object minute orbs, some of which were ver- tical, while others were as truly horizontal as though they had been made by a species that habitually weaves an orb of that sort. Fig. 141. It was not difficult for me to determine that these individuals were influenced to an abnormal act by the conditions under which they wrought. It was comparatively easy for them to get foundation lines so placed that a hori- zontal web almost inevitably resulted ; while, on the other hand, Varia- the frames for a vertical web could not have been obtained tions in . Dis = : ; : except with the greatest difficulty. Yet, in the case of a few of the Orb I oe : Plane the same brood nearly as great difficulties were overcome, and a vertical web was made. For example, the little fellows in the cut (Fig. 141) found it easy to weave an orb horizontally around the metal frame that supports the lamp chimney, and this they did. But others fol- lowed the specific habit and sent down lines to the table, making a triangular frame and a vertical orb within it. - So, too, it may be said that spiders which make horizontal snares are sometimes constrained by difficulties of the site chosen to deviate more or less from the horizontal plane. Indeed, I have seen the orb of Tetrag- natha inclined at almost every angle, and occasionally have found it spun in an absolutely vertical position. (150) HORIZONTAL SNARES AND DOMED ORBS. 151 Such are the facts in the case. Whether this accidental tendency on both sides to vary the habitual position of the snare may have laid the foundation upon which has been developed the permanent habit which we are now to consider, is a point which others, perhaps, may be able to settle, to their own satisfaction at least. To my mind, the diffi- culties of originating a fixed habit from such an accidental variation are so formidable that they seem practically insur- mountable. In ad- dition to these is the difficulty of ex- plaining why the same accidental ya- riation, appearing with equal frequen- cy im many species, should have suc- ceeded in fixing it- self upon a few Develop- ment. species alone? In the United States the spiders which habitually are found upon horizontal — snares are Argyroepeira hortorum, Epeira gibberosa, and the various species of the genus Tetrag- natha, and the sey- : ™ eral species of Uloborus. For reasons which will hereafter be explained I do not include the last named species within the group to be described in this chapter. Hig idie varisal onbe OFA colony ‘ot Argyroepeira hortorum, or the Orchard spiderlings. spider of Hentz,! is one of the most beautiful of our indigenous species, presenting in its varied green, yellow, and metallic silver colors all the characteristics of some of the brightest tropical species. It is widely distributed, probably throughout the entire United States, and is thus equally at home in the cold climate of New England and the winterless regions of the South. Its web is usually found in low Orchard Spider. 1 Epeira hortorum Hentz, “Spiders of 929 Emerton, “New England Epeiride,” page 333. the United States;” Argyroepeira hortorum 152 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. situations, spun upon branches and stalks of tall weeds and grasses, or in the lower branches of shrubs, bushes, and trees. The orb is frequently quite round, indeed is habitually round when spun in open spaces where the spider’s action is unfettered. An adult spider’s orb has an average diameter of from eight to nine inches. The spirals and radii are closely placed and average in number about thirty. The hub is open and the spider has its position just beneath, clinging back downward to the margin of the hub or to the notched zone immediately surrounding it. The abdo- men is often turned upward almost at right angles to the cephalothorax, and is stayed by a line attached to the orb above. Fig. 142. From the foundation lines of the orb downward there usually extends a mass of crossed lines, which may be called the apron. These are thick- est upon two sides, although sometimes they extend entirely Protect- around, giving the whole mass of spinningwork the appearance ive : , : = of a hemisphere with the circular plane upwards, or of an in- Apron. verted cone. The purpose of this apron is evidently protective, as it must shield the spider from assaults of enemies that would be inclined to strike her as she hangs beneath her orb. Spiders occupying vertical orbs which for the most part are swung upon foli- age and other objects which form a background, are tol- erably secure against attack from that quarter at least. But the weavers of horizontal orbs have no such natural local protection. Hence it is the more needful that they should manufacture one for themselves. The apron may also stay the foundation lines that support the delicate work of the orb itself, and perhaps protects it from the ap- proach of insects who would break through without giving the spider an opportunity to catch them. It doubtless also serves for the arrest of insects, as I have found flies entangled upon the threads. It may thus, as in the case of the Labyrinth spider, be of some benefit to the occu- pant in the way of providing food. But for this the principal reliance is of course upon the orb, and the chief supply is from those insects that strike it as they fly downward. The outside foundation lines, to which the horizontal orb is hung, are sometimes of considerable length; I have found them thirty-six inches long. Fig. 143 is an accurate representa- tion of the foundation system of the Orchard spider, and also a section of the snare showing the spiral system as well as the central space. The lines are drawn vertically, but, of course, the reader will understand that they are to be considered as spun horizontally as they were in nature. A little better view of the central space is shown at Fig. 144 where the delicate HORIZONTAL SNARES AND DOMED ORBS. 153 arrangement of the unbeaded and notched spirals (n) is represented. If one will imagine a web thus constituted throughout the entire orbicular space, and hung in a pretty site among meadow plants or wild flowers, he will have a true conception of the del- icate beauty of this work of aranead art. In appearance the orb resembles that of Acrosoma. The open hub, Orb the numerous spi- EES als, and tl este Pals, ar 2 = teristics. » Ke) 1a merous and deli- cately spun radii and bead- ed spirals are characteristic of Hortorum, as they are of Acrosoma. But I have never seen in Hortorum any of the ribboned decorations which mark the spinning- work of Acrosoma. The free space also is decided in Hor- torum, but small or lacking in Acrosoma. When dis- turbed the spider usually runs along the dragline to Fic. 143. Section of foundation lines and orb of the Orchard which she hangs underneath ee een the hub, to the remotest part of her foundation lines, with which the drag- line is generally connected. She remains stationary at her point of refuge, or hides beneath a leaf, or sometimes drops to the earth. I have never seen the snare of Hortorum in a vertical position, and have rarely noticed it inclined in any degree from the horizontal; but have record of one web that inclined about forty-five degrees. In this orb the foundation lines were attached to the leaves of a plant eighteen inches high, upon which the snare was hung. From _ these, retitelarian lines were carried downward to an 4 adjoining tree, making a rude appearance of an tHe — He inverted pyramid. This apron was not carried up close to the orb, but separated from it about the Fic. 144. Central section Leeencre att Or- ce * a , chard spider’s orb. f, free space ; distance of five or sIx inches. This is the ordi- n, notched zone; c, open hub. nary position of the apron, and in this respect is quite analogous to the corresponding situation of orb and labyrinth in the snare of Epeira labyrinthea. Indeed, it may be said as a general fact that 154 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. in all orbweaving species which make a composite web, either habitually or occasionally, the mass of crossed lines is separated by a little space from the orbicular part of the snare. This is the case with the protective wings of Argiope, which are always so placed as to leave free action for the spider as she moves back and forward between the orb and the retitelarian lines on either side. Epeira gibberosa, the Hunchback spider, closely resembles Hortorum in the sites selected for her snare. Like Hortorum the species is probably dis- tributed throughout the entire United States. I have collected it in Florida, in the border and Middle States, and in New England, and have specimens from Wisconsin, but none further to the west or northwest. Its snare rarely diverges from the horizontal plane, and is like the Orchard spider’s in every respect, except that I have never found it with the apron or protecting maze of crossed lines. Instead spider has the habit a netted hammock of leaves of the plant up orb is spun. (Fig. Epeira gibberosa of this, however, the of making for herself lines stretched between on or near which her 145.) This hammock between the pulled up edges of one leaf, as may be seen figured in the chapter upon ih Nesting Habits. Un- derneath this ham af mock the Hunchback hangs back downward, holding to a trapline which is attached, at the opposite end, to the central part of her snare. In this respect her habit is related to Fs. 145. The hammock nest of the that of the Shamrock and Insular spiders as aor and others of that group. Sometimes she forsakes this position and hangs like Hortorum is sometimes woven underneath her orb, and sometimes I have found her thereon without any such associated hammock nest. Gibberosa appears to be less timid in disposition than Hortorum. At least, when touched by my pencil, the Orchard spider would invariably swing away from her position or crawl off to the outlying foundation lines. The Hunchback, on the contrary, instead of forsaking her position, would only Her Ham- mock. turn around, shake her body, or jerk her trapline in a neryous manner. Gibberosa lacks the bright silver markings of Hortorum,.but keeps the general green hue of legs and body, the color, however, being somewhat darker. Il. The genus Tetragnatha furnishes some of the most familiar and inter- t Do esting species of spiders making a horizontal snare. Our two most common species in the Eastern United States, and probably throughout the whole HORIZONTAL SNARES AND DOMED ORBS. 155 continent, are Tetragnatha extensa and T. grallator. The former species has been supposed to be an importation from Europe. It is impossible, of course, to determine whether this is so or not, for the species is so widely distributed, over the greater part of the continent in fact, that the probabilities are that its life in North America antedates the period of European communication. My collections and specimens range from Canada, Connecticut, and Massachusetts to Florida, on the east- ern shore; to Texas on the south and southwest; and on the Pacific coast as far northward as Vancouver Island, and south- ward to San Diego, at the extreme border of California. Emerton has collected it on the White Mountaims of New England and along the seaboard, and Dr. Marx has specimens ranging from Fort Simms, Labrador, to Florida, and westward and northwest through Kan- sas, Alaska, and the Aleutian Islands. As the species is widely distributed throughout the continent of Europe, and is probably found in Asia as well, it is easy to see that it might have been transported without the aid of human ships, simply by the agency of the winds, either from America to Europe, or from Europe to America. The original centre of the species, if one is to suppose an original centre at all, cannot, there- fore, be positively determined. It is a spider of delicate greenish and _yel- low colors, and appears to be rather delicately organized, notwithstanding the formidable jaws which characterize it in common with its congeners, and to which its generic name is due. (Fig. 147.) Nevertheless, it has been able to find and hold a habitat amid the most diverse climatic extremes, and in establishing itself has crossed continents, lofty mountain ranges, and oceans. Tetragnatha extensa is a spider which when once seen cannot easily be mistaken for another. It well deserves its name of “extensa,” or the extended spider, for its abdomen is in the shape of a rather narrow cylinder, is greatly extended, as compared with the cephalothorax, and it has the habit of stretching its front legs forward, Fic. 147. Thejaws ana Its hind legs backward until, together with the long body, mouth parts of Tet- the entire spider is drawn out into a straight band and ee forms a peculiar vision, which the observer is apt to bear in mind. The colors of Extensa vary a good deal, but for the most part the cephalothorax is pale white and yellowish. The abdomen is delicate yellow, tinted with shades of green, and has a fine branching black line running down the middle of the dorsum. The sides are finely reticulated, and the under part has a dark band down the middle with green on each side. Tetrag- natha. Fic. 146. Tetragnatha extended on a twig. Distri- bution. 156 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. It loves the neighborhood of water, but is found distributed widely throughout the meadows and in the foliage of bushes and low trees. Its snare is of a delicate texture, finely spun, as a rule, but oftentimes short and straggling. It is placed either in a vertical, horizontal, or inclined position, but its general habit is horizontal, and with this class of Orb- makers I have placed it. It is armed with a pair of formidable jaws, whose immense teeth and long fangs would appear to give it a great advantage in its conflicts with enemies and efforts to secure food. In construction the orb of Tetragnatha extensa, as well as all other species of the genus, corresponds very closely with that of the Orchard spider. The hub is open, and a series of notched concentries follows; then comes the free space; then the spiral space, the foundation space, and the foundation lines. ! The position of Tetragnatha is underneath the central part of her snare. Her body is usually stretched across the open hub. The legs do not radiate from the body at open angles, but are drawn yery ete close to the cephalothorax one at the fore part, and to the Orb. abdomen at the hinder part of the body. The fore feet clasp the radii at or beyond the notched zone, or one foot holds fast to a line which is stretched to the under part of the ~ web and bows downward to the foot. FiG. 148. Tetragnatha outstretched beneath the hub The abdomen, as in the case of the eae Orchard spider, is hitched by a sim- ilar line to the orb. In this position the spider sometimes swings almost free from direct contact with her snare. The fore legs touch or approx- imate near the middle, and the feet are curved outward. In spite of its somewhat awkward appearance, Tetragnatha is remarkably lively in its movements. When alarmed, Extensa runs down into the weeds or grass, and stretches herself along the stem on which she has found refuge. Her legs hug her body closely, even more closely than when suspended to her web as just described. As her entire body is of a greenish yellow color, not greatly different from that of the plant, it is somewhat difficult to distin- euish her from the stem on which she rests. This peculiarity is well known among observers of the species wherever it is found, and is cited as one of the examples of protective form mimicry. 1 Description of Orbs. No. 1. Vertical; 5x4in.; n. z., }x 4 in.; fz, }x $in.; hub irregu- lar meshed work. No. 2.5 x5 about; f z., > to }in.; hub open, with few irregular threads. No. 3. Nearly vertical; 3 n. sp.; r. 16; sp. 21 below, 15 above. No.4. Horizontal; 43 x 5 in.; r. 22, sp. 13 and less above ; n.z., 4x 4;f2.4x{;open hub. Nos.5, 6,7. Orb inclined about 45° ; small, 3 to5in. in diam. Several orbs 2 in. diam. HORIZONTAL SNARES AND DOMED ORBS. 157 The next most common species of Tetragnatha is the Stilt spider, Tetragnatha grallator Hentz.t In color the adult is not so brilliant as Extensa, being a dull gray; but in its general form, habits, and the structure of its web it corresponds with Extensa, but is larger, darker, and less attractive in appearance when adult. It differs, also, in its greater fondness for a location near or over water. Its webs are frequently seen stretched above the surface of running streams. In pools, in the quiet nooks of brooklets and creeks, where branches droop down from the banks and overhang the water, I often find a colony of The Stilt Spider. , PY In | Wiis Tie A y Wh Keg it i ni | i Wie Al. A i ‘is Fic. 149. Horizontal orb of the Stilt spider, stretched above a brooklet (Doe’s Run). Stilt spiders that have spun their horizontal orbs upon the leaves and twigs close down to the water’s face. As the wind moves the branches to and fro the webs almost dip into the stream beneath. Here the crea- tures hang and prey upon the insects that always frequent such sites in great numbers and hoyer over the stream. (Fig. 149.) Another favorite position is underneath the boards and cross logs of 17. elongata Walck., Nat. Hist. d. Ins. Apt., ii, page 211. Dr. Thorell has little doubt that Hentz’s species T. ee is identical with Walckenaer’s T. elongata. See “Araneze of Colorado,” Bulletin U. 8. Geolog. Sury., 1877, page 479. 158 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. mill races. I recall one such site at Bellwood in the Allegheny Mountains, where yery many Stilt spiders were thus located, and had found it so admirable a feeding ground that they had grown to large proportions. Some of the orbs were fourteen inches in diameter. (Fig. 150.) With this fondness for the water are associated some most interesting habits which especially adapt the Stilt spider for its favorite site. One of these was observed in individuals of the Bellwood colony above Walking the Water. mentioned. The webs were stretched between boards laid on narrow beams as a gangway across the mill race near the sluice gate, and also from these boards to the sides of the race itself. While studying them I was often compelled to disturb the spiders. They AN Fic. 150. The Stilt spider’s web beneath logs. ran from the centre of their large orbs and took shelter on the sides of the cross beams or underneath the boards. If still further disturbed, they would sometimes drop by a dragline from the lower surface of the plank and hang with their legs stretched out straight, fore and aft, in the charac- teristic position already described as assumed by them when resting along a branch or other surface. In this posture they would hang motionless for some time. (See Fig. 151, left hand of cut.) On one occasion, while attempting to seize one of these individuals, she dropped downward suddenly for several feet. I was not surprised at this motion, for it is the one resorted to by alarmed Orbweavers when HORIZONTAL SNARES AND DOMED ORBS. 159 they precipitate themselves from their snares to the ground. I prepared to draw my specimen upward by her dragline, feeling sure that I would certainly capture her, when, to my amazement, she threw herself upon the surface of the water, a distance of eight or ten feet. I looked to see her drown, or at least to be swept away through the open sluice gate by the fast rushing stream. Neither of these things happened. The moment our Stilt spider struck the water she reached upward one hind leg, clasped the dragline in her claw, and began to scurry over the mill race toward the shore. I watched the movement with exceeding interest, and was delighted to see the adyenturer reach her destination. (See Fig. 151, right hand figure.) The dragline, partly by its natural elas- ticity, but also because the spider prob- ably reeled out thread as she traveled, continued to stretch as the spider moved toward the shore. It thus held her firmly anchored to the surface of the plank to which her dragline was attached, so that the force of the current, thus counteracted, did not sweep her through the open sluice over the shoot. In the meantime her feet were kept in motion, and she appeared to me to be walking the water in the man- ner of certain so-called “ water spiders,” belonging to the genera Dolomedes and Lycosa of the Citigrades. It certainly is an interesting fact in the natural history of an orbweaving spider, that it possesses a habit so closely resembling one charac- teristic of a tribe widely separated from it in nearly every other respect. The outspun filaments that serve the spider for navigating the air are also utilized for propulsion over the A Spider Sailor. Fic. 151. Tetragnatha hanging extended, and running on water. water. In one case they serve as a balloon, in the other as a sail. This discovery was made on a pleasant October day while walking along the shore of Deal Lake, Asbury Park, New Jer- sey.1 I stopped before a clump of tall grass that grew upon a little tongue of land that jutted into the lake, in order to shake down from the foliage any spiders who might for the time be domiciled thereon. The especial object of my search was water frequenting species, particularly Navigat- ing Water the common Dolomede (Dolomedes sexpunctatus), whose mode of run- 1 October 21st, 1881. I believe that I have the honor to be the first person who ob- served, or at least announced, this interesting behavior. See a note published in “The Continent,’ Philadelphia, August 2d, 1882. 160 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. ning over water, and behavior when cast upon water, I wished to observe. The beaten marsh grass yielded me no Dolomedes, but instead several half grown Tetragnatha yermiformis, Emerton, dropped upon the surface. To my surprise they seemed not the least disconcerted, but immediately recovered themselves and with one exception ran to the shore precisely as do the Lycosids. The excepted individual had been thrown out from the bank farther than its comrades. For a moment it paused, its body bowed and held upward upon the eight legs which were spread out so that the feet marked the outline of a rude circle upon the surface. Then it started rapidly across the mouth of a tiny baylet between a tongue of the land and the main shore, traversed the intervening space, \ and pulled itself to the land by the overhanging grass. My N attention was attracted by the remarkable fact that during peta this transit there was no appreciable movement of the legs. That an Orbweaver should be able to glide so rapidly and gracefully over water was a fact in itself sufficiently new to me; but that one should do this without any physical exertion whatever amazed me. Could the action of the air upon the body have been the impelling force ? I addressed myself eagerly to the solution of this mystery. A second clump of grasses was beaten, and a Tetragnatha fell upon the lake. She ran over the water to the shore, using apparently her fore legs as paddles. Be- fore she climbed into the grasses I thrust my cane under her body, gently lifted her up, and reaching outward as far as I could, gradually sunk the tip of the stick into the water without causing any ruffling = uf of the surface. The spider was thus Brg, 152, Silken ieails: Tetragnathe uevigating #5" eased off the suck and splaced upon the surface undisturbed. As soon as she felt herself fairly launched she made a few strokes with her fore feet, then suddenly paused and thrust the apex of her abdomen down to the surface. Directly, the abdomen was raised from the water and turned up until it made an angle of about 60° with the surface. Next a long streamer of silk filaments was emitted from the spinnerets, precisely as in the case of aeronautic spiders when about to ascend, and immediately the spider began to scud at a great rate over the water. ‘The mysterious motor was thus reyealed—the silken threads served as sails upon which the wind played, propelling the vital craft across the water. The discovery into which I was thus accidentally led was so interesting that I devoted the remainder of my day to the full investigation of the habit HORIZONTAL SNARES A ND DOMED ORBS. 161 of navigation by means of filament sails. The first experiment was re- peated a number of times with various details upon several spiders, and al- ways with the same result. The gossamer thread was undoubt- Saad edly used as a sail, and the action of the wind bore the little aaa af navigator to the shore. I frequently blew the tiny craft out to sea, either with my breath or by fanning with my hat. My stick could at any time arrest the thread by placing if a foot or more above the spider, and having entangled it, I could draw her thereby in any direction. The filament was plainly seen floating above the spider, waving to and fro, generally bending above her back. The legs during motion were raised upward and bowed, thus holding the body well up from the surface, exactly in the attitude of a spider about to take aeronautic flight. They were kept quite rigid and motionless. The feet were spread out, describing the outline of an irregular octagon. I fancied that they were united by threads and that thus the spider sat upon a delicate raft of silk. Before spreading her sails the first act of the spider was to drop the abdomen to the surface, at which moment, I inferred, an attachment to the legs was made. I can hardly bring myself to be- lieve that the threads were attached to the water, al- though it may so have been. While the spider was un- der sail the feet made a very noticeable ripple of wavelets as they were hurried along. She could accomplish short distances from the shore by running, without spreading sail, but when put well out she always re- sorted to the latter mode. However, any floating object which she met during the voyage was pretty sure to be taken advantage of as con- venient harborage. A downy seed which fell upon the water and drifted within reach of one of my aranead sailors was immediately seized by the creature’s fore feet, the spinnerets were set in motion, and the seed was overspun with a delicate floss, which converted it into a sort of float. In this connection I record an incident which may throw some light upon the development among Orbweavers of this interesting water habit. A large : female Epeira sclopetaria was collected, along with an abandoned Epeira = coon, behind which it had spent the winter, at Atlantic City. and Her ,, ri ; : ; nies The spider was accidentally dropped into the Inlet, together with the flossy ball of the cocoon. She immediately threw out threads around the ball (Fig. 153), to which she remained attached as to a buoy, and thus the two drifted along safely under the floor of a boat house and so out of sight. One associates such an action with the water walking and navigating of Tetragnatha, and wonders whether Epeira could ever, Fic. 153. Epeira using her cocoon as a float. 162 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. under favorable environment, develop like behavior. Moreover, the query arises, whether from some such accidental occasions, often repeated, may not have sprung such a perfect navigating habit as that attributed to Dolomedes fimbriatus, who makes for herself a raft of leaves united by threads of silk, and so navigates the fens of Northumberland, England, in search of prey. Like her congener Extensa, the Stilt spider has a wide distribution over the United States. It is dispersed throughout the entire belt of Eastern and Middle States; and the collections of Dr. Marx locate it in Empire City, Colorado; Fort Bridger, Wyoming; Kanayah, Aleutian Isles; Sitka, Alaska, and as far to the northeast as Unga Bay, Lab- rador. Distribu- tion. Toe The remarkably extended geographical distribution of these species of Tetragnatha, and especially of T. extensa, necessarily raises the question as to the effect of environment upon structure and habits. Through- Distribu- out the wide area alluded to, the habits of Extensa, as far as I Sa have been able to learn, are absolutely identical. I have studied and Habitthe spider at widely separated points in the United States, and have made some observations of its habits in Great Britain. I have also compared my observations with all recorded by European ob- servers to which I could have access. There is no essential variation in the testimony. The structure of the animal herself remains unchanged. The character of her web is everywhere the same. Her cocooning habit, her pairing habit, and in short all her life economy appear to be wholly unaf- fected by change of climate, food, site, and elevation. It must be allowed, indeed, that much remains to be done in the way of carefully noting the habits of the species in the various localities at which it has been collected; but the spider has been known for more than a century, and, in Europe particularly, has been studied by all arachnologists, and has had as much attention given to her as to any other species, with the exception, perhaps, of Epeira diademata. The above conclusion, therefore, may reasonably be regarded as accurate. In this respect, Tetragnatha extensa is not alone. I have shown that in the case of our large representatives of the genus Argiope (A. cophi- naria and Mu WRG, Aint Fic. 169. The snare of a Triangle spider, spun on a dry bush by a New England stone fence. One-half natural size. - / q Mil ish, Ml TEU OTE ported. While Hyptiotes thus shows a disposition to domicile on any sort of bushes or foliage, its favorite location may be said to be groves = “e of pine. In this respect it corresponds with its European con- a : Ee gener, Hyptiotes paradoxus, which Professor Thorell found in Net Site. a é : a the neighborhood of Stockholm during July, August, and Sep- tember, principally in woods of trees of the fir kind, especially in pine >I geutly } woods. Our Triangle spider, like Paradoxus, seems to choose most freely the dry bare branches of the pine or other trees; but this is by no means a 182 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. universal preference, for I frequently find the snare spread among the green needles of the pine boughs and stretched amidst the green foliage of other plants. The nest site is generally low down. I have rarely noted it more than three or four feet above the surface of the earth. As the lower branches of pine trees are always dry, it would follow as a necessity, without any special preference on the part of the spider, that her habit of swinging her net low down would compel her in such positions to spin between dry limbs. The spider is probably distributed over a wide geographical area. I have traced it from New England on the northeast, from Maine to Massachu- setts, through New York, New Jersey, as far south as the District of Columbia and Alabama. I have also taken it in Ohio, and as far to the southwest as Texas. It thus shows a considerable range of climatic extremes. It will probably be found wherever forests of fir and pine flourish. Hyptiotes is very small, being little over an eighth of an inch in body length, with rather short, stout legs. It is a dull grayish brown color, with occasional brighter tints of red intermixed. It thus strongly resem- bles the color of the branches to which its snare is oftenest hung. This identity of color makes it difficult sometimes to find the animal; but I can hardly think that it presents a case of protective mimicry, as does Mrs. Treat, who also concludes that Hyptiotes recognizes color, and that its habitual resting place is a matter of intelligent choice.! On the contrary, as I have just stated, it is supposable that the Distribu- tion. a I Fic. 170. Zilla plus Hyptiotes equals Epeira. pone position is simply a matter of convenience, as it gives the best ear- : : : on attachment for the trapline of its peculiar web; and, moreover, since the spider domiciles in all sorts and parts of shrubs, living and dead, it is certainly reasonable to think that a bright green would have been as great a protection to it as the dull brown and gray which prevails. The appearance which the snare presents to the observer is that of a circular sector, attached at the open or outer end to surrounding objects, and at the apex to a straight line of varying length, similarly Construc- anchored. The number of radii is always four, never more nor tion of cm ‘ : Oa hae ; Web. less, and in this number, of course, is included the two outside rays. The two central radii are crossed by lines which may be regarded as the equivalent of the spiral lines which intersect the radii in ordinary orbwebs. ‘The manner in which these several parts of the snare are constructed will now be pointed out. “My Garden Pets.” THE TRIANGLE SPIDER: THE ORB SECTOR. 183 The mode of spinning the foundation lines or frame has neyer been observed, as far as I know, by any naturalist. A careful study of a number of webs, however, has led me to con- clude that it is spun as follows: In the first place, the spider stretches between two points a sin- ed gle line, which we may rep- Frame, resent by the dotted line, PB, in Fig. 171. She then proceeds to attach to this line, say at the point A, another thread, which is carried along the original line, F'. 171. Making the frame of the Triangle spider’s PB, to the place of attachment, B. iva Thence up the branch or other object to C, where the carried line is drawn taut and fastened. There is thus produced the line AC, and the original foundation line having been drawn upward by pulling upon AC, has assumed the curved form of AB. The two outer radii of the snare are thus in place. Now the spider drops from the point CB, carry- ing with her a thread, which is attached at B, and becomes thus the base line of the triangle CABC. Proceeding along the line BA, carrying with her a thread as before, she makes another attachment at E, returns upon her course to B, and thence upward to E, on the base line where the carried thread is straightened, fastened, and the third radius, EE, completed. In a similar way the fourth radius, DD, is stretched. This, of course, does not express the exact order in every case, but the general method. It will be observed that these radial lines do not meet in a com- mon point. This is in- il Fic. 172. Frame or radial lines of Hyptiotes’ snare, as in nature. moe deed contrary to most ie published descriptions of Point? the appearance of the snare. For example, Thorell speaks of these threads in Fie. 173. Natural arrangement of radii, to show the order the net of Hyptiotes paradoxus as Se ee tue forming “equal angles with the original thread, and each other.”' Em- erton speaks of the apex as “the point where the rays meet.”? He again 1 European Spiders, page 70. 2New England Spiders, Family Ciniflonidee. 184 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. speaks of the four branches as radiating from the extremity of the sector.! Fig. 171, with the exception of the dotted line, is drawn from nature; so also are Figs. 172 and 173. These show, better than any worded descrip- tion, that the interradials are attached in the manner which I have repre- sented, and are not drawn out from a common apex or point. According to my view, the position of the first line spun is indicated by the dotted line (AA, Fig. 172). Afterward the first radius (1r) was formed by attaching that line to AA, thus drawing it up until it assumed the position of Aa, Aa. To this again were successively fastened the lines 2r and 38r, which completed the radial framework, ready for inserting the spirals. So also, at Fig. 173, one sees the same order of progress as shown by the numbered lines, viz., the dotted original line drawn up to make the trapline and first radius (1st) by the attached thread, which constitutes the second radius (2d). The base line (8d) comes next in order, and there- after the two additional radii (4th, 5th) in their order. No doubt, the radial lines may be at times found meeting at or near the same point; I have certainly so found them, but I believe that this is not characteristic of the spinningwork, but is simply an accident thereof. In other words, the spider having made her first main line, attaches the three succeeding shorter ones to a convenient point thereon without much regard to whether they meet in a common angle or not, but in fact ordinarily places them at different points along the line. The framework being thus prepared, the spider proceeds to place in her spirals. For the manner in which this is done we are indebted to Pro- fessor Wilder. His account is based upon two personal observa- Mode of tions of the mode of spinning. He says: “Let us suppose that ea the framework of the net is completed, and that the first or longest interradial line (Fig. 174,11) has also been made. In- stead of beginning the second interradial at S* she begins at 4; and in- stead of climbing up the interradial or the strong and convenient base line (BB), she runs to a point (2) on the lowest radius near the apex, crosses the two intermediate radii from 2 to 3, and passes along the upper radius to the attachment of the first interradial (S!). On reaching this, she turns and moves for about her own length toward the apex. Contrary to the usual habit of spiders, during this roundabout passage from 1 to 4 she spins no thread. She now spreads her spinnerets a little, and presses them upon the radius, keeping them so while she advances again about her own ; length. This forms the attachment of the second interradial ee (12). The spider then lets her abdomen fall somewhat, support- pinning. : : : ing her body and adyancing upon the line by means of her first, second, and third pairs of legs. The fourth pair are applied together to the spinnerets with great rapidity, at least five times in a second, or 1Structure and Habits of Spiders, page 76. THE TRIANGLE SPIDER: THE ORB SECTOR. 185 three hundred times in a minute, and in so doing they draw out a double line. “The spider moves slowly along the radius until she reaches a point (5) where she can step across to the next radius. While so doing, she ceases to draw out the double line, and carefully keeps it from contact with either of the radii. She then reverses her course and moves along the second radius to a point (6) nearly under that whence she started. The double line has shortened itself considerably; any slack she draws in, and then turning about, with her head toward the apex, she makes a second attachment with her spinnerets close pressed against the radius. This done, she again hangs from the radius, draws out the spiral line, and ad- vances toward the apex, crosses at 7 to the third radius, returns thereon to 8, and makes a third attachment. She then repeats the same process upon the third radius, and in Fig. 7 is repre- sented (at 9) as QM having finished about one-half of the line.” The number of crossed lines when the work iscompleted va- M Ss ries, according SS to Wilder, from six to sixteen. Fic. 174. Mode of spinning floc- > culent spirals of Hyptiotes. The > The European Spider’s progress from 4 is shown by — SX - the course of the a 7 i s Paradoxus, ae- rs e arrows. (After Wilder.) cording to Thorell, spins from sixteen to twenty-two. According to my own count the number is not constant, but the prevailing number is nearly sixteen. I have counted five, fourteen, nineteen, and twenty-two on snares in the same general site. The number is not constant even with the same Y Vy individual. A female that spun fourteen spirals on one day had nineteen the next; and like differences showed in the other parts of the snare. Evidently there is no mechanical necessity in the constitution of the ara- nead that compels it to a machine regularity of product. These lines are not single threads, covered with viscid beads, as in the case of most Orbweavers, but resemble those of Uloborus, as heretofore described. That is to say, as they exude from the spinnerets and cri- bellum, they are teased, or to borrow a word from the flax manufac- turer, “hackled,” by the calamistrum into a somewhat irregularly widened flocculent mass. Wilder speaks of the spiral thread as simply double lines, the two strands being from one five-hundredth to one two-thousandth of an inch apart.t Emerton says that it “has a strong smooth thread through the 1 Op. cit., page 649, note. 186 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. centre,” and “has the finer part arranged in regular loops or scallops (see Fig. 176, a, b') in which separate fibres cannot be distinguished.” The spiral lnes, according to my own studies, when examined under an ordinary hand _ lens, present a milky appearance, as though composed of very thinly spun material. With a little higher power the supporting spiral thread is seen passing through this milky mass. Placed under a microscope, the line is seen to consist of.three strands, namely, the central spiral thread, and two curled lines, which alternately cross and re- cross each other above and below the centre, forming the loops as represented at Fig. 177. In F1G. 175. Calamistrum of Hyptiotes. this respect Mr. Emerton has correctly represent- (After Wilder.) a, tarsusandmet- ed the spiral line of Hyptiotes. The two curled atarsus of fourth leg; b, the claws, , . open; ¢, cross section of the meta- lines seemed to me to be sometimes composed of tarsus, showing itscavityinwhich 4 flocculent instead of a smooth thread, and it is lie the muscles; also a single E 2 curved bristle upon the side, a this which, seen by the eye, or by a lens of low part of the calamistrum; e, a sim- a aaa oT P * fae calamniateasn baiddle ti mors DOWEL metves) the amalicy _ Appearance described. enlarged; d,f,two feathered bris- ‘he above results I obtained from freshly spun tles from near the joints. . webs, whose clean silk was unmarred by use. Other studies of this cross line, made from older snares, showed that it consists of one, two, or three ee ee a ‘b separate threads, around or between which 4 ° . . . 176. Thread of Hypti- ie the fine flocculent material was twisted or "%;.0"" sowing opposite fastened somewhat as in Fig. 178. The lat- sides. (After Emerton.) Thread. ter presented a milky appearance, and was spread out so fine that often no traces of independent filaments were observed. In short, it was a very delicate, cottony mass, much wider at some parts than at others, presenting in miniature something like the appearance of the woolen rolls which, as a boy, I used to watch with intense interest as they passed into the flyers of an old fashioned spinning wheel. is : In this cottony mass one frequently observes a number of particles of dust, pollen, and various minute amorphous objects, which have been caught S gecoseescosscogS,, Bead like ypon the sticky material as they drifted be- : | eke hee: cia fore the wind. As in the case of the web Gtk, occ rates | of Uloborus, they present to the casual ob- rangement of theflocculent geryer, even when looked at by a common magnifying thread. Greatly magnified. 0 lens, the appearance of beads upon the ordinary thread of Epeira. It is not strange, therefore, that many have been deceived and led to suppose that the Triangle spider makes a beaded web. The true ‘Cobwebs of Uloborus, Am. Jour. Sci., 1883, page 205. Also New England Spiders of the Family Ciniflonids, Pl. XI. THE TRIANGLE SPIDER: THE ORB SECTOR. 187 character of the spiral can only be satisfactorily determined by taking it upon a suitable frame and observing it under the microscope. The spiral lines, where they cross the two interlying radii, are not con- tingent to the radius at one and the same point, but present precisely the appearance of the concentrics in the notched zone of a common full orbed snare. The entire snare of Hyptiotes is thus notched, and in this respect it corresponds with the domed orb of the Basilica spider as I have de- seribed it. The length of the snare proper varies a good deal. I haye measured one five and a half inches in length, another two and a half, and another thirteen inches, measuring from the apex to the base line. ‘The spiral space itself will measure two and a half inches, three and three-fourths inches, rarely more, often less. The length of the base line, which represents the width of the snare at the open or widest part of the triangle, also varies much, I have measured one twenty-six inches in length, the longest of which I have any note. The radii are not separated from each other by equal spaces at their points of attach- ment to the base line. For example, one snare measured two inches in the upper space, between the first and second radii; in the middle space, one and one-fourth ee ah coterie easier Goce inch; in the lower space, one and one- ent thread are broken up and hang irreg- fourth inch. At the point nearest the apex, "°"" where the spiral lines terminated, the width across the snare between the two outer radii was three-fourths of an inch. The distance from the apex of the triangle to the point where the original line is attached I have called the trapline, and this also varies in length. I have the following measurements: One and one-fourth inch, one and one-half inch, one and six-eighths inch, two and one-half, five, and thirteen inches. The snare drawn at Fig. 169 gave the following measure- ments: trapline, two and a quarter inches; number of spirals, fourteen, separated from each other by distances varying from one-eighth to one- fourth of an inch; the spiral space, two and a half inches long; distance across the web at the origin of the spirals (the point nearest the trapline), two inches; distance across the web at the termination of the spiral system, four and one-half inches. The three radial openings measured at the base line respectively, two, one and a half, and one and three-fourths inches. A fine large snare spun by a male Hyptiotes gave the following meas- urements: number of spirals, twenty-three and twenty-two; the spiral space occupied three and three-fourths inches in length; the distance across the snare at origin of the spiral space, one inch and _five-eighths; distance straight across a, the end of spiral space, five and one-half inches. From the point of the triangle to the origin of the spiral space was two inches. There was a quite long trapline, about thirteen inches. The base line o Dimen- sions. 188 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. the radii was also very large. The space between the several radii, meas- ured at the termination of the spiral space, was about equal in all to one and seyen-eighths inches. Across the snare at the beginning of the spiral space the distance was one- half inch in all. When the web is completed, the spider takes a position upon the trapline, sometimes very close to the apex, but more frequently remoyed from it by a varying Position of Spider space. Sometimes she is close Fic. 179. Position of Hyptiotes on her trapline,T. The coil, to the apex, at other times well cl, is shown in the upper figure, and at sl in the lower. removed therefrom : sometimes she hangs upon the line between the apex and the branch to which the line is suspended, and again is found close up to the branch, even rest- ing her abdomen against it. IT. The position of the spider upon her trapline is very peculiar, and worthy of careful study, for it gives a clue to the curious phenomenon which is now to be described. Her face and fore feet are Using thetowards her triangular snare. The trapline is held within the ed first two pairs of claws, which are placed near each other (see Fig. 179, upper figure), and is drawn so tightly that every por- tion of the wedge shaped web is perfectly taut, as rep- resented in Fig. 180. Upon applying the lens to the spider as she thus hangs with back downward, it will be seen that between the second pair of legs and the third pair of legs, the line is also taut. “This is its condition according to most of my observations, but it seems that sometimes it is Fic. 180. Hyptiotes’ snare drawn taut. slightly slackened, as shown in the lower figure in the cut. (Fig. 179.) Carrying the lens along to the short third pair of legs we see that they are bent at the knee, and the claws approach each other at the trapline, which they firmly clasp. Glanc- ing at the fourth or hind pair of legs, it is observed that these are stretched THE TRIANGLE SPIDER: THE ORB SECTOR. 189 backward, and also clasp the trapline in the approximated claws. But be- tween the third and fourth pairs of legs the trapline presents a peculiar form. Instead of being drawn taut or held loosely, it has the Coil of appearance of a coil, and this in fact it is. About three-fourths Slack : : : ae ey : mee of an inch of the trapline, or a portion equal to four times the entire length of the spider, is rolled up above the spimnerets and the hinder part of the abdomen, between the third and fourth pairs of legs. (Fig. 179, cl.) Behind the spider the trapline is in the same taut condi- tion that it presents in front of the spider. The net is now in perfect condition for operation. The whole front part of it, which includes the snare proper, is drawn taut in every cord and fibre. (See Fig. 180.) The trapline behind the spider is in the same tense condition. The only portion that is relaxed is the bit of coil between the last two pairs of legs, and occasion- ally (perhaps) the short stretch between the front legs and the third pair. We will now suppose that an insect strikes the snare, al- though the same effect can be produced by touching the spider herself or by tickling the fibres of her web in a manner to imitate the moye- ment of a fly. She is not, however, easily deceived by the latter trick; at least, I haye rarely been success- ful enough to compel her to spring her net by mimicking the movye- ments of an insect, and when I desired to make the observation, was compelled to touch her gently with a pencil. As soon as the spider per- ceives that her prey is trapped, she unclasps simultaneously all the fore feet holding upon the trapline, and those of the third pair of legs which keep relaxed the coil of slack line. Instantly the entire snare shoots forward (Fig. 181), and by a principle of inertia which needs no expla- nation, the spiral lines are thrown forward around the insect (Fig. 182), whose entanglement is thus secured. With a rapidity so great that the eye is not able to follow the details of the movement, the snare is tight- ened ; the spider momentarily assumes the previous position of expectancy, and again springs her net. This may be repeated several times, Wilder having observed six successive springings of the net. In this movement the spider appears to shoot forward with her snare, but in point of fact she has remained stationary, or at least has advanced but a trifle. But now, crawling to the apex of her snare, she seems to Springing the Snare. Fic. 181. A relaxed snare of Hyptiotes, after the snap. 190 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. ascertain the exact location of the fly by pulling upon the radii. Having satisfactorily decided this, she runs along the loosened radius and some- : times, when the prey is small or hopelessly entangled, contents ee herself by pulling it up by means of the lines about it, and car- ries it to her accustomed station, to be eaten at leisure. More frequently she moves along the trapline, and almost entirely destroys the triangular section which forms the web. This action is thus correctly de- seribed by Professor Wilder :— Before reaching the apex the spider cuts with her jaws the apex line, but as she maintains her hold in front of the cut by her first and second pairs of feet, and has a communication in the rear through the line which most spiders always attach to a point behind them, she does not fall, neither is the net loosened beyond a certain limit; it usually seems to recoil about an inch; this recoil tends to entangle the prey like : the original snap of the net. The spider again advances, gathers the radii togeth \ #] er and cuts them all, still keeping the line drawn out be- hind; again the net recoils and collapses. Again she advances and cuts the radii : the net y Fic. 182. Condition of Hypti- 2 otes’ net when sprung upon a is now hardly fly. (After Wilder.) distinguishable as such, and is falling together about the deyoted fly; the spider now spreads her legs, gathers the net between them and flings it like a blanket over her victim. Struggles are in vain; but “to make assurance doubly sure” the spider grasps the mass, transfers it to her third pair of legs, and with them turns it over and over as a ball, hanging the while by her front legs; and with the hinder pair, used alternately, draws out from the expanded spinnerets broad sheets of silk which, relatively to the power of the fly, are like steel bands upon a man. Having in this way reduced the prey to a rounded ball, in which its limbs are hardly distinguishable, the spider takes it in her jaws and mounts to her place. A single fly of ordinary size seems to occupy a whole day in the eating. When finished, the remains are cast down as a pellet, so perfectly deprived of moisture that it is probable that this species, like Nephila and perhaps all Epeiride, sucks out the gum of its old net and reGlaborates it for use In making a new one.! My observations of the feeding habits of HHyptiotes correspond with those of Professor Wilder. She is very deliberate in her mode of proceed- ‘Op. cit., page 651. THE TRIANGLE SPIDER: THE ORB SECTOR. 191 ing; slowly rolls the insect in swathing thread until it assumes the ap- pearance of a round flossy ball. One female that I observed was a long time in thus preparing for her banquet. The spirals of Boe her web had been broken in the capture, a single thread alone remaining. In another example observed the entire interradial system was obliterated. This, however, is not, as Wilder supposes, a peculiar habit. I have fre- quently noticed Epeiroids doing pre- cisely the same thing. The only differ- ence is that in the case of the latter a space consisting of two, three, or four radii would be cut out, leaving thus a large circle or wedge shaped gap in the snare. This gap corresponds almost precisely to the appearance of the Triangle spider’s net after she has cut out the entangled fly and com- pleted the enswathment preparatory to feeding. Of course, however, as Hyptiotes makes only a sector of a circle, she has nothing left of her snare after the insect is thus prepared; whereas spiders making circular webs have a goodly portion of their orbs intact and ready for service after one sextant is destroyed. Substantially, then, we may say that the same thing occurs with the snare of Hyptiotes and the snare of Epeira when the en- tangled insect is captured, cut out, and enswathed. I noticed what seemed to me a remarkable peculiarity in the manner of swathing and feeding upon a gnat taken by one of these spiders. Hyp- tiotes hung to her trapline by the two fore feet, which were stretched out quite at length from either side, as represented in Fig. 184. Her jaws and palpi appeared to me (although I could not quite make this out) to be supported upon the trapline. At least they oyerreached that. line and grasped the partly enswathed insect, which lay over the line on the side opposite the spider's body. The palps reaching upward from one side and the third feet reaching beneath from the other side revolved the insect, while the hind legs paid out the silk and manipulated the swathing as represented at Fig. 184. The atti- tude was an extremely odd one, and had the savor of that grotesqueness which seems to me always to mark the appearance and behayior of this Fic. 183. Outlines of a relaxed net after service. Fic. 184. The Triangle spider swathing a fly. aranead. When the fly was sufficiently secured it was carried back to the trap- line, whereupon Hyptiotes rolled herself oyer beneath her line in the ordi- nary posture, laid hold of the trapline by the two hind pairs of legs, and 192 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. gathered up between them the ordinary coil of silk thread. Then she stretched forward the two fore legs upon one side of her body and grasped the trapline just in front of her face, and bent the other two fore pairs of legs around toward the ball within which the insect was swathed and which was held well elevated within the mouth. The two bent fore legs evidently assisted in manipulating the food while the spider made a meal. This seemed as odd a posture as that assumed during the swathing of the fly. (See Fig. 185.) When the snare has been sprung and the spider wishes to tighten it, she does so by apparently first drawing upon the trapline with the fore feet, accomplishing the moyement after the manner of Epeiroids by placing one claw before the other, as a sailor ascends a rope hand over hand. At the same time, or immediately thereafter, she executes a similar movement with the two hind feet, only reversing the direction, It should be said that during the process of snapping the net, the hind pair of feet hold to the trapline and never let go until the spider abandons her position to visit the snare in search of prey. The third pair are also held in position, so that when the hind feet begin to pull backward, shoving hand over hand, so to speak, under the trapline towards the point of attachment, an amount of slack is formed between these feet and those of the third pair, which very soon rolls up into i the coil of slack line which has just \ ( vents Nearegantee aaa been described. It is thus quite pre- pared for another spring of the snare. I have observed the same peculiar use of the hind legs when the spider had occasion to raise herself from beneath upwards. Epeiroids ascend a dropline head uppermost, pulling themselves hand over hand, and allowing a coil of thread to accumulate between the palps and the jaws. Hyptiotes, instead of turning and ascend- ing head foremost, mounts tail foremost, keeping her claws attached to the trapline and drawing herself up hand over hand, following the method by which she draws herself backward in order to tighten her snare. It presents a very odd appearance to see her ascending a dropline in this position, literally “backing” up it, although one is not so much struck with the oddity of it when he sees her recovering after snapping her snare. The Triangle spider has the habit of violently oscillating her web, just as do many of the Orbweavers; that is to say, she not only draws it back and forward by snapping her trapline, but shakes it up and down or to and fro, According to Professor Thorell, the males of Hyptiotes are extremely Use of the Feet. Backing up Cables THE TRIANGLE SPIDER: THE ORB SECTOR. 193 rare, although the females are pretty common during the summer months. Mrs. Treat found the males of our Triangle spider at home with the females during two seasons. They were not in webs of their own, but always in the upper corners of the nets of females where the foundation lines are fastened to the trees. They were thus opposite their mates, who were waiting beyond the apex, and apparently were watching all their movements with great interest. This is the custom with males of most Orbweayers during the pairing season. It is a mis- take, however, to suppose that the males do not spin snares. I have fre- quently found them upon webs of the same construction and operated in the same way as those of females. At one time, I found in a fir tree a group of ten males, with their snares spun close together. A curious behavior was noticed in a Triangle spider observed in a pine wood in the Allegheny Mountains. Numbers of snares were there found on hemlock trunks and dead standing saplings. I cut the trap- line of one of these webs to see how it would affect the spider. She was hanging at the time with her hind legs quite near the trunk of a tree. Instead of dropping downward when the support of the fore part of her body was broken, she simply settled backward a little so that the end of her abdomen rested against the tree. In this position her body extended straight out from the trunk in a line at right angles thereto. The fore legs were slightly bent and held but a remnant of the trapline, which was greatly ruffled in the man- ner of a taut string when suddenly untwisted. Both _ pairs of hind legs in the meantime were holding tightly oy . to two short cords, one in each pair of claws, which were attached to the tree by little conical clusters of threads firmly glued to the bark. The spider in this attitude rie. 186. Muscular rigia- presented an odd figure, the like of which I have never aby OF Hyptiotes. observed in any other species. (See Fig. 186.) Her body was perfectly rigid, although there was nothing to maintain it in position except the bracing which resulted from the hold upon the lines aboye described. I watched her for a long time, and she showed no signs of wearying or relaxing her attitude. The amount of muscular vigor displayed by the spider in maintaining this position must have been very great, but certainly not greater than re- quired to preserve the attitude which she assumes when holding her snare ready for prey. This attitude she will maintain, without the slightest ap- pearance of muscular tremor or weariness, for a long period of time. I haye never had patience to see how long she would thus hold out if not interrupted by insects striking her snare; but I can readily believe that her patience will endure not only for a day but probably for more than a day. We thus have a tolerably full natural history of this interesting species. There are few animals whose habits better repay the student; but one who Males Muscular Rigidity. 194 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. wishes to know the secrets of Hyptiotes’ daily life must be content to bear patiently many disappointments, endure many discomforts, and attend, through days of tedious waiting, with unrufiled temper and unflagging zeal, upon the slow unfolding of the record. The spider is one to be looked after, not stumbled upon; its form is so inconspicuous, and its home in such obscure sites, that the naturalist will need to seek for it. No doubt much yet remains to learn of its behavior; its cocooning habit, for exam- ple, is wholly unknown, and the cocoon which Professor Wilder supposes to be hers is by no means well identified. The little mother has persist- ently denied me, in spite of numerous endeavors, the pleasure of settling this question. I cordially wish some of my readers better success In unray- eling this and other unwound threads of the Triangle spider's life. CHAP Ani xan THE RAY SPIDER AND HER SNARE: ACTINIC ORB. ie In the vicinity of Philadelphia, June 14th, 1881, I found a number of spiders grouped not far from each other on orbicular webs, which proved to be of a type previously unknown, and which I called the Ac- tinic or Ray formed orbweb. At the time of my discovery I considered the spider new to science, and gave it the name of Epeira radiosa in a paper containing a careful and detailed description of its spinning habit.! I then intimated that it would prob- ably be assigned to a new genus, and subsequently in a verbal communi- cation proposed for it the name Actis radiosa. Emerton, in his monograph of the New England Epeiride, created for the spider the genus Micro- epeira.? Subsequent investigation led me to believe that the spider belongs to Cambridge’s genus Theridiosoma,* and probably is identical with the European form Theridiosoma gemmosum of L. Koch.4 This genus has marked resemblances to Epeira, as Cambridge himself allows; and on the ground of structure appears to be at least equally related to the Epeiroids. Count Keyserling, however, in his extended and admirable monograph of the American spiders,®> retains the species among the Retitelarize, where it had previously been placed. But the spinningwork shows conclusively that it must be placed with the Orbitelarie. To that position, therefore, I have assigned it,® and it becomes necessary to transfer the genus Theridiosoma from the Retitelarie to the Orbitelarie, and to make for it a new family, for which I have proposed the name Actine.7 The systematic position and relations of the Name and Position. 1 Proceedings Academy Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 1881, pages 163-175. ? Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. VI., 1884, page 320. 3’ Rey. O. Pickard-Cambridge. Theridiosoma argenteolum: Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 1879, page 193. *Theridium gemmosum: Verzeichniss der bei Nurnberg beob. Arten, page 69. 5 Die Spinnen Amerikas: Theridiidee, yon Graf E. Keyserling, Zweiter Band, page 218. ® Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1889, page 180. “Note on the True Systematic Position of the Ray Spider.” 7 Actis, axric, a ray. (195) 196 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. species will be considered more fully in the appropriate part of this work.! At present we may devote our attention to the remarkable and most in- teresting character of the web. The locations in which I first discovered the snares, and where afterward I found them to be quite abundant, had been for several years a familiar and favorite hunting ground for spiders. It illustrates the fact that some of the most in- teresting discoveries that await future observers may be found Fic. 187. The Ray spider seated on her snare, just before near their own well known GEENA EO (ROIDERC. haunts, and upon ground that has been often searched by other workers, or even by themselves. The first examples of the species collected by me attracted little atten- tion so far as the snare was : concerned, because Discov- they seemed to be ery. : simply a new spe- cies, or the young of an old species of Orbweaver, hang- ing upon the remnants of webs greatly broken by or- dinary wear and tear in cap- turing insects. But the rep- etition of the form, partic- ularly the peculiar character of the open central, struck me as strange. How could the nets of several spiders possibly happen to be twist- ed into the same shape, and that shape so strikingly odd as that which I observed ? ahs Fic. 188. Interblending of rays upon one axis. H, hub, or This caused me to make a central point; T, trapline. 1 Dr, Thorell, to whom I sent specimens, has recently written me that he considers my Radiosa quite identical with Theridiosoma gemmosum (L. Koch), and agrees with me that on structural grounds alone it may be well ranked with the Orbitelariz. THE RAY SPIDER AND HER SNARE. 197 more careful examination of the spinningwork of these little strangers. As the snares were hung invariably within the interstices of rocks forming the remains of a ruined dam, or in cavities underneath roots of old stumps of trees, or in recesses of the overhanging banks of a little brook or run, everywhere shadowed by shrubbery and thick foliage, it is not strange that the peculiarity failed to attract attention, and was only developed by more careful research. On account of the continually changing form of the snare, it will be necessary to present it from various points of view, and as seen in differ- ent stages of its diurnal changes. Fig. 187 presents a view of the snare in a partially relaxed condition. The spider is seen seated in the centre of a series of rays, i, li, lil, iv, v, which are grasped by the third and fourth pairs of legs. There is no hub, properly speaking, Snare Described Fic. 189. View from front. Web taut. Perspective not shown. Central opening exact. but the axes of the rays may be seen at times united upon a central point, as at H, Fig. 188. The general tendency is to four or five main divisions or rays, as may be seen by studying the figures presented. But there is more or less variation, and in the course of the day’s usage in capturing prey two sections will become interblended upon one axis, as appears to be the case in Fig. 188 and also in Fig. 191. The central space is a large, irregular opening, constituting about one- third of the entire snare, whose diameter is usually from three to five inches, as at Fig. 189, which is drawn natural size. The central circle, meshes, and notched spirals which so generally characterize orbwebs are thus wholly wanting in the Actinic snare, 198 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. The orb may be said to_be composed of a series of inde- pendent rays or sectors, each ray consisting of several spi- rally crossed radii, and the whole series united into an orb by cross lines or spirals like those which unite the ra- dii. In the shifting of the section lines above referred to, this separation of the orb in- to independent rays is always quite evident. The spirals are covered with viscid beads, as in most orbwebs. The radii do not all pass to the hub or centre, as do those of orbwebs fe i A ener oe see ee most part upon the axes of the rays as represented at Figs. 187, 188, 189. Thus at Fig 189 the various radii of the several sectors converge consecutively upon the axes i, ii, iii, iv. These axes themselves converge upon a single strong thread or trapline, T, which is attached to some part of the surrounding surface of rock, earth, or plant. When the snare is flat or Z PN /»\\ \umnnetin Fi. relaxed, as was the case & \ My, with the one drawn at Fig. 188, and as appears in Fig. 187, the trapline is often about perpendicular to the plane of the orb, having the relative position of the handle to the rays of an open Japanese umbrella. This, however, depends somewhat upon the envi- ronment; a convenient point for the attachment of the trapline will cause the animal to divert the thread more or less from the perpendicular. We may now suppose the S} rider placed as in Fic. 191. Ray spider’s snare when bowed. Viewed from behind. THE RAY SPIDER AND HER SNARE. 199 Figs. 187 and 189, at the point where the rays converge, grasping the axes with the four hind feet. She has the posterior part of her abdomen toward her snare, thus reversing the attitude of all her tribe. Moreover, her back is turned upward. The two front feet seize the trapline and draw it taut. Then, precisely as a sailor pulls upon a rope, “hand over hand,” the little arachnid’s feet move along the trap- line, one over another. As she moves, going, of course, away from her net, the axes of the rays, held firmly in the hind feet, follow her; the centre of the snare bears inward, the other parts are stretched taut, and the web at last has taken the form of a cone or funnel as at Figs. 190, 191. In this position the snares continually suggested an umbrella with ribs reversed by the wind and the coy- ering stripped loose from the top of the handle. Fig. 190 gives a side view of the web when thus bowed or drawn taut; another snare is shown at Fig. 191, as seen from behind. These snares were located within cavi- yye, 192, Ray spider seat- ties formed by the dropping away of stones from the ¢4 upon her foot basket, o o = ~ 7 back upward, ruined dam breast in which they were first discovered. In the example shown at Fig. 191 the spider has moved quite down the trapline to the surface of the little twig projecting into the cavity to which it is attached. It will thus be seen that the snare is more or less a plane surface, or more or less conical, according to the position of the animal upon the trapline and the degree of tension thereof. Bowing the Snare. 101, When an insect strikes the snare, the spider has two modes of operat- ing. The first somewhat resembles that of the ordinary Orbweaver, in that the insect is simply permitted to en- _ tangle itself, and is then taken, swathed, re- Be eeeee turned to the centre, and eaten. There is, however, this difference: before the spider goes to the insect, the axes of the snare are twisted or knotted by a rotary action of her body and movement of the legs, so that the parts of the orb unbroken by the captive remain taut. Fig. 188 represents a snare thus “ locked,” or, perhaps I might more properly say, “keyed.” The trapline is now relaxed, although its elasticity is such Fig. 198. Position on that the change can scarcely be noticed. The spider a epaieialen head then moves upon her victim, quite habitually cutting out the spirals with her mandibles as she goes. When the insect is ensnared well towards the circumference of the web, and indeed, for the most part, in other cases also, it results that the ray or sector 200 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. upon which the entanglement had occurred is quite cut away. The spider thereupon proceeds to operate the remaining parts of her snare, which, in time, is thus destroyed by sections, as will be fully illustrated hereafter. The second mode of operation resembles that of the Triangle spider, Hyptiotes cavatus (Hentz). It is at this point that the habit of our Ray spider becomes particularly interesting. ‘The Triangle spider makes a tri- angular web, which is in fact an orb sector, composed with Resem- unvarying regularity of four spirally crossed radii converging ap- plane e proximately upon a single line. Upon this line the spider hangs Hyptiotes ‘= back downward, grasping it with all her feet, and having a por- tion of the line rolled up slack between her two hind pairs of feet. Thus the forward and back parts of the trapline are taut, while the interme- diate part is slack. The spiral parts of the snare are also taut. When the web is struck by an insect, the spider suddenly releases her hind feet, the slack line sharply uncoils, the spider shoots forward, the whole web relaxes, and the spiral lines are thrown around the insect. This is repeated several times before the prey is seized. (See Caen Yi description and cuts in Chap- We ter XI.) ye Ve Precisely the same action ae WA characterizes the Ray spider. Her ordinary position, or at Fic. 194. Ray spider (greatly enlarged) in position, back down- . Mt 3 ward, on a taut snare. To show the slack line coil, Sl. The least the one mM W hich I most positions of the feet on the foot basket are marked by nu- frequently observed her. is a merals; a, b, c, the axes of several rays. EM 2 sitting posture, back upward, as shown at Fig. 187, The axes of the rays are held in the third and fourth pairs of legs, the fourth commanding the upper, the third the lower series, quite habitually, as it appeared to me. A sort of “ bas- Posture ket,” or system of connecting lines, shown at Figs. 187, 195, on the See ; E - ; : ‘ Sans unites all the feet, seeming to converge toward the fore feet (per- haps, upon the second pair), where they grasp the trapline. It is upon this foot basket that the spider sits when her net is bowed, This, however, is not the invariable posture; in the reconstruction of the rays and shifting of the axes, as the day’s work tells upon the snare, the spider will vary her posture to that of Fig. 191. The trapline gen- erally has a direction downward rather than upward, so that the head and fore feet tend to be depressed below the abdomen, Figs. 192, 193, and this depression may gradually result in the complete inversion of the animal, so that she assumes the natural position of Orbweavers. I THE RAY SPIDER AND HER SNARE. 201 have even seen individuals with the back turned downward, Fig. 194, as is the habit with the Triangle spider and with all those species who make a dome or horizontal orbweb, as the Basilica spider and the Orchard spider. (See Chapter IX.) If now the feet of the spider be carefully examined with a good glass, a coil of slack line will be seen, precisely as in the case of the Triangle spider. ‘This is illustrated at Fig. 194, where a, b, ¢, are the axes of several rays, grasped in the third (3) and fourth (4) pairs of legs, and Sl is the coil or slack line curled up between these and the fore pairs (1 and 2), or simply between the pair of fore legs; that is, between the two first and the two second feet. As the spider does not exceed one-eighth of an inch in body length, and the position of the snare is within cavities and interstices of rocks, where the light does not bring out the delicate tracery of the fine webs, the observation of these and other points of like char- acter, is a matter of some difficul- ty. But, although the exact relations of the coil to the feet were some- times in doubt, and indeed seemed to vary somewhat, the existence of the coil and its general relations were determined beyond doubt. It is also certain that the slack line sharply uncoils and straightens when the spider releases her grasp upon the trapline, and that the web un- bends and shoots quickly forward. It is instantly changed from the bowed or conical form of Figs. 190 6-19. Ray spider in position, back upward, show- = Saeette ing slack coil and foot basket, ii; axis of a ray and 191 to the circular plane of Figs. grasped by third foot, 3; trapline grasped by fore 187 and 188. zee The following points, however, long evaded my observation, before webs were found which presented the conditions for successful study. But at last I was well satisfied. The “springing” of the snare is caused by the sudden releasing of the trapline from the fore ‘feet, instead of the hind feet, as with the Triangle spider. The polarity of the two arachnids relative to their webs is reversed, Hyptiotes having her fore feet, but Theridiosoma her hind feet towards the snare. The slack line is therefore coiled between the two fore feet or between the fore and hind feet of Theridiosoma, but between the two hind pairs (as a rule) of Hyptiotes. I have already explained the manner in which Hyptiotes is affected when her two hind feet are released from the trapline. The coil straight- ens, and the whole body of the spider shoots forward, If now we turn to Springing the Snare 202 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. Theridiosoma, as represented at Fig. 194, or again, as shown at Fig. 195, we observe that if the fore feet, 1, 2 (Fig. 194) are released suddenly from the trapline, T, the whole body_shoots backward, although still toward the snare, as with Hyptiotes. This was the ac- tion which I observed. The determination was finally accomplished by first carefully sketching the arrangement of the basket stretched between the feet (2, 3, 3, 4, 4, Fig. 195). With this chart in one hand, and in the other hand a magnifying glass focused upon the feet, I watched until favored with several successive and unsuc- cessful springings of the net. As the spider only leaves her seat when she thinks that an insect is well entangled, and again bows her net by pulling on the trapline if no prey be ensnared, the above conditions enabled me to Fic. 196. Ray spider. Action when an insect ia taken. 8,spider; Injinsect. COMpare My chart of the basket, with the basket itself as seen under the glass. I found that the outlines on the paper and the lines under the animal’s feet ex- actly corresponded. There had therefore been no change in the relative positions of the hind feet, mandibles, and palps, and perhaps also of the second pair (2) of feet. There had been an actual (not seeming) motion of the body with and in the direction of the snare, and this had been caused by releasing the first pair of legs (1) from the trapline. The only actual motion, therefore, was the slight hitch forward produced by the elasticity of the axes of the rays and other parts of the snare behind the aranead. The importance of this determination seems greater from the fact that I had at first concluded that the Ray spider actually operated her snare by sections. That is, instead of springing the whole orb at once, as above described, she simply sprung the ray struck by an insect, by unclasping the foot holding the axis of that ray. Thus, ray i, Fig. 195, would be sprung by releasing the axis of ii from the third foot, No. 3. This is probably not done when the snare is in complete form (as at Figs. 187, 189, 190), but I be- Fic. 197. Ray spider’s snare lieve that it is done when the web has been par- after usage in taking prey. The spider is at the centre, holding the rays “ locked.” tially destroyed, and is reduced to two rays or sec- tors, as at Fig. 197. The fragmentary condition of the Ray spider’s web after contact with insects has already been referred to. The snare is gradually obliterated, a conclusion to which the spider herself very curiously contributes. When THE RAY SPIDER AND HER SNARE. 203 an insect strikes the snare, as at Fig. 196, ray I (broken ray), Theridio- soma first “keys” the snare by twisting together the foot basket and the parts adjoining (C), including the end of the trapline. This Sonate maintains the compact condition of the snare after the spider has ae Paes left the central point at which she has held all parts together in Web. the manner heretofore described. Then the insect is sought. Creeping along the axis of the ray upon which the prey is en- tangled, she cuts away the cross lines as she goes, leaving the bare skele- ton of radii, as shown, Fig. 196, I, marked “broken ray.” The insect is then brought back to a point (D) near the centre, but (in this case at least) above it, where it is eaten. While the feast goes on, not unmindful of future supplies, the spider (S) clasps the adjoining axis and (C D) the connecting lines, which appear to be in condition for operating somewhat in the usual way. When the insect is eaten, the for- mer position is resumed, the net bowed and tight After a morning’s trap been plenty, and general the afternoon, the snare one or two rays or frag seen it reduced to a bare one ray (1), and two frag ments of two others, are united into a new ray, and these are placed in opposite parts of the orb. Fic.198. Rayspider. Halfot Again, one-half of the orb eliminated and a new : the trapline clasped, and ened. ping, if the game has ly towards the middle of will be found reduced to ments of rays. I have skeleton. In Fig. 197, orb may be eliminated trapline, Tb, formed. Ta, (Fig. 198), leaving two ra- dii (i, ii) to operate with. position of old trapline; i, The Ray spider was also ii, remaining rays. observed to construct or adopt a new trapline, thus changing, so to speak, her base of operations. This action is illustrated at Fig. 198, where Ta is the original, and Tb the new trapline. This is not a frequent occurrence, as the necessity for changing the original line does not appear to arise very often. TT Not the least interesting and valuable feature of the Ray spider’s indus- try is that it constitutes a connecting link between two forms of snare which stand at the very opposite poles of the spinningwork of ‘the Orbweavers. At the one extreme is the familiar circular snare or full orb of the ordinary garden spider. At the other is the orb sector of the Triangle spider. A glance at these will show how far they are apart in structure. The same separation appears in the habits of the two araneads. As opposed to Hyptiotes, the spiders of which Epeira is a type hang head downward in the centre of the orb, with their feet grasp- ing small groups of the radii; or sit in a silken den, or crevice, holding Affinities 204 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. to a taut trapline which is connected with the centre. There is no slack coil, and no springing of the net as with the Triangle spider. The industry of Theridiosoma is united to that of the full orb makers, on the one extreme, by its orbicular character and its beaded spirals; but with that of Hyptiotes, on the other extreme, by the independent character of the rays, the nature of the trapline, and the entire mode of operating the snare. The facts necessary to trace these affinities I have already given. Some of the striking differences I have also rgcorded, and they may thus be summarized. The web of Hyptiotes is a single sector; that of Theridiosoma has four or more sectors united. Hyptiotes com- Differ- mands one line with her feet, the trapline and its continuation ; ences as : : gamete Theridiosoma commands several axes, which are connected with, Patna but not continuous of, the trapline. Hyptiotes has her head, Theridiosoma her abdomen towards her snare. Hyptiotes habit- ually hangs to the trapline, back downward; Theridiosoma generally sits upon a foot basket of lines, back upward. Hyptiotes shoots forward when her net is sprung; Theridiosoma shoots backward; but both spiders move toward their webs. Hyptiotes holds her slack coil between the two hind feet; Theridiosoma between the fore feet. In these differences, the points wherein Theridiosoma varies from Hyptiotes show a quite apparent ap- proach to the behavior of the full orb makers. Thus the distance which heretofore had separated between the far away extremes of the spinning- work of the Orbitelariz, has been bridged over by the industry of our little indigenous aranead—the Ray spider. It is to be remarked that while structurally the Triangle spider is as widely removed from Epeira as economically, the Ray spider is more closely allied structurally to the latter than the former. In correspondence with arachnologists, concerning the true position of the Ray spider, the question was raised as to the accuracy of the statement, in my paper of 1881, that the interradial lines of Theridiosoma Viscid . bo . : : are covered with viscid beads. The question is certainly one of cee great importance. Mr. Cambridge, in establishing the genus, which he regarded as a connecting link between Theridium and Epeira, alludes to the fact that Dr. Koch describes the snare as consisting simply of a few lines spun from plant to plant. “This habit,” he declares, “ to- gether with some structural considerations, exclude it from the Epeirides.” Thus, it would seem that the spinning habit of the creature bore quite as strongly as its structure in determining its systematic position. Had Mr. Cambridge then been familiar with the real spinningwork of the species he might have had no hesitation in relegating it to the Orbitelariz. The question was raised, whether the spiral lines of my Ray spider might not have been covered with floceulent strings, somewhat after .the manner of the snares of Hyptiotes and Uloborus. As the spider is desti- THE RAY SPIDER AND HER SNARE. 205 tute of the calamistrum and cribellum, which are always associated with this character of spinningwork, it was hardly possible that the spiral arma- ture could have been of this sort. However, I was not able to testify on the subject with that assurance which seemed to me desirable. It is cer- tainly possible for one to be deceived by even an ordinarily careful exam- ination. The webs of Theridiosoma are so habitually placed in dark cavities and shaded locations, and in positions that often extremely embarrass the observer, that on this ground alone one would be liable to mistake. Again, I have often noticed that even the simple lines of Theridium will be found covered with particles of dust and the spherical grains of pollen, which at a casual glance present very much the appearance of beads. More than once I have been drawn into a second and third examination by this deceiving resemblance. Moreover, I had limited my original examination to the use of a hand lens, and had not made the more careful microscopic test which would haye placed the matter beyond doubt. I therefore resolved to reéxamine the subject before a final expression of opinion. An opportunity to do so did not present until the Sth of July, 1889. In the vicinity of Wallingford, Pennsylvania, in a shaded rayine covered with a wild growth of natural Grounds for Doubt. plants that overhang a stream of R clear running spring water (Doe's Run), I found a number of this SFeoCccoscgoocceccooces S species, and made a_ thorough S COC CGeoQocccs SsGooQeoeea G study of the point in question. I took with me apparatus by which portions of the web could be sep- Fic. 199. Beaded spirals on the snare of Theridiosoma arated and placed under the micro- Soe ee eras scope. Thus tested, in three separate snares, I was able to determine be- yond doubt that the spiral line of Theridiosoma is precisely lke that of Epeira. The beads upon several strings, that is, the several portions be- tween two radii, were counted, in one case numbering sixty-four. I was able to make satisfactory drawings of these beads, Fig. 199. The behavior of the web upon the frames and glass cups was_ pre- cisely like that of Epeira, the beads melting upon the surface of the glass, and the strimg remaining as a simple line in the midst of The Spir- the viscid mass. The beads reflected light; in appearance ex- aay actly resembled those of Epeira, and in some cases the cord upon which they were attached was distinctly seen running through them. Further, 1 examined portions of the snare upon which small insects had been caught, and these showed in every respect the manner of entan- glement which I have so frequently observed with the true Orbweavers. (Fig. 200.) Previous to removing the sections from the webs, I tested them with the tip of a blade of grass, to which the lines adhered very 206 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. closely; indeed, the viscidity of the beads was not only equal to that of Epeira, but greater than that of some species, as, for example, that of Labyrinthea. In order to have separate and independent testimony to this fact, I requested my private secretary, Mr. Edwin 8. Gault, to examine the various points submitted, and give an impartial report upom the same; first, as to the snapping of the snare; second, as to the recovery of the trapline by pulling upon it; third, as to the character of the web itself, whether it was a round web, resembling the Orbweavers’; fourth, as to the character of the spiral, whether it was beaded or unbeaded; fifth, as to the manner in which insects were entangled upon the web, name- ly, whether they presented the appearance of having been caught in ordinary beaded snares of Epeira. In all these points Mr. Gault entirely corrobo rated my investigations. It may therefore be con sidered as established be- yond doubt that the snare of Theridiosoma gemmo- sum (or radiosum) as it appears in America is not only an orb of the character above de- The Con- clusion. Theridio- scribed, but is armed with viscid bead- soma an . . ss Orb ed spirals. This fact alone, in view of the weaver, known relations between spinningwork and structure, would compel us to place it with the Orbweavers. But when Fre. 200. Insect entanglea We find that the indica- tions of structure are quite = 3h" eee RaysPr sufficiently in harmony with those of habit to jus tify such a decision, we can no longer hesitate. I may venture the prediction that a careful study of the spinning habit of the European species will show that it entirely conforms to that of its American congener. It is greatly to be desired that such a study be made. IV. The first specimens of the Ray spider taken by me were hung in large openings left between the breastwork stones of a ruined mill dam. The wall had crumbled and quite fallen away in places, leaving large cavities, within whose moist, cool shelter, among ferns and mosses, this species had domiciled. The brook poured oyer the middle part of the wall, making a pretty waterfall; briers, bushes, ferns, and various wood plants grew out of the wall and stretched over a deep pool twelve or fifteen feet in diameter, into which the water dropped. On the lower bushes and branches above the stream, and continually agitated by the splashing of the water, was a colony of Stilt spiders, Tetragnatha grallator, stretching their long legs along their round webs, and dancing with the motion of the waves; the beautiful nets of the Featherfoot Uloborus (Uloborus plu- mipes), nets of Tegenaria persica, Linyphia communis, Linyphia neophyta, Natural Habitat. THE RAY SPIDER AND HER SNARE. 207 Epeira hortorum, and of one or two species of Theridioids, were in close neighborhood. The whole pretty scene was embowered in a grove of young trees. A more charming habitat could not well have been found. Another colony, not far away, was established within the cavities formed underneath the roots of a large fallen tree, and beneath the ledges of some rocks over which the roots turned. In several similar positions were found the same snares, and also among the rocks in a wild ravine through which ran the stream, Lownes’ Run. Further explorations of the surrounding country showed that the spider ‘was largely distributed, and in similar conditions. I found numbers in ravines, on the broad leaves of the skunk cabbage,! whose snares were stretched above the brooklet, and beneath the shelving banks. ‘They were also found among the rocks of Crum Creek over the beautiful drive to Howard Lewis’ mill. Subsequently I collected the same spider in Eastern Ohio (New Lisbon, Columbiana County), where it was domiciled in a deep, cool ravine, Mineral Spring Glen. A runlet that cuts across the escapement of a hill on its way to Little Beaver Creek, has worn out the rocks into a series of descending steplike platforms, over which the stream flows, form- ing one or two waterfalls of some height. On each side of the stream, and particularly under the ledges of the rock platforms, the snares of Theridiosoma were placed. The habitat of the Ray spider may therefore be described as moist, cool, shaded cavities and recesses among rocks and roots, beneath banks and foliage, over or near running water. I have com- pared my specimens with some of Mr. Emerton’s collections, made in va- rious parts of New England, and find them identical. A specimen sent by Dr. Koch to Count Keyserling had been collected by Dr. Brendel in Peoria, Illinois. The distribution of the Ray spider is thus greatly enlarged, and no doubt it will be found in many other parts of America. One might venture the opinion, based upon its peculiar habitat, that the species will also be found in Canada. Accepting the species as identical with Theridiosoma gemmosum, of which I have no doubt, we are able to place this interesting aranead also among those American species that have an intercontinental and possibly a cosmopolitan distribution. Distribu- tion. 1Symplocarpus (or Ichtodes) fcetidus. GH AIP Taine 2h ENGINEERING SKILL OF SPIDERS. ie Ir is a generally received opinion, even among well informed natural- ists, and is certainly a fixed popular tradition, that Orbweaving spiders construct a web that is perfectly true in its geometric arrange- Imperfect ment. This has highly redounded to the praise of the little Geomet- weaver, particularly as she may spin by the sense of touch with- ric Ar- A ; vi a f ; : ane out the aid of sight.’ It seems a pity to destroy any notion Porte that may throw around despised Arachne a greater measure of respect in the popular mind, in which her standing is, as a rule, anything but favorable. However, in the interests of truth it must be said that concerning this point the popular opinion is only true in a general sense. There is much irregularity in the execution of many geometric webs. The radii are not laid out with absolute mathematical accuracy, but are separated from each other by distances varying considerably. If, for example, one carries the eye around the circumference of this large orb, he will find here two radii terminating upon their marginal foundation lines at points half an inch apart, and there two others three-fourths of an inch apart, and in yet another place two others separated by one and a half inches. It is true that all orbs are not laid out as irregularly as this from whose measurements I have quoted, but more or less irregularity will be found on almost every web, particularly upon those spun by adult spiders. Again, the radii will be found blending with one another at various points instead of converging regularly upon a central point; and more or less departures of a like kind from mathematical accuracy char- acterize the spiral concentrics. However that may be, the actual facts in the case are sufficiently striking, and the general regularity of plan and the frequent close approach to geometric accuracy in special orbs a are remarkable enough without resorting to exaggerations. In ry no : : : : : y not fact, it may well be doubted that absolute regularity, in the Essential. 2 s sense of symmetry, would be the most desirable for the uses of a web. The departures from mathematical accuracy may mark, and I have reason to believe do mark, a higher measure of utility, and , 1 See Wood’s “Homes without Hands,” page 321. (208) ENGINEERING SKILL OF SPIDERS. 209 show a continuous power to adapt the spinningwork to its environment. This seems to be done almost unconsciously. If this view be true the lack of mathematical symmetry may prove the presence of a higher skill rather than the reverse. The query was started in my mind whether spiders dwelling along the seashore or in wind swept heights might not have developed some special habit of resisting the extraordinary danger to their snares by some extraor- dinary protection. But I have not found evidence favoring such a sug- gestion. I have only one example that looks at all in that direction. Fic. 201. Orbweb (A) among rocks, braced against sea wind. B, braces; C, C, connecting line or trapline to the den, D. Among the rocks around the lighthouse at Annisquam on Ipswich Bay, Massachusetts, I found a large orb of Epeira sclopetaria spun within a , s I I few feet of the surf, and stayed in the peculiar manner which is repre- , sented in Fig. 201. The snare was in a sort of gully or canal between the granite boulders on the shore, through which the wind blew A Wind strongly as through a funnel. Across this little gully and exposed Swept % Laie : 5 Ec A ies nae , Snare, © the full force and suction of the wind the orbweb was built and stayed upon the side of one of the rocks, as at A. Farther along, a few lines were stretched across the opening, fastened to rocks on either side as at B, and upon this a line, CC, was suspended, attached at one 210 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. extremity to the centre of the orb, and at the other to a cavity in the rocks, D, at which the aranead had her den. The line CC undoubtedly served as a trapline and a sort of bridge along which the spider moved from her snare to her nest. But its general appearance and structure sug- gested the idea that it was braced by the line BB, and acted as a stay to the orb itself. I was inclined to think that this peculiar spinningwork showed an effort of the spider to brace a snare peculiarly exposed to winds. It may be, howeyer, that the line B was an abandoned foundation line, or was one of those tentative threads which spiders are often spinning, and that its connection with the trapline was either an accident or afterthought. Per- haps, indeed, it might haye been intended to increase the communicating power of the trapline. The fact is, one is very apt, by an unconscious anthropomorphism, to attribute to the humblest creatures of the fields methods of reasoning and principles of action which have no existence in the inferior ani- ioe mals, and are simply the reflections of a higher intellect upon eas “the works of a lower one. The naturalist must continually be on his guard against thus attributmg to the creatures whose habits he is studying methods which in like circumstances would have been suggested to his own mind. An illustration of this is quite in point. I have at various times met suggestions that especial engineering skill is shown by spiders in _protect- ing their snares from the effects of wind or other violence of the natural elements, by the use of sundry objects as counterpoises. Although I had little faith in the theory, it seemed to me entitled to careful examination. Once while walking along a grayeled path bordered on either side by shrubbery, I saw what exactly corresponded with reports of so called en- gineering spinningwork. A large orbweb blocked the entire pathway be- fore me. The foundation lines were strung across the walk and supported upon the bordering shrubbery, but a large pebble hung to the bottom of the web. It was nearly two inches above the surface of the ground, and my first thought was, here now is a case that confirms the opin- A Case ofion that spiders support their orbicular snares with weights in Counter- : ; : 5 : ne order to balance them against the wind! Kneeling upon the ground, I made a careful survey of the premises, and came to the conclusion that there was no special intention in the case at all, but that the uplifting of the pebble was a matter of accident. The spider had run down her supporting lines to the ground, as is her invariable custom when spinning in a similar site; but, not haying a tuft of grass or like material whereon to fasten the lines, she stuck them upon one of the pebbles scattered over the walk beneath. Now the pebble lay but loosely in its artificial matrix, and when the wind rose and played upon the orbweb, bellying it somewhat, and when ENGINEERING SKILL OF SPIDERS. 211 in addition the spider began to run up and down her snare, the pebble was simply lifted up by the tightening of the upper lines of the snare. This result was probably assisted by the natural con- traction of the elastic threads, and by the pulling of the shrubbery under the force of the wind. My conclusion was, therefore, that the spider had balanced her orb in the usual way, but discover- ed that, al- though it was “founded up- on a rock,” her house was rendered in- secure by the simple fact that the rock was not able to keep its place against the strain. Mrs. Eigenmann sent me from Southern California some cocoons of Zilla x-notata, from which I succeeded in raising FiG. 202. Sectoral orb of Zilla counterpoised by a fallen ivy leaf. a number of broodlings, who domiciled in my Zilla’s library. Many tiny snares were woven upon a Leaf potted ivy plant, and one of these gave an ex- Counter- . 2 = poise. ample of ready adaptation. The stay lines of the orb were attached to sundry leaves, and the upper and side attachments proved secure. But the leaf to which the whole lower system of supports was fastened fell off and stretched them downward, giving the snare a peculiar, elongated shape, which I have never seen quite approached. (Fig. 202.) This swinging pedestal amply served the purpose of the wee architect, whose frail web (drawn here natural size) was well balanced even by so light a weight. The weaving went on upon this new basis, radii were spun down into the elongation, and When the spiral loops were put in, that part was not omitted. Thus, the net space available for business was a good deal enlarged, and what was lost by the free sector at the top was quite made up by the netted 212 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. prolongation at the bottom. The free space exscinded about one-fifth of the orb. The trapline branched at the hub end, and was held at the other end by the spiderling, which was backed against the axil of the leaf, surrounded by a tiny open booth of delicate cross lines. This leaf was braced to one behind it by various cords. The late Rey. J. C. Wood, a good observer in many things, indorses the current opinion that if spiders find that the wind stretches their nets to a dangerous extent, they hang pieces of wood, stone, or other sub- Epeira’s stance to them, so as to obtain the needful steadiness. He de- ee clares that he had seen a piece of wood which had been thus used by a Garden spider, and which was some two inches in length and thicker than an ordinary drawing pencil. The spider hauled it to a height of nearly five feet, and when the suspending thread was accidentally broken the little creature immediately lowered itself to the ground, attached a fresh thread, ascended again to the web and hauled the piece of wood after it. It brought this balance weight a distance of five feet along the ground before reaching the spot below the web. There were eight or ten similar webs in the veranda, but only in this single instance was the net steadied by a weight.! I cannot pretend, in view of the indefinite nature of the record, to explain on more natural principles the action of this spider. Had the stick been attached to the bottom of the web, I could have more readily drawn the inference that the purpose was to stay the orb against the violence of the wind; but I cannot imagine what use it could have been at the top, where it ought to have had a con- trary effect. However, the inference which the ingenious and interesting popular writer has drawn from the incident is in any case entirely too sweeping. Mr. Wood’s incident does not stand alone. In “ Hardwicke’s Science Gossip,” an admirable repository for general observations made by natural- ists and nature loving persons in Great Britain, I find several records of a similar character, which I here note. A large Diadem spider had begun a web by fastening threads to the eaves of a corridor roof about seven feet high. The extreme points of the outer stay lines were about four feet apart, and these were. united at a distance of about three feet from the roof, thus forming a triangle. From the point thereof a single strand was carried down to within two or three inches of the ground. To the end of this strand was suspended a small triangular stone about half an inch across and one-fourth of an inch thick. It is evident, says the observer, that the stone must have been fastened to the glutinous web as it lay upon the earth, and was subsequently drawn up. As the wind caught the web it caused the stone to vibrate gently, and the motion thus communicated A Stone Anchor. 1 Wood, “ Homes Without Hands,” page 319. ENGINEERING SKILL OF SPIDERS. 213 to the geometrical part of the web was scarcely perceptible.t The fact. is not questioned, but the inference here made that the spider purposely drew up the stone as a counterpoise is wholly gratuitous. Another correspondent? contributes a similar case observed by a lady in Scotland. She was walking through a wood when she suddenly noticed at some distance from the ground a small stone apparently poised in midair, but which, on closer examination, was seen to be suspended by a long thread from a spider’s web, built between two trees. Yet another fact is recorded in the same journal, although it is quoted from an American magazine. A gentleman, while passing along one of his garden walks in Brooklyn, saw, upon a cherry tree, a spider’s web which was spun within foundation lines that stretched from the trunk to fastenings that ran out upon a large limb. The web rose at an angle of perhaps thirty degrees from the earth. The spider had by some means formed a corner downwards and suspended from it a little stone An Amer- about half an inch long, three-eighths wide, and one-eighth ican Ex- ¢ aac : é aie thick. This was well secured, and hung some eight or ten inches below. This weight kept the web taut, and swung slightly as the wind affected it, and there it remained for several days. Still another correspondent declares that, like many other persons, he has observed a small stone suspended from a spider’s web, but expresses his doubt as to the suspension being an intentional act of the spider, and gives what I regard to be the true explanation, name- ly, that by the shrinking of the threads, or some change in the position of the web supports, the stone had been raised from the ground. In all the above cases it will be observed that the evidence for intentional engineering is simply the fact of the stone’s position, which is equally ex- plained as above. Professor Pavesi has recorded a similar experience in his “Spiders of the Canton Ticino.”® His attention was first called to the fact by a friend, and he was at the outset incredulous, but had confirmed his original obser- vation. He begins with a statement which I can corroborate, A Scotch Case. A Doubter. Prof. —_—viz., that when Epeira makes a web in the path of a garden or Pavesi’s , Case other sites between trees, it is her custom to drop a thread from the lower angles of the polygonal foundation lines of her net, which lines converge upon this single cord. Further, he declares (which is contrary to my experience) that upon this cord the spider ties a counter- 1 John Hepworth, “Science Gossip,’ November, 1868, page 262. 2 J. F. D., id., page 283. 3 J. R. S. Clifford, “Science Gossip,” April, 1869, page 94. Quoted from the “New York Gardener’s Magazine,” 1841. * George Guyon, id., page 118. ‘> Ragni del Canton Ticino: Annali Mus. Civ. Di Genova, Ser. 1, IV., 1873, page 39. 214 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. = ahh . ioe 4 Fic. 203. Meta merianz, with a counter- poised snare. (After Parona.) found lifted above the ground inally been in the same po been raised by the elasticity the wind, the motion of the Another observation has aly, and recently communi ity in the Habits ? . Meta’s he observed in a Counter- : : of Meta meriane, poise. ficial gallery exca customary with nets woven of lateral lines, which were vault, and were prolonged was about sixteen inches posed to the sweep of the outer margin to the ground seven centimetres) in length. fragment of soil identical large as a seed of Indian soil was compact and heavy, poise, holding the web fully wl), P 8, which may be wR, a dry leaf, a little piece of wood or oth- er like material, but commonly is a small pebble or gravel from the path. In one such case, when he had taken away the counterpoise, he saw the spider descend by the ver- tical thread to ascertain what had happened, and, having ar- rived at the ground, she fastened the line to another pebble. It will be observed in this case that the pebble to which the thread was fastened lay upon the ground, and this fact itself compels me _ to doubt Professor Payesi’s conclusion. I cannot resist the thought that in this, as in other cases where the pebble was and acting as a counterpoise, it had orig- sition upon the garden path, and had of the thread, the mechanical action of spider, and the swaying of the trees. been made by Professor Parona of It- cated in a paper entitled, ‘A Peculiar- of Meta merianz.”! In October, 1886, villa at Baccione, on Lake Orta, a web spun in the entrance of a short arti- vated in solid earth. The orb, as is in like positions, was stayed by a series suspended upward against the arching downward toward the walk. The snare wide (forty centimetres), and was ex- wind. The thread prolonged from the was about twenty-seven inches (sixty- At the end of this line was hung a with that of the vault, and about as corn (di grano turco). (Fig. 2038.) The and the pellet acted as a counter- “iis extended, so that it was sufficiently 1 Particolarita nei Costumi della Meta merianze, Scop. del Prof. Corrado Parona. Annali del Museo Civico di Stor. Nat. Di Genova, Ser. 2, Vol. VII., 1889, pages 250-5, Tay. VI. ENGINEERING SKILL OF SPIDERS. 215 taut to capture prey, as indicated by the number of victims entangled in its meshes. It was so firmly implanted, and so opportunely repaired, that Prof. Parona was able to observe it continuously for eight days. The in- terest of the observer was so much enlisted in what seemed to be an inter- esting and novel fact, that he made various inquiries and researches as to previous records. Among others, he communicated his observation to the veteran arach- nologist, Professor Thorell, requesting his opinion thereupon. The ques- tion was submitted by Professor Thorell to myself, as lying within the line of my special studies of life habits, and I re- turned for answer substantially some of the facts which have been recorded in this chapter. Nevertheless, Professor Parona has done well to place his observation upon record, and he has fortified it by like observations from other authors. Among these is the experience of Pro- fessor Pavesi, in part as above. He quotes a second observation in the same line made by Ninni, on the web of Epeira umbratica, as recorded in the Acts of the Society of Natural History of Veneto-Trentina.! This ; spider wove her snare under the roof of a beehive, and gave it Epeira stability by carrying down a thread to the soil and wrapping umbrat- . 3 ; : ; ane it around a pebble which was raised to the height of about seven inches (about eighteen centimetres) from the ground. De- siring to know if such ingenious work were confined to that case, the author destroyed the web and waited to see how the spider would behave in the face of the difficulty that it had previously overcome. Three days afterward he saw the web built in the same manner as before, but more perfectly finished. As though conscious that without another point of at- tachment the construction of her snare would be impossible, the spider carried down a thread which was maintained in a taut condition, not with one pebble as before, but with two pebbles and a straw. From this line, as an initial foundation line, she constructed the framework of her orb in the shape of an isosceles triangle, within which the orb was spun, in a position well sheltered from wind and rain. In order further to test the matter, the author destroyed this second web, but awaited the spinning of a third one in vain, as Umbratica abandoned the site. It is to be observed that in this case also the testimony is defective, in that the observer did not see the spider actually using the pebble as Gui bone? counterpoise; that is to say, in the act of suspending it upon “the line. In point of fact, what possible benefit could have been obtained from staying the orb by a pebble hanging above the ground, when an attachment to the solid earth below in the usual manner, or to Professor Parona. 1 Sopra la tela dell’ Epeira umbratica: Atti Soc. Veneto-Trentina di Sc. Nat. Padova ; 1876; Vol. 3, pages 204-5; Tay. VI.e VII. I regret that the particular number of this jour- nal in which the reference is made does not happen to be in the library of our Academy of Natural Sciences, and I have not, therefore, been able to consult the original. 216 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. a pebble fixed therein, would haye been more advantageous to the spider? This is equally true of all known cases of counterpoise. After having cited my opinion, as communicated in my letter to Dr. Thorell, Professor Parona expresses, though with some reserve, his belief Fic. 204. Swinging nest of the Shamrock spider, Epeira trifolium. that the act recorded by him was an intentional one on the part of Meta. The counterpoise could not haye been lifted up from the garden path, ,. as no such material entered into the composition thereof. It Parona’s : a ; : vee had evidently come from the vault above, as it was of the same material, and retained living tufts of a moss that grew upon the overhanging vault. Moreover, if I correctly understand Professor Parona, ENGINEERING SKILL OF SPIDERS. PALA the distance of the web (counterpoise?) from the ground was about a metre and a half, which would seem to preclude the theory that it had been raised up from the ground by the elasticity of the web, or the mechanical impact of the wind. Nevertheless, I am constrained to believe that in this case also the explanation of intentional engineering must be dismissed. The pellet had evidently been separated from the vault by the erosion co ,. of the atmosphere, and had either been lifted up from the ee ground, where it had fallen, in the manner I have described, or, which is more probable, it had entangled within the web as it fell; had been prevented by the foundation cords from dropping entirely to the ground; had been held above the surface by the viscidity and natural elasticity of the threads; and while thus hanging, accidentally poised, it was made use of by the spider as a point from which to re- attach her foundation line. As long as it remained in poise, undisturbed by the wind or passing objects, it would be available for the purpose of staying her web; and in this position it was the fortune of Professor Parona to see it. However this theory may accord with the facts, | am perfectly assured that the spider could not have cut off from the vault a particle of soil so large, and then have transferred it to the position where it was seen. Such action is so wholly foreign from all that I have observed of the -habits of Orbweavers, that I cannot possibly allow myself to admit it as a reasonable explanation. On the whole, my judgment is that none of the instances heretofore observed, in the form at least in which they are re- corded, afford sufficient testimony to permit us to believe that Orbweavers have the engineering ability to counterpoise their webs against the action of wind and the natural shrinkage of the web material, by means of peb- bles or other objects attached to marginal lines. Indeed, if such action were really proved, it would seem to me an un- wise and not a cunning exception to the general habit in like web sites, which is to carry the principal supporting line quite down to the firm earth. Nothing could be gained, and much would be lost, by exchanging this for an unstable counterpoise. Would the spider be apt to pause within an inch or two of the ground, which was thus clearly within its € reach, to make so unprofitable an exchange? The only special Counter- wisdom that can be allowed the spider in the case is that oisin, ; : Sine : eee which accepts an undesirable situation as at least available, and adapts her spinningwork thereto; and that is certainly to be rec- ognized, and it is sufficiently remarkable. II. It is not to be doubted that spiders do show considerable powers of adaptation in adjusting their spinningwork both to peculiar situations and 218 special exigencies. trations of this. Fic. 205. Furrow spider’s extemporized den of sawdust. and proceeded to spin her snare directly below the opening. She attached her trap- line to the hub, and thus in her hanging home continued to wait for prey.! (Fig. 204, page 216.) Another somewhat similar case of adap- tation in nest making was due to an acci- dent in the environment of the web. A half-grown Epeira strix had woy- A Saw- reer A heanrs dust Nest. °" @ Snare in the hollow of a tree (at New Lisbon, Ohio), within two feet of the ground. A colony of Pennsyl- vania carpenter ants (Camponotus Penn- sylvanicus) had quarters in the tree, and a squad of black workers were busy excavat- ing their wooden galleries. These dumped their chippings from openings just above the spider’s orb, whose viscid spirals re- tained a goodly quantity of the brown sawdust. In course of time a ball of chip- pings as big as a walnut had accumulated, AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. " Most of the above examples and perhaps all are illus- Another case in point was furnished by a Shamrock spider, Epeira trifolium, that exhibited a remarkable ability to adapt her domi- Special Gile to very peculiar Adapta- ._ : ; circumstances. She tion. had placed her nest in the curled leaf of a grape vine, which becoming detached from the stem fell and entan- gled within the lines of the orb beneath. Whereupon the oc- cupant, in nowise disconcerted, adjusted her tent, stayed it above and at the sides with guy lines, braced it beneath, Fic. 206. A blockaded path. 1 The incident occurred at Vineland, New Jersey, and notes and measurements for the figure were furnished me by Mrs. Treat. “My Garden Pets.” The incident is also recorded in that author’s ENGINEERING SKILL OF SPIDERS. 219 or, perhaps, had been purposely massed by the spider. However that may be, the ball was utilized as a nest; its centre had been pierced, a spher- ical cavity formed by silk lining the interior, which was entered by a circular door bound around the edge by spinningwork. This quaint dom- icile was pendent from one of the strong upper foundation lines, and herein Strix rested, while the emmet carpenters worked away above her, continually dropping chips over the roof of her nest and the orb be- neath, until one side of the snare was quite covered with them. In this case the position of the nest, as well as its form, was exceptional, oot } HN A i nity 'h\ if yan psy. ub, s i: \ WW AN irl ART MIL \\ MAUR hs ZZ WASS es 7: Fic. 207. A meadow orbweb braced to an overhanging branch of a tree. as the nest site of Strix is well nigh invariably beyond the limits of the web, sometimes, indeed, several feet. In these points the spider was evi- dently led to an intelligent variation of her nest building by circumstances. (Fig. 205.) A series of interesting illustrations of the same elasticity of habit in the nesting industry of the Furrow spider may be found in the subsequent chapter on Nesting Habits, and might, with almost equal propriety, have been introduced here. Another case of adaptation may be cited, without impropriety, as a good example of Epeiroid engineering. While walking through the pine woods at the head of Deal Lake, New Jersey, I found a narrow path blocked by a 220 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. structure which is represented at Fig. 206. It is easy to explain the mode of forming this remarkable framework, if we suppose that the spider was perched upon the twig, a, and emitted from her spinnerets a From thread which was carried out and upward by the wind, and Treetop entangled at b, thus forming the prime foundation line, ab. to Path. = : = d Thence she could haye moved to the point between d and a, whence she would have dropped to the ground, a distance of ten feet, and hitched a second line to a tuft of grass. A third line might readily have been secured by dropping from the point d, the natural swaying of the spider, increased by a breeze, carrying her to ¢. This line, de, could easily have been pulled in by the cross lines above and below the orb. A convenient frame being thus obtained, the spinning of the orb would be a simple mat- ip see ter. The entanglement — a eS eS to the side shrubbery at = wax Be Zoe i or) eae LAS c, c, may also have been made by aid of the breeze in part. If, in the absence of direct observation, one were to deny the use of air currents, then it must be supposed that the spider carried its line along the tree to the tip of the branch, b, : 5 Uli See S ily, 2 which was twenty-five | =i Il ; Ii WS feet above the ground ; Eo Fea and after that it would be difficult to conjecture how she could have proceeded. In fact, in this case the “carrying around ” Fic. 208. Trusses on a fractured snare of Agalena ncevia. theory alluded to in a foregoing chapter appears to me quite incredible. If we admit that the moving breeze materially aided the spider in her work of construction, and that she was thus in part dependent upon chance, yet there remains a pretty wide field for intelligent selection and adaptation. One would suppose that it required a really nimble witted creature to seize an unexpected opportunity like the above and turn it to such good account. Nor is this an exceptional or even rare example. One often meets, in his walks through our fields and woods, the snares of Orbweavers woven upon the grasses or bushes bordering a meadow path (Fig. 207), or the low undergrowth of an open wood or groye, while the nesting tent and the upper supporting lines are attached ten or fifteen feet aloft upon a branch or dead limb of a tree. It would be as idle to suppose ENGINEERING SKILL OF SPIDERS. PAL that a wire suspension bridge is swung across a valley or stream without engineering skill, as to think such spinningwork structures are wholly without handicraftmanship of some sort. The Speckled Tubeweaver (Agalena nceyia), which is probably the most abundant familiar spider of our fauna, affords admirable illustra- tions of this facility. In a stable at Almora, Wallingford, the following form of a sheeted web of this species was observed. The upper sash of the stable window had been lowered for pur- poses of ventilation, thus probably rending the original snare. But in one of the upper corners of the window frame and within the space thus left open, Neevia had renewed her web. (Fig. 208.) The tube was in the cor- ner, and of rather feeble character, but the pouch was doubled up some- Agalena’s Trestles. AVA vA i) i 1p ly Mie, Fic. 209. Agalena’s web with suspension lines and trestles between the bars of a fence. thing like a roll, and extended entirely across the window. For about two- thirds of the way it was an ordinary sheeted snare. Then it flared upward and was attached to the upper part of the window frame, and was contin- ued to the opposite side of the window with rather straggling lines. As though to support this structure at either end, a series of strong and very straight taut brace lines was extended downward from either end as shown in the figure. No conclusion is possible except that this was done for the purpose of staying the drooping pouch of the snare, and this, of course, implies intelligent engineering. The example cited is only one of many which might be presented from my somewhat extended and varied studies of the Speckled Tube- bo bo bo AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. weaver. Her snares are found in all sorts of positions and locations. In the angles of houses and walls, among leaves of trees, in shrubs and grasses, in old stumps, and caves and holes in the ground, wherever a eae footing can be had and a spinneret can be laid, this univer- ing Her : sal occupa it SCS t ; s roceeds yeay er Floor. ipant of outhouses and grounds proceeds to weaye het snare, Under all circumstances she shows rare ability to adapt it to the particular site where chance has fixed her abode. If bracing is required from above she sends upward a series of lines which support her sheeted snare. If bracing is required from below, as we have seen (Fig. 208), she sends out a series of trestle lines, which keep the sheet in poise, and suggest the methods of carpenters when scaffolding a platform or floor, or trestling abridge. If bracing be needed both above and be- low, as in the pouched snare (Fig. 209) woven between the bars of a farm fence, the lines are sent - out in the yery positions to give the required sup- port. In fact, a civil en- gineer would decide, up- on examination, that his profession could haye sug- gested no better arrange- ment under the circum- stances. In the lawns and grounds around Philadelphia, and indeed almost every- where in the United States, Agalena’s snare will often be seen = spread like a broad white sheet upon the upper surface of E 1) ~ hedges and thick set plants, such as arbor vite, boxwood, = Mh and honeysuckle. Into these she works a silk lined cylindri- cal tunnel, which extends to the very heart of the plant, and often to the ground beneath. She manages, in some way, so to lash back the stems and twigs that, in spite of the natural elasticity and growth force of the plant, the tubular den or home is held quite in place. Not only so, but the sheeted web will be stayed and held in position by a series of lines that seem to display no little skill in adjustment. She thus places a tubular bridge between her foraging ground and her retreat. Once while visiting a brother, the late Commander Rhoderick Sheldon McCook, U. S. N., at his home in Vineland, N. J., my attention was called by him to one of these snares of Agalena built upon an evergreen bush planted in his yard. The comments of the sailor were striking and characteristic, and I regret that I cannot accurately recall them now. But I well remember the amazement which he expressed as he pointed to this point and that in the structure of the snare, and compared it to the shrouds —— Fic. 210. Tubular work of Dysdera bicolor. men Ta oon Tubular Bridges. ENGINEERING SKILL OF SPIDERS. 223 and other portions of a ship, and showed how the right lines seemed al- ways to have been placed in the needed- position. This aranead is so common that any one who chooses to test my descriptions and observe independent examples can easily do so for himself. (See Fig. 215.) This is not the only Tubeweaver that shows an engineering skill that challenges the admiration of human observers. Fig. 210 represents the ordinary tubular snare of Dysdera bicolor, which was spun within Dysdera’s : ; i; ‘ Skill. a paper box in which I had captured the spider, and of course in absolute darkness. In the morning I found a circular snare placed against the curved edge of the box, and stayed to the sides and bottom in a way that I have attempted with indifferent success merely to suggest in the figure. As I looked at it, and set to myself the problem of how to weave a mass of silken threads into the corner of a room, for example, in such a cylindrical shape | that it would stand out stark and smooth, my admiration for the cunning skill of my aranead friend was much increased. At all events, the art that can build and stay such a work out of such flimsy material as the silken lines emitted from a spider’s spin 4 ning spools, is entitled to a high place, at least in animal & engineering. The snare of Theridium is a mass of intersecting lines suspended at all points of the outer margins by con- verging threads attached to the surrounding site. The spider takes her posi tion within the centre of this mass, and in the course of time there is a very strong tenden' RNY cy in the spinningwork to assume the shape SS =a 7 aval NaN _ of a nest. The lines become thickened £ we in the centre, and may occasionally be = found so approxi- mated that they pre sent the appearance of a net, not un like the snare of Linyphia, but not so closely textured as that of Agalena. Beneath this thickened centre a series of lines will often be found stretched downward and attached at the basal extremity. (See Fig. 211.) A web suspended between the joists of an old barn, the slats of a lattice work 1G. 211. Trestlework snare of a young Theridium. Therid- screen, or within a box, or other like situations which will allow eae these supporting lines to be formed with some degree of regu- Trestles. larity, presents a striking resemblance to the trestlework of a wooden railroad bridge. I have observed this especially in Theridium tepidariorum, and some very beautiful and remarkable examples in the web of the long legged Cellar spider, Pholeus phalgioides. When such a web is formed, the spider is found suspended to the under part of the thickened portion, which thus becomes to her a sort of nesting place. Fig. 212 was sketched from the snare of a female Theridium differens woven upon a wire frame fastened with staples upon a wooden block. 224 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. . The block was laid upon a rough plastered cellar window (in my church cel- lar) much frequented by spiders, and was overspun as indicated in the figure. The ridge of the pyramidal structure drooped between the tips of the wire hoop, quite like the main cable of a wire suspension bridge. is \ From this numerous diverging lines stretched on either side to ma the edge of the block and the window ledge beyond. Below the ridge cable and within the side guy lines a maze of thickened netted lines was spread, from which support- ing trestle like lines dropped down perpendicularly to the surface of the block. The spider her- self, with several white globular flossy co- coons and a bevy of younglings be- ( sides, was domiciled within a series of lines that extended from one of the wire tips (left hand of the cut) to the stone window frame. The resemblance of this struct- ure to the wire bridges or wooden trestlework of hu- man engineers is apparent at a glance. = At times, when the sit- uation will al- low, the spin- ningwork of \) j Theridium Fic. 212. Theridium’s silk suspension bridge. assumes even more decidedly the form of a nest. For example, in the horse stables of “ Almora,” the country seat of a gentleman resident at Wallingford, the windows are protected by a wide meshed wire frame. Within the meshes and around the window frame a vast number of spiderlings of Theridium tepidariorum had colonized. The scant lines which Globular formed the original snares had gradually been thickened around poeoe the margins, from which stay lines were thrown out in all di- ures 0 ; sats Therid- Tections. In the course of time the snare assumed the globular sania shape which is indicated in the cut. (Fig. 218.) Within the centre, which was more scantily woven and more open than elsewhere, the spider was established. This condition of the central part was quite the reverse of what one usually sees, viz., the thickening of the web near the spider’s habitat. The variation appears to have been caused by the necessity of strengthening the points at which the guy lines and ENGINEERING SKILL OF SPIDERS. WS radiating supports seized the margins. These structures, modified as they doubtless were by their environment and in a measure thus compelled to their final form, evidently show considerable skill in adapting spinningwork to circumstances. There is no doubt that in the ordinary operations of snare making and nest building, the Labyrinth spider continually brings into play certain principles of operation which may be properly designated by the term engineering. For example, in looking at Labyrinthea work- ing up the maze of crossed lines in which her domicile is hung, one is continually impressed with the fact that she so balances and adjusts the lines as they are successively spun out, that the whole spinningwork is as well suited to its purposes as is the complex scaffolding used by human car- penters in building a house. I cannot conceive in what eS Ss manner the spider | Wt SLES perceives the vari- ous inequalities, on this side or that, which require spe- cial treatment in the way of staying, tightening, adding,= etc. Perhaps her sense of touch is so delicate that her perception of these necessities is accurate enough to enable her to construct her intricate snare so as to attain precisely thé same results as would have been reached had she been guided by an engineering intention from the very first. Again, Labyrinthea is in the habit of roofing her silken tent with a leaf. Sometimes the leaf is used in lieu of the tent, and again the tent is woven inside of the concavity of the leaf. In order to ob- serve the mode of treatment I once dropped a curled leaf into a newly made snare of this spider. She at once perceived its presence by the agitation of the maze, ran to it, and appeared immediately to perceive its value. She fastened to it here and there a line, as though to preserve it from falling farther and thus damaging her snare. She then ran to the stem, attached a strong thread to it, and clambered out upon her silken trestle for the distance of two inches, and then fastened her line, leaving Labyrinth Spider’s Snare. Fic. 213. Globular structure of young Theridium tepidariorum. Roofing. 226 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. the leaf stayed in a most admirable way. She then took her position un- derneath the roof, apparently satisfied with her new shelter. The only thing which it seemed to me she might have done better was to turn the leaf. It had fallen with the cavernous part upward, and the spider so left it, although that part was the one best fitted for a den. I watched for Ligh awhile to see if this point would be observed and remedied by eee the little architect, but saw nothing. During the night there Tent. was a heavy storm of rain and wind, and in the morning I found the orb destroyed and the maze much damaged; but the leaf remained, and the spider was nestled against it. It had manifestly been her refuge against the storm. Fic. 214. How a Labyrinth spider swings and stays a leaf. The day cleared, and next morning a new and beautiful snare had been spun. However, a site had been chosen six or eight inches remoyed from the original one. To this point the leaf had been shifted; and now I no- ticed that it had been turned over so that the concave part was downward, as at first I had thought it ought to be. This could hardly have been the result of accident. The whole leaf was now so arranged as to make the best shelter possible, and it was stayed within its position in the maze in an admirable manner. Fig. 214. To the point of the stem was fastened a very strong, thick, white line (a, a) similar to that with which Labyrinthea suspends her string of cocoons. This extended through the labyrinth in a somewhat waving course for a distance of eight inches. This line was braced throughout its course bo bo ~I ENGINEERING SKILL OF SPIDERS. * by various threads fastened upon the intersecting lines of the maze. From a little corner in the upper part of the leaf a similar line, b, was stretched, braced by two interior lines of a like character (ce and d), which Laby- ,. like the stem cable were also held in place by numerous slighter rinthea’s as ; ; : Gables: cords extending through the maze. s Nis! almost spiral large Web made of Yellow Spider's Thread, like Silk Snares. =) 2 ? glutinous or viscid, with which it will stop not only small Birds, but even wild Pigeons; they are so strong as to give a Man inveigled in them Trouble for some Time with their viscid sticking Quality.” He also cites “Smith of Bermudas” (page 172) as describing “certain spiders of a large size, not dangerous, but making a sort of raw silk, catching birds bigger than blackbirds and like snipes, in their nets.” Wallace, speaking of the spiders of the Aru Islands, in the Malay Archipelago, says that the web spinning species were a great annoyance, stretching their nets across the footpaths just about the height of his face; the threads composing which were so strong and glutinous as to require much trouble to free one’s self from them.* Mr. Mosely, the naturalist of the “Challenger,” says that at Little Ke Island, Webs one of the same group, “Von Willemos Suhn actually found sae a strong, healthy ‘glossy Starling’ (Calornis metallica), caught fast in a Yellow spider’s web, and he took the bird out alive and brought it on board the ship to be preserved.”® Vinson gives like testimony from observations made in the African Island of Réunion. The young spiders that encamp in innumerable ¢ 1 Noyus Orbus Ionne de Laet, Ao. 1633, page 29. “Aranese * * * que estate ita validas telas nent, ut minores aviculz illis irretantur.” 2 “Qui telas nent ita pertinaces ut vix disrumpi possint.” Id., page 673. 3 Natural History of Jamaica, Vol. I., page 196, A. D. 172 +The Malay Archipelago, Alfred Russel Wallace, page 43 > A Naturalist on the “Challenger,” page 382. D. 7. 234 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. quantities among the large snares of Nephila swung between forest trees are sought by the birds who, in their too eager pursuit, strike upon the stout surrounding lines and are arrested. He had encountered these birds, particularly the beautiful Muscipeta Borbonica of Cuvier, entangled in these mammoth snares. Darwin speaks of the Brazilian forests as having every path barricaded with strong yellow webs of a species of Nephila similar to N. clavipes.? The late Prof. Orton uses precisely the same language of the spiders in the forests of the Amazon, and adds that some build nests in the trees and attack birds.? Prof. Wilder found that the orb of the Nephila of our Southern Atlantic coast would easily sustain a light straw hat, whose weight is certainly greater than that of a young bird. My own experience with such webs in Texas is that they will sustain a weight quite equal to that, although I never made such a test. It is said by tourists that the woods of Southern California are barricaded in the same way as those of Brazil and the Amazon, by the webs of Orbweavers, so that it is often difficult to pass through them. Two well authenticated cases of birds taken by a native spider have come under my notice in the vicinity of Philadelphia. A farmer belong- ing to the Society of Friends, Mr. Joseph Lownes, resident in Argiope the vicinity of Morton, informed me that he once found a bird, as a Bir c ; Beek : a Catcher, °N® of the smallest of our indigenous species of Kingster, en- tangled in the snare of a spider, which I judged from the de- scription to be Argiope cophinaria. He watched for some time the move- ments of the bird, and believing that the latter would be finally over- come he beneyolently released it from the web. Another case occurred on the grounds of the Philadelphia ‘“ Rabbit Club,” near Fairmount Park, and was related to me by David J. De Haven, the custodian. He saw a large Argiope cophinaria (as it appeared evidently from his description) capture in her web a hummingbird. He watched the process of swathing the poor victim until it was com- pletely wrapped around, when he slew the spider and rescued the bird, too late, however, for it was quite dead. The above examples, which might be multiplied, show beyond ques- tion that the strength and mechanical advantages of an orbweb are suffi- cient to enable our large Orbweavers to capture small vertebrate animals. Whether or not they feed upon such captives one can only conjecture, particularly in the case of our native fauna. Certainly in the last case above cited the spider acted precisely as with all victims taken for food ; but then, on the other hand, she might have done this and then have cut the hummingbird out of her snare without feeding upon its blood. ' Araneides des Isles de la Réunion, page xxi. * Voyages of Adventure and Beagle, Vol. III., page 41. ‘The Andes and Amazon, page 304. STRENGTH OF WEBS AND POWER OF SPIDERS. 235 The assertion must be taken with much allowance, that nets of geometric spiders are renewed wholly, or at least their concentric circles are replaced every twenty-four hours, even when not apparently injured. In Ageofan_. 5 : ; Orbweb, Point of fact the renewal does not take place unless made neces- sary by the destruction or serious injury of the old snare. The reason assigned for this behavior by the same authors, viz., that the spirals rapidly lose their viscid properties by the action of the air, is not founded on fact, as is elsewhere shown.? The viscid beads retain their adhesive qualities under ordinary circumstances for a considerable time. It is doubtful if any orb becomes thus disabled in so short a period as that assigned—twenty-four hours—except when exposed to rain, ie At various times there haye been placed on record accounts of the cap- ture by spiders of small vertebrate animals, as snakes, mice, and birds. Popular stories to the same effect have from time to time been sent the rounds of the daily press, and found utterance and often illustration, the latter sometimes of a most original and remark- able character, in popular magazine literature. The great seem- ing disparity in such cases between the size and vigor of captive and pris- oner; the confusion of the various narratives in details as to the spe- cies and behavior of the spider, and the characteristics of her snare; the radical departure from known food habit of species that are insectivorous; together with the fact that the accounts all have come from lay observers, have been more or less lacking in scientific accuracy and minuteness of detail, and wholly without scientific verification—these considerations have caused such records and reports to be discredited by arachnologists and naturalists generally. But there are a few cases, confirmed by circumstantial evidence, and reported by observers of good reputation and careful habit, which de- serve notice. The physical powers of the Lycoside, the popular running, ground, or wolf spiders, is well illustrated by an instance recorded in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. The result as reported was achieved by pure strength and activity, without any of the mechanical advantages of a snare. Mr. Spring, while walking with a friend in a swampy wood, which was pierced by a dyke three feet wide, was attracted by the extraordinary movements of a large black spider in the middle of the ditch. Closer observation showed that the creature had caught a fish! She Physical Power of Spiders. 1 Kirby & Spence, Intro. Ento., I., page 419. 2 See Chapter V. 3 Proceedings, 1859. The account was presented by Mr. Lesley, from notes furnished by Mr. Edward A. Spring, of Eagleswood, New Jersey. It was confirmed by a personal interview with Prof. Spring, at Chautauqua in the summer of 1885, who repeated to me the details of the incident. 236 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. had fastened upon it with a deadly grip just on the forward side of the dorsal fin, and the poor fish was swimming round and round slowly, or twisting its body as if in pain.! (Fig. 219.) The head of its A Spider }jJack enemy was sometimes almost pulled under water, but the Captures = k : A R By Nae strength of the fish would not permit an entire submersion. It moved its fins as if exhausted, and often rested. Finally it swam under a floating leaf near the shore and made a vain effort to dis- lodge the spider by scraping against the under side of the leaf. The two had now closely approached the bank. Suddenly the long black legs of the spider emerged from the water, and the hinder ones reached out and fastened upon the irregularities of the sides of the ditch. The spider commenced tugging at his prize in order to land it. The observer ran to the nearest house for a wide-mouthed Fic. 219. p * E from the spider’s snare. When first seen the spider had placed Lassoed. a loop around the serpent’s neck, from the top of which a single thread was carried and attached to the under side of the shelf, whereby the head of the serpent was drawn up about two inches from 1 Determined from alcoholic specimens in the collection of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. 2The difference of weight between an alcoholic and liying specimen is considered by Dr. Leidy so small that it need scarcely be estimated. 8 The account is taken from the Annual of Scientific Discovery, 1862, page 334. The original record is not quoted. STRENGTH OF WEBS AND POWER OF SPIDERS. 241 the floor. The snake was moving about incessantly, in a circle as large as its tether would allow, wholly unable to get its head down to the floor or to withdraw it from the noose, while the spider was ever and anon pass- ing down to the loop and up to the shelf, adding thereby an addi- tional strand to the thread. Each new strand being tightly drawn, ele- vated the head of the snake gradually more and more. As only the neck of the creature was at first entangled, Dr. Fitch thinks that the spider was exposed to attack as she ran up and down the cord, and that during the early stages of the conflict the snake did snap at the spider with its mouth. The latter, however, “with her hind legs, as when throwing a thread around a fly, had cast one thread after another over the mouth of the snake, so that he was now perfectly muz- zled, by a series of lines placed vertically over the mouth; these were held from being pushed asunder by another series “placed horizontally,” as Dr. Fitch’s informant states he particularly observed. “No muzzle or wicker- work for the mouth of an animal could be woven with more artistic regularity and perfection; and the snake occasionally making a desperate attempt to open his mouth would merely put these threads upon the stretch. This strange conflict issued in victory for the spider. The snake continued his gyrations, his gait becoming gradually slower through weak- ness and fatigue. The spider continued to move down and up the cord, gradually shortening it. At last the serpent was drawn up so far that only two or three inches of the tail touched the floor, when he expired, about six days after his capture was first noticed. It is the above behavior, in swathing the victim with thickened strands of silk drawn out and thrown rapidly from the spinnerets by the hind feet, that determines the generic position of the spider with some cer- tainty. The snare from the description was evidently not an orbweb, and this behavior, in connection with other details, points to Theridi- some Lineweaver as the hero of this exploit, either Theridium eee tepidariorum or Pholeus phalangioides—probably the former. Tepidariorum is a vigorous, active, and ferocious species. (See Chapter I., Fig. 7.) Her web is often spread over great spaces, and is strong enough to bear the weight of such a snake as here described. She shows unusual courage, strength, and skill in capture of prey, taking very large beetles and other insects, which she will raise through great (relative) distances to the centre of her snare. It is worthy of mention, in connection with these incidents, that the belief that a special enmity exists between spiders and serpents is very ancient. Pliny says that the spider, poised in its web, will throw itself upon the head of a serpent as it is stretched beneath the shade of a tree, and with its bite will pierce its brain. Such is the shock that the creature will hiss from time to time, and then, seized with vertigo, will coil round and round, but finds itself unable to take flight or even to 242 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. break the web in which it is entangled. This scene, concludes the author, only ends with the serpent’s death.? I had often wished for an opportunity to follow up critically one of the recurring reports of the physical powers of spiders. This wish was gratified in the summer of 1882. An article drifted through American newspapers which detailed the ensnaring of a living mouse by a Ken- tucky spider. I was fortunately able to trace the story to its origin in the Lebanon (Ky.) “Standard and Times.” Correspondence with its in- telligent editor, Mr. J. W. Hopper, brought me entire confirmation of the report from a number of trustworthy sources. I think the incident of sufficient importance to justify a somewhat detailed presentation. The original account as published by Mr. Hopper is as follows :— | Wy / “A very curious and_ inter- | flee esting spectacle was to be seen Monday afternoon in Mouse the office of Mr. P. C. Snared Cleaver’s livery stable by Spider. | i ; in this city. Against the wall of the room stands a tolerably tall desk, and under this a small spider, not larger than a common pea, had con- structed an extensive web reach- ing to the floor. (Fig. 222.) About half past eleven o'clock, Monday forenoon, it was observed that the spider had ensnared a young mouse by passing fila- ments of her web around its tail. When first seen the mouse had its fore feet on the floor and could barely touch the floor with its hind feet. The spider was full of business, running up and down the line and _ occasionally biting the mouse’s tail, making it struggle desperately. “Tts efforts to escape were all unavailing, as the slender filaments about its tail were too strong for it to break. In a short time it was seen that the spider was slowly hoisting its victim into the air. By two o’clock in the afternoon the mouse could barely touch the floor with its fore feet; by dark the point of its nose FiG, 222. Diagram of a mouse hanging in a spider’s snare. 1 Pliny, Natural History, Chapter X., page 95. STRENGTH OF WEBS AND POWER OF SPIDERS. 243 was an inch above the floor. At nine o’clock at night the mouse was still alive, but made no sign except when the spider descended and bit its tail. At this time it was an inch and a half from the floor. “Yesterday morning the mouse was dead, and hung three inches from the floor. The news of the novel sight soon became circulated, and hun- dreds of people visited the stable to witness it. The mouse was a small one, measuring about one and a half inches from the point of its nose to the root of the tail.” Mr. P. C. Cleaver, in whose office the incident occurred, wrote me the following statement: “I have two small rooms in my livery stable, one used as an office and the other as a bedroom for my clerk. In Mr. Clea- the front room stands against the east wall a writing desk just ver’s Tes- . . p ji : arene tall enough for an ordinary sized man to stand and write on. When I first saw it the mouse was under this desk, fastened in the spider’s web, with its head down and tail up. Eighteen inches or two feet above the mouse was a small spider, whose body was about the size of a small grain of sweet sugar corn, certainly not larger than would cover the nail of your smallest finger. It was of a dark color, but not black. I first saw it about one o'clock P. M., when the toes of the mouse barely touched the floor. The spider kept working it up until finally it was three or four inches from the floor, and was still alive when I left my stable to go home at night. I can give you no information as to the ‘web that will satisfy you. It was long enough to reach to the floor, and there were a good many strands of it wound in many intricate ways that I do not understand. The web was very fine. I left the spider at work that even- ing at sunset, with orders that it should not be touched. But the web was knocked down that night—by some boys, I think, as a great many were there to see the sight, and my clerk thinks it was lost in that way. The spider, mouse, and web were all gone when I returned to the stable on the following morning.” Mr. Cleaver emphatically declares the impos- sibility of any one about his premises having manipulated the mouse in any manner to secure its entanglement in the web. “I am as sure,” he says, ‘that the spider caught and raised the mouse three or four inches from the floor by himself without the aid of man, as though I had been present from first to last.” Mr. Hopper, in addition to the printed article, sent me a written report of the incident, from which the following quotations are made: “As you will see from this account, no one observed the actual Mc Hop- entanglement of the mouse. In a very short time after it was pees finct observed I myself was ‘informed of it, and went to the ; ‘stable to examine it. This was Monday, August 22d, 1881. The office of the stable is a small room. The desk referred to is some- thing over three feet high, four feet four inches long, and something over two feet wide. From the bottom of the desk to the floor the distance 244 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. is two feet ten inches. The spider’s web extended perhaps three-fourths the length of the desk next to the wall, and covered the bottom of the desk to the width of about fifteen or sixteen inches. It was about three feet long by sixteen inches wide. “You will observe that the narrative in the news slip ends with Tuesday morning, August 28d. My paper, which is a weekly, went to press late Tuesday afternoon. The hoisting process continued all day Tuesday, and employés about the stable say that by dark Tuesday night the mouse was four or four and a half inches from. the floor. Tuesday J2—— might a meddlesome boy entered the room in the dark and accidentally broke the web, and the mouse fell. Next morn- ing, according to my re collection, the web was brushed away. I greatly regret that the spider was not allowed to complete his work, and that he was not captured and _ preserved. I was greatly mortified when I found how the affair had terminated.” The Hon. J. Proctor Knott, then a represen- tative in Congress from Kentucky, and later goy- ernor of the State, was one of the references giy- en me by Mr. Hopper. He kindly wrote The Hon. me from Wash ington, confirming the Proctor newspaper ac count. I quote from his Knott’s : : cow? - Testi- letter the follow ing: “ When my attention mony. Was first called to the matter—about ten in the forenoon—the thread fast to the end of perhaps fifty times its own its prey so that it could with its fore paws, and away, while the mouse deayoring to break loose. or eleven o’clock spider having made its the tail of the mouse, of weight, gradually hoisted barely touch the floor was still busily ‘ hoisting was no less vigorously en That afternoon, perhaps near five o’clock, in com- pany with Mr. Hopper, i the editor of the ‘Stand- ard, I again visited the__ Awl GHD scene of the singular cap- ture, and found that the-~ —--~*-T=|-* ==" mouse had been raised so that the top of its nose Fic. 223. A mouse suspended bya Was precisely four inches from the floor, as I as cer (from asketch by Hon. certained by actual meas- urement with a pocket rule. The spider was still actively at work and the mouse still struggling. The next morning I found the mouse dead, its nose about six inches from the floor, and the spider still at work. The thread was attached to the end of the tail. This statement, although written hurriedly and amid considerable confusion, you may use as you think proper.” STRENGTH OF WEBS AND POWER OF SPIDERS. 24 Governor Knott also sent me the foregoing (Fig. 223) memory sketch of the position of the mouse and the characteristics of the snare and the entangling lines. The testimony and observations thus obtained are of such a char- acter as to establish beyond any doubt these facts: First, that a young living mouse was in some manner securely entangled in the snare of a spider. Second, that the spider, by means of silken lines two or three feet long, hoisted the mouse through a perpendicular distance of four or four and a half inches. Third, that the mouse was entangled in the spider’s web by the tail alone, and although it lived for at least ten hours, during which it struggled vigorously to escape, was unable to free itself, and finally died. Fourth, that the hoisting process continued during Monday from about 11 A. M. until the night of Tuesday following, a period of thirty-four hours, when the web was accidentally broken, and then brushed away. Fifth, that the specific identification of the spider heroine of this exploit was at first somewhat in doubt; and the credit seemed to lie between a Tube- weaver, the Medicinal spider (Tegenaria medicinalis), and the common Lineweayer (Theridium tepidariorum). The accounts of the captor’s be- havior during the hoisting of her victim, especially swathing her victim, and the opinions of the various eye witnesses to whom were sent descrip- tions and drawings of both species and their characteristic webs, point to the Lineweaver. I was much perplexed by the conflicting testimony in- evitable in the reports of the several untrained observers. But persistent correspondence and the kindness of Mr. Hopper and others finally pro- cured me specimens which were declared to be undoubtedly identical with the mouse catcher. These specimens are Theridium tepidariorum ; to this spider, therefore, must be given the credit of the achievement.” Sixth, a comparison of the weight of a young mouse? with the actual power of resistance in webs of both Theridium tepidariorum and _ the Medicinal spider, as determined by a number of tests, shows that the incident on such grounds is not only plausible but much within the The Con- clusion. 1“The figure intended to represent the spider is larger in proportion to that insect than the mouse is to the unlucky little rodent it is supposed to suggest. The length of the line attached to the tail is much shorter in the sketch than in the original, where it must have been three feet or over, as the web from which it was suspended was woven upon the bot- tom of a writing desk, and, as nearly as I can remember, in the shape presented, but much larger.’—Mr. Knott’s letter. 2 Specimens sent to me of the spiders supposed to be identical with the one that caught the mouse, taken from the same desk and from a web of similar construction, were the Medicinal spider. Also, a specimen of a web somewhat similar to the one in which the mouse was entangled, and a description with estimated measurements, of the extensive pro- portions of the original snare, point in the same direction. 3“A mature male mouse weighed three hundred and fifty-six grains. One half grown would probably weigh about one-sixth to one-fourth of this, say from sixty to ninety grains.”— Note from Dr. Joseph Leidy. 246 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. possibilities of the spinningwork of those spiders. Seventh, that a series of well and tolerably well authenticated cases, as well as observations of the habitual prowess of spiders in taking and securing their prey, jus- tify the inference that the capture of a mouse or garter snake lies within the physical and mechanical abilities of both of the two species above named. The space given the above facts may seem to some to be in undue proportion to their importance. But, apart from the value of positively determining any point in natural history, the discussion has this conclusion: The capture of small vertebrate animals by both Sendentary and Wandering spiders is possible; the one by the mechanical strength of their snares, the other by their physical strength. There is thus laid the foundation, at least, for the presumption that such animals may be or become natural food for the larger species of araneads. This is certainly a most important fact in the life history of spiders, and would greatly enlarge the range of their habits. A Con- clusion. @IEBASE TREY SXOVs: PROCURING FOOD AND FEEDING. THe Orbweayer’s snare is its tool for trapping insects. It is a notable fact in the history of lower animals, that there is at least one order con- taining a large group of species which possess the power, other- Food wise the almost exclusive gift of man, to procure food by the ee & medium of manufactured implements. The nearly universal habit of natural life is to imbibe nutriment directly, or to secure it wholly by means of the feet or mouth or other prehensile organs. The Wandering spiders fall into the general course of nature, and seize their food directly. The Sedentary spiders form an exception to this rule. It is, of course, an interesting speculation how this remarkable habit originated, and how it came about that such a marked exception should exist in certain tribes of a natural order whose remaining tribes are want- ing therein; but Nature thus far has yielded no light-upon the subject. As far as we are able to judge from fossil spiders, the structural differences between such families as Epeirids on the one hand, and the Lycosids and Attoids on the other, have remained unchanged from the first appari- tion of spider life. It is a fair inference that the functional differences have also always existed; that Epeirids have always captured their prey through the media of manufactured tools or snares, and that the Lycosids have stalked their prey and secured their food without any intervening instrument. It has already been shown how well adapted an orbweb is for its chief purpose. Its combined strength and elasticity, its admirable arrangement for the free motion of the spider, its location and characteristics so well adapted to arrest the flight of insects, and its armature of viscid beads so completely suited fo retain and disable the arrested victims—these all form an implement of tremendous facility to the aranead for procuring its nat- ural food. The spider when ensconced within its nest holds by its claws to the tense trapline, and thus keeps its snare taut. When it is suspended at the hub the eight legs, stretched out and grasping points of the radii which command the entire snare, enable the spider at any time to contract its outlying lines around the centre, thus producing the same degree of tension. (247) Handling the Snare. 248 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. Ie In this position, when an insect strikes a snare the impact as well as subsequent struggles set the web into violent agitation, which is at once communicated to the spider. Her conduct will be largely determined by the degree of agitation. Evidently the weight and size of the insect, and, therefore, its ability to defend itself, are gauged by the force of the agita- tion. If the insect appears to be a small one, or thoroughly Insect trapped, and the spider should be particularly hungry, she will Entangle- ; : were Nake van rush immediately upon her victim. Ordinarily, however, the action is different. At the first signal, the spider will turn in an attitude of great muscular tension, as though to get the direction of the movement. She will often make a sharp pull, the whole body moving with muscular excitement. Sometimes only the fore legs will be thus twitched. Then a movement will be made toward the fly, which is conducted rather cautiously and at several stages, the spider meanwhile jerking the radi leading directly to the entangled insect. At each pause two or three quick a / Fic. 224. Mosquito entangled by strik- eas = d : cap eihol netewith FG. 225. aoe aes by Fic. 226. A mosquito cap- full spread wings. eet. tured by several feet. jerks are made. Sometimes, however, for various reasons, but chiefly through excess of caution, no doubt, she will fail to make any movement at all, and leave the insect to struggle until it is exhausted, in which case it may either be seized and eaten, or cut from the snare and thrown away. The Orbweaver is not infallible in its ability to determine the charac- ter of the agitation. Sometimes the deft tickling of the web will produce a movement so much like the agitation of an insect as to de- Fe NONG a_ spider, particularly if she be quite young or very hun- ean gry. A touch upon a dry insect hanging in an empty web once drew to the spot a young spider from an adjoining snare. It “ame straight to the point, as though directed by the agitation of the neighboring web, thus showing a sense of direction, and ability to deter- mine the originating points of the movement; but also showing the fact that it was liable to be deceived as to the character of the movements of a living insect. Once, while observing an Epeira vertebrata, a small insect fell into the web. The spider ran towards it, seized it, and carried it to the centre. While feeding, two bits of wood from an overhanging vine PROCURING FOOD AND FEEDING. 249 dropped into the snare. Vertebrata at once rushed towards these, but find- ing by her touch that they were dead matter, instead of leaving the ob- = jects she drew them towards her with her feet, passed them to ‘her lips and palps, where they were held a moment until bit- ten entirely free from the lines. Then the fore feet were reached up, and by a sharp snap of the claws the pieces were thrown downwards out of the web. In this case, also, the Orbweaver was deceived. But very generally she is able to distinguish between an artificial agitation and that produced by an insect. At least, I have frequently failed to draw a spider from her retreat by my most skillful manipulation of her snare. Blackwall is probably correct in his suggestion that the pulling mo- tions which I have described are intended to determine whether objects entangled in the toils are animate or inanimate.’ At all events, it is true that by jerking the radii immediately in connection Useof with that part of the share in Net a Cera ste : arene. which the insects are entangled, and then suddenly letting go their hold, the spiders produce a vibra- tory motion in the net which seldom fails to excite action in the ensnared insect. Guided by the struggles of her prey, the Orbweaver runs along the most contiguous radii to seize her victim, avoiding contact’ with the viscid lines as far as possible, and drawing out after her a thread attached to one of the lines near the centre of her net, which serves to facilitate her return. The manner in which insects are cap- tured may be observed at any time, and yet one may venture to describe the meth- od. When the insect strikes’ the viscid spirals, one or more legs and one or other or both of the wings, or an antenna are usually first to Deceive Fic. 227. Epeira revolving captured fly while enswathing it. pa ’ feel the viscid grasp of the beads. The insect, at once arrested by ntangle- . See a: : ; &"* the blow, begins to struggle, and finding itself fettered increases its ment. = Coed = efforts to be free. Sometimes, particularly if the viscid quality of the beads be somewhat abated or the entanglement be slight, the insect suc- ceeds in escaping. This occurs more frequently perhaps than is ordinarily supposed. Very often, however, the struggles only result in fastening the victim more securely by bringing additional portions of the body into contact with the spirals. Sometimes the insect will strike broad on in its flight, or 1 Blackwall, “Researches in Zoology,” page 289. 250 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. with wings full spread, as represented at Fig. 224, and the whole under sur- face of the body will be first stuck to the spirals. At other times, as at Fig. 225, the feet will be seen gathered together in a little cluster, adher- ing at one point to the spirals. Several or all of these positions have been illustrated in the figures, accurately rendered from nature. A mo- mentary entanglement is all that is required, for the spider is upon its victim ere it can succeed in releasing itself. The mode of dealing with the entrapped insect when it is reached is \ We Fic. 228. Argiope swathing a captured fly by a jet of silken filaments. not always the same. Sometimes it is immediately seized and carried to the hub or den to be fed upon, the spider striding with it in her bene jaws over the lines of her orb. Occasionally the insect will be Insects, ‘truck with the fangs, and the spider retreat instantly to await the effects of the stroke. This action may be repeated. At other times, several sharp squeezes of the fangs are given, as though to de- stroy the insect’s life. In the act of seizing a mosquito, an Epeira vertebrata was observed holding to the spiral lines with one hind foot, so that her operations might be unimpeded by contact with the viscid beads. The little cords by which she was thus held aloof were the shape of a pyramid, whose apex was within the claws of the spider. More commonly the victim is seized with the claws of the two fore pairs of legs. These are so long that they can be stretched out well forward of the spider’s body, and grasp the in- sect without much danger. PROCURING FOOD AND FEEDING. 251 With great rapidity the abdomen is then doubled under, and a jet of thick, white silk issued from the expanded spinnerets, and thrown out rapidly by the hind legs. At the same time the insect is revolved by the united action of the short third pair of legs, the two fore legs, and not infrequently by the aid of the hind pair also. There is much difference in this respect, but the first, third, and fourth pairs seem always to be used. As the fly is rolled around by the feet the swathing thread envelops it something after the manner of woolen yarns as they pass from a spindle to a reel. But some- times the spider revolves her own body as well as the fly, thus facilitating the rapid- ity with which the victim is enswathed. There is, of course, a great difference in the amount of swathing thread used at different times. Sometimes a few threads suffice, so that the outlines of the insect’s body and limbs are clearly seen through them. (Fig. 229.) Again, the bandages will be a veritable winding sheet, and perfectly conceal the de- tails of the victim, showing only a lumpy outline, a creature as truly mummied as was ever one of Egypt’s sacred animals. (Fig. 235.) Epeira trifolium was observed capturing a grasshopper. She approached very cautiously from above, and, as she drew near the entangled insect, threw out one fore leg and then another, drawing each back quickly as though feeling the character of the prey. Being satisfied, she dropped to one side and threw out two wide, thick streams of silk. These issued from either side of the spinning rosette, and each stream was fed evidently by the three spinnerets upon either side. (Fig. 230.) These two streams at once seized hold upon the limbs of the entangled grasshopper, and as the spider began to revolve the insect they were reeled out, rapidly covering the whole insect with swathing material. These streams of silk, after the first gush, were drawn out alternately by the two hind legs— first one, and then the other, being used. Presently the spider dropped below her victim, and thence MY passed to the side opposite, continuing her oper- F1G.230. Adoublestreamof ations until the insect was satisfactorily wound up. aa ee She did not strike it with her fangs at all, but retired to her den, dragging after her the swathing thread, which was widely divergent where it laid hold upon the grasshopper, but gradually converged as the spider moved away and closed her spinnerets, until it be- came a single thread. (Fig. 231.) This mode I have observed at various times. Fic. 229. A fly lightly swathed and trussed up. 252 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. If any emergency arise to require it, the spider can issue a jet of silk with such rapidity and of such volume that it is evident that strong mus- cular contraction has been used upon the silk glands, thus Swath- ing. - forcing the liquid material from the spinning spools without any aid of the feet in drawing it out. That this is quite within the ability of Orbweavers I am_ perfectly satisfied by frequent observation of the action of Ar laris when taking a particularly hopper or locust, moth or blue During the action of swath that work, the spider takes care are joined together and fastened ing the orb from sagging or of the orb goes on instinctively of conquest and capture. Some the ends of the radii upon which the rapid motion of the spinner lines, but quite sufficient to main giope cophinaria or Epeira insu- large insect, such as a_ grass- bottle fly. (Fig. 232.) ing, and without interrupting of the broken radii, so that they to the perfect ones, thus prevent- dropping apart. This protection in the very midst of the passion times it is necessary to bite out the fly is entangled. In that case ets closes the breach with irregular tain the tautness of the web. is carried to the hub or den in upon settles herself in the usual juices through the enveloping Ordinarily the swathed victim the jaws of the spider, who there position and sucks the The threads. In the mean || while the aranead, if upon her Banquet iy \\ : c é web, is sus , | pended by the spinnerets and Room. 2 hind feet, the and turn the carcass fangs are also used to by the feet or even The return to the fore feet being used to hold while it is being eaten. The clasp the victim as it is turned more frequently by the palps. hub or den with the cap- tured insect is occa sionally accomplished — by swinging outward from ** geen pA res ag the point of capture upon the dragline which was carried after the spider when she rushed down upon her victim. Sometimes, instead of carrying the fly in the jaws, it will be fastened to the spinnerets by a short thread, and, thus burdened, the spider swings herself along, sometimes making one or two swings before she reaches her central point. The feeding is done leisurely, and the juices so thoroughly squeezed from the carcass and imbibed that, when the spider is done with it, it is a little blackened ball of dried matter. The white silken enswathment has entirely disappeared, probably having been sucked in with the juices of the fly. The banquet over, the carcass is snapped out of the web by a sharp movement of the head and jaws. I became much interested in the manner in which a nearly mature female Epeira vertebrata handled a moth which she had just captured. When the observation began, she was rolling the insect around as it hung PROCURING FOOD AND FEEDING. 253 from the centre of her web, the lower part of which was entirely torn away by the struggles of the large captive. When the swathing was com- pleted, Vertebrata succeeded in carrying her prey to her shelter Deporting ynder some honeysuckle leaves two feet distant. She accom- Swathed plished this at first by seizing the mummy with her hind feet, Insects. : = Y and partly by aid of the feet and partly by aid of the abdomen, bore it beyond the confines of the orb. When she struck the long bridge line connecting her snare with her den, she kicked her load loose from her feet and attached it to her abdomen by several lines about an inch in Fic. 232. The Insular spider enswathing a captured locust. length. With her prey thus hanging behind, she crawled hand over hand in the usual fashion along the line (Fig. 233), which swayed beneath its double load. As she approached her nest she reached a series of lines that converged upon the mouth of the den, whereupon she once more gath- ered her prize within her two hind feet, crawled into the den by use of the remaining feet (Fig. 234), and there began her banquet. Evidently the principle of “laying by in store” for future use is well understood by spiders. Not, however, in any such manner as prevails among the ants and more highly organized animals, as Arachne’s future is but a 254 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. brief period. Here is a young Argiope which on first observation had two ; insects trussed up, one on either side of her central web, near Gees. the outer margin of the orb. On the second obser vation, an hour afterward, one of these was cut loose, and the spider held it under its jaws while she rested on her shield and_ there fed upon it. Here is another Argiope, engaged in feeding on a large insect, and has two other insects, one on either side of her shield, swathed and trussed ready for use. This is an obserya tion which is frequently made. Another observe tion made upon Acrosoma rugosa will illustrate this point. ] When the observation began Rugosa had just captured a fly. A second fly struck the web, and the spider rushed to it, leaving fly No. 1 trussed up and hanging by a short cord. She seized the second victim, held it a second or two, then slowly re- volved it, using the third and fourth _ pairs of legs. The fourth leg was also used in pulling out the enswathing thread. A slight enswathment was placed upon the insect, and it was left hanging in the snare. Rugosa then returned by a dragline to the carcass of No, 1, and feasted upon her, leaving No. 2 suspended to the top of the central. When fly No. 1 was finished, the threads sur- rounding it were cut out, and the carcass was drop- ped from the snare. No. 2 was then approached, the spider meanwhile cautiously pulling on the radial gangway by jerks, as though testing the vitality of the victim or the neighborhood of an enemy. Mat- ters being satisfactory, the fly was seized, swathed, and brought back to the centre of the orb. When rejected, the carcass was a charred looking mass, out of which all the animal juices had been squeezed. While preying upon No. 2 a third fly struck the web, whereupon No. 2 was at once flung out, as in Fig. 236, and hung by a thread to the lower margin of the hub. While waiting for prey, Rugosa clings to the upper part of the orb by the fourth pair of legs. While engaged in feeding, the fourth and second pairs of legs Acroso- ma Trap ping Flies FiG. 233. Carrying a moth by the spinnerets. Fic. 234. Carrying a swathed moth by the feet. PROCURING FOOD AND FEEDING. 255 are used to cling by, while the third and first pairs are used to turn and handle the flies. Curiously enough the Orbweaver, although she makes her snare for the express purpose of capturing her food, sometimes shows a *manifest unwillingness to have » It serve its purpose in any other than the reg- ular and approved manner. On one occasion I saw an_ insect strike the orb of a Furrow spi-. der, and on another occasion that of a Domicile spider, when the snares were only partly spun. Both animals acted precisely alike—they seized and swathed the flies, but, instead of feeding ~ J) upon them then and there, hung “ > “ab Y them up for future use and re- = Be sumed their net building. I have seen this act repeated many times by various species. Another spider (Epeira domiciliorum) having caught and wrapped up an insect that had struck her unfinished net, deliberately and, as I fancied, with a show of indignation, cut away and cast out the trussed captive from the snare! It was a most emphatic illustration of the proverb, “A time to keep and a time to cast away.” I laughed heartily at the action, which I involuntarily associated with some ultra conservative human friends of mine, who are most unready to receive truth and other blessings that do not come to them through the ordinary and approved channels. Doubtless the instinct of net building, in the above cited cases, when once excited, proved too strong to be seriously diverted or delayed by any ordinary conflicting sensation. Influenced’ apparently by the same impulse, I have seen a Vertebrata and also Cophinaria stopping in the midst of laying in spiral lines to secure and swathe an insect which had struck the orb. In these cases, instead of leaving the insect swathed and trussed up for future use and then aiet Pa EE returning to the work of completing the spirals, the spiders ee held the captured prey within their mandibles, resumed their work, and carried the victim around during the en- tire process. The web completed, the quarry was taken to the centre and fed upon leisurely. In both cases about half of the spiral space had been finished before the insects struck the web and became entangled within its meshes. “A Time to Keep. Te il Fic. 235. A mummied fly trussed up. 256 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. These examples indicate that the ordinary instincts of spiders are held well under control. There are periods when certain instincts wholly dominate action, which at other times are held in subordina- Subordi-. tion. One is not surprised to see this in such rare or unique mation Ofl-ms a 5 Instincts. 12Stinets as the sexual impulse. But to see the same phe- nomenon in the sentiments that control daily life, and to see it frequently occurring, and so manifestly under the volition of the animal, is certainly more notable. In the examples just cited it is seen that the feeding habit is held in subordination by the in- dustrial impulse when net making is in order; and a very complete subjection it surely is which constrains a hungry spider to truss up a fly or carry one about in its jaws until a snare is finished, or even cast it wholly out of the web. I once found a nearly ma- ture Argiope cophinaria hang- = ing in the centre of Laying her orb engaged in by in : vite Stans sucking the juices from a fly, which she kept underneath her jaws and appeared to be handling entirely by the use of her palps. In the meanwhile she held attached to her fore feet on either side two swathed flies, one suspended by a sin- Fig. 237. Dwarf flies banqueting with a giantess spider gle thread, and another by a cr mers double one. Evidently she was troubled with what the French call an embarrassment of riches. It is rare to see a Sedentary spider eating thus without the aid of the fore legs. Another Cophinaria was observed with five flies, three of them large blue bottles, fastened at various parts of her web, most of them well towards the margin. Two of the blue bottles were completely wrapped in white swathing silk, and were covered from one end to another with a host of small black dipterous flies, that were trying to feed upon the car- casses of their huge, mummied congeners. Argiope appeared to be entirely regardless of the presence of these little creatures. They adhered so closely to the carcass that when the spider violently shook her web they rode PROCURING FOOD AND FEEDING. 257 back and forward like a group of children upon a seesaw, without being the least disturbed.. Next morning I found that all the trussed up insects except one had disappeared; one (which I easily identified) remained in its former position, and eyen then several of the little Diptera were perched upon the carcass, apparently feeding. In the jaws of the spider was a swathed carcass, and even on that, as the spider held it within her mouth feeding upon it, were at least two of the little flies engaged with the greatest sang froid at their meal under the very jaws of their ferocious adversary! In the meantime a third fly was perched upon the middle of the abdomen of the spider herself, apparently enjoying the situation. Two days afterward I found the same curious state of things. It may be that the very diminutiveness of these creatures was their protection, especially as food was so abundant. It was certainly amusing, however, to see this seeming challenge of destiny. A few hours thereafter I saw one (or one of the same species) of these reck- less Diptera trussed up near the spot where it had lately fed, although it was probably not eaten. The same behavior was subsequently observed on several occasions and on different individuals; so that it was not the result of special sluggish- ness or personal peculiarity. Once, when a dozen or more of these little Diptera were hanging upon an enswathed captive, I saw Argiope brush away with her fore feet several that were crowding about her face. The action was most impatient—eyen angry—but none of the annoying and impudent intruders were hurt. On another occasion I observed two of the flies apparently held in the jaws of the spider. My first thought was that they had ventured too close, had been snapped up, and were being eaten by their giant hostess. But upon touching the point of my pencil to them, they at once disproved my theory by drawing back a little space and shak- ing themselves. They had not only ventured between Argiope’s palps, but had pushed up to the very jaws, and were sipping the juices squeezed out by those organs! It was certainly a curious illustration of the old and famous riddle, “out of the eater came forth meat.” (See Fig. 237.) I had never expected to see the spider and the flies peacefully feeding together upon the same carcass, but in nature, as in social life, it is often “the un- expected that happens.” Flies Ban- quet with -a Spider. Il. The efforts.of spiders to take their prey are not destitute of adyen- tures, sometimes of a very serious sort, sometimes approaching the ludi- ’ crous. For example, I chanced to get a sight of Argiope coph- Ber inaria just as she had captured a large honey bee and had begun to swathe it. I watched the struggles of the insect with interest, and found that the spider got the better of her antagonist very rapidly. Around and around the excited bee the swathing bands wound, 258 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. until at last it was completely enclosed within a silken bag. I concluded that all was over with the luckless insect, an opinion which Cophinaria eyi- dently shared, for she laid on her final lines and clambered away to the centre of her shield, apparently with the intention of drawing her vic- tim towards her to take a hearty meal. Searcely had she settled herself, however, ere the bee renewed its strug- gles. In a moment it succeeded in cutting a little opening at one end of the sac, out of which first issued jaws, then antennee, then its head, and then its body. It was free. Instead of flying away, as one would have thought a reasonable insect ought to do, the bee turned with angry gestures upon the little ball of white silk into which had collapsed the enswathments out of which it had just escaped. Upon this she fast- ened her claws, thrust her sting ferociously into it several times, and then, as though she had satisfied her sense of justice and vengeance, spread her wings and began to ascend. There was an angry hum in her wings, and an ugly look in the still outthrust sting, which led me to step back a pace or two lest I might come in for a share of her wrath. She followed me for a little dis- aioe tance, and then, changing her mind, mounted into the air, and scape. 2 pee in a moment or two was hovering over a fragrant honey- Bonds. suckle blossom, apparently solacing herself for her recent insult by the sweets of nectar. What an escapade that was! And, if the bee only knew it, what a story of “hairbreadth ’scapes” she might have told to her comrades of the hive when she returned home. But how fared the spider? This question interested me. I stepped up to the web again, and after a few moments’ waiting saw her go down her web lines to the roll of silken swathing. There seemed to be a slight movement of surprise at the character of the object; but if she was greatly disappointed she made little demonstration of the same. She seized the silken ball within her mandibles, turned upon her path, and carried it back to her shield, on the upper part of which she fastened it, somewhat after the manner of a trussed insect set aside for food. I could not satisfy myself whether she had noticed the escape of her prey before this return. But evidently she perceived it now. A little while afterward I found that the swathing cloth had disappeared, and I have no doubt that the spider took it within her jaws and comforted herself by feeding upon it; perhaps a poor substitute for the juicy morsel which she had anticipated, but nevertheless, even with a spider, I suppose, “a half loaf is better than no bread.” I observe that the location of the web makes a great difference in the amount of food obtained by the spider. Those webs which have a favorable position for the flight of insects, in the neighborhood of the honeysuckle blossoms of my manse yard, for example, or in positions on the ampelopis vines easily approached by insects, have an abundant PROCURING FOOD AND FEEDING. 259 supply of food. Others, less favorably situated, are seen feeding less rarely. In this matter of location the spider is very much dependent _ upon chance. The force or endurance of a current of wind Location during the first aeronautic flight, or the particular obstruction Controls 5 : : ; : Food. upon which the balloon may be arrested, will be circumstances determining the future habitat of the Orbweaver. More frequently the range of life action is determined by the po- sition in which the maternal cocoon is suspended, the natural tendency of spiderlings after egress being to distribute themselves in the imme- diate vicinity of their birth. But Orbweavers do crawl about from point to point and shift the site of their snares. I have known one to change its position by passing along one or two intervening city fences into an ad- joining yard. The course and extent of these migrations are determined by the position and continuity of the foliage. But so strong is the seden- tary habit of Orbweavers that they will suffer a great amount of priva- tion before leaving the neighborhood, or indeed the immediate site of their snares. If for any reason this should happen to be poorly stocked with the creatures’ natural food, their chance for growth and life is poor indeed; and I have no doubt that sometimes they perish from starvation. In certain positions it is doubtless true that the excess of life goes to supply the lack of life nutrition. In other words, spiders are cannibals, ; and prey upon each other. The cocoons formed by female Orb- Feeding weavers usually send forth large colonies of younglings. As soon oa as they set up housekeeping for themselves they begin to prey upon each other and upon all other sorts of araneads. The strong, or skillful, or fortunate devour the weaker, less cunning, and the unlucky. A few only survive; the great majority must go to give nourish- ment to the few and secure the perpetuation of the species. Undoubtedly, in certain sites, this redundancy of life through maternal fecundity is an important, even an essential, factor in the food supply of spiders. One who has observed the habit of spiders to spin their webs across cowpaths, footpaths, and the various trails leading through meadows, pas- ture lands, and woodlands, must have had occasion to reflect upon the uncertainty of spider possessions, and perhaps have felt a touch of pity for the industrious creatures whose pains- taking work is so continually broken down by passing animals and men. It is certainly true that great loss is thus caused, and that spiders are con- tinually subject to the destruction of their snares by all manner of passing creatures; yet there is some compensation for this destruction. I have often noticed that, as I walked back and forth over the fields, the grasshoppers, crickets, and other insects were stirred up by my move- ments, leaped or flew to this side or to that, and in their alarm and haste numbers of them struck the snares of the near by spiders, were at once entangled, and became the prey of the waiting proprietors. ‘Thus it Beating up Game. 260 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. comes about that the very means of destruction to one proprietor becomes a means for furnishing abundant supplies to another; and doubtless that which at one time serves to destroy, at another time brings food to the larder of the same spider. There are not many animals that enjoy a like distinction of having human unfriends.“ beat up” the game for them as does the hunter spider silently seated at its araneal “ run.” The ability of spiders to endure prolonged abstinence is very great, and to this end nature has admirably arranged their constitution. When the abdomen is opened in dissection a large quantity of adipose matter comes into view, which supports and separates the dif- ferent internal organs. This reservoir of fat is a storehouse of nutriment, which enables spiders to bear very long abstinence. When they have been deprived of food for a long time, the abdomen becomes smaller and shriveled up. I have at this writing in my possession one of our American tarantulas, Eurypelma Hentzii, which has had nothing to eat for a period of more than seven months.! During that time I have supplied it freely and continually with water, and it appears to be in en- tire health, and quite active. On several occasions I have preserved the same species quite as long without food. Longer periods of abstinence have been recorded by other observers. Of course, I do not refer to the period of hibernation, during which no food is required, but to absti- nence during the seasons when spiders are wont to feed. When an opportunity is given for feeding, they appear to be able to make up for lost time by consuming an extraordinary amount of food. The number of insects which a healthy spider is able to devour Enor- during a day, without apparent imconyenience, has often been a mous 5 ; : 5 Reode great surprise to me. Before reaching: maturity, such feeding rapidly produces a very apparent effect in growth. A half-grown spider, happening upon a location visited numerously by insects, will ex- perience astonishing increase within a brief time. Long Fasting. INU. The manner of feeding among other tribes is not greatly different from that of Orbweavers. The Lineweavers swathe their captives in the manner aboye described, and eat them while they hang back Compara- downwards upon their snares, revolving the carcass and sucking ae ing its juices in the same manner as Orbweavers. In their mode of Habits. feeding, the Tubeweavers, although Sedentary spiders, quite re- semble that which prevails. among the Tunnelweavers and the Wandering tribes. That is to say, they simply seize prey with their paws and fangs, and feed upon them without swathing. Such Tubeweavers as Agalena nevia and Tegenaria medicinalis seize the insects as they drop 1 From the latter part of October, 1888, until June 19th, 1889. a PROCURING FOOD AND FEEDING. 261 upon the outspread sheet, or into the sheeted pouch which forms the trap, and then dragging them to their tubular dens suck the juices. The Wandering spiders leap upon their prey, falling on them with the fangs, palps, and united claws of the front pairs of legs. Ordinarily, the first spring proves successful in capturing the victim, and, if it be not so, I believe that it is not often repeated. I have frequently observed Hentz’s tarantula feeding in confinement. When the spider was disposed to eat, an insect was seized with the fore legs, palps, and mandibles, which rapidly conveyed it to the mouth. In this position it was held by the palps, which, as the spider had occasion, also turned the carcass, aided by the mandibles, the latter organs mean- Fic. 238. Hentz’s tarantula eating a locust. while crushing the victim. (See Fig. 238.) During this act Tarantula was anchored to the rug on which it was wont to sit by several threads at- tached to the spinnerets. On one occasion,-while in the act of eating a locust, a second locust approached near enough to be seized. It was struck upon the ground, where it was held down until the tarantula, moving slowly around, oyerspun and swathed it, evidently reserving it for future use. I may say here that my experience in keeping other large spiders is that there is quite as much danger from overfeeding as underfeeding. I Habits of have found the best success by giving a generous supply of liv- Tarantula of food during the summer and early autumn, and withholding food almost entirely during the remainder of the year. I was particular, however, to keep a vessel continually supplied with fresh water within the box. Spiders require water quite as much as other animals, and failure to keep them supplied will be fatal to health and life. 262 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. I have sometimes succeeded in tempting tarantulas to suck the juice of a bit of raw beef, but the only food that can be relied upon is living insects; and these spiders appear to be able to lay up within the four or five months of summer enough nourishment, in connection with a free supply of water, to last them during the entire year. These Mygalide do not be- come torpid in winter time, but remain active throughout the entire sea- son, provided they are kept in a room heated to a moderate temperature. If exposed to a severe cold they are soon benumbed, but quickly recover when again brought into a warm atmosphere. IV. Although spiders can long survive without food it is absolutely neces- sary, as far as my experience extends, that they should be continually sup- plied with water. I have frequently received species of various peaace tribes which had been shipped through the post office and were taken out of their packages apparently in the last stages of life. These I have often succeeded in restoring by applying them to water— placing them in such a position that their mouth organs would be near or over a drop of the liquid. In a longer or shorter time, according to the degree of exhaustion, but also, I think, varying with the peculiar consti- tution of the species, many of these would be restored and become as active as ever. This is a common experience with those who have kept spiders in artificial conditions for the sake of observation and experimentation. Mr. Campbell says of the common English house spider, Tegenaria guyonii, that the habits of the females of this species, spending as they do an ap- parently sedentary life in dry places, render it difficult to see how they can obtain water except during their occasional excursions. Yet the frequent supply of water or a damp atmosphere is necessary for spiders. He had kept a Tegenaria guyonii for more than twenty-seven months without any liquid except that which she derived from insects. In one case a spider that he was keeping was found lying helpless at the bottom of the bottle with her legs drawn close to her body. He immediately filled a tube with water and dropped some on her back and in front of her. She quickly balanced herself, and, wetting the last joints of her palps, placed them to her maxille. This she did five times and then adyanced and ‘lowered her whole body so that the maxille were dipped in the water. Thus she remained, apparently motionless, for a few seconds, when she raised herself to her normal position, and repeated the draught after an interval of a few minutes. Shortly afterwards she mounted to her usual roost at the shoulder of the bottle, with her abdomen consider- Drinking PROCURING FOOD AND FEEDING. 263 This mode of drinking as described by Mr. Campbell accurately ex- presses the common method as I have observed it. Im the case of large spiders that have long been kept from water, such, for example, as Hentz’s tarantula, the spider will sometimes rush to the water, greedily drop the maxille and mouth organs into it, the body being partly sustained in the meantime by the outspread legs. Sometimes the mouth will be lifted up for a little while, and then again sunk into the water. Many sedentary spiders, and indeed numbers of other tribes, must ob- tain a considerable supply of water during the process of cleansing them- selves. The little drops of dew and rain which gather upon the hairs of the legs are brushed or squeezed into the mouth when the limbs are drawn through the mandibles in the process of toilet making, as described in Vol. Il. of this work. Cambridge observes that drought as well as excess of wet, but more especially the former, and unseasonable weather of all kinds have a strong effect in reducing the number of spiders. Some species found in marshy places are so susceptible to injury, from lack of moisture, that they cannot be carried alive in a box for more than an hour or two, unless a small por- tion of damp moss be placed with them. Others, on the contrary, appear to thrive best on the most arid spots, and in the hottest sun. As a rule, how- ever, spiders are thirsty souls, constantly requiring water to drink.? I have received one authentic report of spiders drinking milk. It was sent me by Mrs. Mary Treat, to whom it was communicated by one of her lady correspondents, Mrs. J. B. Harrison. The species referred to was not identified, but the statement made is that the spider spun a thread from the side of a box down to a milk pan, and then deliberately and carefully descended inside the vessel until it came to the milk, which it then sucked. This was observed in several cases. One cannot help wondering whether the spider’s taste was sufficiently keen to distinguish between the milk and its ordinary drink. Probably not. The same lady speaks of a spider whose snare was on a pump in the yard, and which every night spun a delicate line just across the spout, and from this position procured drinking «water. Does the spider eat its web? is a question which has often been asked, and variously answered by both scientific and non scientific observers. In point of fact, the Orbweaver does eat its web. It is its invari- able habit to gather together the particles of its broken snare, when it clears away the wreckage to make a new web, and ball it underneath its jaws with its feet and palps. It then takes it into its mouth and apparently sucks from it all the viscid material and all the other nutritious matter—dealing with it, so far as I can observe, very much in the same way that it does with a fly. The manner in which a fractured web is eaten may be frequently seen Drinking Milk. Bating Its Web. 1 Cambridge, “Spiders of Dorset,” Introduction, page xxxii. 264 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. after the morning is well advanced, or after the snare has been broken by the struggles of a large insect. The spider runs out upon her radial lines, and with great rapidity cuts here and there the supporting threads, gath- ering with a quick motion of her feet the various parts underneath her body and balling them around the mouth. Thence she runs back to the hub, whence she approaches another part of the web, as she moves clip- ping the segments and rolling the parts together with her feet. Her ac- tion is facilitated by the fact that when the supporting radii are cut the interradials collapse, and, by reason of the viscidity of the beads, mass together in a lump. ‘This the spider seizes, condenses by a deft and rapid action of her feet, adds it to the little ball already gathered, then runs along a line which she is always careful to preserve, to a main foundation line leading to her shelter or nest, and settling herself imbibes the juices of her morsel at her leisure. An English observer records a note which indicates that certain tube- weaving spiders consume their snares in winter time. A species of Aga- lena or Tegenaria was kept during the summer abundantly fed, Agalena its energy and excessive nutrition being largely consumed in in- eee creasing its web, adding layer to layer, one upon another, in texture almost as close as tissue paper. When the winter came and flies disappeared, the observer expected his pet to hibernate or become torpid. On the contrary, however, it seemed to be as active as ever in mid- winter. It was then noticed that certain curious holes appeared in the web, which looked as if it had been cut away with some sharp instrument, and it kept on going and going, until altogether six or seyen superficial inches of this paper like web had been devoured. The spider did not thrive on this food, and became very thin. It lived, however, until the following summer, and once more grew fat on abundance of flies.1 We The capture of food is always more or less disastrous to the snare of the Orbweaver, as may be easily seen by a study of the various figures rep- resenting that action. The insects themselves in their struggles thoroughly twist up the whole viscid section upon which they are caught, and thus throw it into a confused tangle of merged, crossed, and diverg- Wear and ing lines, which extend in every direction. If the insect is a Tear of : 3 : Snares, Very large one, the amount of breakage is much greater. So also when the spider runs from her den or hub to seize the insect, her own action in swathing her prey increases the confusion of the lines. Frequently she is compelled to cut out the radii and portions of the spiral space in order to accomplish her capture; and after the insect is swathed a further damage frequently occurs by the act of the spider in cutting out 1 Gilbert R. Redgrave, “Science Gossip,” 1872, page 140. PROCURING FOOD AND FEEDING. and transporting the mum- mied insect. If the day happens to be a very good day, viewed from the spi- der’s standpoint, or a bad one from that of the flies; if the net site happens to be one where insects are nu- merous, the web will pre- sent a very forlorn appear- ance eyen early in the day, and by the time evening has come it will be but a tat- tered remnant of the beau- tiful object which caught the morning dew and glis- tened in the first sunbeams. Fig. 239 is a sketch of a portion of web of Epeira strix, from which a freshly captured insect had been taken. The lines are drawn very accurately from nature. In the act of captur- ing an insect it becomes necessary for the spider to 965 Fic. 239. Section of Epeira’s orb after an insect has been captured. piece together the parts of the web which are separated either by the breakage of the insect’s struggles or the intentional cutting of the spider herself. This mending is done with great deftness and skill. The broken parts are held together by one or more of the feet, usually the hind feet. The claws on one side of the body grasp Broken Webs. Mending one portion of the armature, while those on the other grasp the opposite broken part. At the same time a thread is thrown out from the spinnerets, is attached to w the margins of the fracture, and the rent is pieced together in a n manner almost impossible to describe, and indeed to observe at all, Fie. 240. so rapidly is it accomplished. Piece of z broken Fig. 240 is a.piece of a broken radius spliced by Epeira strix. radius R represents the radius; L, L, lines which were run along either spliced byEpei- side thereof; and W, a zigzag cross line by which the three straight ra strix. lines were warped together. At other times the angular points of the fracture on either side are simply held together by one or more lines, as the case requires, thus taking the place of the sundered radii and lost spirals by which the segments had been held together. 266 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. It frequently occurs that the insects entangled upon a snare are never used by the spider; although a most voracious creature, her ap- Unused petite is necessarily limited, and, at all events, she becomes some- ae eae what dainty as her appetite is satisfied, and will not trouble her- Insects. ‘Self with insects of a minor sort. Indeed, many large spiders, except when very hungry, pay no attention to the small insects strung upon their webs. It is surprising how many of these will be arrested in the course of the day. I have counted as many as two hundred and thirty-six insects, great and small, hanging upon various parts of the web of Epeira A Mos- sclopetaria, after the proprietor had abandoned the day’s work quito : : : F aan and retired to her nest to await the evening meal. One day, while crossing the long bridge over Deal Lake, Asbury Park, I stopped to count the number of insects upon a web spun just beneath the bridge, and noticed that thirty-six mosquitoes had been entangled. Cer- tainly this was a goodly amount of service for one spider to render a most unappreciative and ungrateful humanity. A friend has recently been deeply interested in the problem whether dragon flies, or, as they are sometimes called, mosquito hawks, might not be reared in sufficient numbers along the seashore to keep in check the immense number of mosquitoes that sometimes make life at our watering places very unsatisfactory to guests. There is no telling what artificial propagation may accomplish in this direction, and, at all events, all experiments in natural science are worthy of consideration until they are demonstrated to be impracticable. But I venture to suggest that the most effective nat- ural checks upon the increase of insect pests are their natural enemies, the spiders. If men would abate the unreasonable prejudice which they have against this most friendly and helpful animal, they probably would suffer less from the raids of that piping and piercing pest, the American mosquito. The spider is doubtless Nature’s chief check against the undue increase of insects. Despised Arachne is entitled by her services to occupy the chief place among invertebrate philanthropists. She is, I might al- Nature’s most say, absolutely harmless to mankind. With the exception Check to % D c 2 Oye aaa + mo . Teens of an occasional alleged “spider bite” issuing in suffering o1 death, and delivered by the traditional and indefinite “ black spider,” I know of no evil that can be charged against her. ‘True, as long ago the wise Proverbialist said, “The spider taketh hold with hands, and is in king’s palaces.”! She builds her cobwebs in our homes, but there is no harm in that. If one will take the pains to study the cobwebs, they will be found beautiful structures, and, at all events, the housewife can brush them away without encouraging hatred for the harmless creature “ 1 Holy Scripture, Proverbs xxx. 28. PROCURING FOOD AND FEEDING. 267 that makes them. For, be it considered, the spider only comes into our homes because mosquitoes and other insects also come! She comes, not seeking to harm us, but to help us, and therefore, for the sake of her mo- tive, if she be not welcome, let her, at least, be thought of kindly. The number of insects of all sorts and sizes destroyed by spiders sim- ply passes calculation. If one will walk out on a dewy morning, with his eyes open for spider webs, he will be surprised to find how many there are, and how various, too, the forms of spinningwork that meet him. All over this new plowed field he will find them fresh spun; in yonder meadow, also, hanging by myriads upon myriads on the grasses. Along that hedge row they are nested, and have woven their dainty snares, and built their nests on the feathery ferns. In the branches of these shrubs and on the foliage of yonder trees are other hosts. If one will push back the foliage, he will see yet others, spiders of the Wandering group, that stalk their prey as do the wild beasts of the forest, crouching on trunk and branches and lurking among the oe leaves. If one turns to the earth, other myriads are seen, whose a ae homes are on the ground, or who build slight webs close to the pist. surface. These have laid the axe at the very root of the tree, and are destroying the insects ere they rise from the surface to visit our homes. All these unnumbered multitudes of spiders are engaged, during every moment of their existence, in waging relentless war upon the insect world. When one considers how many spiders there are, and that they all thus feed upon their natural food, the insects, he may form some just conception of how needful they are to mankind. I do not hesitate to say that, unless Nature should provide some equivalent in the way of check upon insects, man could not dwell in many inhabited parts of the world were it not for the friendly service of spiders. CELAUP INH xv. EFFECTS AND USES OF SPIDER POISON. Wuat are the effects of spider venom? Nothing connected with the life history of spiders has given rise to greater diversity of opinion than this question. The well nigh universal belief is that all spiders are very poisonous and their bite apt to be serious and even fatal to human beings. It is this, doubtless, which maintains the most unjust popular dread of and hostility to these useful animals. On the other hand, naturalists have been generally inclined to an opin- ion quite the reverse of the popular one, and have held spiders as harm- less to man. Current Opinions. ile Let us first inquire what light anatomy can throw upon the subject. More than two hundred years ago Leeuwenhoek gave a substantially cor- rect description of the fang of a spider, pointing out the small aperture through which the liquid poison is emitted. Since that time the poison apparatus has been frequently described, and any reps one with a microscope can easily rons Of _ satisfy himself of the facts. What- Anatomy. ever may be the effect of the secre- tion from the poison glands of spiders, it is certain that the organs and armature secret- ing and conveying the venom are formida- ble enough to suggest the idea of injury to Fis. 241. View of the falces (fx) and fangs creatures affected thereby. The fangs of Ar- Sige a ey nave ie giope cophinaria are shown in Fig. 241, where shown in outline, and the opening (o)in they are enlarged about fifteen times. The ene or ay mandibles from which the drawing was made were taken from a nearly adult female. The falx, fx, was about two mil- limetres long and one millimetre wide. The fang itself was about one millimetre in length. When examined under the microscope it showed very clearly the matrix in which the poison gland had been placed, as seen in the outline drawing (camera lucida) at Fig. 242, gm. One also sees the canal, en, which contained the duct, and the little aperture at the extremity, o, from which the secretion of the gland issued. (268) EFFECTS AND USES OF SPIDER POISON. 269 The gland itself was well observed in a dissection made from Epeira domiciliorum, and represented at Fig. 243, multiplied about twenty-five times. The sac is covered with muscular fibre, as shown in the drawing, and yet more magnified in the camera lucida sketch of a portion of the sac at Fig. 244. This muscular provision implies a formidable arrangement for expressing the contents of the gland through the duct and its canal out of the opening in the fang, o. Still another view is given at Fig. 245, the poison apparatus of Epeira di- ademata. The sac or poison gland, g, is inclosed in its coating of striated mus- cles; the duct, d, about the length of the gland, enters the falx and fang, f, and the outlet is shown at 0, which appears to be along a little shallow groove in the jy¢. 24, Much magnified outline of the falx outer surface of the inside face of the 24 fang of Argiope cophinaria. g.m., matrix ie A of the poison gland; en, canal which contains fangs. The outlet (0) is shown again at the duct leading from the gland; o, opening xX, magnified about thirty times. The on the side of the fang; tt, the teeth; ot, dotted é E outline of the outer row. muscular fibres coil spirally and very regularly around the bag. The aperture is not only an oval slit, but the side towards the point is doubly beveled, thus facilitating the emission and direction of the venom. As the discharge of the poison is not dependent upon the mechanical action of erecting the fang, as in the case of poisonous snakes, it is not improbable that the spider has the power of withholding the poison at will. As the emission of the venom depends on the compression of the muscles by the poison sac, and this compression is within the volition Fic. 243. View of the muscular system inclosing the poison gland of Epeira domiciliorum. Camera lucida sketch. 25. of the spider, we may well suppose that the animal often strikes without feeling the necessity of injecting poison into the wound, but destroys its prey simply by piercing. That this arrangement is general among the tribes of spiders appears by a similar examination of any other indi- vidual. 1 From “Science Gossip,’ December, 1867, page 270, Mr. Henry Davis. 270 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. Fig. 246 shows the poison sac, gland, and one of the fangs of the Mason spider (Nemesia cementaria) as dissected by Blanchard.' | The ver- tical articulation of the fangs, or movement up and down, which char- acterizes this tribe of spiders, may be noted in the cut. Fig. A ae 247 represents the formidable FREES mandibles of the large My- gale, popularly known as the “tarantula,” drawn twice the size of nature. The outlets for the poison from the fangs ee saree eee are here very manifest. They magnified, of a sec- are situated near the point of ee ESE the inner surface, and are of of Epeira domicilio. the shape represented in the = figure. On one side of the falx is a formidable row of ten teeth. The other side is protected by a picket of closely placed stiff red bristles. It might be expected that such a formidable armature would certainly inflict a grievous hurt, whatever may be the case concerning the feebler armature of our ordinary familiar spider fauna. Another illustration of these organs is given at Fig. 248, which repre- sents the fang and falx of an immature Drassus, multiplied about twelve times, taken from a camera lucida drawing made by the late Mr, Richard Beck.2. The manner in which the falces and fangs are related to the mouth organs is shown at Fig. 249, which is a view from beneath of the cephalothorax of Epeira quadrata. The lip is seen at the tip of the sternum, which lies just under the maxille, which organs in turn are situated just beneath the falx. The moults of spiders form admirable specimens in which to examine microscopically the external character of the fang. They not only show the opening far more distinctly than the entire organ taken from the animal, but they present the fangs in a most favorable position for examination. In view of the above results, we are free to say Fic. 245. Poison gland (g), duct (d), that as far as the testimony of anatomy goes, it is ae Se ae ae pets plain that spiders of all tribes are abundantly more enlarged, to show the ex : : 5 5 cee . ternal opening, o. (After Davis.) provided with an armature for dealing an injurious wound to those whom they strike. One can hardly suppose that such a gland as I haye described, with such an attachment, is intended to secrete any other substance than one which provides for the defense or nourish- ment of its possessor. 1 Cuvier, Regn. Anim. Arachnides. 2 “Science Gossip,” 1866, page 202. EFFECTS AND USES OF SPIDER POISON. 271 Me From the indications of anatomy we turn to the testimony of natural- ists and other observers of the effects of spider venom. First in order of value, for their extent and thoroughness, are the experiments of Mr. Black- wall,! an abstract of which I present. The experi- menter induced a female Epeira diademata to bite him on the inside of the left hand, near the base of the fore finger. It continued to force its fangs deeper into the flesh, during a period of many seconds, and at last quitted its hold volunta- rily, when a little blood issued from the wound. Though the spider was in a state of great excitement from pre- vious irritation, Mr. Blackwall did not experience more Evidence of Effects. 2 . o Fic. 246. The poison gland, inconvenience from its bite than from a puncture made auct, and fang of Neme- near it at the same time with a fine needle. The ef- 2 cementaria. (After aes : 2 5 Blanchard.) fects of both injuries appeared to be very similar. Again, a highly exasperated female Diademata was allowed to seize him on the inner side of the left fore arm near the carpus. It continued for more than a minute to bury its fangs deeper into the flesh, Effect of and, on quitting voluntarily, a little blood flowed from the wound- =e ed part, near which a puncture was made simultaneously with a fine needle. The effects of this and the preceding experiment were alike. In both cases the air was sultry and the temperature as high as seventy-five degrees. These two wounds were inflicted in the month of July. In the latter part of August, a powerful and much irritated female Epeira quadrata bit Mr. Blackwall on the inner side of the left fore arm near the carpus. It retained its hold for the space of five minutes, occasionally forc- ing its fangs deeper into the flesh, and, on quit- ting it voluntarily, blood issued freely from the punctures. The effects of this bite did not dif- fer materially from those of a wound made at the same time with a needle of average size, the intensity and duration of pain being very similar in both instances. Perea eciencrinn During the same month spiders of various Tarantula. x 2. (From nature.) Species were induced, under the influence of ex- eee rience othe fang are chows, cited feelings, to seize a piece of clean window andthe openinginthefangsthrough glass with their fangs, when a transparent fluid, Sc epenoeares which escaped from the small aperture near their extremity, was deposited upon it. The application of this fluid to the tongue did not produce any sensible effect upon that organ. 1 Linn. Trans., Vol. X XI., pages 31-37. 272 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. In order to compare the effects of spider venom with that of hymen- opterous insects, Mr. Blackwall touched to his tongue the poison emitted under like circumstances with the above from the sting of the common wasp (Vespa vulgaris), the hive bee (Apis melifi- ca), and the humble bee (Bombus terrestris). A powerfully acrid, pungent taste was the immediate consequence of applying the insect poison to the tongue. A contrast equally remarkable was evinced when these insect fluids were transmitted into the recent wound. That secreted by the in- Inocula- . ; 6 3 sects caused inflammation, accompanied tion Test. 5 . aie = by acute pain, effects which, if pro- Fic. 248. A falx and"fang (f)of duced at all by that secreted by the spiders, were Drassus. (After Beck.) A scarcely appreciable. Baron Walckenaer also experimented upon his own person, allowing himself to be bitten by the largest species of spiders around Paris without consequent swelling or reddening. The small punctures made by Walck- the spider’s fangs gave him no other sensation than would have enaer’s : ; Witness been produced by a pin or a needle thrust into the finger. It is his judgment that the venom of a spider has not as great an effect upon man as that of a wasp, bee, bed bug, flea, or even smaller insects. ! Rey. Pickard-Cambridge often tested the absence of venom in some of the strongest British species.2 Dugés made experiments upon himself with the largest spiders, such as Segestria and Tegenaria, without producing any physical pain or wound that could not readily be dissipated. M. Eugene Simon re- cords that he was struck in his finger by the fangs of Lycosa tarentula, which affected him after the fashion of the prick of two needles. The pain was lively, the blood flowed, but the little wound healed without any special ill effects.2 A correspondent of “Science Gos- , sip”* says that his son was bitten in his closed hand fvs.2%9. Thesternumand by a spider, which left two small blood stains. His peu cab wife was bitten, but there was simply a slight swelling. beneath. (After Stave- : : ley.) Another correspondent writes that a boy was bitten at Cape Colony by a large spider, which is called a tarantula, so badly as to make his finger bleed, but no further effect followed. Mr. George B. Lownes, a gentleman living in the suburbs of Phila- delphia, informed me that on one occasion, while walking through a lane, 1 Aptéres, Vol. II., page 423. 2 Spiders of Dorset, Vol. I., Introduction, page xxv. 8 Histoire Naturelle des Araignees, page 27. 4G. B., Science Gossip, September, 1868, page 231. EFFECTS AND USES OF SPIDER POISON. 2M, he stopped to pick up a flat stone under which a ground spider (probably Lycosa scutulata) was nested in a little cave along with her cocoon. The spider sprang upon his finger, making a puncture like the prick of a pin. The wound bled, but had no other inconvenient effect. My own personal experience with spider bites has been very limited, as I never but once could succeed in teasing my captives to bite me. While roughly handling a large Epeira insularis, August 29th, The Au- 7 was struck by her in the ball of the thumb. The fangs left ore Bx two slight punctures about one-eighth inch apart. At the mouth perience. aide ght part. of each puncture on the skin was a little drop of transparent colorless liquid, evidently venom, which had been extruded from the poison gland. I waited a little space to allow this to enter the system, and then applied the liquid to the tip of the tongue. It had an acrid taste, leaving a remainder in the mouth something like the astringency of alum. Not the slightest inconvenience resulted from this wound. No irritation or swelling of any sort followed, and I was conscious of no pain except the very slight sensation produced by the original incision, which was no greater than that of the prick of a dull pin point. III. We turn now to some of the evidence that spiders do inflict a serious wound. Mr. J. M. Meek, of Waiwera, New Zealand, sent the following narrative of the effects of the bite of the katipo, or native spi- Venom- der,! which appears to be a species of Latrodectus: “On the ous Spi morning of the 24th ult., at three o'clock, my son (a man of der of . : rs . , de) og Noe. thirty-one years of age) was awakened from his sleep by the Zealand, bite of one of those poisonous insects, and came into our bed- room about an hour afterwards, and exclaimed to his mother and myself, ‘I am bitten by one of those spiders that the natives have so often spoken to me about, and am full of pain. See, here it is, in the bottom of the candlestick.’ I looked at the insect, whose body was about the size of an ordinary pea, and in color nearly approaching to black. His mother, on looking at his back, saw the puncture the spider had made, and immediately commenced sucking the wound. I proceeded to the hotel, and obtained the services of Dr. Mohnbeer, when, on my return with him to my house, my son was suffering the most excruciating pain in the groin, the virus apparently working its way in that direction. After an applica- tion of ammonia by the doctor, the pain shifted from the groin and worked its way up the spine, affecting the arms and chest during the remainder of the day and lasting till the following morning, my son moaning with pain the whole time. “On Tuesday the pain became intense, the virus working its way into 1 Popular Science Gossip, 1877, page 46. 274 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. his legs, causing the veins to swell very much. We applied turnip poul- tice to the wound, and when this was taken off a quantity of black fluid came from the sore. During the afternoon the pain in the legs and big toes still continued. Dr. Mohnbeer prescribed a liniment, which, after rubbing well into the legs, caused a black, inky colored fluid to emit itself through the pores of the skin in large drops, from which time my son began to improve, and has continued im- proving eyer since, but suffers much from weak- ness. From the time he was bitten on Mon- day till the Friday following he lost exactly twelve pounds in flesh. I forgot to state that when he was first bitten I gave him small doses of brandy, at intervals during the first two days, which seemed to have the effect of greatly relieving the pain. f “T am informed by Te Hemera, native chief Fic. 250. Latrodectus mactans, adult here, and also by female. Twice natural size.* other natives, that many fatal cases among their ranks have taken place by the bite of the katipo; they also be- lieve the sufferer is sure to die if they cannot find the spider; but, on the contrary, if they find it and burn it in the fire, the patient gets well in three days. If they cannot find the insect, they set fire to the house and burn buildings, effects, and everything else. In this case the spider was found, and Dr. Mohnbeer has it pre- served in spirits in his surgery. I write this to caution persons to look well to their bedclothes before retiring to rest, as I have witnessed persons suffermg from the bite of snakes and other reptiles in Australia, but never saw any one in such agony as my son during the time the poison was taking effect.” Notwithstanding this very clear and appar- ently trustworthy account and the examples which follow, M. Lucas, a well known natural- ist, gives a testimony which is exactly the re- 5. 9, ratrodectus mactans, male. verse concerning the yenomous effects of the Twice natural size. Native Notions. 1 For this cut and the two next following I am indebted to the courtesy of the Secre- tary of the United States Department of Agriculture. EFFECTS AND USES OF SPIDER POISON. 275 very same spider. He states that he had studied the habits of Latrodec- tus in Algeria, where it is frequently found, and that he never observed that its bite was venomous, although he himself had been bitten several times without any bad effect.1 Can it be that the very state of mind in which the naturalist approaches the inquiry neutralizes the poison by nullifying the effects of an excited imagination ? In the entomological journal known as “Insect Life,” issued by the United States Department of Agriculture,? there is an excellent article giving the evidence for and against the possibility of a fatal bite from Lucas Denies. our common spiders. authenticated are given of Latrodectus mactans, as One of them resulted fatal The symptoms of the of the victims were negroes. from Mr. F. W. New ber of cases from ee one variety of Katipo. ave a y and describes a practice, which, however, He considers that the symp himself make it evident a fully affected by a narcot being absorbed into circu brain, and nervous system tent, almost amounting to was treated with spirits of wound, and with ammonia bined with brandy in con Mr. Wright adds that quainted with these spi sidered their bite very dan Fic. 252. Varied markings of the abdomen. b,c, d, e, f, g, upper side of abdo- men; h, under side of the specimen marked g; e, f, g,h are enlarged two, c and d three times, b four times the original. In this article two cases which appear to be well the effects of the bite of found in North Carolina. ly, and the other seriously. bite are fully detailed. Both The same article quotes Wright,® who gives a num- hearsay of fatal bites by spider in New Zealand, serious case in his own did not result in death. toms of the case treated by that the man was power- ic and acid poison, which lation affected the heart, to a very considerable ex- fatal syncope. The man ammonia, applied to the and water, afterward com- siderable doses internally. the Maories are well ac- ders, and have always con- gerous. The tufts of sedge upon the sea beach are the favorite haunts of the red spotted variety, and the natives avoid sleeping in such places. Half a stone’s throw inland, however, they do not fear the “Katipo,’ as they call the aranead. This statement appears to me to throw discredit upon the entire testimony of the natives, for it is not possible to believe that the venomous character of the spider can be affected by a simple removal from the sedgy growth along the seashore to the herbage half a stone’s throw inland. Mr. Gosse* records the effect produced upon one of his servants who * Annals Entomological Society of France, 1843, page 8. ? Insect Life, Vol. I., No. 7, pages 204-11. ’ Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, 1869. +P. H. Gosse: Naturalist’s Sojourn in Jamaica, page 241. 276 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. was bitten by one of the large, beautiful Nephilas who spin their huge orbwebs in the forests of Jamaica. Coming through the woods at early dawn his face came into collision with one of the strong webs. He stopped to brush it off, and immediately felt some large insect run down his body, which presently bit him on his great toe. The pain was less severe than that following the sting of a wasp, or even the puncture of a Tabanus; but the man described it as having three distinct paroxysms—if one may use such a term for so small a matter. The pain was not of long duration. Here, as in so many other cases, the record fails positively to show that the wound was really inflicted by a spider, but that may be inferred. An English gentleman records that while removing some old boxes he felt a sharp nip in the hand between the fore finger and thumb, and found a large spider fastened on his hand, which at first he could not push off, as his fangs were fastened in the skin. After killing the spider he found two small holes, one twenty-fourth of an inch apart, filled with blood. There was a tingling sensation in the part for eighteen hours afterward, with a tenderness in the wound. It must be confessed that the experiments of naturalists, as well as their observations, are un- favorable to the popular belief in the dangerous character of the spider’s stroke, except in the case of the very large species, such as our American tarantula. I can only say for myself, that having handled thousands of living spiders, taking them up with my fingers, and permitting them to crawl on hands or face, I have never experienced the Fic. 253. The Saltigrade spider, 4: , : 5 zy ae: z Phidippus morsitans (Walck., Slightest inconvenience, and have only been con- FATED GH ZIEh sciously bitten two or three times. Other than this, if I have been pricked by the fangs, the wound has been so insignificant as entirely to escape notice. Yet the belief in the venomous, if not fatal, character of the spider's stroke is so deeply rooted in the popular mind that it would be almost impossible to eradicate it. The question arises, is not this The Pop- general belief worthy of credence? If it were unsupported by ular No- ¢ ; . A as eae re facts, I certainly should not hesitate to answer, no! ‘There is so much ignorance, amounting even to absurdity, as to the danger- ous character of many insects and other inferior animals, and ignorance has so often shaded into superstition, that one is justified in holding even a widespread popular opinion of no value until the contrary is demon- strated. However, the problem is much confused by what appear to be ‘Science Gossip, page 165, 1868. EFFECTS AND USES OF SPIDER POISON. Dit “I authentic facts concerning wounds inflicted from time to time by certain spiders. I have met many cases recorded in public prints, in magazines, and personal letters. It is true that in most cases the testimony can hardly be regarded as reliable. It amounts, usually, to this: That some one was bitten by an insect, the result being either serious or Indefinite fatal; that a “black spider” was seen somewhere near the in- Test dividual * the couch or bed or seat which th ae ividual, or near the couch or bed or seat upon whic e individual rested; that the said black spider (it is always a “lack spider,” with no further description) was immediately killed, and therefore no specimen of the individual could be obtained. The indefinite character of such testimony at once excludes it as evidence. But cases somewhat better authenticated are also reported, several of which appear to be worthy of credence. In these examples the same “black spider” figures. But something more definite appears after a little cross questioning; and it is important to note that in most of such cases the testimony centres upon two spiders. One is a well known and widely distributed Lineweaver, Latrodectus mactans, Walck. (the L. verecundum of Hentz), and the other a large black Saltigrade spider which is proba- bly Phidippus morsitans (Walck.).' In most cases Latrodectus is the offending party. Concerning this species there is a very general concensus of popular feeling that it is extremely poisonous, and this feeling is found not only among the colored people and others of the United States and the West India Islands, but in communities in the old world where the genus has representatives. The testimony above quoted concerning this aranead certainly seems to justify the popular belief; yet the well known naturalist, M. Lucas, as we have seen, was bitten by Latrodectus without the least discomfort! (See Appendix for additional facts.) Ve Separate from the question as to the effect of spider yenom upon the human organization, is the question, what is its effect upon the natural enemies and prey of the spider? One writer? says that five or six flies which he fed to an Orbweaver, were trussed up suc- cessively after having been apparently killed. After the lapse of fifteen or thirty minutes, these began to revive, and before the hour was completed, most of them had extricated themselves and got away. The flies which recovered were the last ones thrown into the web. Another observer? describes a conflict between a lineweaying spider and a species of Epeira, in which the latter was wounded by the former, the fangs being sunk into the leg, where the biter hung on like a bull dog. From this moment, Epeira, though much larger, made no attempt to Effects on Insects. 1The Attus audax and A. sexpunctatus of Hentz. ? Edward Sutton, “Science Gossip,” 1868, page 45, 3 “Seience Gossip,” 1876, page 254, 278 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. retaliate upon its puny assailant, but commenced to pull with all its force to liberate the imprisoned limb. This was accomplished after a few sec- onds, when it hurried to its corner and began to work at the Volun- wounded limb with its palpi, falces, and labium. At first he had tary Am- the impression that it was trying to suck the poison from the putation. I , ying P wound, but was surprised to see the spider pull the wounded limb out of its socket and cast it away. On picking up the discarded leg, a small globule of what seemed to be poison was seen glistening on the place where the spider had fastened. This case of voluntary amputation may haye been caused by consciousness of the effect of the poison, but just as likely by the hurt of the puncture and crushing alone. Mr. Blackwall directed his attention to the effects of the poison of spi- ders upon their own order. The following examples will show the unvary- ing result of his investigations. A female Epeira diademata, in Spider 4 violent struggle with a female Ccelotes saxatilus, pierced her age abdomen in the medial line of the dorsal region, about one- Spiders, third of its length from the spinnerets. The wounded spider did not exhibit any marked symptoms of distress, and speedily resumed its accustomed habits. Two female Diadematas were engaged in a severe contest, when one of them was seized by the fangs of her antag- onist near the middle of the right side of the abdomen. A brown fluid flowed from the punctures and soon coagulated. But the spider appeared to be only slightly and very briefly affected by the injury. Another female Diademata in a highly excited state bit itself near the middle of the fe- mur of the left anterior leg. A transparent fluid flowed copiously from the wounded part. Coagulation, however, quickly ensued, after which the spider manifested no unfavorable symptom whatever. A male Tegenaria civilis, in a violent struggle with a female of the same species, deeply inserted his fangs near the middle of the dorsal region of her abdomen, and retained his hold for several seconds. Tegenaria from the punctures thus made a brown fluid issued copiously, and . : . : mate ; aire and in a few minutes coagulated. ‘The injured spider appeared to suffer very little from the severe wounds it had received, as it speedily constructed a small web in a phial in which it was confined, and continued for more than a year to feed freely on the flies introduced to it. A female Ciniflo atrox was bitten by an exasperated female Lycosa agretica near the middle of the cephalothorax. The Lycosa retained its hold for many seconds, and, on quitting it voluntarily, a transparent fluid flowed from the punctures and coagulated. The wounded spider, appar- ently regardless of the injury it had received, spun a web with which it long continued to ensnare its victims. It thus appeared that the injuries inflicted by spiders, in a number of genera and species, seem to exercise no greater degree of influence upon other spiders than upon the human species. EFFECTS AND USES OF SPIDER POISON. 279 Mr. Blackwall then directed his attention to the effects of spider wounds upon insects. His observations were made upon a number of genera of spiders in their assaults upon such insects as wasps, bees, flies, and grasshoppers. The result of these observations, which are recorded in considerable number, is that all these insects sur- vived after the infliction of the spider’s stroke for a period of time, in some cases, as high as three days. The experiments did not present any facts which appear to sanction the opinion that insects are deprived of life much more quickly when pierced by the fangs of spiders than when lacerated mechanically to an equal extent by other means, regard being had in both cases to the vitality of the part injured—a circumstance upon which the suddenness of death largely depends. It is true that the catastrophe is greatly accelerated if spiders maintain a protracted hold of their victims. But this result is attributable to the extraction of their fluids, which are transmitted, by oft repeated acts of deglutition, into the stomach. Mr. Cambridge does not hesitate to say that the bite of a spider is undoubtedly poisonous when inflicted upon its prey.t And he supposes that at least one effect of the bite in most cases is to benumb or par- alyze the insect, which, if not at once devoured, remains in a Effects on Insects. Cam- state of insensibility, and is available as fresh food for some bridge’s L aur hours and perhaps for several days. I do not know upon Opinion. ? what grounds this distinguished arachnologist bases this opinion, as he gives no facts bearing upon the matter, and qualifies his opinion by the word “probably.” Perhaps he has reasoned from the analogy of the effect of a wasp’s sting upon a spider, which is precisely that which he supposes to result to the victim of the spider’s bite. But analogy is not argument, and while it may guide us to a safe conclusion, cannot be received as a sufficient demonstration in a matter of this sort. For myself, I may say that I have never seen a single case that would justify Mr. Cambridge’s conclusion. It is undoubtedly difficult to make a decisive observation, because in the case of Sedentary spiders, the habit of swathing the prey in a thick shroud of white silk prevents one from ob- serving whether the stroke of the spider’s fangs has produced any special effect. This swathing is done so rapidly, and the limbs and wings of an insect are so effectually wrapped up, that it needs no suggestion of par- alyzing venom to account for the creature’s utter immobility. Moreover, I have often seen insects struggling within their enswathment a_ little while after they had been captured. Nor is it the unvarying custom of Sedentary spiders to strike their victims when they capture them. My observations convince me that the stroke is perhaps more frequently omitted than given, the insect being 1 Spiders of Dorset, Introduction, page xxv. i pag 280 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. at once seized by the fore feet as it struggles in the web, swung around towards the spinnerets, and wrapped up. It is only in the case of partic- ularly large and formidable insects that the stroke is adminis- Prey Not tered, and that after they have been partially disarmed by en- Always ; ; Struck, SWathment. In fact, I believe that Orbweavers, at least, are quite chary about coming into such close quarters with large insects as would permit the use of fangs. It is true, as I have fully illustrated, that spiders do hang an enswathed victim to a portion of their snares that they may feed upon it at their leisure; but even when immediately fed upon, as is ordinarily the case, the same enswathment is practiced. If we turn to the Wandering group of spiders, who stalk their prey, it is doubtless true that when one springs upon its victim it often strikes it with its fangs. But this is certainly not the universal practice, for I have often observed insects simply seized by the feet and at once carried around to the mouth and eaten without any more ceremony. This is commonly the case with the large Mygalide from our Southwestern States kept by me in artificial conditions. Grasshoppers fed to them, for example, are generally struck down or seized with the fore feet without any application of the fangs. Perhaps the superior vigor of the spider in this case renders such action entirely unnecessary. On the whole view of the subject I must say that I am in doubt as to what special use the poison gland and apparatus can be to the spider in ordinary cases, and am inclined to think that it is a sort of re- serve weapon for special exigencies, and is sparingly used. It appears to be unnecessary for ordinary purposes of capturing food, especially with the Sedentary groups, but is apparently of greater im- portance to the Wandering groups, who stalk their prey afield. Yet, even in such cases, it would seem that the puncture of the fangs without any poisonous injection is sufficient to fulfill every requirement for sustaining and defending life. Nevertheless, the fact remains that the spider is furnished with a poi- son gland and apparatus somewhat resembling that of venomous serpents, and I have too much confidence in the wise economy of force © and material in nature, to suppose that so perfect an organ of Physi- | : ; : j : Gas could be without some useful function in the life economy of dition, the aranead. Reasoning from analogy of other venomous ani- mals, serpents for example, it is probably true that much of the effect of spider venom depends upon the condition of the spider itself as to degree of irritation, etc., at the time when the stroke is given. On the other hand, the physical condition of the person bitten also largely deter- mines the effect of the bite. That which is harmless to one individual we know is often injurious or fatal to another; and that which at one period of life may produce serious results, at another time is compara- tively harmless. It is therefore probably true that there are a few of our A Reserve Weapon. Influence EFFECTS AND USES OF SPIDER POISON. 281 indigenous spiders, as Latrodectus mactans and Phidippus morsitans, which at certain times may inflict an injury upon certain individuals which may be serious and eyen fatal. But in the great majority of cases, there is no more, and indeed is less, reason to apprehend danger from a stroke or bite of a spider than from the sting of a bee or probe of a mosquito. In the case of the immense creatures (Mygalide) known as tarantulas, the matter, of course, is different. It would be strange, indeed, if such large animals, with so formidable fangs and such a considerable sup- ply of venom in the poison glands, should not be able to inflict a serious wound. The cases which have been reported to me of injury resulting from the stroke of these large spiders I consider sufficient to establish this fact, and to warrant the general feeling that they are ani- mals to be handled with great care. Yet even concerning them I must say that I have never experienced much difficulty in capturing them, and, as a rule, I believe they are more inclined to run away from man than _ to attack him. Nevertheless, I have well authenticated instances of our south- western Mygalide springing upon individuals, and even upon horses, when specially irritated. It is a common amusement (I have been informed) among the Texas cowboys to set two Tarantulas to fighting. They surround the combatants in a ring, after the fashion of frequenters of the cockpit, and freely bet their money on one or the other. I have never heard of any injury suffered by the managers of these aranead gladiatorial duels; and the reports would seem to indicate that the big fellows are of rather a slug- gish temperament. The Ta- rantula, Wie It would be quite impossible, and indeed undesirable in a work of this character, to enter at length upon the strange superstitions which have grown up around belief in the fatal character of spider venom. The prejudice is a very ancient one. Diodorus Siculus records that there borders upon the country of the Acridophagi a large tract of land, rich in fair pastures, but desert and uninhabited. Afore- time the region was inhabited, but there fell an immoderate rain, which bred a vast host of spiders and scorpions. Whoever was bitten or stung by these creatures immediately fell dead. The whole nation arose and at- tempted to destroy these implacable enemies of their country, which so rapidly increased that they threatened to depopulate the land. In point of fact, they did this, for the inhabitants were unsuccessful in their war- fare, and were forced to fly to another place.! The supposed effects of the Italian tarantula are well known, and Supersti- tions. 1 Diodorus Siculus, Book III., chapter 2. This wonderful story may also be found recorded in Strabo’s Geography, Book XVLI., chapter 6, section 13. 282 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. travelers in Italy, for a small sum, may see the “tarantula dance ” executed in the very best style, either with or without the original accessory of a spi- der’s bite. The superstition is doubtless a very ancient one, prob- onary ably handed down from early Roman times. A species of Lycosa, arantula | ° ; ae Dance, Which takes its name from Tarentum, near which it was sup- posed especially to abound, is the spider to which tradition as- scribes the peculiar effects to be described. The modern scientific name is Lycosa tarentula. When one is bitten by this spider, so the story goes, at first the pain is scarcely felt; but a few hours after come on a violent sickness, difficulty of breathing, fainting, and sometimes trembling. Then he is seized with a sort of insanity. He weeps, he dances, he trembles, laughs, cries, skips about, breaks forth into grotesque and unnatu ral gestures, as- sumes the most extravagant postures, and, if he be not duly assisted and relieved, after a few days of torment, will sometimes expire. If he sur- vive, at the return of the season in which he was bitten, his madness returns. Some relief is found by divers antidotes, but the great specific is music. At the sound of music the victim begins the peculiar movements which are known as the “tarantula dance,” and continues them while the music continues, or until he breaks into a profuse perspiration which forces out the venom. ‘Thereupon he sinks into a natural sleep from which he awakes weakened, but recovered. Such in substance is the story generally told, believed, and until comparatively modern times unquestioned, which has found its way into the works of many travelers and natural- ists of the earlier sort. It may be worth while to print an example of these stories. Here is what one old writer has to say :— “ Alexander Alexandrinus proceedeth farther, affirming that he beheld one wounded by this Spider, to dance and leape about incessantly, and the Musitians (finding themselves wearied) gave over playing: where- upon, the poore offended dancer, hauing ytterly lost all his forces, ‘fell downe on the ground, as if he had bene dead. The Musi- tians no sooner began to playe againe, but hee returned to himselfe, and mounting yp vpon his feet, danced againe as lustily as formerly hee had done, and so continued dancing still, til hee found the harme asswaged, and himselfe entirely recovered. Heerunto he addeth, that when it hath happened, that a man hath not beene thorowly cured by Musique in this manner; within some short while after, hearing the sound of Instru- ments, hee hath recouered footing againe, and bene enforced to hold on dancing, and never to ceasse, till his perfect and absolute healing, which (questionlesse) is admirable in nature.”? Goldsmith, who seems to have been well informed on this point, does An An- cient Tale 1 Quoted from “Treasurie of Ancient and Modern Times,” page 393, in Mr. Frank Cowan’s “Curious Facts in the History of Insects.” EFFECTS AND USES OF SPIDER POISON. 283 not hesitate to declare that the whole matter of the tarantula poison is an imposition of the peasants upon travelers who happen to pass through that part of the country, and who proffer then a trifle for suf- fering themselves to be “bitten by the tarantula.” Whenever the peasants find a tourist willing to try the experiment they readily offer themselves. They are sure to counterfeit the whole train of symptoms which music is supposed to move.? It is not to be wondered at that notions such as these were formerly fixed in the minds of common people, when we remember that it is “but a comparatively short period since learned men and physicians were under the dominion of kindred errors as to the deadly effects of spiders. Dr. James, in his Medical Dictionary, thinks it worth while to give a number of examples of this sort. He tells seri- ously of a woman who was possessed with a cruel passion for destroying spiders by burning them in the flame of a candle, but who was cured by a remedy quite as remarkable as the disease. One night while the perse- cutor was destroying a large black spider it burst with a great crack, and the animal fluids were thrown into her eyes and upon her lips. There- upon she flung away her candle and cried for help, fancying herself killed with the poison. In the night the woman’s lips swelled excessively, and one of her eyes was much inflamed. Her gums and tongue were affected, and a continual vomiting attended. For several days she suffered the greatest pain, but a cure was eventually effected with a preparation of plantain leaves and cobwebs applied to the eyes, and taken inwardly two or three times a day.2. It is a pity that people in this age of vaunted science and intelli- gence, and who are not far removed from the folly and cruelty of this woman, could not like her at least fall under the sway of a kindred fear, and thus be moved to spare the unfortunate creatures whom they slay. The same medical authority records that several monks in a monastery in Florence are said to have died from the effects of drinking wine out of a vessel in which there was afterwards found a drowned spider. One per- haps might be persuaded that in those “good old days” even monks may have been found who “ died from the effects of drinking wine.” But modern judgment would probably decide the aforesaid story of the spider’s fatal offices a case of “post quod” rather than “ propter quod.” These curious examples of intellectual bondage and credulity among learned and unlearned alike might be greatly multiplied, and no doubt would be interesting. But they belong to the natural history of man rather than of the spider. Let us hope that the emancipation of our race from all errors concerning spiders may soon be complete. An Im- position. Credulous Doctors. 1“ Goldsmith’s Animated Nature,” Philadelphia edition, 1795, Vol. IV., page 153. 2A Medical Dictionary, by R. James, M. D., Lond., 1748, Vol. I., “Araneus.” CHAPTER, 2cvcir. NESTING HABITS AND PROTECTIVE ARCHITECTURE OF ORBWEAVERS. Tne spinningwork of spiders may be classified generally as, first, the Snare, spun for the capture of prey; second, the Enswathment, by which insects are disarmed and prepared for food; third, the Gossamer, Forms of ysed for purposes of aqueous or aerial locomotion; fourth, the Spinning- ,___ 7 i ; ey ‘ , onl: Cocoon, spun for the propagation and protection of the species ; and, fifth, the Nest, which is a domicile more or less elaborate and permanent within and under which the aranead dwells for protection against the exigencies of weather and the assaults of enemies. It is not implied by this classification that a difference in quality marks the material used in spinning the above forms, although to some extent this is true. In point of fact the silk used in all modes of work is substan- tially the same, and the dif- erence in results is chiefly one of quantity, condition, color, and manner of appli- cation. The present chap- ter will describe that form of industry which secures for the orbweaving species a domicile or temporary re- treat, which is popularly known as a den, tent, or nest. This domicile is usually wrought of clear spinningwork, or some adaptation of foliage. One who studies these nests of rolled leaves and silken tubes must often have suggested to him the habits and spinningwork of many larve of true insects, particularly the Lepidoptera. It would almost seem that one were marking a survival of manners which might justly characterize the immature period of a race, while the race itself has swept on to maturity. Thus, it is not in the function of spinning alone that spiders raise a suggestion of the larve of insects. (284) Fic. 254. Nest of Insular spider in clustered leaves of blackberry. Analogy. NESTING HABITS AND PROTECTIVE ARCHITECTURE. 285 Among the Orbweavers the leaf rolling habit is perhaps most decided in the Insular spider. She invariably domiciles upon shrubs, bushes, and bushy trees, and commonly chooses a site within five to eight feet Spectacle of the ground. Spider’s ; ae above and gener and is a series of tied as at Fig. 254, or a sin as at Fig. 255. The form may perhaps be character The leaves have been pulled fastened together by cross ternal surfaces at the mar which the spider dwells is less thickly with silken at the summit of the dome, the abdomen rests, appar ray of threads adhering to The cluster-leaf nest of Fig. 256. This was made tall grass, whose were so woven to shaped or “ Lib figured. The lower and quite delicately spun of in place the graceful foli the crown of this dainty seonced, holding by the line which joined the snare Another nest (Fig. 255) rolled-leaf nest. It is a fastened at the the example giy between four and and wider end _ opened two-thirds of the distance tain (Fig. 257) stretching Cluster Leaf Nest Rolled Leaf Nest along one side of the den. high, and one inch wide. the apical part of the abdomen. Fic. 255. Folded leaf nest of Epeira insularis. Her tent is located always ally to one side of her snare, leaves drawn together and gle leaf rolled up and tied of nest shown at Fig. 254 ized as the cluster-leaf nest. down at the free ends and threads drawn oyer the ex- gins. The concavity within frequently lined more or sheeting, which is heaviest against which the apex of ently secured thereto by a the spinnerets. sometimes takes the form in a clump of weeds and stalks, leaves, and blossoms gether as to form the helmet erty Cap” domicile here open part of the tent was lines that united and held age of the grasses. Within nest the spider was en- fore feet to the taut trap- at the hub. may be characterized as the large leaf folded over and edges by overlaid lines. In en (Fig. 255) the leaf was five inches long; the lower toward the snare. About within the tent was a cur- from the floor to the roof The curtain was three-fourths of one inch Against this curtain the spider had pushed She was preying, when found, upon a hornet (Vespa maculata), a very good proof of her vigor. It sometimes happens that the single leaf within which the spider is nested will be stayed by lashings which unite it to an adjoining leaf, 286 Fic. AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. 256. Nest of the Insular spider, woven with grasses and leaves. The spider’s foot is shown outthrust from the nest and grasping the trapline. NESTING HABITS AND PROTECTIVE ARCHITECTURE. 287 as in Fig. 258. Indeed, constant regard is had in the nest architecture to the stability of the leafy domicile. Stay lines of various lengths and thickness are thrown out to adjoining objects until the nest hangs firmly poised, and is thus thoroughly inter- woven with the spinningwork system of the occupant. A third form of nest may be designated the woven leaf nest. It is shown at Fig. 259, where it is seen to be a close textured silken bell, woven between the needle like leaves of a pine tree. The mouth opens downward and toward the snare. This silken tent does not appear to be woven as closely as that often spun by the Furrow Spider, but affords good protection to the inmate, and shows her ability to deftly adapt her spinningwork to her environment. These three forms of nest, tent, or den will be found to indicate, with more or less accuracy, the spinningwork of Orbweavers, and, to some ex- tent, of all the Sedentary spiders, as applied to arboreal nest architecture. The terms cluster-leaf nest, rolled-leaf nest, and woven-leaf nest may there- fore be used in the above sense, although without attempting to establish anything like a rigid classification. To these may be added a fourth type, the woven nest, which is well illustrated by the close textured tubular den spun by Epeira strix and Epeira sclopetaria against exposed parts of human habitations. This form of nest is sometimes cylindrical, as with the nests woven by Strix and Sclopetaria. This is composed of a close textured sheet of spinningwork rolled as in Fig. 260, and stayed by guy lines attached to various parts of. the surrounding surfaces. Often the nest is quite egg shaped. The spider inhabits this tube, having her face toward the opening, and holding as usual to her trapline. Sometimes the nest is simply a square patch of thick white silk stretched across an angle or corner, open in the direction of the snare, and either open or closed at the other end. Many nests of this sort have been seen on the verandah of a gentleman’s cottage at Niantic, Connecticut, spun by Epeira patagiata and E. sclopetaria. During the day the spiders keep closely to cover, and, as the afternoon declines, creep out and weave their snares. They have a weird look as they swing to and fro against the darkening sky. Again, the woven nest is bell shaped, and open as with the tent of Epeira domiciliorum (Fig. 261) when she chooses a similar site. The lower part of this nest is spun of open linework, and is supported by silken guys hung upon thick foundation lines or directly attached to the surrounding surfaces. The upper part is closely woven, and thus affords protection to the spider who rests within, and particularly to the soft abdomen, which is the most vulnerable and least defensible portion of the body, and which, as it occupies the topmost part of the tent, is, of course, most protected from assaults of raiding Hymen- - optera. Stability of Nest. Woven Leaf Nest Woven Nest. Domicile Spider. AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. Fic. 257. The curtain or silken lining of the upper part of nest. Fi Fic. 260. ing leaf. (Epeira insularis.) Fic. 259. Woven leaf nest of Insularis. Epeira strix. Fic. 261. Bell shaped nest of Epeira domiciliorum. Fic. 261. 258. Nest lashed to an adjoin- Fic. 260. Tubular nest of NESTING HABITS AND PROTECTIVE ARCHITECTURE. 289 We As a rule, the various groups of Orbweavers differ from each other and agree within themselves in characteristic nest forms. The form prevailing in each family is substantially the same; each species seems to rete ag adhere quite steadily to one characteristic form; but there are ural Va- Sie : : 3 ' : riations, °®™e marked variations in the habit of certain species, as in the Insular spider, whose nest architecture we have seen is not constant in form among the individuals of that species. Indeed, the variation extends without a doubt to the habits of the same individual under different circumstances. This opens a most inter- esting feature in the story of spider industry, which may as well be kept in mind as we proceed with the description of these nesting habits. It will be Fis. 262. Nest of Strix within obvious that some of the variations are adaptations Sci to changed environment. Some of the most decided of these variations have been observed in the nest architecture of Epeira strix. I observed two of this species domiciled in the beautiful hedgerows of a New England meadow, within nests of several rolled leaves, which had an inside lining quite like that which is made by Insularis. Both nests were below the orb, one ten inches below. The second example had for her nest a very bright red rolled leaf with a tube inside of it, which made a strikingly pretty object. The ordinary nest of Strix when domiciled in the open field or wood is a rolled leaf. A single leaf is taken, the edge pulled up, drawn under, and fastened by adhesive threads into a rude cylinder, within Varia- = which the spider hides during the daytime. (Fig. 262.) A tions an : . : ; ora asi thread connection with the foundation lines of the snare is higna: sometimes maintained; but rarely with the centre of the orb by . a taut trapline, as is the habit of the Insular spider. For this reason I have often been greatly puzzled, and not infrequently foiled, in searching for Strix in the neighborhood of her orb, which one comes at last to recognize on sight with tolerable accuracy. This severing or concealing of her trail threads is undoubtedly a protection against raiding natural- ists; but I cannot imagine any security which it gives against natural enemies. This cylindrical nest will often be spun within any convenient cavity, as, Fic. 263. Nest of Strix within for example, a bit of curled birch bark, Fig. 263, a ests la aaa specimen found on an island in St. Lawrence River. A second form of the nest of Strix varies from the rolled leaf nest in having the edges of the two adjacent leaves bent towards each other and lashed together on the exterior at the juncture by silken cords, and on the interior by adhesive tissue web. An oval. opening is left at the united 290 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. points of the leaves, through which the connecting line passes to the snare. The spider domiciles within the leafy cayern thus formed. Again, the spider avails herself of small holes in wood or stone, open- ings in fences, the interspaces between curled bark on the trunk of old trees, or some like cavity, which she appropriates as a nesting place. A slight lining will generally be found upon the concave surface. I have noticed that in such cases the snare is sometimes diverted from its normal shape in order to give a convenient approach thereto from the den. One such example was found spun between a side of the Peace Fountain in Fairmount Park (Philadelphia) and a stone wall adjoining. In order to pitch her tent within a hole in the rock, the spider diverted one of the radii from the plane of the orb and extended it backward to the hole. The spirals which passed over this radius thus made an elbow, which was nearly a right angle, and gave the orb an odd, broken appearance. The radius, of course, served as a bridge line by which Strix passed from her den to her snare. Another yariation, or rather series of variations, was noted upon the side of Brush Mountain at Bellwood, Pennsylvania. Several young pine trees had been cut away and tossed from the mountain to a bank of the Juniata River below. The foliage had withered and fallen from the boughs, whose branches stretched out dry and bare, and among them a colony of young Furrow spiders had pitched their tents and spread their snares. One specimen happened to spin her web near the axil of several goodly sized branches, which were formed into a natural shelter by the inyerted position of the bough. The spider had recognized this vantage, and made her nest at the point of juncture, or rather took shelter there, for there was little artificial nesting beyond a faint tissue spread over the bark at the point where she sat. A second specimen had lodged at a point near the tip of a small branch, whose delicate, dry twigs gave no sufficient shelter, and, besides, were directed upward. Accordingly, a silken tube, funnel shaped, was spun between the twigs, within which young Strix nested. (Mig. 264.) A third spider, lodged in a similar site, had made a silken sack for a tent, whose mouth had apparently originally opened directly toward the snare. But a Saltigrade spider had fastened a parasitic tubular nest upon one side of this sack, and accordingly the mouth was found closed and the door shifted to the opposite side, as though to ayoid interference with a troublesome neighbor. A fourth individual had woven a silken cover or screen, behind which she lodged. A fifth had pitched her tent upon a stray leaf, beneath which a similar cover, a small rectangular piece of silk canvas (suggestive of the military bivouac or “dog tent”), was stretched by lines attached to the sides and corners, and fastened to the leaf surfaces and surroundings. Between this sheet and leaf the spider was ensconced, hay- ing the usual bridge line connection with the orb. (Fig. 265.) Shelter Tent. NESTING HABITS AND PROTECTIVE ARCHITECTURE. 291 Two of the above colony had established nests in tufts of a parasitic moss fastened upon dead limbs. One of these was very pretty and ingen- ious. The moss grew in a bunch about the size of a hickory nut; this was pierced at the top, and the filaments pushed aside sufficiently to allow an interior cavity large enough to house a spider. An oval door or opening was formed near the top by bending and binding back the fibres of the plant. A secure and tasteful retreat was thus obtained at the only really available spot in the vicinity of the snare. (Fig. 266.) When the Furrow spider weaves her orb upon the ex- posed surfaces of human habitations, as the cornices of porch- yyc. 64. Funnel es, outhouses, etc., her nest takes a form quite different from Pace gue rss of any above described. A tube of stiff, silken fibre is spun against the surface, to which it is lashed at all sides. This cylinder is about an inch long and half an inch thick, and at the end toward the orb has a circular opening about a quarter of an inch in diameter. (See Fig. 260.) The stiff texture of this nest appears to be necessary to make the walls self supporting, inasmuch as there are no supports like the twigs and leaves found at hand in arboreal sites. Moreover, the open position of the domicile exposes the spider very freely to the assaults of the mud daubers who frequent such lo- calities, to birds, and other enemies, so Tent in the Moss. Tubular Nest. RUGiaGes Biiiter tant OF ipelta sézir: that a canvas is needed of tougher text- ure than that required in sheltered sites. Nevertheless, it may be remarked that Strix will often spin a quite close tube even within a rolled leaf of two or three thicknesses. In this summary of the nest architecture of the Furrow spider it is manifest that while there is a gen- eral regard to protection of the spider’s person, there is a modification over quite a wide degree of oa variation in the form of the protective nest. : en : ee: in Hap: Further, that this modification appears to be — Fie. 266. ‘Tent in the tation, regulated, more or less, by the accidental en- ee ees vironment of the domicile, and in such wise as to show no small degree of intelligence in adapting the ordinary spinning habit to various circumstances, and to economizing labor and material. III. One of the most interesting sights in the way of spinning industry which it has been my privilege to see was observed upon a rocky hillside 292 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. in the neighborhood of Niantic Bay, Connecticut. The field had formerly been a wooded slope, but all the timber had been cut away, and in its stead an undergrowth of sumac, huckleberry, and laurel well A Fair nigh covered the surface. The characteristic stone fences of New Spider . F aa sane England marked the margins of the slope, along which clumps Se. of ferns, golden rod; raspberry vines, and yarious other wild plants were thickly aligned. Standing upon the crest of the hill, one could see in the distance the shimmering waters of the bay melting into the ocean beyond, covered with the white sails of passing ships. The permanent abodes and summer habitations of human beings were scattered along the crescent lines of the beach. The river wound in sinuous course at the foot of the hill, and emptied into the bay a mile or two beyond. The scene was a beautiful setting for a picture that warmed the heart of an arachnologist. For all over these bushes that covered the rocky slope was encamped an innumerable host of spiders of various species. It has neyer been my privilege to see so many and such fine examples of the order established within so limited a space. The largest and most beau- tiful of our indigenous fauna were there represented in vast numbers. Argiope cophinaria hung in the centre of her white shield, which with its zigzag cords above and below glistened in the sunlight and marked dis- tinctly the habitation of its proprietor. The black and yellow of the im- mensely distended abdomen (for the time of ovipositing was near) and the mingled black and brown of the outstretched legs showed in striking con- trast against the pure white silken shield. Here and there one noted the orbs of our other species of Argiope (A. argyraspis), whose web scarcely differs from her congener, but whose abdo- men of glittering silver, crossed with lines of black and yellow, at once mark her as peculiar and exceeding in beauty among the tribes of Arachne. Here a delicate snare of the Hunchback spider, Epeira gib- berosa, hung among the laurels, the bright green of the aranead herself, as she swung beneath the hub of her snare, scarcely distinguished against the background of the leaves over which it was extended. Tf one reached out a hand to this side or that, he could touch the beautiful orbs of two of our most persistent nest building species; but the spiders themselves were not in sight, and their great round Tent _ snares seemed deserted. They hung to thick threads of yellow Boe silk, constituting the upper foundation line, thicker than an or- dinary pack thread, of a glossy yellow color, and stretched some- times three feet, four feet, six feet, eight feet from point to point in the midst of the open spaces between bush and bush. Where are the occu- pants of these empty webs? What destroyer has been abroad that so many of them should stand deserted at this evening hour? Lay your hand upon this trapline, fastened to the centre of the orb, NESTING HABITS AND PROTECTIVE ARCHITECTURE. 293 Various Nests of the Shamrock Spider. 294 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. holding every radius taut, though slightly bagging at the hub. Carry the finger outward to this clump of bushes. What is this? A nest! The leaves have been spun together deftly until they make a beautiful cap shaped or helmet shaped habitation, within which, if you will take the pains to stoop a little, you may see the goodly proportions and the fair colors of the Insular or the Shamrock spider. These nests are built on every side, and vary in their forms according to the character of the plant of whose leaves they haye been constructed. The closing days of August have already begun to tint some of the bushes. These sumacs have assumed their party colors of red and crim- son and brown, so that our aranead dwells within a_habita- tion of divers hues like the tabernacle in which ancient Israel worshiped. Of course, the spider had no part in the selection of these varied colors for her tent, and has no share in the enjoyment of the discoverer who notes the pretty effect it has on her domicile. Nevertheless, it adds to the pleasure of the scene, and helps to impress the observer with a sense of the fitness of all the surroundings not only, but of these industrious creatures in the midst of their surroundings. I had never thought it possible that by any combination of favoring circumstances so many of these handsome spiders could have been pre- ; served in so limited a space. But here everything appears to ae have united to protect: them from their natural enemies. These bushes are just the sites in which spiders love to spin. This slope, with its sunny outlook towards the east and south, has protected from winter chill the eggs within cocoons, and warmed them into life when springtime came. With them have come also swarms of the insects which form their natural food. The place, too, is a lonely one as far as man is concerned; for, besides the farmer’s occasional visits, only now and then a straggler, or a lover of fields like myself, happens along. A cow or two may sometimes feed here and pick up the bits of pasture that grow between clumps of bushes and outcropping boulders of granite. Here, too, come, in the summer season, the women and children to gather huckle- berries. But the very vision of the many spider webs, and particularly of the great Argiope swinging at the centre of her hub, is enough to cause them to shy away and leave unplucked the tempting clusters of berries that hang around the dreaded snare. Other than these, few visitors come to the spot; and thus, largely de- livered from destructive enemies, warmed and cheered into life by the favoring slope, with abundant provision for spinning sites that give good and easy access to the low flying insects which supply Arachne’s larder, these creatures live and feed and grow and prosecute their loves, their wars, their maternal duties and cares, and die amidst the glowing foliage of autumn, having fulfilled as happy a destiny as one could reasonably hope for a child of the spider world, Tinted Nests. NESTING HABITS AND PROTECTIVE ARCHITECTURE. 295 In the neighborhood of Philadelphia the Shamrock spider is somewhat rare, but here her huge orbicular snare is hung on every bush. Sham- Without passing the limits of a single field I could collect hun- 2 ee dreds of specimens of females, whose large, rounded abdomens show that they are approaching the crisis period of motherhood. During the entire day, with rare exception, these araneads keep them- selves closely to their nests, leaving them only in the late evening hours to station themselves at the centre of their orbs for the more convenient trapping of prey. The nests are in most respects well suited as a domi- cile for the occupants. They vary in style and proportion according to the character of the plants upon which they are spun. Often they consist of a single leaf, in which case the edges of the leaf will be brought together and fastened close to the stem. The lobes of the leaf also, as far as prac- ticable, will be joined in the same manner, but with a wider interval be- tween the tips, the interspace being spanned by threads or by a thin tissue of spinningwork. The laurel is a strong, tough leaf, yet even that will be rolled and sewed together by this spider’s art. (Fig. 267.) Sometimes, as though to save the effort required for the bending of such stiff material, several laurel leaves will be adjusted in a manner somewhat peculiar. One leaf will be selected as the roof, and without being curled will be fastened across the edges of two other leaves, which have been so disposed that they stand with their flat surfaces almost upright. Thus both roof and sides are flat, as though they had been built of inelastic boards, and within this cubical refuge the spider fixes her home. On the sumac plant, whose leaves are lanceolate and very pliable, a number of leaves are chosen, and these are overlapped and the tips bent downward until they form a wigwam, within which the spider dwells. (Fig. 268.) Its blossoms also (Fig. 269) are pressed and spun into nests. Here, again, in this natural fernery, which straggles along the borders of the stone fence, one has a good opportunity to select nests that are strikingly beautiful in form. The delicate tips of the ferns, sometimes one spray, sometimes more, are drawn together, over- laid and interlashed, until a domicile is constructed that might attract even the Queen of the Fairies to fix her palace therein. (Figs. 270, 271.) Hard by, a neighbor Trifolium is ensconced beneath a bower of rich brown blackberry leaves. (Fig. 272.) Thus, it will be observed that the spiders have wrought upon their material as practical architects, adapt- ing methods and accommodating plans to the quality of their material. The nest of the Insular spider differs very little from her congener Among these bushes scattered over the rocky slope she pitches her tent and makes her home side by side with the Shamrock spider. Perhaps, if I were asked to name a distinction, I would say that Insularis is rather more fond of an open wooded location than Trifolium, and is somewhat Nests in Laurel. Fern Nests. 296 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. more inclined to select a loftier site for her habitation. For example, let us climb these bars into the adjoming woodland and walk along the wagon trail, which is absolutely embowered by the young over- Nerves hanging trees. We find on all sides large, round webs, swung anaes to long foundation lines that stretch from the lower branches of the trees to the ground, or to the low undergrowth. Long trap- lines extend upward to a leafy cell, within which one can see the orange and yellow colors of Insularis, as she crouches, with legs drawn up around her face, against the upholstered end of her chamber. The great leaf of the young hickory, or the long, palm shaped leaf of the oak, are often chosen by this spider, and they make a roomy dwelling place. On a closing day of August one sees hanging near by the nest of the female Insularis another curled leaf, not quite so artistic and complete, perhaps, but showing the outward signs of a spider habitation. Turning back the tip he sees a male Insularis who has come a-courting, and he has pitched his tent as near that of his lady love as circumstances seem to allow. He is not the only lover on the premises, however, for on the opposite side of my lady’s bower is another courtier ; and just below, swinging to some straggling ratlins stretched against the stem, a third attendant is found. These are the days of mating, with all their joys and sorrows, their successes, and their perils. Yes, perils I must say, for twice to-day, at least, I have seen the unfortunate gallant rolled up within silken swathing, dangling at the jaws of his lady love, who thus proved how greatly she liked him, after the shocking fashion of the canni- bal islanders. Let us pluck one of these Trifolium nests, that we may examine its in- terior. This requires a little care, for the tips and other parts of the leaves are so stayed by numerous lines, radiating to this side and to that, flaring downward, and attached to the upper foundation cable of the snare as well as to adjoiming foliage, that, if one is not careful to clip the threads all around the leaf, it will be torn as he draws it away from the stem. The nest, of course, is always open downward, never upward, always facing the centre of the orb, so that the trapline can pass directly out of the nest to the hub. No obstruction, therefore, is permitted at the door of the tent, or, if one so please to phrase it, at the mouth of the den. But the opposite end is always closed, usually by a thick curtain of silk which en- tirely shields the abdomen, and makes a comfortable resting place for that part of the body. All around the sides of this end of the chamber one sees, especially if the nest has been occupied several days, little white patches of thickened silk, which show where the spinnerets of the spi- der have attached the dragline which it is the invariable habit of the species to use as an anchorage whenever it moves. These little white spots, scattered all around the inner surface of the cell, and showing with- in the lighter silken lining of the leaf, haye a very pretty effect, and one Courting. NESTING HABITS AND PROTECTIVE ARCHITECTURE. 297 might think at the first glance that they had been thus distributed with esthetic intent. They are, however, simply the result of accident, caused by the restless movements of the spider around and around her room, and by the habit just alluded to. Out of the front door stretches the trapline, to which the fore claws of the spider are clasped; and towards the back part of the room, fastened to the spinnerets and probably clasped occa- sionally by the hind feet, there is another line which anchors the spider to her nest. Thus, both fore and aft, this truly domestic creature has strong attachments to her home. In order to test the ability of Insularis to adapt her nesting habits to change of plant environment, I selected several that had made nests in several leaves of oak and in clustered leaves of sumac. These Adapta- JT transferred to some coniferous trees (spruce) standing upon a tions of : Mosting lawn. The spiders proved themselves competent to meet the Habit. emergency. Their first movement ; was to station themselves beneath KS the branches of the pine, and in the course \ of time they chose themselves a site at the 87 points where several twigs united. It was ¥ impossible, of course, to treat the situa- tion after the fashion to which they were bred among the clumps of huckleberry and sumac bushes, or in the grove of young oaks. The needle like leaves of the pine would permit of no such treatment, but it was not long before the upholstering art of \ IN the spider had overcome the difficulty, lashed pre. 273. adapted Nest of Insular Spider. the prickly leaves into some respectable sem- blance of smoothness, and covered them all over with silken tapestry. Finally, a hemispherical nest was placed within the joints, partly pro- tected on three sides by the twigs, and at the exposed points spun of such close tissues that it formed ample protection. In this particular the pli- ability of the spider’s architectural instinct was fully demonstrated. I have repeated the experiment many times, and always found that these two nest making species when transferred from one plant to another, no matter how different the foliage may be, as in the above cases, are able completely to adapt themselves to the new circumstances and spin a habit- able home. (Fig. 273.) In the Domicile spider the habit of leaf tenting is not quite so firmly fixed as in the above species. She often builds a leaf nest which does _.. not differ from those of her congeners already described, but I ao icile have frequently found her without any such domicile. In Wood- pider. 3 Ee : ; land Cemetery (Philadelphia) are great numbers of this species, who find a favorite web site in the interspaces of a barbed iron fence. Very 298 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. many dried leaves are seen in late summer, pierced by and clinging to the barbs, and within these the spiders establish a congenial but not very artistic domicile. (Fig. 274.) Others have a rude nest of rubbish at one side, under the sheltered parts of the fence. From these dens several trap- lines, in an irregular series, frequently stretch to the orb centre. Like In- sularis she also spins a bell shaped tent when a suitable arboreal shelter is not convenient to her site. Indeed, her habit in this respect appears to form (if one might so say) a connecting link between the confirmed leaf nesting behavior of Insularis, whom I have never seen without a leaf nest, and the habit of those spe- : cies that persistently occupy snares and Zs f have no tented retreat. Ra Sse I have always found Epeira trivit- tata upon a vertical web, with a meshed hub and the usual charac- teristics of Epeira strix and that group of Orbweavers. I do not remember to have seen her dwelling in a nest of a very perfect character, but she makes a simple shelter at the side of her orb, in which she spends part of her time. One female (Massachusetts) was seen hanging in a sprig of golden rod at one side of her snare, having several lines extending therefrom to the web. (Fig. 275.) Another was resting, with her back upward, in a little nest in the leaves of an adjoining golden rod plant. A series of slight irregular lines connected the hub with the stem of the bush on which the orb was spun. Trivittata! is closely related to Domiciliorum in gen- eral structure and habit. This spider is distributed throughout the larger part of the United States, its locality having been determined from New England to Wisconsin, and from Florida to Texas and Cali- fornia. A quite persistent nest maker is Epeira verte- brata,* a spider which is naturally grouped with the last named. I have received numerous specimens from the Pacific coast, and from cocoons sent me by Mrs. Rosa Smith FIG. 274. Nest of Domicile spider in dried leaf. Hpeira trivittata. Fic. 275, Shelter nest of Epeira trivittata. Bere Eigenmann (San Diego) have raised a number of specimens upon verte- genie beata vines in my manse yard. These all made nests of rolled leaves, but they are evidently not as persistent and artistic nest builders as Trifolium and Insularis. Early in the afternoon they would make snares, and usually wait at the hub for prey, instead of watching from their den. ‘ E. arabesca, Walck., Nat. Hist. Aptéres, Vol. IL., page 74. EE. trivittata, Keyserling Sitzungsberichte der Isis, 1863. * McCook, “ Descriptive Notes of New American Species of Orbweaying Spiders.” Pro- ceed. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 1868, page 196. NESTING HABITS AND PROTECTIVE ARCHITECTURE. 299 The nesting habits of all the Angulata group of Epeira known to me are like those of the Insular and Shamrock spiders. I have always found Epeira bicentennaria and E. sylvatica within rolled leaf nests The An- precisely resembling those heretofore described and figured. This eae group is distributed over the entire continent, and may be dis- tinguished by two conical processes, more or less prominent, one on each side of the anterior part of the abdomen. The’ Diadem spider, the well known Epeira diademata of Europe, heads the group, and may have been an importation in the vast trains of human emigrants who have sought our shores. The far western Epeira gemma, and Epeira cinerea well scattered over the Northeast, belong to the same group. All have probably the same nesting habits, and are closely related structurally. The brief descriptions of the nests of Epeira diademata, quadrata, apoclisa, and other European and exotic species made by Blackwall, Menge, and Walckenaer, for example, permit us to assert their identity in nesting habit with American species. It will proba- bly be found that this characteristic is cosmopolitan, and that all nest making. species of Orbweayers throughout the world have sub- stantially the same architectural methods within affiliated groups, and that their tents, dens, domiciles, or nests closely resemble each other, the variations depending largely upon the nesting site and the material avail- able for manipulation and underspinning. Unity of Habit. IV. It is difficult to observe all the steps in the construction of a leaf nest, inasmuch as the process is not continuous from beginning to com- pletion, but is gradual and accumulative. There is certainly a difference in this respect; some species, like Insularis, having a Built. stronger disposition to provide a well protected nest from the outstart of any settlement in a new site. But many spiders con- tent themselves with a comparatively rude shelter at first, and, as occasion or disposition may prompt, proceed to add to their domicile. At one time the leaf or leaves will be drawn closer together; at an- other, the roof will be overspun with fresh silk; again, the supporting lines will be strengthened, and the silken approaches extended, ae or the outlying warp receive additional woof, so closing up the Process ee 2 Gradual, Walls of the tent. Thus the nest is likely to be perfect in pro- portion to the time that the occupant has been upon the prem- ises. In the intervals of trapping, eating, and snare spinning, the aranead architect occupies herself in adding to her house and perfecting its ap- pointments. Nevertheless, one may have opportunities for seeing the spider’s archi- tectural methods, and by piecing together various observations can know the entire process. I have been favored with several views of the various 300 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. stages of the work, and therefore proceed to record my observations. A typical example of methods was given by a female Domicile spider. The first foundation line of her orb was already stretched when I began the observation. She passed over this once or twice, and then, without waiting to spin an orbweb, near one of the extremities began preparing a nesting place from two leaves of the honey- suckle vine upon which she was located. When the work commenced the leaves presented the appearance of Fig. 276. The first steps consisted in stringing a number of lines (L L) between the inner surfaces of the two leaves, at the upper part thereof. This work was done rather slowly, the spider striding across from one leaf to the other until a little maze of lines was thus formed between the inner surfaces. Any pressure upon these lines, in the way of tightening or shortening them, tended to approximate the tops of the leaves. The next step consisted in at- taching a line (A, B) to the edge of one of the leaves near the tip. Striding across to the other leaf, dragging out the line after her, the spider threw the legs on one side of her body around the outer surface of the leaf, then attached the line and began slowly to shorten it. This movement, of course, drew the tips of the two leaves towards each other. The edges of the leaves on the oppo- site sides were treated in the same manner. Thus, by fixing a line to one leaf and pulling | the opposite leaf towards this point, and then Fic. 276. Process of nest making; attaching thereto the other extremity of the pA pe eee line, the leaves were approximated, as indi- tips after lines A,B, etc, are cated by the dotted lines X X, and the prepar- er rien atory stages of a nest accomplished. When the nest was completed it presented the appearance of Fig. 277. The spider stayed in this nest for several days without making any marked additions to it, which was due, perhaps, to the fact that heavy rains were falling most of the time. After this work of nest construe- tion was over, she dropped from the projecting stem of the leaves by a dragline, threw out a swinging basket, and issued a thread from her spin- nerets, apparently with a view to seeking a foundation. This thread at- tached itself to the vine at an opposite point about a foot distant, but for some reason was in a little while loosened and floated away before the spider crossed over and strengthened it. At this point I was compelled to cease observation. A half grown Insular spider colonized upon an arbor afforded another opportunity to note the first stages in nest building. After she had been First Stages. Joining Edges. NESTING HABITS AND PROTECTIVE ARCHITECTURE, 301 placed upon the vines, she spent a considerable length of time in wan- dering back and forward over the leaves, climbing upward all the while, never downward, which may be said to be a common habit of Begin- spiders under such circumstances. Finally, she reached a spot ning a : : 3 Nest. well to the top of the vine covered arbor, which seemed to suit her. Several leaves, closely clustered together, drooped over in such a way as to form a natural shelter, and underneath these the spider began arranging her tent. She passed backward and forward under the surfaces of the several leaves in the cluster, stretching lines from one to the other in the manner already described. Her motions seemed to be really aimless. She appeared to be guided by no special principle in ex- tending any single thread, and it was difficult to observe what bearing her work might have upon the end manifestly in view. After a long time spent in this kind of spinning, a confused mass of lines was left upon the upper part of the in- ner surfaces of the clustered leaves. In the meantime, however, the process had evidently drawn the leaves somewhat together, at least had compacted them into a closer cluster, holding one against the other so tightly that they were not separated by the currents of wind. The spider then placed the end of her body, the abdomen, against this maze of threads. The de- tails of her behavior thereafter were not accu- rately marked, but the substance of her method appeared to be as follows: she pushed against the lines with her abdomen, moving the spin- nerets back and forward at the same time, until a slight concavity was formed, and the mass be- Fv. 277. Last stages of nest gan to assume the shape of an inverted bowl. ie The same movements that produced this effect, by pulling upon and tight- ening the weft, drew the leaves still more closely together, and forced them into the shape of the clustered leaf nest represented at Fig. 254. From this shelter the spider departed, and proceeded to spin her orbic- ular snare, carrying her trapline into her den, from which she awaited, as usual, the trapping of her prey. In the course of time, had the spider not been disturbed,-the mass of crossed lines would have been reduced to a texture of close white silk, and the whole would have been moulded into a dome like tent as a lning to the inner surface of the leaves. Further on, the margins of this lining would have been stretched out towards the tips of the leaves, the edges of the leaves would have been agglutinated or sewed in the manner above described, and thus the nest would have been completed. An interesting illustration of the method of sewing was given by a Uphol- stery. 302 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. large Epeira insularis, whose nest I had opened by breaking the threads near the lower margin. ‘The inmate reached her claws over the upper edge of the leaf, pulled it downward toward the lower edge, and, while holding the two edges together, elevated the spinnerets, and threw out a ray of threads, which immediately adhered to and cemented them together. The process is not really a “sewing,” as it is popularly called, at least in the sense that the leaf is perforated and the thread drawn through the holes. That word, however, is the best that we have, and, perhaps, suffi- ciently characterizes this behavior. The fastenings are evidently made in part, at times, from without, as the threads show application to the outer surface of the leaf. This spin- ningwork is well shown at Figs. 254 and 255, in which cases the spider has crawled over the outside of the leaves, swinging her abdomen alternately from one side to the other, touching the spinners to the surface at each movement. Again, the nest presents the ap- pearance of haying been sewed from within in the same manner. In such cases the spider evidently apples the liquid silk to the tangent or ap- proached edges of the leaf, which, when released from the pressure of the spider’s claw, spring back and stretch out the thread, leaving an open seam across which the lines run. Sometimes this seam is subsequently entirely closed. The character of the sewing of this and other Orbweayers is shown at Fig. 255, into which the threads have been drawn very accurately from the natural specimen. The sewing habit obtains among the nest makers of all tribes, and the mechanical methods are in all quite identical with those of the Orbweayers as aboye described. Passing now from the spiders whose snares are full orbed, we find the nest making habit existing, with some modifications, among the smaller group that weave a sectoral orb. Of these the most numerously Zilla : represented in species is the genus Zilla; her nest is sometimes Nestof .. 3} Vc ; Vienne: simply a rude den of netted lines, so arranged as to leaye a concavity in the centre of the mass sufficient to shelter the spi- der. The young Zillas quite invariably weave such a shelter tent when they first set up housekeeping. (See Fig. 133, Chapter VIII.) Among the adults of the genus the dome shaped silken tent, such as has already been described (Fig. 261), is very common. This tent is swung in various positions, according to the location of the spider, and may or may not have a screen of tented leaves. At other times, as I have often seen with Zilla x-notata, in New England, the shelter is spun underneath leaves, and occasionally the leaves are used as a protection, without a very decided woven tent. On the whole, my obser- vations of the habit of Zilla show that it is not strongly inclined to avail itself of the protection of leaves in the manner of Epeira trifolium and others of that group. However, it occupies its home, and uses its trap- line in the manner of the nest making Epeiroids. Mode of Sewing. Domed Tent. NESTING HABITS AND PROTECTIVE ARCHITECTURE. 3038 Closely related to Zilla in the character of its snare is Epeira thaddeus, but in this species the nest making habit appears to be more strongly de- veloped. It may often be found nested in the angle of a door Nest of or window, or other like situation, Epeira : Pree. Onl the outhouses of farms and rural buildings. Here it spins a white silken tube of close texture, which is generally a quite exact cylinder. In this respect it differs from the nests of Zilla and Epeira triaranea, which are almost habitually in the shape of an inverted bowl or dome. The cylindrical tent of Thaddeus varies in length from three-fourths of an inch to one and one-quarter inch, the latter being the length of the nest represented at Fig. 278. The cylinder is stayed by a series of lines attached to it at various parts and stretched to numerous points in the surrounding sur- face, thus holding it intact. Within the cylinder Thaddeus sits holding her trapline, through which all agitation upon her sectoral orb is com- municated. She has learned, however, the value of screening her cylindrical tent beneath a shelter of clustered leaves, as at Fig. 280. In this case the leaves are agglutinated by threads spun upon the inside or sewed upon the out- side, precisely as in the case of the Insular and Shamrock spiders. I have found this cylindrical nest spun within the needle like leaves of the pine tree, and the manner in which it was stayed, and preserved in sufficiently rigid attitude for the practical uses of its occupant, was a good example of the ingenuity of this species. (Fig. 279.) In the above ex- amples the nest is visible by the observer, but at other times it is wholly screened from view, being spun beneath and within the concave surfaces of two attached leaves whose edges have been sewed together, and the entire shelter stayed by means of lines stretched to ad- joining leaves and the common stem. If the stay threads be cut and the leaf turned back, the cylindrical nest will be seen in- side as represented at Fig. 280. 1S Zh a a re ipoatelens a Again the cylindrical tent of Thaddeus will be woven underneath a cluster of sey- eral leaves (Fig. 281), which overarch it like a rounded roof, making a pretty and effective shelter. Beneath this dome the silken cylinder may be seen projecting, the external end stayed by lines fastened to adjoining leaves, and the trapline stretched out taut to the centre, or the sectoral Fic, 278. Cylindrical nest of Epeira thad- deus, spun in the angle of a door. 304 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. snare hung among the foliage underneath. One would certainly think that a spider thus domiciled has secured for herself the highest attainable security and comfort within the compass of aranead nidification. At other times her den will be found within the point of a single leaf, which has been curled over and sewed together. It will thus be seen that the nesting habit of Thaddeus is closely re- lated to that of the group represented by Insularis and Trifolium, the principal difference being, that in the last named species the silken part of the structure seems to be rather the lining, while in the former the silken tent is quite distinct and the leaf shelter appears to be rather a secondary matter. At all events, no matter how complete may be the security afforded by the clustered leayes or rolled leaves, the cylindrical tent of Thaddeus may nearly always be found entire, and in a well secured retreat. In the case of Triaranea the use of the leaf in nidification is extremely rare. Such, at least, is the Nest of : : Triaranea sult of my own observa- tions, although I should not be at all surprised to find that in other geographical provinces the spider may be found to resort to the aid of leaves and other material quite as free- ly as some of her cogeners. Nevyerthe- less, it is probable that the maze of netted lines within which she swings her bell shaped tent answers all the purposes of a leafy protection, and Fig. 280. Nest of Epeira thaddeus within leaves. The tube is shown uncovered at the upper right gg long as her home is protected by hand of the cut. 5 2 such an environment she will be less likely to resort to the additional protection of leaves. Be that as it may, her home is a silken dome, swung within a mass of netted lines supported upon the foliage of trees, or stayed upon the sur- rounding surfaces of her nest site. It is open downward toward the orb, to which the home is connected by the ordinary trapline. The mass ex- tends well below the mouth of the tent, and a little free space is usually left between the maze and the orb. Sometimes the tent is decidedly bell shaped, widest at the mouth, and is much larger than the occupant herself, as at Fig. 282. Again, I have seen a tubular passage way or vestibule ex- tending from the mouth of the nest entirely through the length of the maze, thus affording a sheltered passage for the spider along her trapline, well nigh to the point of approach to the orb at its hub. (See Chapter VIIL., Figs. 128, 132.) It often happens that Triaranea selects a site that NESTING HABITS AND PROTECTIVE ARCHITECTURE. enables her to dispense with much of her shelter. In stone walls along Niantic Bay (Connecticut) and Cape Ann (Massachusetts) Nl of is ' species are domiciled. They spin their nest upward against the boulders built into the wall, and avail themselves of the little cay- ities and rugosities therein. Thus sheltered above and from within they need less protection, and ac- cordingly their silken tents are generally very scant and rudi- mentary. Closely related to Triaranea in the character of her nidification is the Labyrinth spider, Laby- one of the most inter- veue esting of our indige Spider’s § gees Nest. nous fauna. Labyrin- thea weaves a_ silken dome, hung within a maze of crossed lines, precisely like that of Triaranea. I have marked a dif- ference in the character of the trapline, which seems to consist of a number of threads more commonly than in the ease of Fic. 281. Cylindrical nest of Epeira thaddeus woven Triaranea. There is one feature, Fic. 282. The bell ee silken nest of Epeira triaranea. m, the retitelarian mass; T, trap- line. beneath a tent of clustered leaves. however, which seems to be peculiar to this species. Within the midst of her maze will almost al- ways be found a dry leaf; and underneath this the spider rests, sometimes without much inter- posed spinningwork, but at other times within the ordinary silken dome. (See Chapter VIIL., Fig. 114.) The leaf may frequently fall within her retitelarian snare, and probably is not, as a rule, brought there by the action of the spider, although I cannot affirm this. But it is certain that, the leaf being within her maze, she does - draw it to some central place and cluster the netted lines around it as a central point, and then establishes herself beneath the leaf, against which, in the course of time, she proceeds to abut the summit of her silken dome. (Fig. 283.) She has thus secured additional protection from assaults made from above. 306 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. In some cases the concavities of the leaf are utilized, and the spider, creeping within them, finds an additional shelter, and makes such con- cavities the site for the location of her silken dome. (Figs. 284, 285.) Labyrinthea is able to avail her- self of other roofing material than a leaf, for I have more than once found her snare in the pine forests of New Jersey, having in the centre of the maze a mass of miscellaneous material, such as fine sawdust, or the castings of moth larvee, or drifted rubbish of various sorts, which had probably fallen upon the tangle of crossed lines, and had been gathered by the occupant into a mass, Leafy Roof. which, being agglutinated by the viscid threads, was finally shaped into a solid shelter, beneath which the spider rested and eventu- | ally constructed her silken Fic, 283. Leaf roofed dome of dome. aaa Ro Labyrinthea is a most persistent dweller within her domicile. I think the female rarely leaves the confines of her web, limiting her life to living within her tent, spin- ning her orb and trapping flies upon it, and wan- dering back and forward in various duties of house- keeping and house repairing through her retite- larian maze. She may make excursions into ad- joining foliage and surroundings, as some other Orbweayers do; but, if so, I have never been able to find her abroad. She eyen spins her cocoons within the limits of her netted snare, and there gy¢. 084. Leafy canopy of Laby- her young are hatched and frequently occupy the *imthea, hung within the maze. site for a while after egress, and subsist upon the microscopic insects that are entangled upon the lines. The nesting habits of the Hunchback Epeira (Epeira gibberosa) have already been referred to (Chapter IX., page 154, Fig. 145) in connection with the mak- Gibbero- ers of horizontal orbs. The nest is simply a sa’s Ham- . os hammock or net of crossed lines, commonly Nest. stretched between the edges of a leaf, which Fic. 285. A den in a are pulled up so as to make a slight concay- leaf. o, trapline. > a : ~ h ity. Beneath this spinningwork the spider suspends her- self, back downward, after the fashion of the Theridioids and the spinners of horizontal orbwebs. Her face is outward toward her snare, and the feet NESTING HABITS AND PROTECTIVE ARCHITECTURE. 307 clasp the trapline leading thereto. The occupant is sheltered beneath and on both sides by the leafy walls, and, as her hammock shelters from at- tacks coming from aboye, she may be regarded as well protected. A front view of Gibberosa’s nest is given at Fig. 286, and a side view at Fig. 287; the nest is shown even more plainly at Fig. 145. V. The various forms of nest architecture described above may be said to have developed around the instinct of protection. In other words, Nesting the spinningwork of spiders used for domiciles is protective indus- Industry e 6.6 bi Ged ; Pro: try. It may be well, with this in view, to make a summary of the tective. esting habits of Orbweavers as above described, and_ briefly compare them with those of other tribes of the order. It may be said, at the outset, that the portion of the body which is most assailable by enemies and least defensible by the spider is that which is invariably especially protected. That part is the soft abdomen. Around this the tube, tent, or screen, or whatever characteristic defense is provided, will Fic. 286. Hammock nest of Gibberosa on a leaf. FiG. 287. Nest of Gibberosa ; side view. certainly be spun. It is this part that parasitic enemies assail; it is this which forms the juicy bit coveted by birds, frogs, lizards, and other arachnophagous animals. The legs and even the face will therefore be thrust out of the entrance of the nest or be left partially unprotected, while the abdomen is entirely screened. One cannot suppose that this coincidence is accidental. Evidently the animal is conscious that the ab- domen is the portion of its body which most requires protection, and has directed its industry to that end. The following are some of the varied forms of protective industry: 1. Spiders protect themselves by leafy tents, that is to say, tents, coverings, or screens made of bits of a leaf, of a whole leaf, or of several leaves united. The Labyrinth spider, for example, appropriates a dry leaf that may drop into her snare, or which she secures for that purpose. It is placed in the midst of her labyrinth of crossed lines, frequently with the concavity downwards. Underneath this she stations herself, pressing the abdomen upward against the leaf. Insularis and others of the group represented by her protective industry make a Leafy Tents. 308 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. more artistic use of the leaf. Several leaves will at times be drawn to- gether, being united by the edges and tips so as to give a bell shaped tent; sometimes one leaf alone is used, the edge being folded over like a grocer’s cornucopia; sometimes sprays of grasses and blossoms are united with a leaf or two, making a very pretty effect. The concavity of these structures is silk lined, and within it the spider sits, her abdomen forced inward and generally rested against a silken cushion or sheet. The face looks towards the snare, and the spider's feet grasp a trapline which is joined thereto. 2. Again, protective industry takes the form of silken tents.’ These are woven inside of leafy tents, as in the case of the Insular and Sham- rock spiders, or under a leaf or other objects, as with the Laby- rinth spider. Some species make tents of pure silk. The Domi- cile spider sometimes spins a bell shaped tent, opening down- ward, the apex of which is fixed within the angle of a house or against the trunk of a tree or leaf. This dome is quite large; from one to one and a half inch in length and breadth at the mouth. Indeed, it may be stated generally that the size of the dwelling corresponds with the size of the aranead inhabiting it. There is not much waste of spinning energy. There is little room for obtrusive enemies to enter into the door and share with the lawful inhabitant the unoccupied space. This applies only to silk nests, as the leaf ones are often very roomy. It is noticeable that spi- ders which make use of curled leaves for domiciles can, when circum- stances require, dispense with these leaves and provide themselves with silken tents or tubes as their sole defense. Epeira thaddeus makes her tent against, or under, or even within a curled leaf, or within the needle like leaves of the pine. It is ordinarily cylindrical, instead of bell shaped. Others, again, as the Furrow spider, make a close cylinder or tube a little longer than their own length, with a small opening at one end looking towards the orb. 3. Another phase is represented by such spiders as Labyrinthea and Triaranea,.in whose webs the protective industry appears to have reached its most complex development. In the case of the Labyrinth Threefold snider there is, first, the leafy roof or screen; there is, next, the Silken Tents. Protect- )- . on little tent or tube spun against the leaf, whose mouth opens down- dustry. ward toward the orbweb; and then, encompassing the whole, is the maze or labyrinth of crossed lines, which forms in itself a very complete protection against raiding insects. The same form of in- dustry substantially characterizes Epeira triaranea, except that this spider never provides for her silken tent a leafy roof or covering of miscellaneous material. 4. Protective industry assumes the form of wings, or aprons, or fenders of crossed lines thrown out upon the flanks of the snare. The retitelarian maze by which the Labyrinth spider and Triaranea protect themselves may, NESTING HABITS AND PROTECTIVE ARCHITECTURE. 309 in part, be seen upon the webs of our two large indigenous species of Argiope. On either side of the orb these spiders are in the habit of throwing out wings of crossed lines, which extend, as a rule, be- neath the lower margin of the hub upon which the spider ordi- narily hangs, thus securing industrial protection from every di- rection except from below, which point is guarded by the defensive organs and armor. In point of fact, Argiope thus encloses herself within a rude tent of straggling lines. These lines ward off assailants, or check or en- tangle them, and give warning of danger in time to escape. Their purpose is manifestly protective, since they are apparently too open to serve for catching prey, and otherwise do not seem adapted to that end. The Or- chard spider, Argyroepeira hortorum, resorts to the same mode of protec- tion, but, inasmuch as she makes a horizontal web and hangs upon the under part thereof, the protective apron is thrown beneath the orb, and thus secures the aranead against the approach of enemies from the ex- posed quarter. 5. The central shield of thick spinningwork, which is found beneath the Banded and the Basket Argiope, may also be regarded as protective; and it is probable that the thick scalloped and pointed ribbon decorations characteristic of the Banded Argiope and also of Uloborus, serve some pro- tective purpose besides the strengthening of the net. At least, it is the habit of the spider to place herself behind these screens, which thus pro- tect her from the exposed point, the shrubbery and other objects against which the snare is fastened being the protection from the other side. 6. Another protective use of simple lines may be seen in the case of the Hunchback orbweaver, Epeira gibberosa, who makes a hammock tent, swung between leaves. She spins a series of straight lines quite thickly between the edges of a leaf, or several leaves, and hangs underneath them, communicating with her snare by the usual taut trapline. She is thus protected beneath and on all sides by her leafy site, and above by her hammock. 7. In addition, and generally, it may be said that almost all the orb- weaving families will avail themselves of any chance cavity or projection for temporary shelter or as a permanent site. Therein they hide them- selves, either with or without additional protection of spinningwork, and remain until appetite prompts them to spin their snares and place them- selves upon them to procure food. In some cases, as with the Furrow spider, such a shelter is habitually preferred; a hole or depression, or even more frequently a dry curled leaf or bit of bark, being chosen. In point of fact, spiders appear to live continually in dread of enemies, and their whole life is spent in a defensive industrial warfare for the pro- tection of their persons, or in offensive war upon those insects which fur- nish them their natural food. In the former case they are habitually in hiding; in the latter, in ambush. Protect- ive Wings 310 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. Wal. The subject of nesting architecture could hardly be considered com- plete without a glance at the curious habit of nest parasitism, as it may (somewhat loosely) be termed. The facts in my possession are not numerous, but are enough to indicate that more, and more interesting ones, may await future observers. Saltigrade spiders are very much in the habit of attaching the silken cell in which they live to the nest of Orbweayers, and, indeed, I may say, of other tribes. One may find a little Saltigrade snugly ensconced, as in Fig. 288, on the silken dome of Epeira, with the mouth of the cell opening almost next door to the exit of her host’s house. It seems strange, at first thought, that the two would pass to and fro without molesting and destroying one another ; but they manage to do this. Again, I have often found underneath a bit of loose bark, or a flat stone, the tubular nest of Epeira strix, surrounded on all sides and even overlaid by the cells of various Saltigrade species, in some of which the mother would be found dwelling with her young. Here, again, the wonder is that the colonists dwelt together in unity. It is not an unusual thing to find the little a silken cell of ‘Clubiona and various Drassids spun vig. 288. Parasitic nest of Sal. Underneath some portion of curled leaf ‘or leaves, tigrade spider upon nest of which are used by the Insular or Shamrock spiders Epeira strix. . . for nests. Indeed, these ubiquitous Tubeweavers feel free to attach their cells to any object, in almost any site, Squatter without the slightest regard to the equity of squatter sovereignty. ae Observations of this kind are 80 frequent that I have fancied that during the hours of rest within the domicile the predatory nature of araneads may be in abeyance, and that there may be a mutual under- standing—a sort of modus vivendi—that in such cases the ordinary canni- balism of their kind is to be suspended. Vinson gives an interesting account of the manner in which the little Linyphiz of the African islands whose fauna he has described, take up their dwellings upon the huge snares and extended foundation lines of large Orbweavers, mostly of the genus Nephila. Here they remain quite at home, and apparently undisturbed by their gigantic hostess, and sup- port themselves by picking up the small insects ensnared in their neigh- borhood, and which are too minute to satisfy the appetite of the proprietor of the snare.! This appears to be quite a fixed habit among the smaller species of Africa. A similar phenomenon I have often observed among our American fauna, and shall allude to it in a following chapter (Vol. IL), upon the Babyhood of Spiders. The little ones of a recently escaped Nest Par- asitism. 1 Aranéides des Iles de la Réunion, ete., page xix. NESTING HABITS AND PROTECTIVE ARCHITECTURE. Sul aL brood will occupy the abandoned snare of an adult Orbweaver, and, clear- ing out the space between the radii, spin their own minute orbs. I have seen a brood of young Epeira patagiata attempt this sort of squatting upon the premises of an adult Zilla x-notata, very much to their own dis- comfort. For, although the little fellows succeeded in getting positions for their minute orbs, the original proprietor, by skillful management, was able to dislodge and one after another devour them, until she had eaten up nearly all her guests. Moreover, among certain species of the Retitelarie, the habit has be- - come fixed of invading the snares of other species for the purpose of destroying the occupants. Argyrodes trigonum, for example, will invade the nest of the Labyrinth spider, whose maze forms an admirable retreat, and therein will establish herself. Another species of Argyrodes, which I have described as A. piratica, was sent to me from California, and is said by Mrs. Rosa Smith Eigenmann to be an habitual depredator upon the premises of the Orbweavers of San Diego. The little creature will fearlessly invade the snare; attack, destroy, and de- vour her huge opponent. The particulars of this habit I reserve for the chapter (Vol. II.) upon the Enemies of Spiders. The abandoned nest of Orbweayers is often occupied by Tubeweaving spiders. Agalena ncevia especially finds it a pleasant retreat, and makes it the centre of her broad, sheeted snare. So also I have found the rolled leaf nest of a young Epeiroid occupied by a Saltigrade. I have no evidence, however, that any of these spiders deliberately dislodges the owner in order thus to take possession. Nor have I ever seen one Orb- weaver make a raid upon the premises of a congener for a like purpose. Mrs. Treat records! a case which looks very much like nest parasitism. An interesting Lycosid, Dolomedes scriptus, appeared to take a special fancy for the nest of a female Shamrock spider. For more than two weeks, while the Dolomede was carrying her cocoon, her favorite resting place was on the top of the Orbweaver’s tent, and often, when the latter left her domicile to seek prey upon her orb, as is her custom, Dolomede would stealthily slip inside. But she always seemed to know when Trifolium was about to return, and would quickly emerge and take her place on the outside. The only wonder to me, in this case, is that the Lycosid, which is a large and powerful spider, abundantly able to cope with and destroy Trifolium, did not at once make a meal of the Orbweaver whose home she coveted, and, after the fashion of human creatures, take possession of the premises from which she had dislodged the rightful occupant. On the whole, I am inclined to think, although the facts are cer- tainly inadequate to form a just conclusion of any sort, that cases of proper nest parasitism are rare. That is to say, it is not often that one Piratical Invaders. 1“My Garden Pets,” page 24. 312 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. spider will deliberately appropriate a part of the nest of another, or dis- lodge another in order to possess the whole place. The fact is that the construction of a nest is not a very difficult mat- ter. Orbweavers, at least, are apt to change their position when in any- wise made uncomfortable, and build a new home. Material costs oes nothing, for leaves are plenty and free as fuel in an Adiron- Nai: dacks forest; and, as to tapestry and other hangings for her abode, she possesses an unfailing manufactory within her own person, and at her own command. Moreover, there is a wholesome fear of results which, in the absence of any moral sentiment, is apt to restrain a covetous aranead from assaulting a spider who is ensconced within her own castle, and has the advantage of being on the defensive; for, eyen in spider world it is easier to defend a fort from an assailant than to attack it upon scaling ladders. CHAGAS Pan ry cv aloe: NEST MAKING: ITS ORIGIN AND USE: DEVELOPMENT IN VARIOUS TRIBES. If A stupy of the modes of construction described in the preceding chap- ter suggests the thought that the habit of nest making may have origi- nated among the Orbweavers in an accidental way. The tendency is natural yp and universal, among spiders of all kinds, to shelter themselves Origin of underneath arboreal or other surfaces. They know instinctively ee that they are exposed to enemies. The under surfaces of leaves, or Habit, the little domes formed by clusters of drooping leaves, are most common and natural shelters for spiders when living on arboreal sites. With such creatures, that subsist by means of the spinning habit, and constantly protect themselves by fastening draglines to the surfaces over which they move, and thus never venture any distance without leay- ing an attachment behind them, and a thread by which they can return, it would be the most natural thing conceivable to attach themselves in like manner by outspun threads to surfaces beneath which they had thus sought shelter. In the restless movements of the body back and forth, numerous attach- ments would be made, and so a rude silken shelter would easily result; and it would inevitably follow, without premeditation or purpose of the spider, that the leaves, by the very action of the threads, would be held together, and in the course of time drawn closer together into the various nest shapes which we see. . These forms might thus be made without any fixed purpose or definite movement of intelligence. That it is often so I am well satisfied. That the more perfect habit could have originated in this seemingly accidental way, and have become fixed in the course of time by heredity, appears not an unreasonable theory. At all events, it is certain that in the selection and adjustment of mate- rial in the nidification of Orbweavers, one does not see such a deliberate and intelligent purpose as is found, for example, among some of ed the Lycosids. The turret spider, Lycosa arenicola Scudder, de- 2 aes liberately seeks and selects the bits of straw and sticks out of which she rears her little tower so like an old fashioned log cabin chimney. (Fig. 289.) There is here a deliberate choice and bring- ing of material to the nest site. (313) 314 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. The same aranead, when building on the seashore, will show intelligent adaptation in the use of the material at hand. I have often found her burrow, when dug within the sand, with a course or two of small quartz pebbles laid around the rim, upon which, as a sort of foundation, the usual chimney or turret of straws would be raised. If one will thrust a twig down the burrow, which goes straight down- ward six, eight, or ten inches, and will dig away the sand on either side, he will see the delicate silken lining of the burrow clinging to the twig, as shown at Fig. 290. It is a delicate fabric, with whose strands the grains of sand are interblend- ed. But it serves, in part, to keep the tube intact. Lycosa carolinensis con- structs from the needle like leaves of the white pine (as in the cut Fig. 291), or from other ayailable material, by bending and pasting, domi- ciles which more closely re- semble birds’ nests than any- thing that I have met in ara- nead architecture. These are pasted together by a process not unlike a rude sort of basket weaving. In this case, also, one must assume a delib- erate and intelligent action on the part of the spider. The selection of the pine needles as they lie scattered over the field; bringing them to the nest site; ar- ranging them in the little fascicule or bundles which may be seen in the eut (Fig. 291); the bending of these into place to form the basket like vestibule or dome above the burrow—all these actions, not to speak of others, imply a process of selection and adaptation more or less deliberate and intelligent.! On the contrary, in studying the nests of Orbweayers and noting their manner of constructing them, one cannot escape the conviction that chance has had quite as much to do as design in the outcome of some of the beautiful forms illustrated in the foregoing chapter. It is in the act of Fic. 289. The Turret spider’s nest. The earth is represented A Basket cut away, to show the burrow. Weaver. 1 The nest of Carolinensis from which the figure has been drawn was contributed to my collection by Mrs. Treat, and was made by a New England spider. NEST MAKING: ITS ORIGIN AND USE. 315 sewing together the leaves, after the nest site is selected and the prepara- tory stages wrought out, that one sees most evident marks of intention on the part of the architect. There can be no doubt that here is manifest the deliberate purpose to effectually enclose the dwelling and secure it from intrusion of enemies and inconvenience of weather changes. Design in Sewing. i If now we come to compare the protective industry of Orbweavers with that of other tribes of spiders, even those which most widely differ from them in structure and general life habit, we shall find less essential difference than might have been an- Compar- ticipated. The ative . eeadiod. germinal form, or prevailing type of protective archi- tecture, for all tribes, is the tube or some modifi- cation thereof. The en- tire tribe of Tubitelariz, for example, domicile within tubes which do not differ in essential par- ticulars from that which is woven by the orbweay- ing Furrow spider and others of kindred habit, Fic. 290. Upper figure: Turret spider’s tower built on a pebble founda- oe by Epeira cinders) tion. Lower figure: inside lining exposed by digging out the sand. Indeed, the open dome shaped tent of Epeira domiciliorum and other spi- ders is only a modification of the architectural type. The little tube of the Drassids (Fig. 292), and numerous species of Tubitelariz that construct kin- dred domiciles, scarcely differs in any regard from the tube of the Epeiroid Thaddeus and Furrow spiders. In the case of the Speckled Agalena, whose funnel shaped web is known to all familiars of our fields, the tubular part thereof is really the spider’s domicile, and the broad sheet outstretched upon leaves, grass, or surrounding surface of its site may be re- garded as a portion of the snare. The same spider protects her- self, as is the case with many Orbweayers, by a maze of straight lines spun above the separating sheet, and which also serves in part to sustain it, and acts besides as a snare to arrest prey. _ Tf, again, we take such an example as the Medicinal spider, Tegenaria Tube- weavers. 316 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. medicinalis (or Durhami), whose web is so frequently found in cellars and shaded outhouses, the same fact meets us. There we see the thick sheet, not spread out broadly as in the case of Agalena, but rather pouched; thus forming a good receptacle for dropping insects, who are apt to roll easily into the little round open- ing at the apex of the snare. Above this open- ing is spun a short tubu- lar tower, which also is prolonged a little way be- neath the opening. With- in this peculiar structure the spider protects herself, precisely as in the case of the Orbweavers above de- scribed. (See Fig. 221, Fic. 291. The nest of Lycosa carolinensis, built from the needle Chapter XIV.) like leaves of a pine tree. If we pass next to the Saltigrades we find the same fact. The jumping spiders, whose bright forms and animated movements are familiar around our houses and ; yards, spin for their domicile thick white silken tubes, which Salti- re ; f gradea: differ very little in form and structure from those of the orb- weaving Furrow spider or the tubeweaving Drassid, Disdera, or Segestria. (Fig. 293.) The Lineweayers, although such close neighbors to the Orbweayers in structure, and having remarkable points of approach in certain features of the snare, are somewhat defective in points of architectural resemblance as far as the nesting tube is concerned. But they have some striking repre- sentatives of the prevailing type. There is, for example, the little lineweaving Theridium zelotypum which I have often observed along the trails in Adirondack for- ests, living in a little tent whose roof was the gathered leaves of a young pine tree, and whose interior was a silken tube or bell shaped dome quite resembling the nest of the Insular spider. Within this tent the mother Theridium domiciles, and with her dwell a number of her young. (See Fig. 294.) When the habits of American Lineweavers shall be studied more carefully, it will probably be found that Zelotypum is not alone in the matter of nidification. At least, we know that among the European Theridioids there are some species who almost equal the Epeiroids in the perfection of their nests. Theridium nervosum is one Line- weavers. Fic. 292. Tubular nest of Drassus. EEE NEST MAKING: ITS ORIGIN AND USE. 317 of these; in the midst of her pyramidal snare of interlacing lines, or, at other times, sheltered underneath a growing leaf, she prepares a perfect little nesting tent, which is fastened by silken cords into a dome Huropean jike frame. The tent is lined with white silk, and is covered os with small dead leaves or flowers, or the stamens of larger flow- ioids. : : ; : = ‘ ers, or anything which has presented itself. It is decorated with the wings or other parts of insects, among which the beautiful wing cases of the nut weevil are often found. This tent is not used for a domicile alone, but as a receptacle for the cocoon.! Theridium riparium builds a nest which Black- wall thus concisely describes: She fabricates a slender, conical tube of silk, of a very slight texture, measuring from one and a half to two and a half inches in length, and about one-half inch in diameter at its lower extremity. It is closed above, open below, thickly covered externally with bits of indu- rated earth, small stones, and withered leaves and flowers, which are in- corporated with it, and is suspended perpendicularly, by lines attached to its sides and apex, in the irregular snare constructed by this species. In the upper part of this triangular domicile the female spins several glob- ular cocoons of yellowish white silk, of a slight texture, whose mean diameter is about one-eighth of an inch, in each of which she deposits from twenty to sixty small spherical eggs, of a pale, yellowish white color, not agglutinated together. The young remain with the mother for a long period after quitting the cocoons, and are provided by her with food, which consists chiefly of ants.? In point of fact, this English Lineweaver possesses the faculty of nest building to as remarkable a degree as any known spider. I therefore insert at length a series of interesting observations recorded by Mr. Edward H. Robertson, of Brixton, England.? Riparium has a great antipathy to strong light, and usually completes her nest under the shade of overhanging banks, seldom making her appearance during the day, and becoming act- ive as darkness creeps on. The nest is a tube varying in length from one to two and a half inches, closed above, but open at the lower end, the diameter at the mouth being about one-half Fic. 293. The tubular nest of a Saltigrade spider, in a rolled leaf. Material Used. Fig. 294. Nest of Theridium zelotypum. 1 Staveley, British Spiders, page 145. 2 Blackwall, “ Researches in Zoology,” page 356. Also, Spiders of Great Britain, Introduc- tion, page 9. 3 “Science Gossip,” January, 1868, page 12 sq. 318 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. inch. The materials of which it is composed externally are small particles of hardened earthy pebbles, twigs, withered leaves, etc., rather slightly at- tached by threads. This tube is lined with silk, forming a comfortable home. However irregular in appearance the nest may be externally, the interior is always smooth. Mr. Robertson examined sixty or seventy nests, and kept a dozen of them under glass cases for closer ob- servation. Most of the nests were suspended under the leaves of raspberry and gooseberry bushes and lke situ- ations at a distance of from two to four inches from the earth; in a few instances they were suspended in the angles of old walls. When built above the soil the pebbles alone seemed to be used. When built near a wall particles of mortar were taken. In the latter case, the nests were the most regular in form. When with- ered leayes were near, these and small twigs were used, Frc. 295. Nest of Theria. aNd the nests formed of such materials were the least ium riparium, made of symmetrical. It is thus manifest that the mechan- pellets of clay. i aT ea ical finish of the domicile depends largely upon the building material available. In order to test the capabilities of these little architects, the observer supplied those which were in confinement with small twigs cut in lengths of about one-eighth inch, mixing with them larger pieces. He was surprised to find that the smallest pieces were not often selected, and apparently the most unsuitable pieces were fre- quently chosen by the little architect. Figs. 298 and 299 are examples of nests formed by these twigs. The upper parts, above the marked line in the cuts, were built before they were transferred to cases. Fig. 298 was constructed in the course of three weeks. Fig. 299 was built by a wonderfully industrious mother of two large families, who subse- quently made a neat little residence of particles of chalk. While the eggs remain unhatched, the nest seldom exceeds one inch in length. No sooner, however, does the mother find that she has to accom- modate a large family than she is seized with a building impulse, and may be seen to descend suddenly to the earth. She then takes a seemingly pur- poseless scramble over the material beneath her nest. Passing by much _build- ing material apparently well fitted for her purpose, without any attempt at examination, Nests in their earliest stages. she fixes upon a twig or other object which sclera nearer cre often appears disproportionate to her size and strength. To this she attaches a line, and quickly scrambles back again, dragging the twig after her. Artificial Supplies Used. Mode of Building. NEST MAKING: ITS ORIGIN AND USE. 319 This dragline she fastens to one of those which connect with the mouth of her nest, and which just serve to suspend the object. Returning, an- other thread is attached, and the piece is suspended midway between earth and nest. A third trip serves to fix the substance at the mouth of her domicile, to be afterward more neatly arranged. Several objects are thus frequently suspended at one time, giving the nest a rather unfinished ap- pearance, as represented in the figures. Nests built in the open air are almost im- pervious to light, while those built in confine- ment admit the light through the various in- terstices left by angular pieces of the building material: The little crea- Fic. 298. Nest made of materials artificially supplied; the lower part ture seems unable to rem- of sticks. (Theridium riparium.) Fic. 299. Nest with dead leaves, : : twigs, etc., intermingled with pellets of earth. (Theridium riparium.) edy this, doubtless be- cause the natural site affords her better opportunity for the selection of material adapted to her wants. The objects used are invariably built into the inner surfaces only ; and Mr. Robertson scarcely ever observed one of the busy little workmen on the exterior of its house, excepting when forming a slight covering of silk on the upper part, which is sometimes done. The snare of the spider is spun downward from the mouth of her tubular nest. The lines are the ordinary intersecting threads of her species, which are so disposed that they enclose an inverted funnel shaped space, the mouth of the nest representing the point of the funnel. From some unknown cause these spiders sometimes left their homes with their broods, built on the inside of a branch irregular structures, one of which is figured. (Fig. 300.) Riparium’s nest is not simply a domicile for Fic. 300. A rudimentary refuge, or ex- : c . @ perimental nest. (Theridium ripa- the proprietor, but is a nursery and home in rium.) which to rear the young. The mother spins several nearly spherical cocoons of yellowish white silk, the diameter of each being about one-eighth of an inch, within which are contained from thirty to sixty eggs) When the young are hatched, they remain Fic. 298. Fic. 299. The Snare. 320 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. with the mothers until they gain a considerable size—a period of several weeks. The first, and probably the second, moult take place within the nest, the third occurs after the spider has commenced life on Domicile jts own account. Although so numerous, the juvenile Ripariums and : ’ ee, aaa Nimes Mr. Robertson’s artificial nests appeared to be on very good terms, seldom engaging in any quarrels—not so frequently, he thought, as the same number of boys in a school would haye done. The mother Theridium exhibits wonderful affection for her eggs and young. The food of the spider is principally ants, and many deserted nests were literally full of the remains of these insects. House flies, when trapped upon the snares, are held very tenaciously by the viscid globules which, Mr. Robertson asserts, are dispersed over the in- tersecting lines. It is most interesting to watch the proceedings of the juveniles when the mother is endeavoring to catch a fly. Hearing or seeing a disturbance, a young spider cautiously descends a line, followed at a distance by another and another. These approach the victim, eyi- dently as anxious to assist the mother as children are to use their little fingers when they see others busy. The fly struggles in its toils, and away scamper the young spiders as fast as tiny legs can carry them, re- peating this process until they can make a meal off the fly. When an insect is captured it is usually enswathed and drawn up within the nest to be devoured. These examples would seem to indicate that among our American ‘The- ridioids we may expect to find the nesting habit much more strongly de- veloped than has heretofore been supposed. At all events, it is seen that this tribe has in some of its representatives fair rivals of the Orbweavers in the perfection of the nesting habit. The difference in the use, in the case of Theridium, appears to be that the nests of Orbweavers are habit- ually the dwelling places of their builders, while those of Lineweavers are not so much permanent dwelling places as retreats for the cocooning season. However, the Orbweayer’s nest is also occasionally used to house her cocoon. One may find rude examples of the nesting habit in the genus Liny- phia. There is no more common or more interesting snare along the skirts of our American woods, especially in the Middle and At- Nesting antic States, than that of Linyphia marginata. This consists of Se a dome of open meshwork which is stretched in the midst of a maze of crossed lines. It looks not unlike a miniature umbrella minus a handle and hung by innumerable cords to the foliage. (Fig. 157.) Within this structure the spider has her abode, hanging inverted, close to the ceiling, ready to dash through the flimsy fabric and seize the unfor- tunate victims that drop down upon the roof through the labyrinth above. Linyphia communis spins a nest precisely like the above in structure, but differing from it in that the concavity of the dome is invariably Food. NEST MAKING: ITS ORIGIN AND USE. 321 Fic. 301. Fic. 301. The silk lined burrow or nest of the American Trapdoor spider, Cteniza californica. The earth is cut away, giving a vertical exposure of the tube and its lining. Fic. 302. A colony of Purseweb spiders’ nests on a palmetto trunk. to show underground burrow. Fi@. 302. Fie. 303. Fia. 303. Purseweb spider’s tube; soil removed 322 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. turned upwards instead of downwards. (See Fig. 156, Chapter IX.) The spider rests, as in the case of her congener, beneath her tent, and waits for the prey that, striking upon and arrested by the labyrinth of crossed lines stretched above, drop into the inverted silken bowl, beneath which the watchful aranead hangs. Thus among the Linyphia, also, the Line- weavers have fair representatives of that nest making habit which we have regarded as germinal and typical of the nesting architect- ure of all the tribes. Among the Territelariz the tube making habit has a very high development, par- Terri- ticularly in the genera telarian et er ieee Nemesia, Cteniza, and Tubes. Atypus. All these spi- ders make tubular burrows be- neath the surface of the ground, which are lined with a_ thick sheeting of silk that really con- stitutes a tube within a tunnel. (Fig. 301.) The genus Atypus carries this tube above the sur- face, attaching it, in the case of Abbot’s Atypus,! to the surface of trees (Figs. 302, 303), while Atypus piceus fastens her tube to the surface of weeds and grass into which or along which it is carried. Thus we find that in this large and interesting tribe the tube is also made the archi- Fic. 304. The tubular, funnel shaped nest of Cyrtauchenius f Ob elongatus. Elevated above the ground, and suspended to tectural type of the domicile. cram, ime sat opened fo hoy aeion ew’ of, The. mest of | Cyrtauchieuias elongatus, as described by M. Eugene Simon, closely resembles that of Agalena ncevia in the character of the tube alone; but this tube is enclosed within a deep cylindrical burrow, and is prolonged upward for about three inches above the surface of the ground, and enlarged into a funnel shape, so that it becomes from two to three inches across at the orifice. (Fig. 304.) This aerial portion is snow white, and at once attracts the eye, even from a considerable distance; the nests, rising up amid sparse grass, which serves to support but not conceal them, present the appearance of scattered white fungi. Cyrtauchenius 1 Atypus Abboti Walck. NEST MAKING: ITS ORIGIN AND USE. 323 belongs to the Territelariz, and appears to be nearly related to Atypus and Nemesia. Mr. Moggridge classifies its nest among those of the Trap- door spiders, characterizing it as the funnel shaped nest.1 Among the Citigrades we find a resemblance in general habit to the Tunnelweayers. The burrowing habit is quite identical, and the tube making habit, although not so high- ly specialized, nevertheless exists. It is chiefly displayed, how- ever, in spinning a tubu- lar lining to the little tower prolonged above the burrow, as in the case of the interesting nest of the turret spider,? Fig. 289, or the silk lined, dome shaped vestibule of the Tiger spider,* composed of moss or various scraps of miscellaneous material, which is wrought into an entrance to the sloping burrow that extends beneath the surface of the ground. (Fig. 305.) The silk lined tower of the turret spider may be said to resemble very closely the tubu- lar nest of such Orbweavers as Epeira domiciliorum and E. thaddeus, when they build within the leaves of a pine tree or weave their tent in like situations. The silk lined vestibule of the Tiger spider is not unlike the leafy nest constructed by the Shamrock spider and others of the group to which she belongs. (Compare Fig. 259, Chapter XVII., with Fig. 305.) Coming finally to the Laterigrades we find here the nest making habit less developed than in any other tribe of the order. These araneads stalk their prey afield; use no sort of spinningwork for their capture; and, as far as I know, make no fixed domicile of spinningwork for their permanent abode. I have, however, found Laterigrades, as Philo- dromus and Misumena, dwelling with their co- coons beneath tubular structures of delicate texture, which gc cn Ne served both as a cover to the spider and her cocoon. In of Lycosa tigrina. s, form and spinningwork these differed in no essential par- sale ieee a ticular from the tubes of Drassids and Epeira and the is indicated beneath; Cocooning tents of Orbweavers. This, I believe, is a ohne aaa common habit, particularly with the mother Laterigrade at the cocooning period. So far, then, as she may be said to possess in any degree the instinct of nest building, she displays a tendency to adopt the typical form, and screens herself within a tube. Citi- grades. FiG. 305. Vestibule of Lycosa tigrina (McCook). Lateri- grades. ‘ Moggridge: Harvesting Ants and Trapdoor Spiders, page 183, pl. 13. * Tarentula arenicola Scudder, * Tarentula tigrina McCook. 324 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. As a result of the above comparative study of the nesting industry of the spider fauna, we may conclude that there is one germinal or typical _ form of nest among all the tribes, which form is the tube. ea Around this common and rudimentary form the greatly varied and widely divergent nests of spiders, whether known as dom- iciles, dens, tents, tunnels, or caves, may be grouped in series of more or less modified forms. It may be allowable to say, using the language of accommodation, that all these variations have been developed in these various species around this typical and germinal form; but the statement cannot be said to rest upon any demonstration of actual facts, and must stand simply as a convenient and appro- priate formula for expressing certain relations. It is, however, a sufficiently interesting discoy- ery that, amidst so many forms which at first sight appear to be widely different, one is able to trace with striking and manifest clearness a common plan. As one considers them, he is conscious of something like the feelings with which he wan- ders through the studio of an artist of fecund and yersatile genius. Variety of invention and detail in execution are certainly manifest; but everywhere, also, are apparent to the critical student traces of a single mind, whose dominant characteristics inevitably assert themselves in its products. The details vary; the Author’s style is one. Perhaps this unity of plan is not to be Fic. 307. Partly covered and sandea Wondered at, when we reflect that the physio- esac OF eznue Abbon. logical characteristics of spiders in all tribes and species are not widely different, and hence the functions might be expected to find very similar expressions, at least in certain fundamental points. HOE In comparing the detailed studies of the manner in which the various tribes of spiders construct the typical tubular nest, one reaches the con- clusion that there is little or no difference in the processes as Uniform pursued by individuals. When Epeira constructs a tubular den, moe she proceeds in her work in precisely the same way as Agalena Method. When laying out the tubular part of her snare, or as Abbot's Atypus, the Purseweb spider, when constructing the long tube within which she spends her life. So, also, the Basket Argiope, when spreading the thickening shield which forms the centre of her orb, has the same method as the Speckled tubeweaver or the Medicinal spider when a ~ NEST MAKING: ITS ORIGIN AND USE. 3825 spreading out the carpet like structure or the pouched bag which form respectively the snares of those species. I have described at length the method in a paper upon the habits of the Purseweb spider, and it will fairly represent the action of all other species making similar dwelling places." The characteristic tube of the Purseweb spider is spun against the trunk of a tree, ex- tending several inches above the surface of the ground and about an equal distance beneath it. (Fig. 303.) The first stage in con- structing this tube is to stretch a series of lines about two inches from the surface of the ground to various points on the surface of the tree, until a circular or nearly circular row is formed, extending from the tree to the Method of Atypus Fic. 309. Fig. 310. Fic. 308. The frame of original lines stretched against a stock. Fic. 309. The frame partly covered over; the spider is seen within putting on the weft. Fic. 310. The completed tube, with a small cross tube woven at the base. i ground. This forms a frame of straight lines, which is the foundation of the tube. (Fig. 308.) The spider now passes within this structure, and, clinging to the threads with her feet, moves her abdomen simultaneously backward and forward and up and down, meanwhile issuing from the spinnerets thickened lines, which adhere to the framework. In _ other words, the framework constitutes the warp, and the lines issued there- after the woof of her texture. (Fig. 309.) As the threads are drawn out from the spinnerets they are beaten down upon the frame lines by the 1 Proceedings Academy Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 1888, pages 203-18. “The Nest- ing Habits of the American Purseweb Spider.” 326 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. spinnerets, not interwoven with them. When a sufficient number has been laid upon the original frame, by the repeated spinning and beating action of the spider, the whole presents the appearance of a thickened sheet wrought into the form of a tube. (Fig. 310.) I have observed the overspinning of an under- ground burrow by a Purseweb in a glass jar. The same method was followed, except that the frame lines were spun against the concavity of the burrow and the inner surface of the glass. SSI ne The spider then proceeded to thicken pes ae Wie NS over the frame by spinning against it lit- DAS AP u tle ribbons of silk and beating them down FASS = with her long spinnerets. When hang- ing head downward, with claws clasping the frame lines, and spinning upward against the roof of her burrow (Fig. 312), she presented to the observer a rather odd appearance. No doubt this is the mode by which the spider silklines the underground part of her tubular snare Fic. 311. Purseweb spider’s nest. View below Which extends beneath the sand some- ade) een ae iors times as far as above the surface, and is either single, or branched, after the man- ner represented in Fig. 311. (See also Fig. 303.) The same method of spinning is used by our American tarantula, Eu- rypelma hentzi, in weaving the rug upon which it often loves to stay when in artificial confinement. In the act of spinning, the i aes Soa j The Ta- Jone posterior spinnerets are curved upward and forward (which ’ to} } rantulais’ <1) j mg age 5 2 e Rag is, indeed, an habitual position with this tribe), and from the spinning tubes along the exterior part of the spinneret are given out numerous fine threads. These are pressed to the ground by the downward motion of the spinnerets. The abdomen is then lifted up, and by this action the threads are drawn out. Again the downward mo- tion is repeated, and simulta- neously the end of the abdo- men to which the spinnerets { SSS Y Fic. 312. Purseweb spider working the weft on an are attached receives a lateral underground frame. motion that causes the threads to be spread over the surface of the ground. At the same time the animal slowly moves its whole body around, as upon a pivot, thus dispersing the silk over a circular patch of NEST MAKING: ITS ORIGIN AND USE. 327 surface about equal in diameter to twice the length of its body, or to the spread of its legs.? Thus the thick texture of the sheeted web is produced by the act of beating downward with the long spinnerets, repeated motions of which up and down make little loops, which thicken over the surface and are beaten down and then smoothed over by the spinnerets. (Fig. 313.) It will be seen that this action does not differ from that of all other spiders while engaged upon similar spinningwork. The spinning habit is not greatly developed among the Lycosids, al- though that group of spiders furnishes some interesting examples of nest making. Nevertheless, in the work of making the cocoon, in which its spinning industry is most conspicuous, we find Lycosa dropping into the common method of fabrication. I have ob- served and described the mode of spinning a cocoon, which is as follows: A circular cushion of beautiful white silk about three- fourths of an inch in diameter is the- piece out of which the round egg bag of Lycosa is made. In spinning this © the spider’s — feet clasp the circum- ference of the co- coon, and the body of the animal is slowly revolved. The abdomen is lifted up, thus drawing out short loops of silk from the extended spinnerets, which, when the abdomen is dropped again, contract and leave a flossy curl of silk at the point of attachment. The abdomen is also swayed back and forward, the filaments from the spinnerets following the motion as the spider turns, and thus an even thickness of silk is laid upon the eggs.? I haye seen Saltigrades engage in the same act of spinning their co- coon and silken cylindrical nest, and the words used for describing the above might be almost exactly applied to the behavior of the Attoid. The details of these methods of cocoon making will be reserved for the proper chapter in the second volume of this work. But, in the meanwhile, this reference to the method falls into the purpose of present thought. Among Lycosids. Fic. 313. Tarantula putting the weft upon her rug. (Eurypelma Hentzii.) 1See my notes on the Age and Habits of the American Tarantula, Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1887, page 377. 2See my note on “ How Lycosa Fabricates her Round Cocoon,” Proceed. Acad. Nat, Sci. Phila., 1884, page 138, 328 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. If we turn to the Tubeweavers we find a varied and interesting field of spinning industry in the making of snares, nests, and cocoons. In all of these it may be confidently said that the methods, as far as known, are substantially the same as those described as prevail- ing in other tribes. A few illustrations show this fact. The interesting and well known water spider of Europe, Argyroneta aquatica, weaves in water a bell shaped tent (Fig. 314), within which she dwells, deposits her egg sac, and rears her young. The following observation indicates Fic. 314, The bell shapea that even in this seemingly unnatural element the fee yoter sider unaer Same general method characterizes the spider’s weay- water. ing. Fig. 315 represents a patch of spinningwork made by this water spider upon a glass within which she was confined, and drawn by Mr. Underhill! On examining the central part of this patch, it appeared, both to the naked eye and to the microscope, like a piece of the spider’s cocoon. Certain broad threads at the edge of the patch at once explained the method by which this close and Methods of Tube- weavers. aa even texture was obtained. They are represented by Fig. 315, ¢, aac as they appeared under the microscope. They seem to have been produced, as in the cases above described, by the spider erecting or placing, parallel to one another, a series of spinning tubes, which emitted separate and parallel threads, instead of lines directed towards one point. These bands Mr. Underhill supposed a a to be the product of the anterior Mi / NN spinnerets, while the other two at i \ \\ threads, a and B, are emitted by the | | | \ posterior and middle spinnerets. When Agalena neevia wishes to extend the borders of her sheet like snare, she proceeds Agalena’s - Method, 1” the same way, carry- ing first various lines be- yond the margin to the desired dis- tance, which lines are stretched across the foliage or other surface that forms the nest site. When the desired number of these lines Fic. 315. Highly magnified piece of the Water spider's has been laid down, the Tube- web. a,a, BB, the single original or warp lines; ¢, ¢, c, weaver. moves backward and for) , “°Penced tamer eee ward over them, spinning out all the while a stream of silk, at the same time moving her long spinnerets up and down from the surface of the 1“Science Gossip,” 1875, page 134. NEST MAKING: ITS ORIGIN AND USE. 329 frame, by this vertical movement drawing out the thread and beating it back again, thus thickening the weft upon the lines. In this manner a sheet of thin texture is rapidly formed, and this, in the course of time, is thickened by a repetition of the same mode of spinning. This is exactly the method, as I have heretofore shown, pursued by Argiope cophinaria in thickening her shield. (See Chapter VI. and illustrations.) It is the manner in which the dome like tents of all the Epeiroid spiders are con- structed. When the method of procedure has been ascertained in one spider, the arachnologist may be assured that he has the key to the methods practiced among all the tribes.1 VE The tube making faculty appears to be, as far as secondary causes are concerned, the natural result of the instinct of self protection. It is, per- haps, most natural that the lower animals should seek to protect Origin of themselves within barriers formed by their body secretions, as is Tube- : Sans the case among the larve of many insects. The restless move- Habit, ments of the body, characteristic of these creatures, conjoined with the instinct to cover themselves up, to protect themselves from unfavorable weather changes and from the approach of enemies, may be a sufficient natural explanation of the origin of the tube making habit. Thus, the silk moth larva, while secreting silk from the glands which open on the upper lip, moves backward and forward, continually distribu- ting its secretions, and at the same time, by the motion of its body, limits them to the borders of the space around which it moves. In the same way the social caterpillars have learned to shut themselves within their well known tent, which presents so largely the appearance of a designed structure, but which, in its origin at least, may have been quite as much the result of accident, the silken secretion simply hardening around the limits of the space through which the restless creatures move, and which by their motions they keep free from threads. In like manner the larva of the ant, at the moment when nature brings upon it the sense of the great change from its larval to its pupal state, moves backward and forward within a narrow space, secreting its mee delicate silk, which by its movements is pushed away from di- ome rect contact with its body, and hardens into the little case or pouch in which itself at last is encompassed. Thus we may ‘It took many years of observation, numberless experiments by day and throughout many nights of careful watching among the various species, to reach this conclusion. But I am so confident that I have fully demonstrated it, that I have no hesitation in declaring the general principle here announced. I have little doubt that subsequent studies of other species in all the tribes will verify the generalization. 330 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. FiG. 317. Fic. 316. The rolled leaf nest of a Tortricid moth larva, made among ferns leaf nest of the Shamrock spider, made among ferns. Fie. 317. A rolled NEST MAKING: ITS ORIGIN AND USE. : 331 governing all creatures and all their actions, has developed in certain ar- thropods the habit of spinning tubes or cylinders as a protection to the body. Among the spider fauna this habit is particularly prominent. It does not exist, as with insects, in a larval state, but in the perfect animal, the only one, with possibly one exception,! of which we have knowl- edge. The belief has been expressed that both sexes of the Pso- cide possess the power of spinning a web which McLachlin affirms is not distinguishable from that made by spiders.?. This habit, which character- ize@& the larve of insects, is carried forward to the perfect animal among the Aranez, and, as we have seen, the habit of protecting themselves by tubular spinningwork, in one form or another, exists among some spe- cies of every tribe of spiders. One who is conversant with insect architecture cannot but be struck with the resemblance between the nests of spiders and those made by the larvee of certain insects. Brief allusion has already been made to this, but it may be worth while to call attention more distinctly thereto. Very often I have met, along the seashore in New Jersey, a species of leaf roller Tortricid moth, whose species I do not know, that has reminded me of the nests of Epeira trifolium spun among the ferns, and Epeira which is one of the most beautiful examples of the nesting habit and Moth +, be found among spiders. The two objects may sometimes be Larva. & SE : oa y seen almost side by side, and eyen the most casual observer would scarcely fail to note that they must have been constructed upon the same fundamental principles of architectural instinct. There are, of course, differences which one may note without very acute perception; but the resemblances are certainly worthy of consideration, and it is to these that I have here wished to call attention. (See Figs. 316 and 317.) The nest of Theridium riparium is constructed on very much the same principle as that of the larva of the caddis fly, or case worm, a Neurop- terous insect which is very well known, and whose remarkable Psocide. ee architectural habit has excited the interest of naturalists. Sev- ne an gq. ral illustrations of the nests of this insect are given.* The first dis Fly. Tepresents a case made of bits of moss, and is the work of Lim- nophilus rhombicus. (Fig. 323.) The second represents-the case worm, found in great abundance by Professor Packard in Labrador, and which he supposes to be the work of Limnophilus subpunctulatus, the most abundant species found in Labrador. The case is straight, cylindri- cal, and built of coarse gravel, and the larva is a thick, cylindrical, whitish worm. The next figure (Fig. 320) represents the nest of Limnophilus 1 Psocus sexpunctatus. See a note of the author in Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1883, page 278. : 2 Monograph British Psocide, Entomological Monthly Magazine, Vol. III, 1866-7, page 268. 8’ These are copied from Packard’s “Guide to the Study of Insects,” page 617. 332 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. flavicornis, a European species which is often constructed of small shells; and Fig. 324 illustrates the case or nest of the European Limnophilus pel- lucidus, which is formed of large pieces of leaves laid flat over each other. I am not familiar with the larva’s method of putting together these nests, although I have some very interesting ones in my possession, not greatly differing in construction from those which are here illustrated. The principle on which the various particles of material are collected and placed together to form the perfect cover made by the little worm cannot differ greatly, judging from architecture alone, from those which regulate Fic. 319. Fic. 318.7 Nests of Theridium (Fig. 318), and the Bag worm (Fig. 319). the behavior of Theridium riparium when she builds the nests described upon the preceding pages. (Fig. 318.) A like reflection is suggested by the work of the well known bag worm, or basket worm, Theridopterix ephemereformis. (Fig. 319.) This is the caterpillar of a species of moth, sometimes known as the house Theridi- }yilder moth (Oiketici), The insects are also called Canephore, um and z p i ri or basket carriers, and the Germans call them Sacktriiger, or Bag ) ) Worm. ‘sack bearer. The baskets of the above species are among the most familiar objects in this geographical district, and may be seen hanging in multitudes to the limbs of trees after the leaves have fallen in autumn. I have been greatly interested in studying the whole process by which these interesting objects are made, and have described it elsewhere.” ‘The part above the horizontal line on the left of the figure was made of pellets of clay in natural site; that below of material artificially supplied. “Science Gossip,” January, 1868, page 12, sq. ? In my “Tenants of an Old Farm,’ Chapter XIX., “Housekeeping in a Basket.” NEST MAKING: ITS ORIGIN AND USE. 333 The material which is fastened upon the internal silken sack consists of particles of the food plant upon which the caterpillar is reared. These are the stems and other rejected portions of the plant, left when feeding, and which hang to the silken bag on the outside. They are sometimes so thickly placed that the silken sack is entirely covered, as at Fig. 325, which is a specimen from the Southern States in my collection of insect architecture. One might extend these comparisons much further and find that the striking resemblances between the protective architecture of spiders and that of the larvee of insects might be carried to the very lowest forms of life. Prof. Joseph Leidy, in his monumental work upon the Rhizopods,! has presented numerous forms of these creatures, that le so far down in the scale of animated being, which at once call to mind the habits of the caddis fly larva and the larva of the house builder moth. Fig. 326 represents the Rhizopod, Difflugia urceolata, a common form found in ditches in the neighborhood of Philadelphia. Ordinarily the shell of this Difflugia strikingly resembles the ancient Roman amphora. The body of the shell varies from a globular shape to a more or less ovoid form; the principal extremity or fundus is more ob- tusely rounded, or more or less acute; and sometimes it is rounded and more or less acuminate. The shell is composed, as is generally the case in other species of the genus, of colorless angular particles of quartz sand, mostly of larger ones scattered with more or less irregularity, while the intervals are occupied with smaller ones. Frequently larger stones occupy the larger shell; but, passing this, they gradually become smaller, approach- ing the edge of the rim or reflected lip.? Another Rhizopod which suggests at once the architecture of the bag worm is represented at Fig. 327. Difflugia acuminata is one of the most common forms of Rhizopods, and is very generally distributed. Not un- frequently, as in the figure, the shell is composed of colorless, chitinoid membrane incorporated with quartz sand, alone or with this and intermin- gled diatoms. In this the grains of sand are usually closely placed in jux- taposition at and near the*mouth of the shell, but are elsewhere scattered and separated by wide intervals. In some cases the shell is more or less covered with large,diatoms, which are generally adherent in the length, and diverge upward beyond the boundary of the shell.? Not only do we find these striking resemblances in the external archi- tecture of these widely separated creatures, but apparently we find the same purposes originating the architecture. The house builder moth larva constructs her thatched domicile in order to cover over its soft body; Rhizo- pods. 1“ Fresh Water Rhizopods of North America,’ Washington, 1879. * Op. cit., page 107, and pl. 14, Fig. 3. 3 Leidy, Idem, page 111, pl. 13, Fig. 21. AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. Fig, 321. Se a : Las q AS ee iS, ) ? Abs Fic, 326. Fic. 327. A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE NESTING ARMOR OF RuHIzoPoDs, CADDIS FLIES, AND BAG WORMS. Fic. 320. Case of Caddis (Limnophilus flavicornis), made of minute shells. Fig. 321. Case of gravel, made by the larva (Fic. 322) of a Caddis fly. Fic. 323. Case of Caddis worm (Limnophilus rhom- bicus), made of moss. Fig. 324. Case of Caddis (Limnophilus pellucidus), made of pieces of leaves. Fic. 325. The basket or thatched bag of the Bag worm (Theridopterix). Fic. 326. Shell of a Rhizopod, Difflugia urceolata (variety amphora), built up of quartz sand. ™ 100 diameters. (After Leidy.) FiG. 327. diatoms. » 200 diameters. Shell of Rhizopod, Difflugia acuminata, composed of quartz sand and (After Leidy.) NEST MAKING: ITS ORIGIN AND USE. 335 the caddis fly builds over her body her tiled tube of shells or pebbles, or covers it with thatched moss, for the same purpose. The animated bodyof sarcode known as a Rhizopod evidently is moved by the desire Common {o preserve its protoplasmic structure, when it gathers diatoms Architec- é Ds : ; : ; tural Aim 224 bits of sand from which to rear around itself its beautiful architectural armor or encasing wall. The nest making spider, Epeira trifolium or Theridium riparium, is manifestly moved by the same disposition to shelter the soft abdomen, which is the most assailable and vulnerable part of her body. From the lowest form of Rhizopod, through these more highly organ- ized insects and arachnids, we may ascend to man, who occupies the sum- mit of the zoological pyramid, the crown and king of creation, Man's and note the same outcome of life. In the great cathedrals mee. which he rears to the Almighty, or in the humble cottages ecture. ; : . : ; ; ; which he builds, alike in stone wall, in tiled or shingled or thatched roof, we may see the methods of his humbler fellows of the creature world, only carried out upon a loftier scale and with a nobler purpose. Thus, in the nesting architecture of living things, the naturalist may see, as on so many other fields of observation, the harmony which _per- vades creation. “From harmony, from heavenly harmony, This universal frame began: From harmony to harmony, Through all the compass of the notes it ran, The. diapason closing full on Man.” What is the meaning of this harmony? By what dominating Force, through what natural laws has it been accomplished and is it main- tained? These are problems which have occupied the thoughts of students of nature, and upon which they have honestly and earnestly divided. We may indulge the hope that when the realm of life has been sufficiently explored, from the larger knowledge of facts there may issue, in this matter also, substantial harmony. By whatever theory one may account for these facts, certainly the facts themselves show that an unexpected degree of harmony pervades all the home building industry of the smaller creatures that inhabit the globe in common with more highly organized animals. The traces everywhere ap- pear of one common origin, or (as many would prefer to express it) of one Originating Mind, whose Will, the source of all natural forces, is expressed. in the infinite variety of forms and methods which these natural forces are working and have wrought through all the ages of time. Universal Harmony © ERASE Wi xe: THE GENESIS OF SNARES. Ir now remains to trace the relations which exist between the various forms of spinningwork treated in detail or alluded to in this volume. In attempting this I am well aware that great difficulties le Spinning- jn the path, and am not unmindful of the fact that one is in- work Re- _. : = Poa. : : > lations: clined in such a task to give greater or less play to imagination. Moreover, the limited knowledge of the spinning habits of our spider fauna hinders me from tracing the connecting links that would perhaps show intimate relations between industries which now seem widely separated. Nevertheless, one cannot well resist the effort. In considering the natural relationships of snares it is at least conven- ient to proceed from the standpoint of a gradual evolution or development of the spinning habit. In justice to my own belief, it is proper A Hypo- io state that such a course is entirely hypothetical. As far as I ea have been able to grasp the subject and reach conclusions there- point. from, there appears to be no ground, either in the habit of ex- isting fauna or in the records of geologic ages, to justify the as- sertion that any one tribe of spiders has been the parental stock out of which the others have proceeded, or that any one form of spinningwork has been the germinal form from which all the varied aranead industries have had a natural and gradual growth. Nevertheless, in that scientific use of the imagination which is a most advantageous and often a necessary factor in exhibiting the relations of things, it is proper for one to so far take adyantage of current beliefs as to express certain relationships, which very clearly and beautifully ap- pear, as though they had originated through diverging or interblending lines from one common source. Doubtless many of my readers, certainly most of my scientific friends, will think that my tentative standpoint ex- presses the real state of things; and if the truth rests with them I shall be glad to thus help them make it appear. i. As the starting point of our first comparative view I take the Trapline. The simplest use of the thread or combination of threads thus denomi- nated may be seen in the habits of such a spider as Epeira strix. This aranead, like the majority of her congeners, forsakes her web during the (336) iss) (JX) ~I THE GENESIS OF SNARES. day and seeks some near by retreat. This may be a curled leaf, the shelter of a projecting bit of bark, a recess in the rocks, or other like refuge, in which she is measurably protected from her enemies. As she Genesis abandons the centre or hub of her orb, upon which she has ofa : : ; : igoaihne. been hanging during the night and early morning, she leayes behind her the precautionary thread which is habitually drawn out after spiders when they move, and which I have called the dragline. This thread is carried from the hub to the point of retreat. It can nearly always be traced by a careful examination of the orb, and by means of it the practiced spider hunter can frequently trace this most secretive species to her snare. This is not universally the case, howeyer, as I have sometimes been foiled in attempting to find Epeira strix by her dragline. How- ever, the custom prevails, and, with less secretive species, the line can more readily be used as a trail to the spider's re- treat. I do not know that this line serves any other purpose than a sort of gang- way by which the spider leaves her web and returns to it when the evening shades begin to fall. Nevertheless, one may recognize in it, per- haps, the germ of the trap- line. With other species, such as A Simple Trail. i i Fic. 328. A nest of Epeira trifo- A . ve Epeira trifolium and Epeira _ lium, showing the trapline at \} I rR 2 : : tk t t i fy insularis, the trapline is more Tete eeoars sharply differentiated from the snare itself, and is specialized in its uses. It is a line connected by more or less deltated branches with the retreat of the spider in her leafy or silken tent. This is habit- ually a single line in the species just named. The end by which it is connected with the hub of the orb diverges into several branches,1 forming a delta or triangular pyramid, the basal lines of which seize the hub at several points. The opposite extremity enters the nest and is held by one or more of the spider’s feet (Fig. 828); usually one of the front legs is extended and grasps the line with the claw. In this manner the trapline is held very taut. The branching portions draw Trail and Telegraph 1See the various figures in Chapter X VII. illustrating this point. 338 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. up the various lines of the snare, so that all the radii, particularly, are held in a tense condition. This tension of the trapline and radial lines makes the whole web an efficient telegraphic instrument for conveying to the spider in her den or domicile any vibration caused by insects entangled upon the snare. When by such telegraphy the capture of an insect is communicated to the sen- sitive feet of the spider, she immediately rushes along her trapline to the hub, and from that point to her prey. Thus, in the typical Orbweaver’s snare, the trapline serves the two purposes—first, of communicating to the proprietor the presence of entangled insects; and, second, of affording a gangway to the net and back again to the tent. In short, the incidental dragline appropriated to the uses of a gangway, in Epeira strix, is here specialized into a trail and a telegraph. As far as I can positively affirm, no other than these two purposes are served by the trapline in these species. However, it is the habit of spiders who thus use this specialized instru- ment to frequently pull upon it, increasing the tension by drawing it towards them- seas selves and then letting it go again, a 7 making a series of rapid jerks. I have never been able to observe that this motion had any purpose or effect to in- crease the entanglement of an insect, and have always regarded it simply as a means of deter- mining the presence, weight, and energy of the SE ay ee te ee renee victim, and thus estimating the degree of cau- at her hub, to show the radiiclus) tion necessary in approaching it. If the insect BOF See IAW: be quiescent, as often occurs, the pulling and sudden relaxing of the trapline is quite sure to set it in motion again. It might, perhaps, be observed in this connection that eyen when the spider is hanging on guard at the centre of her orb, she spins a series of deltated lines, the apex of which is grasped by several claws of ‘the legs, and the opposite ends of which are attached to the radii in such a way as to cause a direct communication between all parts of the orb and the sensitive feet within which these lines are thus con- yerged. Examples of this are especially observable in the various species of Acrosoma. Fig. 329 shows the manner in which Acrosoma rugosa, when hanging upon the open hub of her snare, thus gathers converging radii into her claws. a9 Aes ; eecaaees between the various forms of trapline among Orb- ‘ - weavers, from the simplest to the most complex. We may now attempt a like service for the entire sys- tem of trapping spinningwork known as the snare. In this undertaking I propose to go beyond the field of orbwebs, and Fic. 332. The original spinning thread — : take into the view the characteristic snares the dragline, a. of all the aranead tribes. Let us suppose, again, that the original form of spinningwork was the single line which has been alluded to as the dragline, and whose relation- ship we have just traced into the various forms of snares made The Origi-}hy Orbweavers. If now we venture further to suppose that the nal Spin- : ; : aes : : spider always possessed the habit which is strongly apparent in ningwork : J : ie : such tribes as the Lineweavers and Orbweayers, of moving rest- lessly to and fro between twigs and leaves, spinning out a single thread, Fic. 333. The meshed snare of Theridium, thickened at the top, and supported by silken trestles. 999 and making anchorages and attachments as it moves (Fig. 332), we easily arrive at the form of snare characteristic of Lineweavers. These straggling lines, crossed at all angles, would soon, and without THE GENESIS OF SNARES. 3438 any apparent purpose of the spider, drop into a maze of interlacing single threads, which would present in crude form the typical snare of such , genera as Theridium, Pholcus, Ero, Neriene, and others of the Therid- Retitelarie. That web is, in point of fact, just such a snare as ium’s : Bacental I have seen other spiders make, notably the Orbweayers, by such Snare. | Purposeless moving back and forward as I have mentioned. To be sure, the snares of Theridium and Pholcus, as we now see them, have a little more finished character than that of the crude cobweb i \ SSv~ = Fic. 334. The sheeted web of Linyphia costata. described, but the difference is not very great, and it therefore implies a rigid persistence in habit throughout an immense period of time. We take another step in the development of web making, confining ourselves still to the tribe of Lineweavers. I have already described, in the chapter on Engineering Skill, the manner in which Theridium tends 344 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. to thicken that portion of her snare in which she hangs back downward. This is a most natural action, resulting from several facts. First, as she passes from her resting point to the various parts of her snare in which insects are entangled, she spins out an anchorage for the dragline, by which she is sure to connect herself to this roosting spot. Again, when she returns with her prey, she swings her abdomen around several times, before finally settling for her banquet, and at each time she ejects a similar jet of silk and unites the thickened spots by a little thread. (See Fig. 59, page 61.) Still further, in her restless movements back and forward over her web, around this central roost, she throws out sim- ilar anchorages and lines. Thus, this spot and its vicinity in a little while become much thicker than the surrounding portions of the snare. Fic. 335. Linyphia’s snare among the morning glories. Here, now, we have the germ of the typical snare of the genus Liny- phia. In point of fact, it consists, as I haye already shown (Chap- ter [X.), of a sheet like bit of spinningwork, whose fibres are From very open, or, as one might otherwise express it, of a netted inne sheet of spinningwork, whose meshes are very close. Our origi- Linyphia, nal snare of irregularly crossed lines has thus advanced a step toward a meshed sheet like snare. In many species of the genus Linyphia the snare is simply a netted sheet, more or less horizontal, having outgoing straight lines, which support it above and below. It thus very THE GENESIS OF SNARES. 345 nearly approaches, in the habitual form of its snare, that form which, as I have shown, incidentally results from the long use of Theridium’s web ‘of intersecting lines. The step is not a large one by which we may conceive the snare just described to be transformed into that of the dome shaped web of Linyphia marginata, or the bowl shaped web of Linyphia communis. It From only needs, in the former case, a little more downward pressure Sheet to ; : Hens upon the cords at the edges, and in the latter a little more pressure upon the marginal cords upward, to complete the proc- ess. (Fig. 335.) We may now pass from Lineweavers to Tubeweavers. A glance at the snare of Agalena ncevia, for example, as represented in Fig. 215, page 217, and Fig. 336, will show how close is the resemblance between it and the snares of Linyphia already described. Agalena has a sheeted web of open spinningwork, or of close, irregular meshwork, as one may choose to put it, whose weft becomes much thickened in course of time by fre- quent overlaying. It also has the crossed lines extending upward, for the most part, but often downward also, representing the original rude intersecting lines of our sup- posed primitive snare. This retitelarian fea- ture of the web is a most important factor in the daily capture of prey, by signaling their presence to the waiting proprietor ; by arresting and trapping them so that they fall upon the sheeted premises beneath; and by actually entangling them. hist mosneoiehweoercanized sor allimthie scsi. Biecctod webiand tube of Agalens 5 = neevia, woven on a hedge. Tubeweaving species has therefore substan- tially a Lineweaver’s snare. To this structure is added the tube, which, in point of fact, is not the snare, but the nesting place. I have already shown, in the chapter on Nesting Habits (Chapter XVII.), the manner in which this feature of the snare may have been gradually developed by the natural action of the spider. In point of fact, the tube is the typical nest of all species, and is naturally formed by the moyements of the spider within a limited space, spinning out as it moves the silken material which it secretes. : Theridium, and still more habitually and definitely Linyphia, will form a little tube like structure by the mere gravity of the body as it hangs upon its snare in this manner: The eight legs reach upward, From forming what may be called the sectional outline of a tube cut Dome to ; : : : : ; Tube. horizontally. The weight of the spider, aided by the violent agi- tation of its snare when struck by an insect, pulls down these eight points in such a way that a little conical or dome like tent is formed 346 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. just above the spider’s feet. This is illustrated at Fig. 157, page 167. The same effect is produced by the stay lnes which are attached above, and which often draw up parts of the surface, as at Fig. 337, into little domes. We might almost think of these as the germinal form of the tube as it is seen in the Lineweaving species. But still more distinctly we may see the habit naturally engrafted upon such an interesting species as Theridium zelotypum or Theridium riparium, whose beautiful nesting habits are described in Chapter XVIII. In these species the inside lining of the nest of gathered sticks and rubbish is a distinct tube, which is sometimes prolonged beyond the mouth of its den. Indeed, whenever a Theridioid spider takes its place beneath a leaf or Fie. 337. Snare of Linyphia costata, showing tent like elevations. other shelter, as it often does, especially under stress of continued bad weather, it is sure to spin aboye and around its abdomen a little conical mass of lines, which, by the pressure upwards of the an- imal, is compacted or beaten into a concave form. If the weather continue unfavorable, or the spider is undisturbed for a considerable length of time, this little rudimentary tube will gradually make encroachments upon the leafy shelter, and will be prolonged outward and downward. Now, when the sun comes out and invites anew to web spinning, it is in- evitable that the snare will be spun just beneath or close in the neighbor- hood of this tube like shelter. Thus it becomes easy to explain the ap- pearance of a tubemaking habit, not only in Lineweavers, but in Orbweavers Growth of a Tube. THE GENESIS OF SNARES. 347 and Tubeweavers. The same is true of the Saltigrades, who persistently live in tubes; of the Laterigrades, who occasionaly form them; and of the Citigrades and Tunnelweavers, who make silk lined tubular burrows in the ground. Among the causes that would lead directly from a simple lineweaying to a tubeweaving habit are the ma- ternal function and instinct. The mother seeks retire- ment when the time of ovipositing draws near. Influence Beneath some ledge, or leaf, or stone, or twig, of Mater- : hit: or other convenient shelter, she takes refuge, and there remains until the last act of ma- ternal care. The very continuance in one place would naturally lead to the formation of a rudimentary nest in the manner just explained. The mother’s prompt- ings to protect her progeny by overspinning the eggs would lead almost inevitably, in many cases, to her- 5... a8 hecocooning nest self sharing the provided shelter, or extending or of a Laterigrade spider, adapting it for her own benefit. Pe ae How natural is such a step appears from the fact that such spiders as the Laterigrades, that never (or but rarely) use any sort of snare or shelter, resort to a tubular cell for the protection of their eggs and young, and dwell within it themselves during the hatching season. (Fig. 338.) So, also, Ly- Lateri- ¢gsids, which habitually wander in the open pee in pursuit of prey, when the time for co- Lycosids, Cooning comes make a burrow or nest in the ground or beneath a rock, which they silk line and use as a domicile. Thus, also, Dolo- medes, which is persistently nestless and webless in ordinary habits, is drawn by maternal instincts to spin among the leaves, or in like situation, one of the most complete nests that can be found in the whole range of aranead spinningwork. Having thus pursued the line of analogy from the Lineweaving to the Tubeweaving species, we may return upon our course for a moment to Analogy trace the analogies between the Lineweaving Between and Orbweaving species. Already, in a pre- pe ceding chapter (Chapter VII), I have fully and Orb- illustrated the peculiar habit of certain Orb- Fic. 339. The cocooning nest ~oavers. weavers to combine with their typical or- of Dolomedes sexpunctatus. : . : a bicular snare the typical retitelarian snare of the Lineweavers. Conspicuous examples of this are Epeira labyrin- thea, Epeira triaranea, and most of the species belonging to the genus 348 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. Zilla. In point of fact, the Lineweaving habit seems to drop into the spinningwork of all the Orbweavers with more or less facility. Such a genus as Argiope is able to swing out from either side of its orb a snare which, considered separately, is entire- ly characteristic of the Lineweavers. (Chapter VI., Fig. 96.) It will proba- bly be sufficient in this connection to refer the reader to the figures and facts contained in Chapter VIII. (See Figs. 115 and 123.) An interesting illustration of this commingling of typical habits was once observed upon a bare, Coopera- dead branch of a bush. uve Within the branching limbs ouse- : : keeping. 2 Labyrinth spider had es- Fic. 340. Coiiperative housekeeping between Epeira tablished her peculiar snare. labyrinthea and Linyphia communis. i : The delicate orb swung at one side, and a maze of crossed lines containing the nest- ing tube was woven above the orb. Close by a female Linyphia communis had spun her snare, which consists of a bowl of loose sheeted spinningwork and a maze of reti- telarian lines hung above it. Now, it so happened that g these two neighbors wrought their snares so | close to each other that they really interblend- ed. The cross lines of Labyrinthea and the cross lines of Linyphia were so interwoven that Fic. 341. The tubular den of Epeira it was impossible for me to determine the ‘deus within a sewed leah boundary line between the two webs, or to say at what point the work of the one ended and the other began. (Fig. 340.) It was a case of codperative housekeeping, something like that which I have already illustrated in the case of two Labyrinth spiders (see Fig. 120, page 135), the differ- ence being that in this case the coopera- tion was between species of different tribes, instead of the same species. Nothing could better illustrate the community of habit, Fic. 42. The curled thread of (Dictyna on its in the particular of spinning retitelarian supporting radiating lines. (After Emerton.) . ae o snares, than such a juxtaposition as this. We have already seen how the tube is used habitually by certain species of Orbweavers, as, for example, Epeira strix, Epeira triaranea, Laby- THE GENESIS OF SNARES. 349 rinthea, and Thaddeus (Fig. 341), and, indeed, by all the nest making species, such as the Furrow, Insular, and Shamrock spiders. This feature of their spinningwork is readily ac- counted for, and appears most closely to connect that tribe with the other tribes of the spinning fauna. It is, however, far more difficult to explain the origin of such a remarkable habit as the construction of an orbicular snare of that geometric character with which the reader is now familiar. We ap- proach it, however, from the direction of the Tubeweaving genera, as Dic- tyna and Clubiona. The fact has heretofore been alluded to, that they are provided with special organs, the cribellum and calamistrum, for the exudation and preparation of a floc- culent thread out of which their trap- ping lines are spun. These threads are placed upon lines composed of or- dinary spinningwork, which usually Origin of Orbwebs. aaF Fic. 343. The snare of the Wall loving Dictyna, woven on a Philadelphia city wall. diverge with more or less regularity from some common point. The manner Fic. 344. Orb like snare of Dictyna philoteichus, woven against a wall. of placing them is well illus- trated by Fig. 342, where the curled thread is seen spread along its supporting lines, and passed from one line to anoth- er, and so back and _ forth throughout the snare. This would seem to be a most natural movement. It is precisely the one which, as we have explained (see Fig. 95, Chapter VI.), is re- Dictyna’s sorted to by Argiope Curle heat: ‘ Spiral cophinaria and Argi- Thread. Ope argyraspis when they form the zigzag band which adorns and charac- terizes their round web. It is naturally produced by the striding movement of a spider between two lines, swinging her abdomen backward and forward as she moves. In r 350 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. some cases, as in the web of a species of Dictyna which abounds in Phila- delphia and vicinity, and everywhere spins upon our walls and fences, this peculiar snare takes upon it, in a rude way, the outlines (Fig. 343) and even in greater detail the general form of an orb, as may be seen by consulting Fig. 344. In other words, this wall loving spider starts from its little tubu- lar nesting place and drags its lines out to surrounding adjacent points. Between these lines it then extends its flocculent thread, carrying it down- ward to the circumference and backwards again towards the centre, and so back and forth, until, as we have said, the rude outline of an orbweb is formed. Now, it is of interest to know that among the Orbweavers we have two well defined families who are provided with the calamistrum and cribellum, and spin the same kind of a thread as that just described. Orb- _—_— Hyptiotes, or the Triangle spider, makes a web whose four di- lee verging lines, with their interlacing flocculent spiral, might very Spirals. Well be represented by a section taken from the web of Clubiona or Dictyna. We are not able to trace a close relation between these two families, along any structural lines (apart from the cribellum and calamistrum), but the relation between their spinningwork is very ap- parent. Yet, further, we have among the Orbweayers the family Uloborine, whose species construct an exact orbicular snare, in every essential respect resembling the snare of such Orbweavers as the Orchard spider (Argyro- epeira hortorum) or the Extended spider (Tetragnatha extensa), except that the spirals have the teased or flocculent characteristic of Clubiona, instead of the viscid beaded armature common with Orbweaving species. Thus our sectoral snare of Hyptiotes with its flocculent spiral lines has become a complete orb; or, in other words, the circular sector appears as a full circle, retaining its flocculent interradials. It is interesting here to note, that while the Triangle spider, on the one hand, is connected with the Tubeweavers by this peculiar flocculent thread, and, on the other hand with the species that spin full The Ray orbs by the same characteristic thread, it is connected with the Sea Orbitelariz at another point by the interesting species known as the Ray spider. That is to say, the Ray spider has the viscid armature common to the Epeiroids, and its snare is arranged in orbicular form, like that of Uloborus and other Orbweayers. But, strangely, the various sectors of the circle are so combined that they can be managed wholly or in part in the same peculiar manner which characterizes the Triangle spider. That is to say, the trapline is held with a coil of slack thread above the two hind feet, and the various sectors of the circular webs are snapped off separately or unitedly by the same spring movement that marks Hyptiotes, and which is fully described in Chapters XII. and XIII. THE GENESIS OF SNARES. 351 In considering the relations which the snares of Orbweavers bear to those of other tribes, one cannot overlook the important characteristic which has been considered under the chapter relating to the viscid armature. That is to say, the characteristic snare of the Orbitelarie consists of a series of straight lines covered with viscid beads, and disposed in the form of spiral concentrics, or spiral loops upon radiating lines lacking this viscid quality. Is there any trace of this remarkable characteristic in the spinningwork of the other tribes? We have seen that the webs of Uloborus and Hypti- otes are destitute of this peculiar armature, substituting therefor the floccu- lent thread which has been heretofore described. We have also noted that in this particular the spinningwork of the Orbweavers finds its homologue in the snares of certain Tubeweavers, as, for example, Dictyna and Amau- robius. Concerning Dictyna, it may be stated that so careful and distinguished an observer as Bertkau, for example, offers the opinion that this genus is provided with certain glands which secrete vis- cid material that must be intermingled with the flocculent spinningwork which forms the cross lines of the typical snare. Undoubtedly the amount of viscid material must be very small; nevertheless, it is an interesting fact that the organs for producing it should be found among the Tubeweaving genera armed with the calamistrum. ‘That the same organs exist in Ulo- borus and Hyptiotes, the Orbweaving genera provided with calamistrum and cribellum, I take for granted. As to the snare of Amaurobius, I think that no one who has ever ex- amined it will hesitate to say that itis provided by the spider which spins it with a considerable amount of viscid material. The way in Sticky which it sticks to one’s fingers, and the entire characteristics of Viscid Lines. Dictyna. eer the thread when examined carefully, go to establish this point. robius. _ have not examined the genus by dissection, and cannot, there- fore, speak from anatomical observation, but have no doubt at all that Amaurobius will be found possessed, in a yet more decided degree than the genera just noticed, with organs for the secretion of viscid ma- terial. : One other fact remains to be noted, and I confess that I speak of it with considerable hesitation. On one occasion, while studying the snare of a species of Theridium which I took to be T. differens, I was Are surprised to find it distinctly marked with viscid globules. (Fig. Therid- 345.) They were of an irregular character, but were manifestly es similar to those which form upon the snares of Orbweavers. eads eae : . : Seiad Viscia? Thinking that I might have been deceived by a little twist in the line forming natural nodules, I examined carefully and often, with the same conclusion, that the lines were beaded as with the webs of Orbweavers. I have never met with a similar case, and scarcely know what to think of this. Could it have been an abnormal act on the part 352 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. of the spider forming the snare, resulting from some morbid physiological condition? Could it be that an Orbweaver had straggled upon the web of this Lineweaving species, and left some traces of her presence by emitting her peculiar viscid beads which, forming upon the retitelarian meshes, left the traces of the stranger’s presence? Could I have been mistaken ? I should not haye ventured eyen to mention this experience had I not noticed the statement made by Mr. Edward H. Robertson,’ that the snare of Theridium nervosum in England is characterized by a similar armature. He states positively that house flies when trapped upon the snares of this species are held very tenaciously by the viscid globules which are dis- : persed over the intersecting lines. I do not remember to have noticed this feature attributed to any Lineweaying Therid- species by any other observer. ium ner- : SE EEE That it must be a rare phenom- enon is manifest from this fact; but may it not be that a more careful examination, with this point distinctly in view, will show results of a more decided character ? At all events, it is proper to say that there remains the possibility that one of the most striking industrial characteristics of the Orbweaying spiders may have been bestowed in some degree upon the tribe of Lineweavers whose species are most closely related to the Orbitelariz, both in struct- FG. ane rien fonmed suee. ure and economy. “Thus! im this) parties ‘| |) viscid beads. ular, also, we are able to trace, though it must be confessed in a not very decided manner, an analogy between Orbweavers and at least two of the other tribes of Aranez, viz., Tube- weavers and Lineweavers. ‘ 1D In the preceding section I have shown how one may rise to the complex orbweb from the simplest form of snare—a few lines. It will perhaps equally illustrate the general harmony of habit which I have Another frequently pointed out, and the danger of fixing any arbitrary See point from which development has progressed, if I show that one may reach the same terminus from a very different starting point, viz., the tubular snare. Indeed, my first conclusions settled upon this as the most natural point of departure, since (as I have heretofore shown) the 1“Seience Gossip,’ January, 1868, page 12. THE GENESIS OF SNARES. 353 tube is probably the most rudimentary form of nest. Moreover, the Tube- weavers are quite generally thought by systematic arachnologists to include the species that rank lowest in organization. Their characteristic web might, therefore, with considerable confidence be assigned the lowest place in an order of industrial development. Our alignment of facts from this point will necessarily require the use of the same material, only shifting the relative positions. But in the movements one may catch new views of the factors concerned, their values and relations. Let us, then, start with some form of tube as the typical snare and retreat of the spider in its most rudimentary phase of life. At one end of the tribe of Tubeweavers we find the most lowly organized families, such as Gnaphosa, who limit them- selves to simple tubes with the few lines which are necessary to fix them to their surroundings. At the other extreme we find the highly organ- ized and interesting spider, Agalena ncevia, whose tube has developed from its outer extremity into a widespreading sheet or pouch. This, again (which is another manifestation of spinning habit), is supported by out- going straight lines, which intersect each other at various points. If now we pass from the Tubeweavers to the Lineweavers, we observe that the sheeted snare, which forms so important a part of Aga- Tube- weavers. Tube- lena’s web, appears as the sole snare of certain species of Liny- weavers : 2 3 ies! A é De: =f ; phia, as, for example, Linyphia costata, whose web is a simple to Line- Seas ’ g weavers, letted sheet with lines above and below to support it. In other words, it is the snare of Agalena minus the tube. Again, in the same genus of the Lineweavers, we observe that the inter- secting lines, which are but a subordinate feature in the snare of Agalena, are a prominent feature in such species as Linyphia communis and Liny- phia marginata, which, however, also retain, but in a less developed form, the sheeted portion of the snare. This part assumes the form of a bowl in the one case, or of a dome in the other. The meshes of the spinning- work lack the closeness of texture commonly observed in Agalena nceyia or the closely related Tegenaria medicinalis. Once more, in the same tribe of Lineweavers, we find that the inter- secting lines of Agalena’s snare appear in the genus Theridium, where they are developed into a well organized mass of netted intersecting lines, form- ing a formidable snare for the capture of insects. The position of the spider within this web is entirely like that of Linyphia, and is wholly dif- ferent from that of Agalena. It must be observed, however, that eyen in the case of Theridium. the intersecting lines have a strong tendency to approximate each other at the central point where the spider rests, until, as in the case of Theridium tepidariorum and Pholeus phalangioides, the spinningwork approaches closely that of Linyphia’s dome, and more remotely the sheeted spinning- work of Agalena. 354 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. Thus we see that it is possible to trace a close resemblance and apparent relation between the spinningwork of the Tubeweavers as represented by Agalena and the principal genera of the great tribe of Lineweavers. Let us start again, but from another standpoint, in the tribe of the Tubitelariz. The Clubionide represent a very important and interesting group, many of whose genera are characterized, as we have learned, by the special spinning organs known as the cribellum and calamistrum. Let us take, for example, the genus Dictyna, a species which I have here- tofore described as the Wall loving Dictyna (D. philoteichus). It is very common in the city and suburbs of Philadelphia. Its interesting snare is spun everywhere upon fences and walls, in the angles of outbuildings and upon leaves of vines and various plants. The central point is a little tuhe woven against the site in which the snare is pitched. From this outgoing lines proceed, diverging as they go, somewhat after the manner of the radii in an Orbweayer’s web. Between these lines is spun a flocculent thread, consisting of minute filaments which have been teased by the calamistrum. This curled thread is laid in between the radii quite after the fashion of the zigzag ribbon characteristic of the orb of Argiope. That is to say, it crosses diagonally from one diverging line to another, as repre- Dictyna’s sented in the Fig. 344. It is the habit of Dictyna to overlay Orb like : . ee : Web. one snare with another until the strata of spinningwork, if I may so call them, are laid several deep. I have often observed them upon the walls and fences in Philadelphia thus spun out from the central tube in all directions, until they present so strikingly the appear- ance of a lace collar that the most casual observer at once notes the resem- blance. I think one cannot fail to see in the form of this snare a sugges- tion of the round web of the Orbweaver, with its radiating lines diverging from the centre. From. this peculiar snare of a representative genus of the Tubeweavers we may be easily led, by the analogy of spinningwork, to a family that confessedly lies on the very margin of the Orbweaving genera, namely the Uloborine. In the genus Hyptiotes the Triangle spi- der has a snare consisting of four diverging lines, or a single sector of an Orbweaver’s web. Now, we are compelled to observe that the threads by which these diverging lines are united is precisely of the char- acter of that used by Dictyna in uniting her diverging lines, and this thread is spun out by precisely the same kind of spinning organs—the cri- bellum and the calamistrum. We have thus established a striking relation on this side of the circuit between the Tubeweavers and the Orbweayers, as on the other side we showed a relation between the Tubeweavers and the Lineweavers. The progress of these analogies may be further traced. Hyptiotes shows but a single sector of a circle, whose radiating lines are united by the teased thread characteristic of the tubemaking Ciniflonidee; but we The Ulo- borine. THE GENESIS OF SNARES. 355 find in the same family another species, Uloborus, whose snare is a com- plete circle, with lines radiating from the centre all around to the circum- ference, precisely in the manner of Argiope and Epeira. These Curled ines, however, instead of being united by viscid concentrics, are Spiral ee : ; : : or Ths ad united by a spiral thread precisely like that used by Hyptiotes and Dictyna. Here we see the flocculent thread upon radiating lines which appears in a genus of the Tubitelarie, planted upon the radiating lines of a full orbed web. In other words, Dictyna may be said to have given to Hyptiotes a fraction of her habit, which Hyptiotes has devel- oped into her fixed and characteristic snare, and in turn has handed on to Uloborus, which has multiplied the circular sector of Hyptiotes into a complete orb, while retaining the characteristic interradials of the Tube- weaving Dictyna. But we are enabled to trace another resemblance and another variation in the habit. The most interesting spinningwork of the Ray spider, Theridiosoma gemmosum, may be said to be constructed funda- mentally upon the plan of Hyptiotes. But that plan has been enlarged by multiplying the number of sectors. In this respect, it approaches the spinningwork of Dictyna, as represented at Fig. 344. But these several sectors or rays haye been so united that they form, under certain aspects, an orbicular web. This web, by means of the trap- line and the special habit possessed by the spider, can be bowed until it assumes the form of the dome shaped web of the Lineweaying Linyphia. Here appears a remarkable variation. While the fundamental character of the Ray spider’s web unites it most closely to Hyptiotes, and thus back- ward to Dictyna; the interradial lines show marked divergence in the di- rection of the Orbweavers. They are covered with viscid beads, precisely like the webs of the Epeiroids. Thus we are led from the Tubeweavers, by way of the genus Dictyna, along the line of the Triangle spider, Ulo- borus, and the Ray spider, to the great tribe of Orbitelarie, whose habits and industry we have especially considered in this volume. We can now connect these two wings of habit, which from the one ex- treme of the Tubitelariz have departed towards the Lineweavers, and from the other extreme towards the Orbweayers. Let us go back for a moment to the intersecting lines which support the sheeted snare of Agalena. These, as we have seen, appear in the genus Theridium and allied genera as a well developed web of interlacing lines, massed in a laby- The Ray Spider. eee rinthean snare. It is but a step from this spinningwork across anc "© the border into that portion of the web of Epeira labyrinthea ridium. } ! J which is known as the labyrinth or maze. This, in every respect, is a Retitelarian snare. If we were to sever the orb of the Labyrinth spider from its composite web, we should find the residuum in no respect differing from that of the typical web of Theridium tepidariorum. Nor is Epeira labyrinthea alone in the possession of this characteristic 356 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. lineweaving adjunct to its web. We have seen it in the case of Argiope, though not so strongly developed and not universally possessed by the in- dividuals of that genus. We have seen it more decidedly and Epeira permanently fixed upon Epeira triaranea and Epeira thaddeus. and The- eee : Pie : see But, to a greater or less extent, it may be said that the lneweay- ing habit belongs to the Orbweayers, though by way of associa- tion with and subordination to their typical orbicular snare. It may further be worth noting, im this connection, that not all the Epeiroids make use of a round snare. There is a wide difference between the mere sector of an orb made by Hyptiotes and the web made by Epeira triaranea or Epeira labyrinthea, and which I have denominated a sectoral orb. Yet the last named snares are only larger sectors of circles, like that of Nephila, for example. By turning to the description of the manner in which the interradials of Nephila are woven in, it will be seen that it substantially resembles that used by Hyp- tiotes and, indeed, by Dictyna, when placing in its spirals of flocculent thread. In other words, the sectoral orb is made by a series of loops passing over the sector of a circle larger or smaller, as the case may be. Moreoyer, a very considerable group of the Orbweavers spin horizontal orbs; and it is interesting to observe that Uloborus, which is related to Orbweavers generally by its round web, and to the Tubeweayers through Hyptiotes and Dictyna by their nonviscid armature of floceculent spirals, spins a horizontal web like that group of the Epeirine to which the Orchard and the Hunchback spiders belong. Thus it has been shown that one may pass by natural gradations, through forms more or less distinctly marked, from the simpler and seem- ingly more primitive spinningwork, to the various orbicular snares, which may be considered the most complex of all known webs. These relationships are often very striking, and, on the whole, beautifully indicate the industrial unity of the entire order Aranez. Nevertheless, no one better knows than the student of spider habits how vast are the intervals which, at many points, have no more substantial bridge than that which imagination or analogy may supply. When arach- nologists shall have more thoroughly wrought out the natural history of spiders, some of these interspaces may be united or more nearly Unity of approached. Perhaps some species have disappeared whose spin- Industrial Habit. Sectoral Orbs. Horizon- tal Orbs. The Con- clusion. ningwork might have furnished missing industrial links. Never- theless, the veritable facts of science can go no further than to show the points and degree of approach, and exhibit the general har- mony, one might almost venture to say the germinal unity, of industrial habit which marks the children of Arachne. THE END. eae IN DES, WHILE revising the index for this volume I received a note from Pro- fessor Thorell, calling my attention to a paper by Dr. Carl Apstein upon the spinning organs of spiders,! and particularity to a point (referred to in Chapter XIX.) on which we had had some correspondence. The paper had escaped my notice, having but recently. reached the library of our Academy of Natural Sciences. Had I seen this valuable and interesting paper a few months sooner, it would have enabled me to revise and in some places correct matters which appear in certain chapters of my book. As, however, my sheets are printed, and the type distributed, it is onty permitted me to make use of an Appendix Note to call attention to what I deem very important. Nore A.—On THE SPINNING ORGANS. (CHaprer IT.) Dr. Apstein, in the paper above alluded to, has wrought out with great pains the scheme of study which years ago I had proposed to myself, as I have already intimated in my preface. He has observed with care, and presented in his plates, the exterior spinning organs of various species from the several tribes. He has also made studies and drawings of the internal spinning organs. It is most interesting to note both the agree- ments and the differences as thus indicated. I venture to present fac- similes of several figures, one giving the spinning organs in situ of Epeira diademata, which the reader may compare with my own partially diagram- atic figure of Argiope cophinaria, page 39, Fig. 30. I also give some re- productions of the spinning spools, which Apstein has been able to locate in their connections with the various glands. This identity has heretofore been very much in doubt. Dr. Apstein believes that the material, which forms the viscid beads upon the snares of Orbweavers and some of the Lineweavers, is secreted by the Aggregate glands. He thinks that the Tubuliform glands secrete the ecocooning stuff, or the threads which envelop the eggs. The curled threads 1 Bau und Function der Spinndriisen der Araneida. Von Carl Apstein. Archiv fir Naturgeschichte, 1889, pages 29-74, Plates III., IV., V. (357) 358 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK,. characteristic of Uloborus, Hyptiotes, and Dictyna are secreted by what he calls the Cribellum gland. The Lobate glands prepare the threads by which the insect is swathed previous to being eaten. Possibly, however, several glands take part in furnishing the swathing bands. The Pyriform glands secrete the spinningwork which forms the snare proper, or the seizing tissue, together with the dragline and trapline. I would venture to add to this the suggestion that the same glands must also secrete the fila- ments which form the ballooning thread and floating strands known as gossamer. The function of the Aciniform glands and Ampullate glands, according to Dr. Apstein, is not known. (See Figs. 348-354.) 348 350 e& 349 346 347 Fic. 346. Spinning spool of Epeira diademata pyriform gland. » 188. Fic. 347. Longitudinal section of a spool of the aggregate gland. » 188. Fic. 348. Spinning spool of the glandula aciniformis. > 188. Fic. 349. Longitudinal section of a spool of the ampullate gland. 188. Fic. 350. Longitudinal sec- tion of spool of glandula tubuliformis. % 188. (After Apstein.) Fic. 351. An aciniform gland. »X 30. Fic. 352. A pyriform gland. 105. Fic. 353. Longitudinal section of pyriform gland. 105. Fic. 354. The spinning glands of Epeira diademata in natural site. » 9. (After Apstein.) ac, aciniform glands; p, pyriform glands; am, ampullate glands; ag, aggregate glands; t, tubeformed or tubular glands (glandulze tubuliformes.) Nott B.—SEcRETION oF Viscip BEADS. Dr. Apstein is inclined to think that the foundation thread is created from the “Aciniform gland.” As soon as the foundation is stretched the spools of the Glandule Aggregate (the Aggregate or Treeform Glands) are pressed on it, and leaye on it a little drop of viscid secretion. The three spools stand close together on the superior spinneret—that is to say, their mouths lay close together. If now the two superior spinnerets be pressed to the foundation thread, the six spools of the two sorts will embrace it, APPENDIX. 359 and the secreted drops can unite and thus surround the thread upon all sides. In order that the minute drops remain, it is necessary that the foundation thread be dry when the Aggregate gland places its secretion upon it. As the foundation thread is very strong, it will dry more quickly if it consist of numerous fine threads instead of a single strand. For this reason Apstein believes that the Aciniform gland secretes the foundation thread. In the same way one can believe that the Pyriform gland forms these threads. The foundation thread is more elastic than the dry threads composing the snare itself. As the last named are formed from the Pyri- form glands, there seems to remain only the Aciniform gland for the secre- tion of the foundation thread. Note C.—Viscip THREADS OF LINEWEAVERS’ SNARES. (CHAapteR XIX., PaGE 351.) The viscid drops form, in masses close together, a large glutinous spot, upon which small insects adhere. With Epeiroids the spirals of the snare are formed of this thread. Among the Retitelarie Dr. Apstein found these threads on the large, loose meshed web above the habitation of the spider. If an insect flies into this roof formed web it sticks to it. By its efforts to escape the loose threads are broken, and the animal falls into the home web, where it is seized by the spider. In no other web did he observe these threads, and no other spider possesses these glands.? The bearing of these facts upon the relations between the spinning- work of Orbweavers and Lineweayers is manifest. Dr. Apstein confirms, both from the standpoint of histology and field observation, the statements concerning the viscid character of the web of Theridium, which I have made with so great reserve. (See page 351.) He thus immensely strength- ens the plausibility of supposing an easy passage from the spinningwork of Lineweavers to that of Orbweayers, or in the reverse direction. Had these observations reached my hand in the summertime, I should certainly have made a thorough examination of the snares of Linyphia and Theridium. At this date the matter is impossible, and must go over for another year. Nore D.—Tue Swatruinc THREAD FOR INSECTS. The Lobate or Lobeformed glands? occur only in Theridium steatoda and some others of the above mentioned Retitelarie. They have, there- fore, only a limited extension, less so than the Aggregate glands. The swathing threads are produced by the Lobeformed glands, as the spider has, in her great lumen, always a large quantity of this material in reserve. 1 Apstein, op. cit., page 63. 2 Lappenformige. These appear to be the Bulbous or Tuberose glands of Meckel, figured Chapter II., page 44. , 360 AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK. Besides, this spimning material can flow off through a wide spool and pro- duce the necessary spinningwork for throwing on the animals. Pholcus has a large gland and a wide spool. Apstein believes that this gland serves to throw threads on the animals in the web, and keep them there. Nore E.—Mepicinat Proprerry or Sproer Wess. (PaGE 95.) Dr. James, in his Medical Dictionary, introduces his article Araneus? with this statement: “Both Spider and the Web are used in Medicine. The Spider is said to avert the Paroxism of Fevers if it be applied to the Pulse of the Wrist, or Temples, but is peculiarly recommended for a Quartan, being inclosed in the Shell of a Hazlenut. The Web astringes and conglutinates, and is therefore vulnerary, retains Bleeding and prevents any Inflamations.” Note F.—Errecrs or Spiper Porson. (PAGE 281.) Dr. James, in his Dictionary, quotes from the works of Harvy the fol- lowing sentence, which shows that the distinguished discoverer of the cir- culation of the blood was a fearless experimenter and an earnest searcher after Truth: “Having for Trial’s sake pricked my hand with a Needle I after rubbed the point of the same Needle with the Tooth of the spider, and perforated the Skin therewith in another part of my Hand, but could distinguish no Difference in the Sense of the Punctures. However there was one remarkable enough in the Skin, for in the Enyenomed Puncture the same was soon raised up into a Tubercle looking red with Heat, and Inflamations rising up as it were to shake off the inflicted.” Doleshall shut up small birds with Mygale javanica and M. suma- trensis, both large and strong spiders, and the birds died in a few sec- onds after being bitten. One of the spiders was left for ten days with- out food, and then was made to bite another bird, which was injured, but in six hours recovered. The same author was bitten in the finger by a Jumping spider. The pain was severe for a few minutes, and was fol- lowed by lameness of the finger, and gradually of the hand and arm, which soon went away entirely.? Bertkau allowed spiders to bite his hand. On the ends of the fingers the skin was too thick to be penetrated, but between the fingers they easily pricked it. The bite swelled and smarted for a quarter of an hour, and then itched for some time, and for a day after itched whenever rubbed, as mosquito bites will do. He also experimented on flies, which died in a 1 Apstein, op cit. * Med. Dict., Vol. I., London, 1743. * Quoted by Emerton, “Structure and Habits,” page 34. APPENDIX. 361 few minutes after being bitten. Of course, however, experiments of this kind are greatly invalidated by the fact that it cannot be determined whether the death of the insects resulted from poison, or from the mu- tilation produced by the entrance of so formidable a weapon as a spider's fangs. Dr. Alfred Dugés gives an account of a little girl patient who had been bitten by one of those enormous spiders, quite common in Guanajuato, Mexico, which Mr. Leon Becker has named Metriopelma breyeri. ‘The wound presented an oblong, tumefied border, about three lines high, of a livid violaceous color, filled with a serosity which he was not able to ex- amine. The centre of the tumor was concave, and filled with red pus. Eight days after the accident there was little pain, but no general symp- toms. Dr. Dugés was not able to follow up the case, but thinks that if there had been any serious consequences of the bite the child would have been brought back to him for further treatment.? 1“Tnsect Life,” Vol. II., No. 2, 1889, page 47. LN DE SSOw Abdomen, anatomy of, 22; general descrip- tion of, 25; manner of protecting, 288 ; section view of organs, 27. Acrosoma, characteristic snares, 55; compared with Orchard spider, 153; influence of cli- mate upon, 164; length of legs, 24; rib- boned brace, 57; webs of, 64. Acrosoma mitrata, 126, 127. Acrosoma rugosa,. foundation web, 73; snare of, 125, 126; Acrosoma rugosa, 338 ; man- ner of trapping flies, 254. Acrosoma spinea, 126; position at hub, 127. Adaptation, in laying foundation lines, 73; after mutilation, 78; in spinning spirals, 82, 83; labor saving, 85; to force of winds, 209, 216, 217; of orbweb for its ends, 247 ; in nesting habits of Epeira strix, 289, 290; of nesting habit, 297. Aeronautic habits, swinging basket, 68, 69. Affinities, 204. Agalena labyrinthea, 45. Agalena neevia, 23, 28, 220, 221, 227, 260, 315, 345, 353. “Aoricultural Ants of Texas,” 164, 168. Air currents, in making foundation lines, 62, 64, 74. Alternate apposition of radii, 75 Amaurobius, sticky web of, 351, ¢ pendix. Analogies, in spinningwork of Orbweavers and Lineweavers, 170. Anatomy of spiders, see Chapters I, I. Anchors, of stone, for orbwebs, 213, 214. Angulata group, nesting habits, 299. Anthropomorphism, 210. Apstine, Dr. Carl, see Appendix. Arachne, Greek myth of, 15. Arachnida, origin of the word, 15. Architecture, 284; see Nesting habits. Argiope, ribboned decorations, 57. Argiope argentata, character of orb, 108. Argiope argenteola, 108. author’s work, 99. oa) ; see Ap- VOLUME I. Argiope argyraspis, 59, 87,95; decorations on web, 107; suspended to snare, 55; view of abdomen, 22. Argiope cophinaria, 90; character of orb, 108; description of snare, Chapter VIIL., 96, 229; as a bird catcher, 234; curious in- cident while feeding, 256; distribution, 96; loses a captured bee, 258; protective wings of, 309; sheeted hub, 55, 56; silk glands, 40; snare, figure of, 52; spinning spigots, 38; spinning spools, 37; swathing insects, 250. “Argiope fasciata Hentz, see Argiope argy- raspis. Argiope riparia, see Argiope cophinaria. Argyroneta aquatica, nest of, 328. Argyroepeira hortorum, 77, 91, 92; beautiful colors, 151; favorite sites, 152; position at hub, 152; protective apron, 152; orb char- acteristics, 153. Armature of orbwebs, 78, Chapter V. Attoidee, 19. Attoids compared with Lycosids, 20. Atypus Abboti, nests of, 325. Ausserer, 16, 28. 332. Bag worm, Ballooning, see Aeronautic habits. | Banks, Sir J., 77. | Basilica spider, see Epeira basilica. | Beads, viscid, 80; on spirals, acid character of, 95, 96; adhesiveness of, 94; appearance | to eye, 88; formation of, 88, 89; dissolyed by rain, 91, 92; effect of sun and air on, 94; natural formation of, 90, 91; prey on webs, 93, 94; size and shape, 87; value in capturing prey, 86; on Tubeweavers’ snares; 351; on Theridium’s snare, 382; see Appendix. | Bee, honey, escaping from spider’s swathing, | 258. | Bertkau, Dr. Philip, 18, 21, 178. Bible reference to spider, 26. (362 INDEX. 363 Blackwall, 26, 28, 49, 56, 61, 63, 75, 76, 85, 93, 129, 231, 249, 279, 317; classification of spiders, 17; experiments with poison of spiders, 271. Bowing the snare, 198. Bridge lines, 342. Bridges, of spider silk, 63, 64, 65; snare of Stilt spider, 157, 158. Bridge suspension of Theridium, 224. Bucholz, Dr. Reinhold, anatomy of spinning organs, 35, 40; see Chapter II. Bucholz and Landois, 42; see Chapter II. Caddis flies, various nests of, 333, 334. Capturing insects, 206. Calamistrum, 26, 177, 186, 351; of Hyptiotes, 186. Cambridge, Rey. O. Pickard—Cambridge, 19, 23, 27, 28, 62, 174, 195, 204, 263, 272, 279. Campbell, Mr. F. Maule, 143, 262. Cannibalism, 259. Capturing insects, by Labyrinthea, 132. Cephalothorax described, 21. Central space, economy of, 56. Chandler, Mr. Horace P., photograph of Epeira’s nest, 110. Ciniflo atrox, 278. Citigrades, 16, 20, 347. Classification, general divisions, 17. Claws, used in hanging to snare, 55. Cleaver, Mr. P., 243. Climate, limiting distribution, 163. Cocoon, influence of position, 259; egg bag of Lycosa, 327; of Theridium nervosum and T. riparium, 317; nests of Misumena and Philodromus, 323; tent of Attus, tent of Water spider, 328. Cocooning, 347; boxes for observing, 29; of Argiope cophinaria, 39. Coil of slack line, 189. Collecting, implements for, 31; “manner of, 28, 29. Color, 26; brilliancy of certain spiders, 20; of Nephila’s threads, 147; of Tetragnatha extensa, 156; of Orchard spider, 151, of Tetragnatha, 155. Composite snares, 130. Construction of leaf nests, 299. Codperative housekeeping, 135, 348. Counterpoise, 210. Courtship of Epeira labyrinthea, 132. Cribellum, 178, 351. Cteniza californica, see Trapdoor spider, 19. Currents of air, use in beginning a snare, 62. Cyclosa caudata, 87, 128. 327; Cyclosa bifurea, 128. Cylindrical glands, 42. Cyrtauchenius elongatus, 322. Darting threads, 45. Darwin, 234. Decoration, ribbon cords, 57; ribbons of Ulo- borus, 175, 176; on orb of Argiope, 107; flossy, on Gasteracantha’s web, 123. De Laet, 233. Development of Labyrinth spider’s web, 154; of habit in Triaranea, 141, 142, 162, 247. Dews, effect of, on webs, 231, 232. Diagram of spinning organs, 39. Dictyna, 354; curled thread of, 348; snares of, 349. Dictyna philoteichus, webs of, 348. Diptera, indifference to a spider, 257. Direction, sense of, 248. Distribution, 109, 182; vertical, of Domicile spider, 116; effect on Epeira strix, 111. Dolomedes scriptus, 311. Dolomedes sexpunctatus, nest of, 547. Dolomedes captures a spider, 236. Domed orbs, 150, 164. Domicile spider, see Epeira domiciliorum. Dragline, 60, 61, 342. Drassus ater, spinning spools, 49. Drassus, falx and fang of, 272; nest of, 316. Drinking, 262. Duct, of silk glands, 42; length of, in Tege- naria, 49. Dysdera, 225. Dysdera bicolor, 222. Edwards, Rev. Dr. Jonathan, observation of spiders, 68. Eigenmann, Mrs. Rosa Smith, 120, 122, 125, 142, 211, 298. Emerton, J. H., 59, 86, 106, 129, 178, 186. Enemies of spiders, 132. Engineering skill of spiders, 208, Chapter XIII., 342, 343. Environment, influence in selecting web sites, 68; influence on food, 259; on dis- tribution, 163; power to resist, 163. Epeira, figure of face, 21; floating on the water, 161; the most common species, 110 ; orbs of, frequent, 56; orbs over water, 64. Epeira apoclisa, 93, 299. Epeira basilica, its discovery, 164; form of snare, 165; figure of the spider, 165; architecture of snare, 166; manner of building the dome, 168; cocoons, 169; web relations with Orchard spider, 168. 364 INDEX. Epeira benjamina, see Epeira domiciliorum. Epeira bicentenaria, 122. Epeira bifurca, see Cyclosa. Epeira cinerea, 121. Epeira cornuta, resemblance to Epeira strix, 111. Epeira diademata, 94, 231, 299; effects of bite, 271; poison apparatus of, 269, 270; silk glands,41; spinning glands, 38; spin- ning organs, 48, 49. Epeira displicata, 121. Epeira domiciliorum, 78, 79, 255, 339; distri- bution, 116; nest of, 288. Epeira gemma, 15, 121. Epeira gibberosa, snare and nest of, 154; distribution, 154. Epeira hortorum, see Argyroepeira. Kpeira insularis, anatomy, 22; figure of foot, 25; its coloring and distribution, 118; its bite, 273; identical with Marmorea, 77; measurements of webs, 230; nest and orb, 117; nest and trapline, 337. Epeira labyrinthea, Chapter VIII., 130; de- scription of snare and tent, 130, 131, 132; geographical distribution, 136; joint house- keeping, 185; the orb described, 133, 225, 226; nest of, 305, 306, 340, 348, 355, 356. Epeira marmorea, identical with Insularis, 77. Epeira patagiata, 116. Epeira quadrata, 299; mouth organs of, 270, 272. Epeira sclopetaria, 75, 229; habits and distri- bution, 115. Epeira stellata, 122, 339, 340. Epeira strix, 218, 229, 255, 340; distribution, 110, 111; its habits, 112; favorite loca- tions, 114; nest of, 288; snare twisted by captive, 265; various forms of nest, 289- 291. Epeira sylvatica, 122. Epeira thaddeus, 348; tubular nest of, 303, 304, 305. Epeira triaranea, 166, 340; favorite sites, 136; snare and tent, 137; variation in nest, 138; orientation of sector, 138; snares of young, 139; variation in trapline, 139; measurements of web, 140; retitelarian 140; affinities, 141; tubeweaving tendency, 141; looped spirals in orb, 141; distribution, 142; orientation of centre, 141; coloring, 118; habit and spinning- work, 119; nest of, 305. trifolium, 340; fern nest of, swinging nest of, 216; various nests of, 293; an encampment of, 294, maze, 320; Epeira i Epeira trivittata, 117; nesting habit, 298. Epeira umbratica, 215. Epeira vertebrata, 74, 120, 248, 252; nesting habit, 298. Epeira vulgaris, see Epeira sclopetaria. Epeiroids, distinguished from Theridioids, 20; general characteristics, 19. Epiblemum scenicum, 19, 342. Eurypelma, 16. Eurypelma hentzii, 260; weaving, 326, 327. Evolution, 151, 166, 170, 171; see Chapter XIX. Eyes, basis of classification, 17; Orbweayers and Lineweayers, 21; use for specific dis- tinction, 21. Face, characteristics, 20. Fecundity of female contributes to perpetu- ity, 259. Feeding habits, 86, 191, 192; of Hyptiotes, capturing insects, 187; of Labyrinthea, 132. Feet, anatomy, 23, 24; commanding the snare, 113, 114; threads carried in, 75. Fern nests, 295. Fighting tarantulas, 281. Fish, captured by a spider, 236. Fitch, Dr. Asa, 240. Flies, mode of capture by spiders, 254; small diptera banqueting with spider, 256. Floating, habit of Tetragnatha and Epeira, 161. Flocculent spirals, 186, 187; thread of Hyp- tiotes, 186. Flossy tufts on webs, 124. Food, manner of capturing, 114; regulating web sites, 144; small vertebrates, 246, 248, 249; enswathing captured insects, 280, 251, 252; food carried to the den, 251, 253; trussing captives for future use, 254, 255; subordination of instincts, 256; flies banquet with the spider, 257; special in- cidents and disappointments, 258; loca- tion controls, 259; cannibalism, 259; long fasting, 260; comparative feeding habits, 260; Tarantula’s mode of feeding, 261 ; drinking, 262; eating the web, 263; the habit beneficial to man, 267. Fossil spiders, 172. Foundation lines, 60, 61, 71, 219, 230; double, 73; of Orchard spider, 152, 153; long CD) 12, by means of air currents, 62, 6¢ preserved, 66; strength of, 251. Frame lines, 60; see above. Fraternity, among spiders, 135; in a Scotch colony of Zillas, 144. Free zone, 56, 58. INDEX. 365 Gabb, William, 109. Gasteracantha, 122; description of orb, limited by climate, 163. Gasteracantha bourbonica, 124. Gault, Edwin §., 206. Genesis of snares, Chapter XTX. Geographical distribution, world ems of Epeira patagiata, 116; of Labyrinthea, 136; of Tetragnatha extensa and Epeira diademata, 162; of various Epeiree, 163. Geometrical arrangements of webs, 208. | Gibberosa, Epeira, hammock nest of, 307. Glands, silk, 40. Gnaphosa variegata, 19. Goldsmith, Dr. Oliver, 282. Gossamer threads used for sails, 161, Gosse, P. H., 275. Grout, Rey. Mr., Guidon, flossy, 86. 128: - 396 ORD) | | 146. Habitat, 292. | Hahn, 173. Hairs, color of, 26. | Harmony, universal, in nature, 335. Heineken, Dr., 78. | Hentz, Prof. Nicholas M., 57, 59, 110, 118, | 119, 151, 172, 178, 238. Hopper, Mr. J.W., 242. Horizontal orbs, 53, 150, 356; Basilica’s | 169. Hub, centre of orb, 54; open, flossy gui- | don, 74; orbs with open, 126; of Orchard | spider, 152; position of spider at, 86, 112; | position of Acrosoma at, 127; position of | Tetragnatha at, 156; meshed, of Laby- rinthea, 133; sheeted, 55. Hulse, Dr., 61. Hunt, Mr. Benjamin H., 101. Hymenoptera, 19. | | | | web, Oo Hyptiotes, 350, 354; the Triangle spider, 177; systematic place, 180 ; description of snares and habits, Chapter XI.; compared with Theridiosoma, 204; trapline, 340. Hyptiotes paradoxus, 181. Industry, nesting, protective, 307. Industrial habit, unity of, 356. Insects, manner of entanglement, 248; effect of poison on, 277. Instinct, in beginning an orb, 62; in young disse: 70; yariation in number of radii, 77; subordination of, 255. Insular spider, see Epeira insularis; nests of, 284, 285, 286, 287, 295, 296; mode of mak- ing a nest, 301. 227, Intelligence, 69, 71, 216, 218, 253; in use of swinging basket, 68. Intellect of spiders, 228. Inyerted posture of spiders, 112, 113. 212, 248, Jaws of Tetragnatha, 155. Jerking snare, 249. Katipo, a New Zealand spider, 27: Keyserling, Count E., 17, 136, 178, 195, 207. Kirby and Spence, 56, 71, 86. Knott, Hon. Proctor, 244, 245. Koch, Dr. Louis, 107, 108, 196, 204. Labyrinth spider, 130; see Epeira labyrinthea. Landois, Dr. Leonard, 35, 40; see Chapter II. Laryvee, tube making, 329. Laterigrades, 16, 347; nests of, 32: Latreille, 15, 16. Latrodectus mactans, 274. Laurel, used for nests, 25. Leeuenhoek, 231, 268. Legs, anatomy of, 24; antennal use of, 69; effect of mutilation, 78; fourth leg in Acro- soma, 127; not used as a measure, 76; use in siaataey spirals, 80, 81; voluntarily am- putated, 278 Leidy, Prof. Tinos 240, 245, 333. Lepidoptera, larval spinningwork suggesting spiders, 284. Lineweavers, 19, 20, 21, 353; derivation of word, 17; swathing captives, 260; nests of, 316. Linyphia, 353; site habits of, 310, 311 ; Linyphia communis, 167, 520, shaped web, 166. Linyphia costata, 167 ; snare of, 346. Linyphia marginata, 19, 28, 157, 345. Lister, 28, 62. Loops, spiral and corner, 80. Looped spirals, 140. Lownes, George B., 272. Lucas, 274, 277. Lycosa, manner of weaving, 327. Lycosa agretica, 278. Lycosa arenicola, 19, 314; see Turret Lycosa carolinensis, 314. Lycosa scutulata, figure of, 20; effect of bite, 273. of webs, 206; parasitic nest and snares of, 320. 344, 348; bowl sheeted web of, 343; spider. Lycosa tigrina, nest of, 323 Lycosid, 19; physical powers of, organization of, 20; nidification 314. 235; high of, 313, 366 99. Male, palpal organs, 23 ; 28; rudimentary web naria, 106. Mandibles described, 22. Manufacturing methods, uniformity of, 324. Marx, George, M. D., 120, 168, 169. Maternity, influence on habit, 547. Mathematics, 73; imperfection of orbwebs, | 79; irregularity of radii, 76; order of spin- ning radii, 77; orientation of lines, 75; | polygonal and triangular forms in snares, | GL. McCook, Commander Rhoderick Sheldon, 222. McLeay, 17. Meade, R. H., 27, 38; anatomy of spiders, 44. Mechanical adyantage, order of radii, 76; of | generative organs, | of Argiope cophi- | | notched zone, 77. Mechanical skill, distributing force of winds, ete., 74; strength of webs, 229, Chapter XIV.; use of lines, 169, 170. Meckel, Heinrich, anatomy of spinning or- gans, 40; see Chapter IT. Medicinal property of beads, 95. Mending snares, 179, 265. Menge, 28, 111. Mentalism, 78, 82, 84, 85, 86, 93. Meshed hub of Epeira, 54. Meta, 171. Meta menardii, 128. | Meta merianze, 129, 214. | Meta segmentata, 56. | Migration, by means of air lines, 62. | Milk, spider drinking, 263. Mimiery, 155, 182. | 323. Misumena, cocoon nest of, Misumena rosea, 17. Mitchell, Prof. Ormsby, 232. 999 323. Mogegridge, Mosely, 233. Mosquito captured on snares, 248, 266. Moulting, 24. Moults, good specimens for obserying poison fangs, 270. Mouse captured by a spider, 242, 248, 244. Mouth organs, 22. Muscles inclosing 50. Muscular vigor and rigidity, 193, 194. Mutilation, effects of, 78. Mygalidee, 280, 281. silk glands and spinnerets, Natural sites of snares, 114, 119, 120, 157, 158. Natural habitat and distribution, 207. Navigating, by Tetragnatha, 159. Nemesia cementaria, poison apparatus, 271. Nephila, 49, 95, 96, 233; the bite of, 276; snares of, 310. Nephila plumipes, description of female, 147 ; snare of, 147; golden strands, 147; form of web, 147; Wilder, 147, 148; distribution, 146. Nephila wilderi, see Nephila plumipes. Nests of spiders, manner of preserving, 31; making, 134, 173, 225; Chapter X VIT. Nesting habits, Chapter XVII, 284; cluster leaf nest, 284, 286; folded leaf, 285, 288; silken tubes, 288, 289; various adaptations of, 290; favorite sites for, 292; nests of Trifolium in yarious plants, 293; fern nests, 295; plant habitat modifying nest and habit, 297; of Domicile spider, Epeira vittata and Epeira yertebrata, 298 ; of the Angulata group of Epeira, 299; how nests are built, 300; beginning a nest, 301; mode of sewing, 302; nests of 298 ; Zilla, 302; of Thaddeus, 308, 304, 305; Triaranea, 305; Labyrinthea, 154, 306; Gibberosa, 307; silken tents, 308; protect- ive uses of, 309; parasitic nests, 310, 311. Nest making, origin of, 313; intelligent selee- tion in, 313; Turret spider’s nest, 314, 315; nest of Lycosids, Saltigrades, Dras- sids, 316; of European Theridioids, 317; of Theridium riparium, 318, 319; of Trap- door spiders and Atypus, 321, 3822; of Ly- cosa tigrina, uniform manufacturing method in, 324; one typical form, 524; method of Atypus, 325; method of Taran- tula, 327; of Argyroneta, 328; origin of tubeweaving, 329; spider nests compared with nests of other animals, 332, 333. 299. OL05 Nesting sites, 178. Niantic, 292. Night habits, 67, 112. Ninni, 215. Notched zone, 55, 56; ‘bracing the radii, 77; of Orchard spider, 153. Oeffinger, 35. Orbweb, divisions of, 54. Orchard spider, see Argyroepeira hortorum. Orton, Prof. J., 234. Ovaries, 27. Packard, Prof. Asa S., Pairing, 132. Palpi, anatomy, 23, 24. Parasitic nest, 310. Parona, Prof. Corrado, Pavesi, Prof., 213. Sie 214, 216, INDEX. 567 Peckham, George W. and Elizabeth G., 109, 173. Perception, accuracy of, 248. Perty, 17. Phidippus morsitans, the bite of, 276. Philodromus, nest of, 323, 347. Phillyra riparia, see Uloborus. Pholeus phalangioides, 223, 353. Physical power of spiders, 229. Pliny, 241. Poison of spiders, 32; effects and uses of, Chapter XVI.; poison fangs of Argiope, 268, 269; gland of Epeira, 269, 270; gland and falx of Nemesia, 270, 271; of Epeira diademata, 270; of Hentz’s Tarantula, 270, 271; effects of, 271; bite of Epeira, 272; inoculation with, 272; comparative harm- lessness, 273; venomous effects, 274; by Latrodectus, 275; of Nephila, 275; of Sal- tigrades, 276; popular notions, 277; effects on insects and spiders, 278; a reserve weapon, 280; superstitious notions con- cerning, 281, 282; Argiope cophinaria, fangs and falces, 268; position of poi- son gland of, 269; Epeira domiciliorum, poison gland of, 269; gland poison, 269, 270; muscles surrounding poison gland, 269. Prey, capture of, 67, 86, 234. Protective architecture, 284, see Nesting. Protective environment of Labyrinthea’s nest; 132. : Protective industry, 308; Argiope’s shield, 99; Argiope’s wings or fenders, 104; apron of Orchard spider, 152. Protection of person, protective use of fore legs, 69. Protection, of snares by ribbons, 57. Psocidee, 331. Pulmonary sacs, 27. te Purseweb spider, 325; see Atypus abboti. Pyriform glands, 40, 41. Radii, bent in the notched zone, 134; order of spinning, 75; number of, 85; single or double, 76; spinning the first, 74; varia- | tion in number, 139, 140. Rain, dissolying spinningwork, 102; effect of, on webs, 92. Ray, John, 61. Ray spider, Chapter XII., 195; see Theridio- soma. Reasoning powers of spiders, 227. Rennie, 76, 86. Reproduction, organs of, 27; of limbs, 78. Retitelariz, 16, 17, 20, 342; see Lineweay- ers. Rhizopods, shells of, 333, 334. Ribbon decorations, 125; temporary in Epe- ira, 116; possible origin of, 117. Robertson, Edward H., 352; describes nests of Theridium riparium, 317. Rolled leaf nests, 285. Romanes, 77, 78. Rudimentary snares, 229. Sailing, habit of Tetragnatha, 159. Saltigrades, 19, 347; nest of, 316; manner of spinning, 327. Scaffolding, spiral, 79; removed after use, 86. Scaffold foundations, Nephila’s peculiar form, 147. Schaffenberger, 231. Scudder, 8. H., 19. Sectoral orbs, 130. Sedentary spiders, 15. Segestria senoculata, 50. Sewing, 285; design of, 315; by Epeira thad- deus, 303; manner of, 302. Shamrock spider, see Epeira triaranea. Shield, central shield of Argiope, 97; use of, 99) Shooting threads, 45, 63. Silk, liquid, of spiders, 39; used for sailing, 160. Simon, M. Eugene, 107, 272. Site of snares dependent on foundation line, 66, 181. Sloane, Sir Hans, 233. Snake, enmity between spider and, 241; snared by spider, 237, 238. Snare, as a tool for trapping, 247; wear and tear of, 264. Spigots, spinning, 36, 46, 48; see Appendix. Spines, tarsal, used in spinning, 81. Spinnerets, 34; anterior, 37; middle, 36; pos- terior, 35; used to clamp spiral string, 81, 82. Spinning, Argiope’s shield, 99, 100. Spinning glands, of Epeira, 39, 43; of Aga- lena labyrinthea, 45; of Tegenaria domes- tica, 45; see Appendix. Spinning organs, anatomy of, Chapter II., 34; muscles regulating, 51. Spinning spools, development of, 50; see Ap- pendix. Spinningwork, analogies, 170; classification of, 284. Spiral threads of Dictyna, 355. en- method of spinning Spirals, art of spinning, 80; character of | notched, 80; deltated by rain, 92; of floc- | culent thread, 177; scaffolding for, 79; | mode of spinning with Triangle spider, 184; rapidly spun, 86; variation in num- ber, 139; viscid material on, 90. Spring, Prof. Edward A., 235. Springing the snare, 202. Snare, control of, by feet, 114. Solomon, reference to spider, 26. Spools, spinning, 37, 38, 46; see Appendix. Staveley, E. F., 317. Stilt spider, see Tetragnatha grallator. Stings of insects compared with spider poi- son, 272. Superstitions concerning spider venom, 281. Suspension bridges, 62. Swathing, manner of, 191, 249, 250, Symmetry, not essential, 208. ro 253. Tailed spider, 128; see Cyclosa caudata. Tarantula, 16, 271, 326; dance, 282. Tegenaria, 45. Tegenaria civilis, 278. Tegenaria domestica, 49. Tegenaria guyonii, 262. Tegenaria medicinalis, 95, 316, 353; captures a snake, 238; its web and cocoon, 239; strength of its web, 240 ; seizing insects, 261. Telegraphy, 337, 338. Tents, nesting, 291; made of leaf, 308. Terby, M. F., 63. Tetragnatha, 154; position webs over water, 64. Tetragnatha elongata, see Tetragnatha gral- lator. Tetragnatha extensa, is it imported from Europe, 155; distribution, 155; jaws and mouth parts, 155; colors, 155; position on hub, 156. Tetragnatha grallator, 157, 206; favorite posi- tions, 158; walking on the water, 159; navigating the water, 160; silken sails of, 161; distribution, 162. Tetragnatha yermiformis navigating the wa- ter, 160. Territelariz, figure of, 16; nests of, 3238, sqq. Theridioids, spinningwork, relations with Orbweavers, 166. Theridiosoma gemmosum, see Theridiosoma radiosum. Theridiosoma, 340, 341, 350. Theridium, 205, 228, 353, 355; trestle snare of, 342. Theridium differens, 224, 351. on web, 155; Theridium neryosum, 316, 352. Theridium tepidariorum, 342; captures a snake, 240, 241, 245; figure of, 20; face of, 21; globular snares of, 225. Theridium riparium, 19; nest of, Blackwall’s study, 317; full description of nests, 318, 319. Theridium zelotypum, 317, 346. Theridiosoma radiosum, the Chapter XII. Theridiopterix, 332. Thompson, Charles H., 109. Thorell, Prof. Tamarlan, M.D., 16, 18, 25, 77, 146, 171, 181, 192, 196, 215; answer to Bertkau, 18; arrangement of spiders, 15; general classification, 17; on instincts, 19. Tools, snares of spiders, 247. Tortricid moth, nest of larva, 320. Trail of silk, 337. Trapdoor spider, 19; nests of, 321, 323, 324. Trapline, Labyrinth spider, 134; and slack line, 201; variation in form with Zilla, 144, 145, evolution of, Chapter XIX.; sim- plest form of, 336; as a trail and _tele- graph, 337; multiplex traplines, 340; Ray spider’s, 341; Epeira trifolium, trapline and nest, 337. Trapping insects, 144; by means of foot lines, 113; by Hyptiotes, 190; by Ray spider, 201; with fractured snare, 339. Treat, Mrs. Mary, 122, 181, 182, 218, 263. Trestles, by Theridium, 223. Treviranus, 28. Triangle form of orb frame, 72. Triangle spider, Chapter XI., 180; see Hyp- tiotes cayatus. Tube, the germinal form of nests, 315; as germinal form of nest, 346. Tube making habit, 346. Tubeweavers, 19, 23, 345, 353; manner of feed- ing, 260; nests of, 315. Tubeweaying, origin of habit, 329; among Orbweavers, 141. Tubitelariz, 16; see Tubeweavers. Tubular bridges, 222. Tunnelweavers, 347. Turret spider, 19, 314. Trussing captives, 254. Ray spider, Uloborus, 350, 354; flossy braces, 58; spin- ningwork of, Chapter X., 172. Uloborus plumipes, character of snares, 174; web measurements, 175; ribbon decora- tions, 175, 176; a genuine Orbweaver, 177; position beneath her orb, 179; distribu- tion, 172. INDEX. 369 Uloborus mammeatus, 172. Uloborus walckenaerius, 173, 178. Underhill, H. M., 27, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 328. Uniformity in type of nests, 324. Unity of nesting habit in Epeira, 299. Upholstery, spider, 301. Variations in habits of Epeira sclopetaria, 115; in spinning orb plane, 150; in snare of Triaranea, 139; in traplines of Zilla, 145; in traplines of Epeira, 146. Venom, see Poison. Vertical snares, 52. Vinson, Dr. Auguste, 95, 124, 233, 310. Viscid beads, 177, 205. Viscid lines on Tubeweaver’s snares, 351; on Theridium’s, 352; on Linyphia’s, see Ap- pendix. Walckenaer, M. le Baron, 23, 107, 108, 110, 126, 157, 272. Walking, anchored by dragline, 60; leaves, 70. Wallace, Alfred Russell, 233. Wandering spiders, tribes composing them, 16. Warburton, Mr. Cecil, 56. Water spiders, 160, 328. over | | | | | Weaving, Water necessary to spiders, 261, 262. | Wear and tear of web, 203. Weather, effect on Labyrinthea’s snare, 132. common methods of, 325, sqq.; by laryee, 329; by Psocide, 331. Westring, Nicolas, 23, 24. Wilder, Prof. Burt G., M.D., 146, 180, 184, 190, 234. Wind, effects of, on webs, 209. Wings, protective, of Argiope’s web, 104, 105. Wood, Rev. J. G., 212. Wounds, by spiders, effect of, 278. Wright, Mr. F. W., or 410. | Young spiders, 140, 230; habit of sailing the water, 160; Labyrinthea, 132; snares of Triaranea, 138; webs of Zilla, 144; varied orbs of, 151. Zigzag ribbon of Argiope, 97, 102. Zilla, 171; looped spirals of, 140; nests of, 302. Zilla atrica, 144. Zilla callophylla, 144. Zilla x-notata, snare of, 142, 148; Scotch col- ony, 148, traplines of, 144, 211. Zone, notched, 56, 58; free, 58. LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS Ur to NovrempBer Ist, 1889. Norr.—All subscribers contained in this list are entitled to the special terms as specified in the original prospectus. To all others the price is $30 for the set of three yolumes, $10 payable upon the receipt of each volume. SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC LIBRARIES. Free Public Library, Worcester, Massachusetts. The Brooklyn Library, Brooklyn, New York. (W. A. Bardwell.) The Bronson Library, Waterbury, Connecticut. (H. F. Bassett.) Mercantile Library, Philadelphia. (C. H. Hart.) Yale University Library, New Haven, Connecticut. Auburn Theological Seminary, Auburn, New York. (Rey. Prof. E. A. Huntington, D. D.) Case Library, Cleveland, Ohio. (S. E. Chamberlain.) United States Department of Agriculture, Washington. (Ernestine H. Stevens.) Harvard College Library, Cambridge, Massachusetts. (William H. Tibbinglast.) Kenyon College Library, Gambier, Ohio.* Theological Seminary, Princeton, New Jersey.* Washington—Jefferson College, Washington, Pennsylvania.* Library of Supreme Council of the Thirty-third Degree Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Free Masonry, Washington, District of Columbia. (Albert Pike.) University of Petersburg. (Voldemar Wagner, Polytechnique Museum, Moscow.) Public Library, Indianapolis, Indiana. (Charles Evans.) Public Library, Detroit, Michigan. (H. M. Utley.) College of New Jersey, Princeton, New Jersey. (Frederick Vinton.) Peabody Institute, Baltimore, Maryland. (N. H. Morrison, Provost.) New Jersey Agricultural Experimental Station, New Brunswick, New Jersey. (Irving 8. Upson.) State University of Nebraska, Lincoln. (Lawrence Bruner.) Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. (G. W. Harris.) Publie Library, Toronto, Canada. (James Bain, Chief Librarian.) Free Public Library, New Bedford, Massachusetts. (R. C. Ingraham.) University of Kansas, Department of Natural History, Lawrence. (T. H. Snow.) Williams College Library, Williamstown, Massachusetts. (Charles H. Burr.) Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. (Dr. Edward J. Nolan.) Accademia de Fisiocritici, Siena, Italy. (Prof. Giulio Chiarugi.) Library of the United States Senate, Washington. The Mercantile Library, Astor Place, New York. (W. T. Peoples.) Public Library, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. (K. A. Linderfelt.) Altoona Mechanics’ Library, Altoona. (Dr. C. B. Dudley.) Pennsylvania Railroad Trainmen’s Library, Broad Street Station, Philadelphia. (Y. D. Cramer.) K. K. Naturhistorisches Hofmuseums, Vienna, Austria. * Presented by Col. John J. McCook, New York. (370) LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS. Salat INDIVIDUALS.-FOREIGN COUNTRIES Thomas Workman, Belfast, Ireland. F. M. Campbell, Hoddesdon, Herts, England. Rey. Dr. W. H. Dallenger, F. R. 8., Ingleside, Lee, London 8. E., England. S. Chatwood, Esq., Inwell House, Prestwich, Manchester, England. Cecil Warburton, Christ’s College, Cambridge, England. Dulau & Co., Soho Square, London. (F. K. Justen.) Six copies. Loescher & Co., Libraj, Rome, Italy. Rey. C. J. S. Bethune, Port Hope, Ontario, Canada. The Earl of Derby, K. G., Knowsley Hall, Prescott, England. Gerold & Co., Vienna, Austria. De Eryen Loosjes, Haarlem, Holland. Otto Harrassowitz, Leipzic, Germany. Prof. T. Thorell, Museo Civico Storia Naturale, Genoa, Italy. INDIVIDUALS.—_THE UNITED STATES. Joseph Jeanes, Philadelphia. (Three copies.) Col. John J. MeCook, New York. (Four copies.) Willis F. MeCook, Esq., Pittsburgh. James Spear, Wallingford. (Two copies.) Frank K. Hipple, Philadelphia. Hon. W. N. Ashman, Philadelphia. Rey. W. J. Holland, D. D., Ph. D., Pittsburgh. John Eyoman, Easton. Thomas MacKellar, Philadelphia. J. L. Forwood, M. D., Chester. H. F. Bassett, Waterbury, Connecticut. Gen. Anson G. MeCook, Washington. (Two copies.) William J. Latta, Philadelphia. Col. R. P. Dechert, the City Hall, Philadelphia. Lucien M. Underwood, Syracuse, New York. Lieut. Col. O. C. Bosbyshell, the United States Mint, Philadelphia. Marcus A. Hanna, Cleveland, Ohio. John M. Shrigley, Lansdowne. Horace F. Whitman, Philadelphia. Hon. Levi P. Morton, Vice-President of the United States, Washington. Henry Howson, Philadelphia. Robert H. Lamborn, New York. BE. K. Medara, Philadelphia. F. M. Webster, Lafayette, Indiana. Col. Elliott F. Sheppard, New York. W. B. Clark & Co., Boston. Rey. R. H. Fulton, D. D., Philadelphia. Rey. Prof. John J. MeCook, Hartford, Connecticut. Samuel H. Scudder, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Wistar Morris, Overbrook. James F. Magee, Philadelphia. Alfred Pell, Highland Falls, New York. John H. Redfield, Philadelphia. S. A. Ellis, Rochester, New York. William Sellers, Philadelphia. Mrs. Mariné J. Chase, Philadelphia. aQr oe LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS. Lawrence Bruner, Lincoln, Nebraska. Otto Lugger, Ph. D., St. Anthony’s Park, Minnesota. John Baird, Philadelphia. T. H. Snow, Department of Natural History, University of Kansas, Lawrence. W. P. Drew, Philadelphia. Hon. Joseph Allison, Philadelphia. Hon. Eckley B. Coxe, Drifton. James Angus, West Farms, New York. Archibald McIntyre, Philadelphia. Edwin 8. Gault, Philadelphia. Mrs. William Slade Clark, Philadelphia. Mrs. T. K. Gibbs, New York. ADVERTISEMENT. With the issue of the first volume of “American Spiders and their Spinningwork,” the author (who is necessarily the publisher also) announces the withdrawal of the special terms offered to subscribers in the prospectus of August Ist, 1889. The price will be $30 for the set of three volumes. Payment is expected for each yolume, $10, as it is delivered. No yolume will be sold separately. The several yolumes will be mailed at the publisher’s expense, bound in stout cloth suitable for ordinary library use, but with uncut edges for the accommodation of those who wish special library binding. “The Author’s Edition” is strictly limited to two hundred and fifty copies, which will be numbered consecutively in the order of subscriptions, as received. The first two volumes are devoted to a description of the Industry and Habits of Orb- weaying spiders, both separately and in their relations to the spinning economy of other aranead tribes. The First Volume treats particularly of Snares and Nests. The Second Volume will treat of the Cocooning Industry, Maternal Instincts, and General Habits. These volumes are liberally illustrated by drawings from Nature, the First Volume alone containing three hundred and fifty-four figures. The Third Volume will be devoted to descriptions of the Orbweaying fauna of the United States, accompanied by a large number of lithographic plates, painted by hand in the colors of Nature. All business communications and subscriptions may be addressed directly to the author or to i AMERICAN SPIDERS AND THEIR SPINNINGWORK,” AcADEMY oF NATURAL SCIENCES, LoGan Square, PHILADELPHIA. The author’s published works upon the ants may be had on the following terms :— “The Natural History of the Agricultural Ant of Texas.” Octavo, bound in cloth, DDS LZ Nap ALES NONGD Ves ve en geet bse val es Wee WMC Re} Meaisy eo, ss et Sec) ae ee OUOO, “The Honey Ants of the Garden of the Gore and the Occident Ants of the Amer- ican Plains.” Octayo, bound in cloth, pp. 188, plates XIII... .. . gum oa oe Jb GO) “The Mound Making Ants of the Alleghenies. Paper, pp. 56, Obie VL 5 Cen eRee 75 These will be mailed to any address for the above prices, or the three works for. 5 00 Address, “ AcApEMy or NatuRAL SCIENCES,” LoGan Square, PHILADELPHIA. _ rate gta We RetAt & Tat aR eh } iv re | bY ate pt yal hy A bah nl i pieN ro im ees ghee oy <2 bral with ie if age Anda Veh i No Sif Hy! ee sft} z +h wy 6 ea Brights Jy Hit < —<« Gq ¢ are : pj CERIN fi (cs ok rn x c = eS = Was LOCOS S&F, COE ci SS S C @ @| CEO ee -aCE qa, ma ~ a KG