^fcv.^f ' <-'■■
"-C>v^«
^^;>>':J#m^'
■tvftM^*^-
i ..••r'
■iT -,^%**
».:.- *'h'
^■'-i^^
^.-^x
'<-J^':
*> . >*-
I>Yi»io{i
/k'^
h^^ jjc.
Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive
in 2009 with funding from
Princeton Tiieological Seminary Library
01
THE ANALOGY OF RELIGION
NATURAL AND REVEALED
TO THE CONSTITUTION AND COURSE
OF NATURE
To which are added two brief Dif^ertations
I. OF PERSONAL IDENTITY
II. OF THE NATURE OF VIRTUE
THE
ANALOGY OF RELIGION
NATURAL AND REVEALED TO THE CONSTITUTION AND COURSE
OF NATURE BY JOSEPH BUTLER LL.D.
LORD BISHOP OF DURHAM
WITH ANALYTICAL PREFACE AND INDEX BY THE REV. EDWARD STEERE LL.D.
LONDON BELL AND DALDY FLEET STREET
Ejus {Analogice) haec vis est, ut id quod dublum est, ad ali- quid simile de quo non quaeritur, referat j ut incerta certis probet. — Slmnt, Inst. Orat. L. I. c. vi.
CHISWICK PRESS : — PRINTED BY C. WHITTINGHAM, TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE.
INTRODUCTORY PREFACE.
HERE is, perhaps, no feeling about Bishop Butler's Analogy so general as the convi(5lion that it is very obscure and difficult. For my own part, I cannot now sympathize with that idea ; in h6i, I know few authors whose style and matter seem so well to accord with one another as do Bishop Butler's. It was not so with me always. I had once to get up his three first sermons for a Univer- sity examination. I remember reading on with a sort of dull acquiescence till I had got about half way through them, and then it occurred to me to wonder what all I had been reading might amount to, and I found myself without a single definite idea. I went back and tried to pick out the main points in the argument, and I certainly then thought the writer's style was cruelly difficult and obscure. But I have long since changed my opinion.
In truth, the greatest beauty of an author's style consists in its appropriatene{^ to expreft his mean- ing. There is a rough likenef^ between the style of the Analogy and that of a legal document, and it goes deeper than might have been expe(fied ; — for what makes a deed obscure to the uninitiated ? Chiefly the attempt on the part of the framer to ex-
«^-'
vi Introdudory Preface.
elude all ambiguity. It looks like irony, but it is true, that no written thing, when examined, is clearer than a legal document, and the objec?!:, — the attained objedl, — of all those obscure phrases is to avoid the pof^ibility of being misunderstood. Therefore it is that the more one examines into the pof^ible mean- ings of what seemed clearer exprefsions, the more we shall realize and admire the sound judgment which has preferred what we, at first sight, thought ill-chosen and obscure. Thus it is that careful stu- dents of Butler's works generally come, in the end, to have a sort of relish for his peculiar style.
It is small comfort, however, to a weary student to be told that what wearies him is a beauty; he will be, no doubt, better pleased to have his labour lightened. I have, therefore, prepared a short ab- stract of the line of argument pursued by our author, which may aisist his memory in retaining the main points of the argument.
The two great principles by which Butler seems to have accounted to himself for the existence of evils in the world, are, first, that the government of
I God is carried on by general laws, which, in ex- ceptional cases, seem to need corredlion ; and then,
I that man is guided by particular affections towards certain obje(5ls and ends, without regard to the mo- ral nature of the means used to obtain them ; and, of course, if men transgref^, they encounter the operation of those other general laws by which right is rewarded and wrong punished. In the control of these particular afFec^tions lies the main part of our probation. We are never impelled by our nature to seek anything intrinsically bad, for its own sake, and the general laws which govern the world are in themselves good. This is probably as near an ac- count of the mode in which evil exists among us,
Introductory Preface. vii
and of how it is to be reconciled with God's good- neft, as has ever yet been discovered.
The abstra(5l question is not here formally dis- cuf^ed, but it is shown that, after all pofsible argu- ments have been considered, there is a practical matter-of-facft testimony to the moral chara(9;er of the Author of nature which no speculative difficul- ties can at all unsettle. It is much to be regretted that the arguments of the Analogy are not more in- telligible and interesting to those who need to be convinced by them ; and I would suggest to the reader that he might make them so, if he colledled in the margin of his copy such anecdotes, proverbs, and instances as may occur to him, embodying the principles of condudl; dryly and abstractedly laid down in the text ; then, in preaching or speaking, these illustrations would make the argument much clearer to the multitude than any more exa.6i state- ments could do. I shall now proceed with my ac- count of what the book contains.
The Introdu(5Hon opens with a short account of the nature of probable evidence as distinguished from demonstration. It is shown that likenef^ to some other and better-known series of events is the material ground of our conclusions in reference to matters of faSi — conclusions upon which we con- stantly and fearleftly a<Si. It is proposed to show that , the doc^^^ines of Religion have such a similarity to/ 1 the ordinary course of events in everyday life, as to' make it probable that the laws which govern them have a common Author. If this be only shown to be pojlible, the obje(5l of the treatise will have been obtained, and that by reasoning resting exclusively upon fa6is, and therefore irrefragable so long as those fa(9:s remain unchanged.
It is ai^umed, and this must throughout be borne
viii Introdudory Preface.
in mind, that there is some regular g^overnment of the universe, — that the world is not a chaos; — in- deed it has been well proved, m other treatises, that there is a supreme God. It is not proposed, in this work, to go into any speculative argument, but simply to investigate the fa6ls of Nature as they are, and to cojnpare them with what natural and revealed Religion declare. \ < Ch. I. The first thing to be considered is, whether there is any presumption against the docftrine of our existence in a future life, as implied in both na- tural and revealed Religion. But first we must in- quire what there is to live in a future state — what it is that lives now ; in other words, what is the " I," the person about which we are speaking 1 The Dis- sertation on Personal Identity comes in here, in which it is shown not to consist in memory or con- sciousnel^, but in that which pof^eftes them, — a something of_which we know little more thanJ:hat it jnust_exist, because the slightest doubt of it in- volves us in endlef^ pra(5lical absurdities.
To return to the question about a future life. We have ourselves experienced great changes in form and in capacity. We see many such going on around us, especially in the case of inse(5^s. Con- tinuance is expe(5led on the ground of past existence : and so we all expedl the continuance of our living powers until and unlef^ they end in death. What is death, that it should destroy them ] There does not appear to be any reason in the nature of things why it should, and, as to Analogy, death does not destroy our material substances ; it only separates them; but the individual person, being mseparable, is just as likely to continue as any particular atom of matter may be. It is evident that the body is an instrument of the person, not a part of it ; its dif^o-
Introdudory Preface. ix
lution, therefore, may leave the person uninjured. The case of brutes is not analogous. We have powers apparently independent of our bodily senses ; these may well be believed to continue unimpaired by the sudden change called death. It is quite pos- j sible that we may by death lose hinderances rather L than capacities. It cannot, therefore, be affirmed! that it is impoftible men should live in a future state ; | it would rather be in accordance with the Analogy of Nature that they should. Thus a prospe^l is opened which must affe(5l the conduct of reason- able men.
Ch. II. If this probability of a future life should turn out a truth, can we be sure that our actions now will not affe6i our happinei^ then ? How is it in the world ? As a matter of fa(5l, our condu(5l does most materially affe^l our happinel^ afterwards. This {a<Si at once disposes of all speculative difficul- ties about present acftions having future consequences, and, besides^men are guided in their a^lions by thd future good or evil consequences of them, which is; the true idea of being governed by rewards and pu-' nishments.^ Especially in regard to evil conse- quences.— They follow upon carelef^ imprudent ac- tions. They are sometimes long delayed, and often irreparable. Frequently, when men have long seemed to escape, they come suddenly and irresis- tibly, just as the evil consequences of impiety are expe(5led to come by religious persons. What mad- nei^, then, to run the risk of all this misery, which is so far from improbable, that, if only God rules the whole universe as we know that He governs the world, the punishment of some men is morally cer- tain !
Ch. III. But will these rewards and punishments certainly be dispensed on moral grounds, as Reli-
X Introdudory Preface.
gion affirms 1 It is not so much for us to argue about what the world should be, according to our notions of God's nature, as to inquire what its a(51:ual course is. Religion does not affirm that what we see is perfect, but much ratherthat it is as yet faulty and incomplete.
The Diftertation on Virtue comes in here, and shows that the distinction between virtue and vice is a natural one, and that there is a something in man which connects the idea of punishment with that of vice, and annexes to virtue the hope of re- ward and favour.
It is a faiSi, that a sense of satisfaction does gene- rally attend virtue, and this is in itself a reward. Certain vices are naturally punished by society, as being destructive to it, and virtue is never punished as such. Wherever harm or advantage follows an action, not as being an action merely, but as having a moral chara(5ter, virtue is always rewarded and vice punished. Consider the effe(5ts, not only on our own peace of mind, but on the good cr ill will of others, both manifested in various ways. The distribution of pain and pleasure, independently of moral cha- racter, does not contradi(5t this, because it is mani- festly not the moral character of men which then produces them. There is an analogy between the power of virtue and that of reason. Reason gives men superiority over unreasoning animals ; but then reason may, for a time, be overborne, and the very want of reason sometimes seems to add to the force and daring of brutes. It is easy to conceive cases analogous to the present prevalence of vice. Then let us consider what would be the effect of the es- tablishment of a perfectly virtuous kingdom. What we know of the government of the world shows that its Governor is not indifferent to virtue and vice, and that, so far as natural tendencies have free course,
Introdudory Preface. xi
vice Is punished and virtue rewarded. The way is thus opened for the ordinary proofs of a future state of retribution, and the Analogy of Nature shown to be on its side.
€h. IV. Are we, then, in a state of trial for some future state ] Pleasure and pain being annexed as consequences to our a(5lions, we are, in facft, each day in a state of trial, and good or harm results to us according to our doings. Habits and paf^ions mislead us in regard to our succeO? in the world. Prudence and self-denial are necefkary all through life ; and men are, in spite of experience, volunta- rily extravagant and imprudent, and suffer for it af- terwards. We are, no doubt, not so well off as we might be ; but our own interest is in our hands to spoil or improve. All this is stric^ily analogous to what Religion tells us of our state of probation for a future life, and our conduct under it.
Ch. V. It may be beyond our faculties to ascer- tain how we came to be placed in this state of trial ; yet we may see, at least, one natural object for it — our improvement in virtue and piety. Every crea- ture is adapted to some particular state of life. All that we are acquainted with are capable of becoming adapted to some new one. We see this in the ef- fe(5ls of pra(9:ice and custom upon ourselves. Va- rious habits of mind and body do affe(5l our capabi- lities, and may change our moral chara(51:er. This capacity for improvement it lies with us to use. Children are gradually educated into a fit state for mature life, though they, in many things, perceive it as little as we do that w^e are being educated for a future state. But in regard to moral improvement, we can see both our want and how it is supplied. Habits of virtue improve our characfter. It would be so with even perfe(5l finite beings ; it is much more
xii Introdudory Preface.
so with us. The difficuhies we meet with are what strengthen our purposes and habits. Though but few men a(9:ually improve, they are, perhaps, as many in proportion as the well-formed seeds which grow up into healthy plants. Our tempers may very probably be improved by the exercise even of virtues which we may not need hereafter in the same form ; and as it is manifest that we have had a work to do in fitting ourselves to live in the world, can any one say it is improbable that we may now be fitting or unfitting ourselves for some other?
The world is a theatre of action in regard to men ; our lives may be so in regard to other objec^ts.
Ch. VI. We have hitherto af^umed the world to be under some government, and it may be suggested that, if that government be by natural necef^ity merely, what we have said of moral government will fall to the ground. The opinion of neceftity is a theory only, but the preceding arguments are all drawn from fa(9:s, and must remain while the fa(5ls are unchanged. The opinion of necef^ity does not exclude deliberation, choice, and a(9;ing for a pur- pose in men. It does not exclude an intelligent agent, but only his a(5i:ing freely. It accounts, by itself, as little for the existence of a universe as for that of a house. Suppose a child educated on fa- talist principles, it could not live in the world with- out abandoning them. In practical matters we all disregard this opinion. As a matter of fa(9;, there is such a thing as a moral characfter in men, and they are, in {'a6i, governed by the hope and fear of rewards and punishments. As a matter of fa(9:, there- fore, the Governor of the universe may have a moral chara(5ler, and the opinion of necefsity must either be consistent with these things, as fa<?is, or be abandoned. The external evidence of Religion also
Introdu6!ory Preface. xiii
rests upon fa^ls. So that the opinion must be treated as practically false, and, even if it were true, could not be inconsistent with Religion. ^
Ch. VII. It was not af^erted that Analogy would give a strict proof of Religion, but only that it would prove it credible, and show it probably true. We know that the natural government of the world is a scheme, or system, of which we see but a small part and understand but a little. If the moral govern- ment is of the same nature, it is probable that we shall understand it as little. Our ignorance, pro- bably, hides from us the solution of many difficulties. Now ignorance is no answer, unlef^ we are ignorant of something materially concerned in our estimate of the matter in question. This is so in regard to objec9;ions against the moral government of the world, which we see to be carried on by good ge- neral laws, and in other matters we daily see strange means bringing about unexpec^led results. This ig- norance is not of equal force against Religion, be- cause our proofs have rested upon facets, which we do know, while the objeclions are based upon as- sumptions, which we can only guef^ at. Analogy shows very clearly that mere ignorance is likely to be the reason why we cannot answer many objec- tions. /
The Conclusion of the first Part briefly sums up the matters discui^ed and the conclusions arrived at, and applies them as incentives to a virtuous and re- ligious life.
Part II. In the first Part it was only afsumed that the world was under some regular government. In the second Part it is afsumed, further, that there are such things as virtue and vice, and that the world, and particularly the human race, is under the go- vernment of a wise and good God. The object: of
xiv Introdudory Preface.
this Part is to show that the dealings of God with us, in respecl of Christianity, are analogous to those in regard of natural Religion, and therefore, by the arguments of the first Part, and sometimes by dire6l comparison, analogous to those in regard of our or- dinary temporal interests.
Ch. I. There are some who affe^i to think any revelation unnecef^ary. But it is manifest that there was something for a Revelation to effect, and that, if one has been really made, it cannot be safely treated as of no importance. Christianity does, in fa6i, republish, confirm, and provide for the conti- nuous promulgation of the do(A;rines of pure, natural Religion. It also declares a further part of God's moral government, and reveals relations and duties hitherto unperceived by us, but not the left real and of natural moral obligation when declared, — espe- cially in regard to the Redeemer and the San(9;ifier. The bare pojlibility of our standing in such rela- tions ought, in reason, to affeSi our practice. The chapter concludes with an investigation of the dif- ference between moral and positive precepts and duties, with a warning not to prejudge the nature of the Revelation to be expec^ted.
Ch. II. It is said to be unnatural that there should be a miraculous Revelation. But the more a man knows, the more he feels his ignorance and how much can only be learnt by Revelation. We know not how far Revelation may be in accordance with that general course of Nature in regard to such things of which we can only know this one instance. It may be quite natural that there should be a Re- velation at the creation of a world, and history seems to point to one in regard to ourselves. There is a presumption against everything till it has hap- pened. We know not but that there might be na-
Introdu£!ory Preface. xv
tural reasons for miracles. We do know that there are moral ones, and there are things commonly known, which, but for being so, would have seemed quite as incredible.
Ch. III. Reason, noble as it is, and capable of judging of the evidence of Revelation and its general character, is yet no competent judge of the details of a proved Revelation and the manner in which it has been given. Apply it to the details of the or- dinary government of the world, and it will prove itself equally incompetent ; especially consider how men are taught what they ordinarily know. We must thoroughly understand God's purposes before we can judge of what will effect them. Compare human instruction with Revelation, and the use and abuse of natural powers with those recorded of mi- raculous ones, the plainnef^ of ordinary duties, and the application necei^ary to make progrefs in know- ledge in both cases, and the similar hinderances and ignorances. Compare the existence of natural and moral diseases, and the difficulties in discovering and applying their remedies. There are no im- moral precepts in Scripture. In short, objec9:ions against Christianity itself are generally frivolous, be- cause similar ones might be laid against the ordi- nary course of Nature. But we know what could have been expected from enthusiasm and political views, and it goes beyond that.
Ch. IV. Just as it was before shown that the mo- ral government of the world might be the best sys- tem pofsible, and not appear so to us, the same may be proved of Christianity. It is evidently a vast ^plan, of which but a very small part is declared to us. The fitnef^ of particular means to particular ends we are very bad judges of. The general laws which govern it we can only perceive by some in-
xvi Introdudory Preface.
dications, as we can in Nature reduce but a part of what we see to known general natural laws. Our redemption was certainly worked out by very slow and succeftive means— so is the bursting of a flower. The deliberation with which natural Providence works, and our liability to mistake the tendency of its operations, are evident in everything around us. Ch. V. Men obje(?l; against the mediation of Christ. But we are all brought into the world and preserved in it by the mediation of others. The consequences which would naturally follow upon our follies and vices, the care of others may save us from. We do not sufficiently realize the present heinousnef^ and disastrous effedls of vice, and there- fore do not sufficiently value the provisions for saving us from those effects. Reformation does not save us without the help of others, and it is to be re- membered that Christianity did not make us need salvation ; it only declared God's goodnef^ towards us in respedl of it. There is nothing unnatural in the do(5lrine of our being in a fallen state. Christ is declared to us in Scripture as Prophet, Priest, and King, the Vidlim and the Offerer. We know so little about the future punishment of sin, that we cannot judge of the expediency or usefulnef^ of the means taken to prevent it. It is said to be contrary to God's nature that the just should suffer for the unjust. But human beings often undergo great la- bour, danger, and sufferings, sometimes death, to deliver their fellow-creatures from the consequences of their faults and mistakes ; — what is this but the vicarious suffering of those who have not offended ? It is the highest presumption, and contrary to all reason and analogy, for us to expecff to understand the whole of the Divine condu^f. Our own duty is taught us clearly ; the moment we go beyond that, we grope in darknef^.
IntroduSory Preface. xvii
Ch. VI. Some obje(5l that a true Revelation would not have been left upon evidence capable of being doubted, and known to but a part of mankind. But we always have doubtful evidence to a(5l upon in temporal affairs, and no two men have exa6i\y the same advantages. The light of Revelation has been different in different ages and to different individuals ; but we must remember that all are to be Judged ac- cording to what they had. Why were different kinds of beings created ? If the Revelation came alike to all, still all would never derive the same benefit from it. But this doubtfulnel^ may be a part of our pro- bation. It is a moral fault to refuse attention and shut our eyes to doubtful evidence. Speculative dif- ficulties may be no more to be complained of than any other temptations. They may be the great temptations of some men. However, men are often in doubt merely through some evident fault of their own. There seems to be full evidence of their du- ties as Christians accef^ible to men generally. It can be no excuse for negle(5ling these, that they may not be able of themselves, at once, to answer all the objections cleverer men may suggest. Besides, God does not desire us to do this or that external thing, but to cultivate a holy and virtuous frame of mind : doubtful evidence will suflfice for this. Even a sceptic is morally bound not to be openly profane.
Ch. VII. The evidence of Christianity includes a multitude of details, making up together one great argument ; so does the evidence on which we be- lieve ordinary fa(9;s. The miracles recorded in Scrip- ture are not separable from the other fa.6is of the history. All stand upon the same historical evidence, and that of a very satisfactory kind. St. Paul's Epistles, by themselves, form a very good piece of historical evidence for Christianity and its miracles. b
xviii Introdudory Preface.
Its reception on the ground of miracles is peculiar to it. The fact of its being so received, and under such circumstances as it was, and even being re- ceived at all, is valid historical testimony to its truth. The suggestion that the first Christians were under the influence of enthusiasm does not destroy this evidence ; nor does the {a6i that men have been strangely deluded by pretended miracles. There must be something in its evidences, or these sug- gestions would never have been made, and there is no counter-evidence to be produced.
As to the evidence from prophecy, the obscurity of one part does not refute the clearnels of another. The fa(5l that prophecy is applicable proves the pro- priety of its application. The individual prophet is not the true author of his prophecies ; he is not, therefore, any perfe(5l judge of their application. The whole question is, are they applicable to Chris- tianity, or no }
Upon a general view of the Bible as a history, what an immense scope it offers for criticism, and how many openings for confutation, yet it has never, as a whole, been at all confuted.
Suppose a person to have picked up the outlines of the prophecies concerning the Jews and the Mes- siah, and their alleged fulfilment : then let him be told, as matters beyond dispute, how much natural Religion is indebted to the belief in this Revelation ; that the history contained in it is confirmed by other records and documents ; that the Jews have been and are what they are ; that a person did certainly arise among them, claiming to be the Meftiah, and did establish a Religion which was received on the evidence of miracles, and does row prevail through- out the world, the state of which seems to point to the fulfilment of other prophecies concerning it ; —
Introductory Preface. xix
could he doubt that this evidence is of great weight? There undoubtedly is historical evidence for miracles, and there are many instances of conformity between the prophecies and actual events. All these things, when taken together, are of much more force than when taken singly, and the importance of the sub- jecft makes it our duty to weigh every tittle of evi- dence the more carefully.
Ch. VIII. It is pofsible that the whole course of the foregoing argument may be objected to ; and to meet this it is desirable to remember, i . That it is unreasonable to allege against Revelation, specially, what is equally applicable to natural Religion, and still more whc.t applies as well to ordinary worldly prudence. 2. That we have no right to complain that Religion, which is a pra(9:ical matter, is left doubtful, if it is not more so than other pracftical matters are. 3. That the design of this treatise is not to prove God's goodnef^, but to inquire into man's duty. Objet^ions to the doctrine about God are only considered so far as to show that they are not conclusive, and that the things obje(fted to are, as matters of fa(5l, made probable by being in ac- cordance with the general course of the world. 4. That there is nothing, about which we may not wish for more light. 5. That it is not to be expe(fted that any argument will convince every one, if, as has been shown to be probable, the necef^ity of at- tention, 8cc. to convicftion forms part of our proba- tion. 6. That the proofs of Religion, from the prin- ciples of liberty and moral fitneft, are here altogether paired over, because the aim is not to give the best, but the most pra(5lical proof, and one involving no disputed principles. The whole treatise will there- fore be to some a proof, to others the confirmation of a clearer proof, to all the analogies here traced
XX Introdudory Preface.
will be of use in support of the fa(9;s implied in Re- ligion.
In the Conclusion the second Part is recapitu- lated, and the pra(51ical obligations arising from the bare pofsibility of the truth of Christianity are strongly and clearly stated.
The specific points in which analogies are traced will be found in the Index, under the head of Ana- logy, and the principal obje(5^ions stated in the text under that of OhjeSiions considered. If what is here done to his hand save the student any time and trouble, let him regard that gain as a trust to be laid out in the further prosecution of the glorious work of theological research, the noblest occupation that can engage the mind of man. May he find as much pleasure therein as has fallen to the share of the unworthy student who has written these few pages for his af^istance I
E. S.
[Original Dedicatiori]. TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE
CHARLES LORD TALBOT,
BARON OF HENSOL, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain,
The following Treatise is, with all respe(5l, inscribed; in acknowledgment of the highest obligations to the late Lord Bishop of Durham and to himself,
By His Lordship's most dutiful,
most devoted,
and most humble servant, JOSEPH BUTLER.
ADVERTISEMENT.
F the reader should meet here with any thing, which he had not before attended to, it will not be in the ob- servations upon the constitution and course of Nature, these being all ob- vious ; but in the application of them : In which, though there is nothing but what appears to me of some real weight, and therefore of great importance ; yet he will observe several things, which will ap- pear to him of very little, if he can think things to be of little importance, which are of any real weight at all, upon such a subjecl; as Religion. However, the proper force of the following Treatise lies in the whole general Analog^' considered together.
It is come, I know not how, to be taken for granted, by many persons, that Christianity is not so much as a subject of inquiry ; but that it is, now at length, discovered to be fictitious. And accord- ingly they treat it, as if, in the present age, this were an agreed point, among all people of discern- ment : and nothing remained, but to set it up as a principal subje(5^ of mirth and ridicule, as it were by way of reprisals, for its having so long interrupted the pleasures of the world. On the contrary, thus much, at least, will be here found, not taken for
xxiv Advertisement.
granted, but proved, that any reasonable man, who will thoroughly consider the matter, may be as much aftured, as he is of his own beingf, that it is not, however, so clear a case, that there is nothing in it. There is, I think, strong evidence of its truth ! but it is certain no one can, upon principles of rea- son, be satisfied of the contrary. And the prac^tical consequence to be drawn from this is not attended to by every one who is concerned in it.
May, 1736.
CONTENTS.
Page
Introductiok . . . . . . . I
PART I. Chap.
I. Of a Future Life 12
II. Of the Government of God by Rewards and Pu-
nishments ; and particularly of the latter . 32
III. Of the Moral Government of God ... 45
IV. Of a State of Probation, as implying Trial, Dif-
ficulties, and Danger .... 72
V. Of a State of Probation, as intended for Moral
Discipline and Improvement ... 82 VI. Of the Opinion of Necessity, considered as icflu-
encing Practice 109
VII. Of the Government of God, considered as a Scheme or Constitution, imperfectly compre- hended 127
Conclusion . . . . . . . .139
PART II. Chap.
I. Of the Importance of Christianity . . . 147
II. Of the supposed Presumption against a Revela-
tion, considered as miraculous . . .167
III. Of our Incapacity of judging, what were to be ex-
pected in a Revelation ; and the Credibility, from Analogy, that it must contain things ap- pearing liable to Objections . . . 175
xxvi Contents.
Page 192
IV. Of Christianity, considered as a Scheme or Con- stitution, imperfectly comprehended V. Of the particular System of Christianity ; the Appointment of a Mediator, and the Redemp- tion of the World by him . . . .201 VI. Of the Want of Universality in Eevelation : and
of the supposed Deficiency in the Proof of it 222 VII. Of the particular Evidence for Christianity . 244 VIII. Of the Objections which may be made against arguing from the Analogy of Nature, to Re- ligion 285
Conclusion 299
DISSERTATION I. Of Personal Identity 313
DISSERTATION II.
Of the Nature of Virtue 321
Analytical Index 333
Note at p. 31 refers to pages 168, 173, 177, &c.
34 „ 131
48 „ 118
72 „ 118
78 „ 210
118 „ 326
252 « 1, 244, 282, &c.
^^i^^
THE ANALOGY OF RELIGION
TO THE CONSTITUTION AND COURSE OF NATURE
^^^^^
INTRODUCTION.
ROB ABLE Evidence is eftentially dis- tinguishedfrom demonstrative by this, that it admits of degrees ; and of all variety of them, from the highest mo- ral certainty, to the very lowest pre- sumption. We cannot indeed say a thing is proba- bly true upon one very slight presumption for it ; becaufe, as there maybe probabilities on both sides of a question, there may be some against it : and though there be not, yet a slight presumption does not beget that degree of convi(9;ion, which is implied in saying a thing is probably true. But that the slightest pofsible presumption is of the nature of a probability, appears from hence ; that such low pre- sumption often repeated, will amount even to moral certainty. Thus a man's having observed the ebb and flow of the tide to-day, affords some sort of pre- sumption, though the lowest imaginable, that it may happen again to-morrow: But the observation of this event for so many days, and months, and ages to- gether, as it has been observed by mankind, gives us a full af^urance that it will.
That which chiefly constitutes Probability is ex-
2 Introduction.
pref^ed in the word Likely, i.e. like some truth,^ or true event ; like it, in itself, in its evidence, in some more or fewer of its circumstances. For when we determine a thing to be probably true, suppose that an event has or will come to paf^, it is from the mind's remarking in it a likenefs to some other event, which we have observed has come to paf^. And this obser- vation forms, in numberlef^ daily instances, a pre- sumption, opinion, or full convi(5lion, that such event has or will come to paft ; according as the observation is, that the like event has sometimes, most commonly, or always so far as our observation reaches, come to paft at like distances of time, or place, or upon like occasions. Hence arises the belief, that a child, if it lives twenty years, will grow up to the stature and strength of a man ; that food will contribute to the preservation of its life, and the want of it for such a number of days, be its certain destrudlion. So like- wise the rule and measure of our hopes and fears concerning the succeft of our pursuits ; our expecta- tions that others will act so and so in such circum- stances; and our judgment that such actions proceed from such principles ; all these rely upon our having observed thelike towhat we hope, fear, expec^t, judge ; I say upon our having observed the like, either with respeift to others or ourselves. And thus, whereas the prince^ who had always lived in a warm climate, naturally concluded in the way of Analogy, that there was no such thing as water's becoming hard; because he had always observed it to be fluid and yielding : We on the contrary, from Analogy conclude, that there is no presumption at all against this : that it is
' Verisimile.
2 The story is told by Mr. Locke in the Chapter of Proba- bility.
Introduction. 3
supposable, there may be frost in England any given day in January next ; probable that there will on some day of the month ; and that there is a moral certainty, i.e. ground for an expectation without any doubt of it, in some part or other of the winter.
Probable Evidence, in its very nature, affords but an imperfect kind of information ; and is to be con- sidered as relative only to beings of limited capaci- ties. For nothing which is the pofsibie objecl _of knowledg^e, whether past, present, or futurgj^ canjbe proEable to an infinite intelligence; since it cannot biif Be discerned absotutely'as it is in itself, certainly true, or certainly false. But to us, probability is the very guide of life.
From these things it follows, that in questions of difficulty, or such as are thought so, where more sa- tisfactory evidence cannot be had, or is not seen; if the result of examination be, that there appears upon the whole, any the lowest presumption on one side, and none on the other, or a greater presumption on one side, though in the lowest degree greater; this determines the question, even in matters of specu- lation ; and in matters of practice, will lay us under an absolute and formal obligation, in point of pru- dence and of interest, to acl upon that presumption or low probability, though it be so low as to leave the mind in very great doubt which is the truth. For surely a man is as really bound in prudence, to do w^hat upon the whole appears, according to the best of his judgment, to be for his happinef^, as what he certainly knows to be so. Nay further, in ques- tions of great consequence, a reasonable man will think it concerns him to remark lower probabilities and presumptions than these ; such as amount to no more than showing one side of a question to be as supposable and credible as the other : nay such as
4 Introdudion.
but amount to much left even than this. For num- berleft instances might be mentioned respecting the common pursuits of life, where a man would be thought, in a literal sense, distra(5led, who would not a(?l;, and with great application too, not only upon an even chance, but upon much left, and v^here the probability or chance was greatly against his suc- ceeding.^
It is not my design to inquire further into the na- ture, the foundation, and measure of probability ; or whence it proceeds that Likenefs should beget that presumption, opinion, and full convi6lion, which the human mind is formed to receive from it, and which it does neceftarily produce in every one; or to guard against the errors, to which reasoning from Analogy is liable. This belongs to the subject of logic; and is a part of that subje6l which has not yet been tho- roughly considered. Indeed I shall not take upon me to say, how far the extent, compaft, and force, of analogical reasoning, can be reduced to general heads and rules ; and the whole be formed into a system. But though so little in this way has been attempted by those who have treated of our intellec- tual powers, and the exercise of them ; this does not hinder but that we may be, as we unquestionably are, aftured, that Analogy is of weight, in various degrees, towards determining our judgment and our pra(9:ice. Nor does it in any wise cease to be of weight in those cases, because persons, either given to dispute, or who require things to be stated with greater exac^tneft than our faculties appear to admit of in pra^lical matters, may find other cases in which it is not easy to say, whether it be, or be not, of any weight; or instances of seeming Analogies, which are really of none. It is enough to the present pur-
3 See Chap. vi. Part ii.
Introduflion. 5
pose to observe, that this general way of arguing is evidently natural, just and conclusive. For there is no man can make a question but that the sun will rise to-morrow ; and be seen, where it is seen at all, in the figure of a circle, and not in that of a square.
Hence, namelyfrom analogical Reasoning, Origen^ has with singular sagacity observed, that be who be- lieves the Scripture to have proceeded from him who, is the Author of nature ^ may well expeSt to findtbe\ same sort of difficulties in it, as are found in the constitution of nature. And in a like way of re- flec^tion it may be added, that he who denies the Scripture to have been from. God upon account of these difficulties, may, for the very same reason, deny the world to have been formed by him. On the other hand, if there be an Analogy or Likenef^ between that system of things and dispensation of Providence, which Revelation informs us of, and that system of things and dispensation of Providence, which experience together with reason informs us of, i. e. the known course of nature ; this is a pre- sumption, that they have both the same author and cause ; at least so far as to answer obje(9:ions against the former's being from God, drawn from anything which is analogical or similar to what is in the lat- ter, which is acknowledged to be from him : for an author of nature is here supposed.
Forming our notions of the constitution and gov- ernment of the world upon reasoning, without foun- dation for the principles which we ai^ume, whether from the attributes of God or anything else; is build- ing a world upon hypothesis, like Des Cartes. Form-
* Xp?) ^I'tv Toi ji. Tov ctTTa? irapadt^aixevov tov KTiaav- TOQ TOV Koayiov tlvai ravraQ tolq ypcKpdg TrtirtXaQai, on oaa TTfpi Ti]q KTicreojQ airavTa ro'igt'tiTOvcn tov Trepi avTrjg X670V, Taiira ku] irtpi Tuiv ■ypa(pu>v. — Philocal. p. 23. Ed. Cant.
A
^c
6 Introdudion,
ing our notions upon reasoning from principles which are certain, but applied to cases to which we have no ground to apply them, (like those who explain the structure of the human body, and the nature of diseases and medicines from mere mathematics without sufficient data;) is an error much akin to the former: since what is aftumed in order to make the reasoning applicable, is hypothesis. But it must be allowed just, to join abstradl; reasonings with the ob- servation of fa(fts, and argue from such fac^s as are knov/n, to others that are like them; from that part of the Divine Government over intelligent creatures which comes under our view, to that larger and more general government over them, which is beyond it; and from what is present, to colle(^, what is likely, credible, or not incredible, will be hereafter.
This method then of concluding and determining being practical, and what, if we will a6l at all, we cannot but act upon in the common pursuits of life ; being evidently conclusive, in various degrees, pro- portionable to the degree and exac^nefs of the whole Analogy or Likeneft; and having so great authority for its introduction into the subje(51 of Religion, even revealed Religion ; my design is to apply it to that subjeCl in general, both natural and revealed: taking for proved, that there is an intelligent Author of Na- ture, and natural Governor of the world. For as there is no presumption against this prior to the proof of it: so it has been often proved with accumulated evidence ; from this argument of Analogy and final causes ; from abstract reasonings ; from the most ancient tradition and testimony; and from the gene- ral consent of mankind. Nor does it appear, so far as I can find, to be denied, by the generality of those who profefs themselves dif^atisfied with the Evidence of Religion.
Introdudion. 7
As there are some, who, instead of thus attending to what is in fact the constitution of nature, form their notions of God's government upon hypothesis : so there are others, who indulge themselves in vain and idle speculations, how the world might pof^ibly have been framed otherwise than it is ; and upon sup- position that things might, in imagining that they should, have been disposed and carried on after a bet- ter model, than what appears in the present disposi- tion and condu(5l of them. Suppose now a person of such a turn of mind, to go on with his reveries, till he had at length fixed upon some particular plan of
nature, as appearing to him the best. One shall
scarce be thought guilty of detraction against human understanding, if one should say, even beforehand, that the plan which this speculative person would fix upon, though he were the wisest of the sons of men, probably would not be the very best, even according to his own notions of best ; whether he thought that to be so, which afforded occasions and motives for the exercise of the greatest virtue, or which was produc- tive of the greatest happinefs, or that these two were necefsarily connected, and run up into one and the same plan. However, it may not be amif^ once for all to see, what would be the amount of these em- endations and imaginary improvements upon the system of nature, or how far they would mislead us. And it seems there could be no stopping, till we came^ to some such conclusions as these : That all creature:^ should at first be made as perfect and as happy as they were capable of ever being: That nothing, to be sure, of hazard or danger should be put upon them to do ; some indolent persons would perhaps think nothing at all : Or certainly, that effeclual care should be taken, that they should, whether necefsarily or not, yet eventually and in fa(5l, aK\ ays do what was right
8 Introdudion.
and most conducive to happineft, which would be thought easy for infinite power to effe6l ; either by not giving them any principles which would endanger their going wrong ; or by laying the right motive of a(ftion in every instance before their minds con- tinually in so strong a manner, as would never fail of inducing them to a6l conformably to it : And that the whole method of government by punishments should be rejected, as absurd ; as an awkward round-about method of carrying things on ; nay as contrary to a
N principal purpose, for which it would be supposed jcreatures were made, namely happineft.
Now, without considering what is to be said in particular to the several parts of this train of folly and extravagance ; what has been above intimated is a full dire(?i: general answer to it, namely, that we may see beforehand that we have not faculties for this kind of speculation. For though it be admitted, that from the first Principles ofour nature, we unavoidably judge or determine some ends to be absolutely in them- selves preferable to others, and that the ends now mentioned, or if they run up into one, that this one is absolutely the best; and consequently that we must conclude the ultimate end designed, in the constitu- tion of nature and conduct of Providence, is the most Virtue and Happinel^ pof^ible : yet we are far from being able to judge, what particular disposition of things would be most friendly and aftistant to virtue ; or what means might be absolutely neceftary to pro- duce the most happineft in a system of such extent as our own world may be, taking in all that is past and to come, though we should suppose it detached from the whole of things. Indeed we are so far from being able to judge of this; that we are not judges what may be the neceftary means of raising and con- dueling one person to the highest perfection and
Introduction. 9
happinef^ of his nature. Nay even in the little affairs of the present life, we find men of different educa- tions and ranks are not competent judges of the con- duct of each other. Our whole nature leads us to ascribe all moral perfection to God, and to deny all imperfection of him. And this will for ever be a practical proof of his moral charaCler, to such as will consider what apra(?tical proof is; because it is the voice of God speaking in us. And from hence we conclude that virtue must be the happinel^, and vice the misery, of every creature ; and that regu- larity and order and right cannot but prevail finally in a universe under his government. But we are in no sort judges, what are the necei^ary means of ac- complishing this end.
Let us then, instead of that idle and not very innocent employment of forming imaginary models of a world, and schemes of governing it, turn our thoughts to what we experience to be the condu(5l of nature with respeCl to intelligent creatures ; which may be resolved into general laws or rules of admi- nistration, in the same way as many of the laws of nature respecting inanimate matter may be collected from experiments. And let us compare the known constitution and course of things, with what is said to be the moral system of nature ; the acknowledged Dispensations of Providence, or that government which we find ourselves under, with what Religion teaches us to believe and expeCf ; and see whether they are not analogous and of a piece. And upon such a comparison, it will I think be found, that they are very much so : that both may be traced up to the same general laws, and resolved into the same principles of divine conduct.
The Analogy here proposed to be considered, is of pretty large extent, and consists of several parts ;
10 Introduction.
in some, more, in others, left, exact. In some few instances perhaps it may amount to a real pra^lical proof; in others not so. Yet in these it is a confir- mation of what is proved other ways. It will unde- niably shew, what too many want to have shewn them, that the system of Religion both natural and revealed, considered only as a system, and prior to the proof of it, is not a subject of ridicule, unlefs that of nature be so too. And it will afford an answer to almost all objections against the system both of na- tural and revealed Religion ; though not perhaps an answer in so great a degree, yet in a very consider- able degree an answer, to the obje(9;ions against the evidence of it : For obje(9;ions against a proof, and obje6^ions against what is said to be proved, the Reader will observe are different things.
Now the Divine Government of the world, implied in the notion of Religion in general and of Christi- anity, contains in it : That mankind is appointed to live in a future state :^ That there, every one shall be rewarded or punished ; ^ rewarded or punished respectively for all that behaviour here, which we comprehend under the words, virtuous or vicious, morally good or evil : '^ That our present life is a pro- bation, a state of trial,^ and of discipline,^ for that fu- ture one ; notwithstanding the objections which men may fancy they have, from notions of necef^ity, against there being any such moral plan as this at all;^" and whatever objections may appear to lie against the wisdom and goodnef^ of it, as it stands so imperfeClly made known to us at present :^^ That this world being in a state of apostacy and wicked- nef^, and consequently of ruin, and the sense both of their conditio^ and duty being greatly corrupted amongst men, this gave occasion for an additional
5 Ch. i. 6 ch. ii. 7 Ch. iii. 8 ch. iv.
9 Ch. V. 1° Ch. vi. 1' Ch. vii.
Introduction. 1 1
dispensation of Providence ; of the utmost import- ance;'- proved by miracles ;^-^ but containing in it many things appearing to us strange and not to have been expected ;^^ a Dispensation of Providence, which is a scheme or system of things ; ^^ carried on by the Mediation of a Divine Person, the Mefsiah, in order to the recovery of the world ; '^ yet not revealed to all men, nor proved with the strongest pofsible evi- dence to all those to whom it is revealed ; but only to such a part of mankind, and with such particular evidence as the wisdom of God thought fit,^^ The design then of the following Treatise will be to shew, that the several parts principally objected against in this moral and Christian Dispensation, including its scheme, its publication, and the proof which God has afforded us of its truth ; that the particular Parts principally objecled against in this whole Dispensa- tion, are analogous to what is experienced in the con- stitution and course of nature, or Providence ; that the chief objections themselves which are alleged against the former, are no other, than what may be alleged with like justnefs against the latter, where they are found in faSi to be inconclusive ; and that this argument from Analogy is in general, unanswer- able, and undoubtedly of weight on tbe side of Re- ligion,''^ notv.'ithstanding the objections which may seem to lie against it, and the real ground which there may be for difference of opinion, as to the particular degree of weight which is to be laid upon it. This is a general Account of what may be looked for in the following Treatise. And I shall begin it with that which is the foundation of all our hopes and of all our fears ; all our hopes and fears, which are of any consideration ; I mean a Future Life.
'2 Part. 11. Ch. i. 13 ch. ii. 1^ Ch. iii. '^ Ch. iv.
»6 Ch. V. 17 Ch. vi. vii. 18 Ch. viii.
THE ANALOGY OF RELIGION TO THE
CONSTITUTION AND COURSE
OF NATURE.
PART I.— Of Natural Religion. CHAP. I.— Of a Future Life.
TRANGE difficulties have been raised by some concerning- personal identi- ty, or the samenef^ of living agents, implied in the notion of our existing now and hereafter, or in any two suc- cefsive moments ; which whoever thinks it worth while, may se^ considered in the first Difsertation at the end of this Treatise. But without regard to any of them here, let us consider what the Analogy of Nature, and the several changes which we have un- dergone, and those which we know we may undergo without being destroyed, suggest, as to the effect which death may, or may not have upon us ; and whether it be not from thence probable, that we may survive this change, and exist in a future state of life and perception.
I. From our being born into the present world in the helpleft imperfect state of infancy, and having
Chap. I. Of a Future Life. 13
arrived from thence to mature age, we find it to be a general Law of Nature in our own species, that the same creatures, the same individuals, should exist in degrees of life and perception, with capacities of a(5lion, of enjoyment and suffering, in one period of their being, greatly different from those appointed them in another period of it. And in other creatures the same law holds. For the difference of their ca- pacities and states of life at their birth (to go no higher) and in maturity ; the change of worms into flies, and the vast enlargement of their locomotive powers by such change : and birds and insects burst- ing the shell their habitation, and by this means en- tering into a new world, furnished with new accom- modations for them, and finding a new sphere of a(9;ion af^igned them; these are Instances of this ge- neral Law of Nature. Thus all the various and won- derful transformations of animals are to be taken into consideration here. But the states of life in which we ourselves existed formerly in the womb and in our infancy, are almost as different from our present in mature age, as it is pof^ible to conceive any two states or degrees of life can be. Therefore, that we are to exist hereafter in a^state a^ diifereflt (sup- pose) from our present, as this is from our former, is but according to the Analogy of Nature ; accord- ing to a natural order or appointment of the very same kind, with what we have already experienced. IL We know we are endued with capacities of adlion, of happinei^ and misery : for we are con- scious of a(5ling, of enjoying pleasure and suffering pain. Now that we have these powers and capaci- ties before death, is a presumption that we shall re- tain them through and after death ; indeed a proba- bility of it abundantly sufficient to a(5l upon, unlef^ there be some positive reason to think that death is
14 Of a Future Life. Part i.
the destruction of those living powers: Because there is in every case a probability, that all things will con- tinue as we experience the}' are, in all respects, ex- cept those in which we have some reason to think they will be altered. This is that kind^ of presump- tion or probability from Analog}^, exprefsed in the ^^very word continuance, which seems our only na- tural reason for believing the course of the world will continue to-morrow, as it has done so far as our ex- perience or knowledge of history can carry us back. Nay it seems our only reason for believing, that any one substance now existing, will continue to exist a moment longer ; the self-existent substance only ex- cepted. Thus if men were afsured that the unknown .^vent, death, was not the destruction of our faculties of perception and of action, there would be no appre- hension, that any other power or event unconne(fted with this of death, would destroy these faculties just at the instant of each creature's death ; and there- fore no doubt but that they would remain after it : which shows the high probability that our living powers will continue after death, unlefs there be some ground to think that death is their destruction.^ For, if it would be in a manner certain that we should survive death, provided it were certain that death would not be our destruiftion, it must be highly pro- bable we shall survive it, if there be no ground to think death will be our destru(51ion.
' I say kind of presumption or probability ; for I do not mean to affirm that there is the same degree of convidlion, that our living powers will continue after death, as there is, that our substances will.
2 Dtstrucrion of U'ving powers is a manner of expreflion un- avoidably ambiguous ; and may signify either the destruBion of a U'ving beings so as that the same U'ving being shaU be incapable of e'ver percei'ving or a&ing again at all : or t/ie destruBion of those means and instruments by nuhich it is capable of its present
Chap. 1. Of a Future Life. 15
Now though I think it must be acknowledged, that prior to the natural and moral proofs of a future life commonly insisted upon, there would arise a general confused suspicion, that in the great shock and alte- ration which we shall undergo by death, we, i.e. our living powers, might be wholly destroyed ; yet even prior to those proofs, there is really no particular dis- tinct; ground or reason for this apprehension at all, so far as I can find. If there be, it must arise either from the reason of the thing, or from the Analogy of Nature.
But we cannot argue from the reason of the thing, that death is the destruction of living agents, because we know not at all what death is in itself; but only some of its efFe(9;s, such as the diftolution of flesh, skin, and bones. And these effects do in no w ise ap- pear to imply the destruction of a living agent. And besides, as we are greatl}'^ in the dark, upon what the exercise of our living powers depends, so we are wholly ignorant what the powers themselves depend upon ; the powers themselves as distinguished, not only from their a(5lual exercise, but also from the present capacity of exercising them ; and as opposed to their destru(5lion : For sleep, or however a swoon, shews us, not only that these powers exist when they are not exercised, as the paf^ive power of motion does in inanimate matter ; but shews also that they exist, when there is no present capacity of exercising them :
life, of its present state of perception and of aFIicn. It is here used in the former sense. When it is used in the latter, the t^^'ithtt present is added. The lofs of a man's eye is a destruc- tion of living powers in the latter sense. But we have no reason to think the destrudlion of living powers, in the former sense, to be poflible. We have no more reason to think a being endued with living powers, ever loses them during its whole existence, than to believe that a stone ever acquires them.
i6 Of a Future Life. Parti.
or that the capacities of exercising them for the pre- sent, as well as the a(fl;ual exercise of them, may be suspended, and yet the powers themselves remain undestroyed. Since then we know not at all upon what the existence of our living powers depends, this shews further, there can no probability be collecfted from the reason of the thing, that death will be their destru(51ion : because their existence may depend, upon somewhat in no degree aire<9:ed by death; upon somewhat quite out of the reach of this king of ter- rors. So that there is nothing more certain, than that the reason of Ihe thing shews us no connexion between death, and the destru(5lion of living argents. Nor can we find anything throughout the whole Analogy of Nature to afford us even the slightest pre- sumption, that animals ever lose their living powers ; much left, if it were poftible, that they lose them by death : for we have no faculties wherewith to trace any beyond or through it, so as to see what becomes of them. This event removes them from our view. It destroys the sensible proof, which we had before their death, of their being poftefsed of living pow- ers, but does not appear to afford the least reason-to believe that they are, then, or by that event, deprived^ of them.
And our knowing, that they were pof^ef^ed of these powers, up to the very period to which we have faculties capable of tracing them, is itself a probabi- lity of their retaining them beyond it. And this is confirmed, and a sensible credibility is given to it, by observing the very great and astonishing changes which we have experienced ; so great, that our ex- istence in another state of life, of perception and of a(?l;ion, will be but according to a method of provi- dential condu6l, the like to which has been already exercised even with regard to ourselves ; according
Chap. I. Of a Future Life. 17
to a course of nature, the like to which, we have al- ready gone through.
However, as one cannot but be greatly sensible, how difficult it is to silence imagination enough to make the voice of reason even distinctly heard in this case ; as we are accustomed, from our youth up, to indulge that forward, delusive faculty, ever obtruding beyond its sphere ; of some afsistance indeed to ap- prehension, but the author of all error : As we plainly lose ourselves in gro{^ and crude conceptions of things, taking for granted that we are acquainted with, what indeed we are wholly ignorant of; it may be proper to consider the imaginary presumptions,- that death will be our destruction, arising from these kinds of early and lasting prejudices ; and to shew how little they can really amount to, even though w^e cannot wholly divest ourselves of them. And,
I. All presumption of death's being the destru(?lion of living beings, must go upon supposition that they are compounded ; and so, discerptible. But since consciousnef^ is a single and indivisible power, it should seem that the subjecft in which it resides, must be so too. For were the motion of any par- ticle of matter absolutely one and indivisible, so as that it should imply a contradicftion to suppose part of this motion to exist, and part not to exist, i. e. part of this matter to move, and part to be at rest ; then its power of motion would be indivisible ; and so also would the subje6l in which the power in- heres, namely the particle of matter : for if this could be divided into two, one part might be moved and the other at rest, which is contrary to the suppo- sition. In like manner it has been argued,'^ and, for
' See Dr. Clarke's Letter to Mr. Dodivell, and the defences of it.
1 8 Of a Future Life. Part I.
anything appearing to the contrary, justly, that since the perception or consciousnefs, which we have of our own existence, is indivisible, so as that it is a contradidlion to suppose one part of it should be here and the other there ; the perceptive power, or the power of consciousneft, is indivisible too : and con- sequently the subje(5l in,which it resides, z. e. the conscious being. Now upon supposition that living agent each man calls himself, is thus a single being, which there is at least no more difficulty in conceiv- ing than in conceiving it to be a compound, and of which there is the proof now mentioned ; it follows, that our organized bodies are no more ourselves or part of ourselves, than any other matter around us. And it is as easy to conceive, how matter, which is no part of ourselves, may be appropriated to us in the manner which our present bodies are ; as how we can receive imprefsions from, and have power over any matter. It is as easy to conceive, that we may exist out of bodies, as in them : that we might have animated bodies of any other organs and senses wholly diiferent from these now given us, and that we may hereafter animate these same or new bodies variously modified and organized ; as to conceive how we can animate such bodies as our present. And lastly, the dif^olution of all these several organized bodies, supposing ourselves to have succefsively animated them, would have no more conceivable tendency to destroy the living beings ourselves, or deprive us of living faculties, the faculties of per- ception and of a61ion, than the diftolution of any foreign matter, which we are capable of receiving imprefsions from, and making use of for the com- mon occasions of life.
II. The simplicity and absolute onenef^ of a living agent cannot indeed, from the nature of the thing,
Chap. I, Of a Future Life. 19
be properly proved by experimental observations. But as these fall in with the supposition of its unity, so they plainly lead us to conclude certainly, that our ' groft organized bodies, with which we perceive the obje(5ls of sense, and with which we a6l, are no part of ourselves ; and therefore shew us, that we have no reason to believe .thejr destrudlion to be ours : even ^^at^lout determining whether our livingsubstances be material or immaterial. For we see by experience, that men may lose their limbs, their organs of sense, and even the greatest part of these bodies, and yet remain the same living agents. And persons can trace up the existence of themselves to a time, when the bulk of their bodies was extremely small, in com- parison of what it is in mature age : and we cannot but think, that they might then have lost a consider- able part of that small body, and yet have remained the same living agents ; as they may now lose great part of their present body, and remain so. And it is certain, that the bodies of all animals are in a con- stant flux, from that never-ceasing attrition, which there is in every part of them. Now things of this kind unavoidably teach us to distinguish, between these living agents ourselves, and large quantities of matter, in which we are very nearly interested : since these may be alienated, and actually are in a daily course of succefsion, and changing their owners; whilst we are afsured, that each living agent remams one and the same permanent being.^ And this ge- neral observation leads us on to the following ones. First, That we have no way of determining by ex- perience, what is the certain bulk of the living being each man calls himself: and yet, till it be determined that it is larger in bulk than the solid elementary
* See DiJJertatkn I.
20 Of a Future Life. Part i.
particles of matter, which there is no ground to think any natural power can diftolve, there is no sort of reason to think death to be the difsolution of it, of the living being, even though it should not be abso- lutely indiscerptible.
Secondly, From our being so nearly related to and interested in certain systems of matter, suppose our flesh and bones, and afterwards ceasing to be at all related to them, the living agents ourselves remain- ing all this while undestroyed notwithstanding such alienation ; and consequently these systems of mat- ter not being ourselves : it follows further, that we have no ground to conclude any other, suppose in- ternal systems of matter, to be the living agents our- selves ; because we can have no ground to conclude this, but from our relation to and interest in such other systems of matter : and therefore we can have no reason to conclude, what befalls those systems of matter at death, to be the destru(5lion of the living agents. We have already several times over lost a great part or perhaps the whole of our body, accord- ing to certain common established Laws of Nature ; 3^et we remain the same living agents : When we shall lose as great a part, or the whole, by another common established Law of Nature, death; why may we not also remain the same? That the alienation has been gradual in one case, and in the other will be more at once, does not prove anything to the contrary. We have pafted undestroyed through those many and great revolutions of matter, so pe- culiarly appropriated to us ourselves ; why should we imagine death will be so fatal to us ] Nor can it be obje(?i:ed, that what is thus alienated or lost, is no part of our original solid body, but only adventitious matter ; because we may lose entire limbs, which must have contained many solid parts and veftels of
Chap. I. Of a Future Life. 21
the original body : or if this be not admitted, we have no proof, that any of these solid parts are dis- solved or alienated by death. Though, by the way, we are very nearly related to that extraneous or ad- ventitious matter, whilst it continues united to and distending the several parts of our solid body. But after all ; the relation a person bears to those parts of his body, to which he is the most nearly related ; what does it appear to amount to but this, that the living agent, and those parts of the body, mutually affe(5l each other \ And the same thingr, the same thing in kind though not in degree, may be said of all foreign matter, which gives us ideas, and which we have any power over. From these observations the whole ground of the imagination is removed, that the difsolution of any matter, is the destruction of a living agent, from the interest he once had in such matter.
Thirdly, If we consider our body somewhat more distinctly, as made up of organs and instruments of perception and of motion, it will bring us to the same conclusion. Thus the common optical experiments shew, and even the observation how sight is afsisted by glafses shews, that we see with our eyes in the same sense as we see with glaives. Nor is there any reason to believe, that we see with them in any other sense ; any other, I mean, which would lead us to think the eye itself a percipient. The like is to be said of hearing : and our feeling distant solid matter by means of somewhat in our hand, seems an instance of the like kind, as to the subject we are considering. All these are instances of foreign mat- ter, or such as is no part of our body, being instru- mental in preparing objects for, and conveying them to, the perceiving power, in a manner similar or like to the manner, in which our organs of sense prepare
22 Of a Future Life. Part I.
and convey them. Both are in a like way instru- ments of our receiving such ideas from external ob- je6ls, as the Author of Nature appointed those exter- nal obje(9:s to be the occasions of exciting in us. However, glafses are evidently instances^ of this; namely of matter, which is no part of our body, pre- paring obje(?i:s for and conveying them towards the perceiving power, in like manner as our bodily or- gans do. And if we see with our eyes only in the same manner as we do with glaives, the like may justly be concluded, from Analogy, of all our other senses. It is not intended, by anything here said, to affirm, that the whole apparatus of vision, or of per- ception by any other of our senses, can be traced, through all its steps, quite up to the living power of seeing, or perceiving: But that so far as it can be traced by experimental observations, so far it ap- pears, that our organs of sense prepare and convey on obje(?i:s, in order to their being perceived, in like manner as foreign matter does, without affording any shadow of appearance, that they themselves per- ceive. And that we have no reason to think our organs of sense percipients, is confirmed by instances of persons losing some of them, the living beings themselves, their former occupiers, remaining un- impaired. It is confirmed also by the experience of dreams ; by which we find we are at present pos- sef^ed of a latent, and, what would otherwise be, an unimagined unknown power of perceiving sensible obje<51s, in as strong and lively a manner without our external organs of sense as with them.
So also with regard to our power of moving, or dire(5ling motion by will and choice : upon the de- strudlion of a limb, this a(5live power remains, as it evidently seems, unlef^ened ; so as that the living being, who has suffered this loft, would be capable of
Chap. 1. Of a Future Life. 23
moving as before, if it had another limb to move v^^ith. It can walk by the help of an artificial leg; just as it can make use of a pole or a lever, to reach towards itself and to move things, beyond the length and the power of its natural arm: And this last it does in the same manner as it reaches and moves, with its na- tural arm, things nearer and of lef^ weight. Nor is there so much as any appearance of our limbs being endued with a power of moving or direc^ting them- selves ; though they are adapted, like the several parts of a machine, to be the instruments of motion to each other ; and some parts of the same limb, to be instruments of motion to other parts of it.
Thus a man determines that he will look at such an obje(5l through a microscope ; or being lame sup- pose, that he will walk to such a place with a staff a week hence. His eyes and his feet no more deter- mine in these cases than the microscope and the staff. Nor is there any ground to think they any more put the determination in pra(5lice ; or that his eyes are the seers or his feet the movers, in any other sense than as the microscope and the staff are. Upon the whole then, our organs of sense and our limbaj are certainly instruments, which the living persons! ourselves make use of to perceive and move with:\ There is not any probability that they are any more ; nor consequently, that we have any other kind of re- lation to them, than what we may have to any other foreign matter formed into instruments of perception and motion, suppose into a microscope or a staff; (I say any other kind of relation, for I am not speaking of the degree of it) nor consequently is there any probability, that the alienation or dif^olution of these instruments is the destruction of the perceiving and moving agent. \ And thus our finding, that the dif^olution of mat- [^
24 Of a Future Life. Part i.
f ter, in which living- beings were most nearly inte- ! rested, is not their diftolution ; and that the destruc- ; tion of several of the organs and instruments of per- ception and of motion belonging to them, is not their destruction shews demonstratively, that there is no ground to think that the difsolution of any other mat- ter, or destruction of any other organs and instru- ments, will be the difsolution or destruction of living agents, from the like kind of relation. And we have no reason to think we stand in any other kind of rela- tion to anything which we find difSolved by death.
But it is said these observations are equally appli- cable to brutes : and it is thought an insuperable dif- ficulty, that they should be immortal, and by conse- quence capable of everlasting happinefS. Now this manner of exprefSion is both invidious and weak : but the thing intended by it, is really no difficulty at all, either in the way of natural or moral consideration. For isf. Suppose the invidious thing, designed in such a manner of expreftion, were really implied, as it is not in the least, in the natural immortality of brutes ; namely, that they must arrive at great attainments, and become rational and moral agents ; even this would be no difficulty : since we know not what la- tent powers and capacities they may be endued with. There was once, prior to experience, as great pre- sumption against human creatures, as there is against the brute creatures, arriving at that degree of under- standing, which we have in mature age. For we can trace up our own existence to the same original with theirs. And we find it to be a general Law of Na- ture, that creatures endued with capacities of virtue and religion should be placed in a condition of being, in which they are altogether without the use of them, for a considerable length of their duration ; as in in- fancy and childhood. And great part of the human
Chap, I. Of a Future Life. 25
species go out of the present world, before they come to the exercise of these capacities in any degi^ee at all. But then, 2dly. The natural immortality of brutes does not in the least imply that they are endued with any latent capacities of a rational or moral nature. And the economy of the universe might require, that there should be living creatures without any capaci- ties of this kind. And all difficulties as to the man- ner how they are to be disposed of, are so apparently and wholly founded in our ignorance, that it is won- derful they should be insisted upon by any, but such as are weak enough to think they are acquainted with the whole system of things. There is then absolutely nothing at all in this objection, which is so rhetori- cally urged against the greatest part of the natural proofs or presumptions of the immortality of human minds : I say the greatest part ; for it is lefs appli- cable to the following observation, which is more pe- culiar to mankind :
III. That as it is evident our present powers and capacities of reason, memory, and affection, do not depend upon our groft body in the manner in which perception by our organs of sense does ; so they do not appear to depend upon it at all in any such man- ner, as to give ground to think that the difsolution of this body will be^the^destru(51ion of these our j^resenf powers of refle<5lion, as it will of our powers of sen- sation; or to give ground to conclude, even that it wHTbe so much as a suspension of the former.
Human creatures exist at present in two states of life and perception, greatly different from each other; each of which has its own peculiar laws, and its own peculiar enjoyments and sufferings. When any of our senses are affecled or appetites gratified with the obje(?i:s of them, we maybe said to exist or Hve in a stateof sensatioiu When none of our senses are af-
26 Of a Future Life. Part i.
fe(51ed or appetites gratified, and yet we perceive and reason and ac?!: ; we may be said to exist or live in a state of reflection. Now it is by no means certain, that anything which is diftolved by death, is any way neceftary to the living being in this its state of re- flection, after ideas are gained. For, though from our present constitution and condition of being, our external organs of sense are necef^ary for conveying in ideas to our reflecting powers, as carriages and levers and scaflblds are in architecture : yet when these ideas are brought in, we are capable of refle(5t- ing in the most intense degree, and of enjoying the greatest pleasure and feeling the greatest pain by means of that refleCtion, without any aftistance from our senses : and without any at all, which we know of, from that body which will be difsolved by death. It does not appear then, that the relation of this groft body to the refleCting being, is, in any degree, neces- . sary to thinking; to ourintelleCtual enjoyments or suf- ^y ferings: nor consequently that the difsolution or alie- nation of the former by death, will be the destruction of those present powers, which render us capable of this state of reflection. Further, there are instances of mortal diseases, which do not at all affeCt our pre- sent intellectual powers ; and this affords a presump- tion, that those diseases will not destroy these pre- i sent powers. Indeed, from the observations made above,^ it appears, that there is no presumption, from their mutually affeCting each other, that the diftolu- tion of the body is the destruction of the living agent. And by the same reasoning, it must appear too, that there is no presumption, from their mutually afleCt- ing each other, that the diftolution of the body is the destruction of our present reflecting powers : But instances of their not affeCting each other, afford a
* Pp.19, 20, 21.
Chap. I. Of a Future Life. 27
presumption of the contrary. Instances of mortal diseases not impairing our present reflecting powers, evidently turn our thoughts even from imagining such diseases to be the destruction of them. Several things indeed greatly affec^l all our living powers, and at length suspend the exercise of them ; as for instance drowsinei^, increasing till it ends in sound sleep : and from hence we might have imagined it would destroy them, till we found by experience the weaknefs of this way of judging. But in the diseases now mentioned, there is not so much as this shadow of probability, to lead us to any such conclusion, as to the reflecting powers which we have at present. For in those diseases, persons the moment before death appear to be in the highest vigour of life. They discover apprehension, memory, reason, all entire ; with the utmost force of aflection ; sense of a cha- racter, of shame and honour ; and the highest men- tal enjoyments and sufferings, even to the last gasp ; and these surely prove even greater vigour of life than bodily strength does. Now what pretence is there for thinking, that a progref^ive disease when arrived to such a degree, I mean that degree which is mortal, will destroy those powers, which were not impaired, which were not affe(?ted by it, during its whole progrefs quite up to that degree? And if death by diseases of this kind, is not the destruction of ! our present reflect:ing powers, it will scarce be thought that death by any other means is.
It is obvious that this general observation may be carried on further : and there appears so little con- nection between our bodily powers of sensation, and our present powers of reflection, that there is no reason to conclude, that death, which destroys the former, does so much as suspend the exercise of the latter, or interrupt our continuing to exist in the
28 Of a Future Life. Part I.
like state of refle(9;ion which we do now. For sus- pension of reason, memory, and the affec^lions which they excite, is no part of the idea of death, nor is implied in our notion of it. And our daily experi- I encing these powers to be exercised, without any aisistance, that we know of, from those bodies, which will be difsolved by death ; and our finding often, that the exercise of them is so lively to the last ; these things afford a sensible apprehension, that death may not perhaps be so much as a discontinu- ance of the exercise of these powers, nor of the en- joyments and sufferings which it implies^. So that our posthumous life, whatever there may be in it additional to our present, yet may not be entirely beginning anew ; but going on. Death may, in some sort, and in some respe(5ls, answer to our birth ; which is not a suspension of the faculties which we had be- fore it, or a total change of the state of life in which we existed when in the womb ; but a continuation of both, with such and such great alterations.
Nay, for aught we know of ourselves, of our pre- sent life and of death ; death may immediately, in the natural course of things, put us into a higher and more enlarged state of life, as our birth does' ; a state
f ^ There are three distinft questions, relating to a future I Life, here considered : Whether death be the destruftion of I living agents j If not, whether it be the destrudtion of their / present powers of refledlion, as it certainly is the destrudlion of their present powers of sensation 5 And if not, whether it be the suspension, or discontinuance of the exercise, of thefe pre- sent refledling powers. Now if there be no reason to believe the last, there will be, if that were pofiible, lels for the next, and lefs still for the first.
"^ This according to Straho was the opinion of the Brach- mans, vofx'iZ,Hv iiiv yap h) top [xiv tvOads (3iov, ojq av aKjiyjv Kvojxsvoiv ih'ai' top Sk t'oi-aror, ysvfaii/ elg rbv ovTMQ jiiov, Koi rbv ivdaifiova toTq (piKo(ro(pi](yaai. Lib, xv. p. 1039. Ed. Amst. 1707. To which opinion perhaps AntO'
Chap. I. Of a Future Life. 29
in which our capacities, and sphere of perception and of aclion, may be much greater than at present. For as our relation to our external organs of sense, ren- ders us capable of existing in our present state of sensation ; so it may be the only natural hindrance to our existing, immediately and of course, in a higher state of reflection. The truth is, reason does not at all shew us in what state death naturally leaves us. But were we sure, that it would suspend all our perceptive and a(5live powers ; yet the sus- pension of a power, and the destruction of it, are effecfts so totally different in kind, as we experience from sleep and a swoon, that we cannot in any wise argue from one to the other ; or conclude, even to the lowest degree of probability, that the same kind of force which is sufficient to suspend our faculties, though it be increased ever so much, will be suffi- cient to destroy them.
These observations together may be sufficient to shew, how little presumption there is that death is the destru(5fion of human creatures. However there is the shadow" of an Analogy, which may lead us to imagine it is ; the supposed likenef^ which is ob- served between the decay of vegetables, and of living creatures. And this likenef^ is indeed sufficient to afford the poets very apt allusions to the flowers of the field, in their pi(5fures of the frailty of our pre- sent life. But in reason, the Analogy is so far from holding, that there appears no ground even for the comparison, as to the present question : because one of the two subjects compared, is wholly void of that, which is the princma^rud^chief thing in.the other, the
ninus may allude in these words, mq vvv Trfpi/iiiveig, ttots tfijSpvov tK TfJQ yaarpbg tT]q yvvaiKOQ aov t^kXOi], ovrujg tKCSx^'^^^'- ''"'iv iopav iv 7] TO t\jv\a.piov aov tov iXvrpov rovrov eKTrtaarat. Lib. ix. c. 3.
30 Of a Future Life. Part i.
power of perception and of ac9:ion ; and which is the only thing we are inquiring about the continuance of. So that the destruction of a vegetable is an event not similar or analogous to the destru(5lion of a living agent.
But if, as was above intimated, leaving off the de- lusive custom of substituting imagination in the room of experience, we would confine ourselves to what we do know and understand; if we would argue only from that, and from that form our expeClations ; it would appear at first sight, that as no probability of living beings ever ceasing to be so, can be concluded from the reason of the thing ; so none can be col- leCled from the Analogy of Nature; because we can- not trace any living beings beyond death. But as we are conscious, that we are endued with capaci- I ties of perception and of aclion, and are living per- I sons ; what we are to go upon is, that we shall con- I tinue so, till we foresee some accident or event, j which will endanger those capacities, or be likely to destroy us : which death does in no wise appear to be. And thus, when we go out of this world, we may paf^ into new scenes, and a new state of life and aClion, just as naturally as we came into the present. And this new state may naturally be a social one. And the advantages of it, advantages of every kind, may naturally be bestowed, according to some fixed fil'eneral laws of wisdom, upon every one in propor- tion to the degrees of his virtue. And though the advantaeres of that future natural state should not be bestowed, as these of the present in some mea- sure are, by the will of the society ; but entirely by his more immediate action, upon whom the whole frame of nature depends : yet this distribution may be just as natural, as their being distributed here by the instrumentality of men. And indeed, though
Chap. I. Of a Future Life. 31
one were to allow any confused undermined sense, which people please to put upon the word natural, it would be a shortneft of thought scarce credible, to imagine, that no system or course of things can be so, but only what we see at present^ : especially whilst the probability of a Future Life, or the natural immortality of the soul, is admitted upon the evi- dence of reason ; because this is really both admit- ting and denying at once a state of being different from the present to be natural. But the only dis- tinct meaning of that word is stated, fixed, or settled: since what is natural, as much requires and pre- supposes an intelligent agent to render it so, i. e. to effeSi it continually, or at stated times ; as what is supernatural or miraculous does to effect it for once. And from hence it must follow, that persons' notion of what is natural, will be enlarged in pro- portion to their greater knowledge of the works of God, and the dispensations of his Providence. Nor is there any absurdity in supposing, that there may be beings in the universe, whose capacities, and knowledge, and views, may be so extensive, as that the whole Christian dispensation may to them appear natural, i. e. analogous or conformable to God's dealings with other parts of his creation ; as natu- ral as the visible known course of things appears to us. For there seems scarce any other pofsible sense to be put upon the word, but that only in which it is here used ; similar, stated, or uniform.
This credibility of a Future Life, which has been here insisted upon, how little soever it may satisfy our curiosity, seems to answer all the purposes of Religion, in like manner as a demonstrative proof would. Indeed a proof, even a demonstrative one,
* See Part ii. Chap, ii, and Part ii. Chap. iv.
32 Of a Future Life. Part i .
of a Future Life, would not be a proof of Religion. For, that we are to live hereafter, is just jas-J:£jCQ.n- cileable with the scheme of athejsm, and as well to be accounted for by it, as that we are now alive, is: and therefore nothing can be more absurd than to argue from that scheme, that there can be no future state. But as Religion implies a future state, any presumption against such a state is a presumption against Religion. And the foregoing observations re- move all presumptions of that sort, and prove, to a very considerable degree of probability, one funda- mental do(5lrine of Religion; which,if believed, would greatly open and dispose the mind seriously to at- tend to the general evidence of the whole.
CHAPTER 11.^
Of the Government of God by Rewards and Punish- ments ; and particularly of the latter.
r,HAT which makes the question con- cerning a Future Life to be of so great importance to us, is our capacity of happineftand misery. And that which makes the consideration of it to be of so great importance to us, is the supposition of our happineft and misery hereafter depending upon our a(9:ions here. Without this, indeed, curiosity could not but sometimes bring a subject!, in which we may be so highly interested, to our thoughts; especially upon the mortality of others, or the near prospe(5i: of our own. But reasonable men would not take any farther thought about hereafter, than what should happen thus occasionally to rise in their minds, if it
Chap. 1. Of the Government of God, hz. 33
were certain, that our future interest no way de- pended upon our present behaviour : Whereas on the contrary, if there be ground, either from Analogy or anything else, to think it does; then there is rea- son also for the most a(fi;ive thought and solicitude, to secure that interest; to behave so as that we may escape that misery, and obtain that happineft in another life, which we not only suppose ourselves capable of, but which we apprehend also is put in our own power. And whether there be ground for this last apprehension, certainly would deserve to be most seriously considered, were there no other proof of a Future Life and interest, than that presumptive one, which the foregoing observations amount to.
Now in the present state, all which we enjoy, and a great part of what we suffer, is put in our oven power. For pleasure and pain are the consequences of our actions ; and we are endued by the Author of our Nature with capacities of foreseeing these con- sequences. We find by experience he does not so much as preserve our lives, exclusively of our own care and attention, to provide ourselves with, and to make use of, that sustenance, by which he has ap- pointed our lives shall be preserved ; and without which, he has appointed, they shall not be preserved at all. And in general we foresee, that the external things, which are the obje(51s of our various paf^ions, can neither be obtained nor enjoyed, without exert- ing ourselves in such and such manners : But by thus exerting ourselves, we obtain and enjoy these obje(5ls, in which our natural good consists ; or by this means God gives us the pofsef^ion and enjoyment of them. I know not, that we have any one kind or degree of enjoyment, but by the means of our own a<5lions. And by prudence and care, we may, for the most part, pafs our days in tolerable ease and quiet : Or
34 Of the Government of God Paj^t l.
on the contrary, we may by rashneft, ungoverned pai^ion, wilfulnef^, or even by negligence, make our- selves as miserable as ever we please. And many do please to make themselves extremely miserable, i. e. to do what they know beforehand will render them so. They follow those ways, the fruit of which they know, by instruction, example, experience, will be disgrace and poverty and sicknef^ and untimely death. This every one observes to be the general Scourse of things ; though it is to be allowed, we can- \\o\. find by experience, that all our sufferings are owing to our own follies.
Why the Author of Nature does not give his crea- tures promiscuously such and such perceptions, with- out regard to their behaviour ; why he does not make them happy without the instrumentality of their own actions, and prevent their bringing any sufferings upon themselves ; is another matter. Perhaps there may be some impoftibilities in the nature of things, which we are unacquainted with.^ Or left happi- neft, it may be, would upon the whole be produced by such a method of conduct:, than is by the present. Or perhaps Divine Goodneft, with which, if I mis- take not, we make very firee in our speculations, may not be a bare single disposition to produce happi- neft ; but a disposition to make the good, the faith- ful, the honest man happy. Perhaps an infinitely perfe(5l Mind may be pleased, with seeing his crea- tures behave suitably to the nature which he has given them ; to the relations which he has placed them in to each other ; and to that, which they stand in to Himself: That relation to himself, which, dur- ing their existence, is even neceftary, and which is the most important one of all : perhaps, 1 say, an in-
' Chap. vii. p. 185, &c.
Chap. 2. by Rewards and Punishments. 35
finitely perfect Mind may be pleased with this m»oral piety of moral agents, in and for itself; as well as upon account of its being efsentially conducive to the happinei^ of his creation. Or the whole end, for which God made, and thus governs the world, may be utterly beyond the reach of our faculties : There may be somewhat in it as impoftible for us to have any conception of, as for a blind man to have a con- ception of colours. But however this be, it is cer- tain matter of universal experience, that the general method of Divine Administration, is, forewarning us, or giving us capacities to foresee, with more or lef^ cleamefs, that if we a(?l: so and so, we shall have such enjoyments, if so and so, such sufferings ; and giving us those enjoyments, and making us feel those suf- ferings, in consequence of our a(5lions.
" But all this is to be ascribed to the general course of nature." True. This is the very thing which I am observing. It is to be ascribed to the general course of nature : i. e. not surely to the words or ideas, course of nature ; but to him who appointed it, and put things into it : Or to a course of opera- tion, from its uniformity or constancy, called natu- ral p and which necef^arily implies an operating agent. For when men find themselves necefsitated to confefs an Author of Nature, or that God is the natural Governor of the world ; they must not deny this again, because his government is uniform : They must not deny that he does all things at all, because he does them constantly ; because the effects of his a(5ling are permanent, whether his adling be so or not ; though there is no reason to think it is not. In short, every man, in everything he does, naturally a<5ts upon the forethought and apprehension of avoid-
2 Pp. 43, 44.
36 Of the Government of God Parti,
ing evil or obtaining good : And if the natural course of things be the appointment of God, and our natural faculties of knowledge and experience, are given us by him ; then the good and bad consequences which follow our acTtions, are his appointment, and our fore- sight of those consequences, is a warning given us by him, how we are to adl.
" Is the pleasure then, naturally accompanying " every particular gratification of pafsion, intended, " to put us upon gratifying ourselves in every such " particular instance, and as a reward to us for so " doing?" No certainly. Nor is it to be said, that our eyes were naturally intended to give us the sight of each particular object, to which they do or can extend; objects which are destru61ive of them, or which, for any other reason, it may become us to turn our eyes from. Yet there is no doubt, but that our eyes were intended for us to see with. So either is there any doubt, but that the foreseen pleasures and pains belonging to the pafsions, were
I intended, in general, to induce mankind to a6l in such and such manners.
Now from this general observation, obvious to every one, that God has given us to understand, he has appointed satisfaction and delight to be the con- sequence of our acting in one manner, and pain and uneasinef^ of our ailing in another, and of our not a(5ling at all ; and that we find the consequences, which we were beforehand informed of, uniformly to follow ; we may learn, that we are at present actu- ally under his government in the strictest and most proper sense ; in such a sense, as that he rewards and punishes us for our actions. An Author of Na- ture being supposed, it is not so much a deduction of reason, as a matter of experience, that we are thus under his government ; under his government, in the
t
Chap, 2. by Rewards and Punishments. 37
same sense, as we are under the government of civil magistrates. Because the annexing pleasure to some aclions, and pain to others, in our power to do or for- bear, and giving notice of this appointment before- hand to those whom it concerns, is the proper for- mal notion of government. Whether the pleasure or pain which thus follows upon our behaviour, be owing to the Author of Nature's ailing upon us every moment which we feel it ; or to his having at once contrived and executed his own part in the plan of the world ; makes no alteration as to the matter before us. For if civil magistrates could make the san(5lions of their laws take place, without interpos- ing at all, after they had passed them ; without a trial and the formalities of an execution : If they were able to make their laws execute themselves, or every offender to execute them upon himself; we should be just in the same sense under their government then, as we are now, but in a much higher degree, and more perfe6f mcinner. Vain is the ridicule, with which, one foresees, some persons will divert them- selves, upon finding leaser pains considered as in- stances of Divine punishment. There is no poftibi- lity of answering or evading the general thing here intended, without denying all final causes. For final causes being admitted, the pleasures and pains now mentioned must be admitted too as instances of them. And if they are ; if God annexes delight to some a^fions, and uneasinefs to others, with an apparent design to induce us to a(5l so cind so ; then he not only dispenses happinei^ and misery, but also re- wards and punishes a(?tions. If, for example, the pain which we feel, upon doing what tends to the de- struction of our bodies, suppose upon too near ap- proaches to fire, or upon wounding ourselves, be ap- pointed by the Author of Nature to prevent our doing
38 Of the Government of God Part i.
what thus tends to our destruction ; this is altogether as much an instance of his punishing our actions, and consequently of our being under his government, as declaring by a voice from heaven, that if we a(5led so, he would infliift such pain upon us, and infli^ling it, whether it be greater or left.
Thus we find, that the true notion or conception of the Author of Nature, is that of a master or go- vernor, prior to the consideration of his moral attri- butes. The fa(9: of our case, which we find by ex- perience, is, that he actually exercises dominion or government over us at present, by rewarding and punishing us for our actions, in as stri(5l and proper a sense of these words, and even in the same sense, as children, servants, subjects, are rewarded and punished by those who govern them.
And thus the whole Analogy of Nature, the whole present course of things, most fully shews, that there is nothing incredible in the general do(9:rine of reli- gion ; that God will reward and punish men for their a<5lions hereafter : nothing incredible, I mean, aris- ing out of the notion of rewarding and punishing. For the whole course of nature is a present instance of his exercising that government over us, which im- plies in it rewarding and punishing.
I|UT as Divine punishment is what men chiefly obj e(?i: against, and are most unwil- ling to allow ; it may be proper to men- tion some circumstances in the natural course of punishments at present, which are analo- gous to what religion teaches us concerning a future state of punishment : Indeed so analogous, that as they add a further credibility to it, so they cannot but raise a most serious apprehension of it in those who will attend to them.
Chap. 2. by Rewards and Punishments. 39
It has been now observed, that such and such miseries naturally follow such and such a^lions of imprudence and wilfulneft, as well as alliens more commonly and more distin(?i:ly considered as vicious; and that these consequences, when they may be fore- seen, are properly natural punishments annexed to such a(5lions. For the general thing here insisted upon, is, not that we see a great deal of misery in the world, but a great deal which men bring upon them- selves by their own behaviour, which they might have foreseen and avoided. Now the circumstances of these natural punishments, particularly deserving our attention, are such as these: That oftentimes they follow, or are inflicted in consequence of actions, which procure many present advantages, and are accompanied with much present pleasure : for in- stance, sickneft and untimely death is the conse- quence of intemperance, though accompanied with the highest mirth and jollity: That these punish- ments are often much greater than the advantages or pleasures obtained by the ac^tions, of which they are the punishments or consequences : That though we may imagine a constitution of nature, in which these natural punishments, which are in fa6f to fol- low, would follow, immediately upon such a(9;ions being done, or very soon after; we find on the con- trary in our world, that they are often delayed a great while, sometimes even till long after the a(flions oc- casioning them are forgot; so that the constitution of nature is such, that delay of punishment is no sort nor degree of presumption of final impunity : That after such delay, these natural punishments or mise- ries often come, not by degrees, but suddenly, with violence, and at once ; however, the chief misery often does : That as certainty of such distant misery following" such actions, is never afforded persons;
40 Of the Government of God Parti.
so perhaps during the a(5lions, they have seldom a distinct full expectation of its following-"^: And many times the case is only thus, that they see in general, or may see, the credibility, that intemperance, sup- pose, will bring after it diseases ; civil crimes, civil punishments ; when yet the real probability often is, that they shall escape ; but things notwithstanding take their destined course, and the misery inevitably follows at its appointed time, in very many of these cases. Thus also though youth may be alleged as an excuse for rashneft and folly, as being naturally thoughtlef^, and not clearly foreseeing all the con- sequences of being untraceable and profligate ; this does not hinder, but that these consequences follow, and are grievously felt throughout the whole course of mature life. Habits contracted even in that age, are often utter ruin : and men's succef^ in the world, not only in the common sense of worldly succef^, but their real happinefs and misery, depends, in a great degree, and in various ways, upon the manner in which they paft their youth ; which consequences they for the most part negledl to consider, and per- haps seldom can properly be said to believe, before- hand. It requires also to be mentioned, that in numberleft cases, the natural course of things affords us opportunities for procuring advantages to our- selves at certain times, which we cannot procure when we will ; nor ever recall the opportunities, if we have negle(5led them. Indeed the general course of nature is an example of this. If, during the op- portunity of youth, persons are indocile and self- willed; they inevitably suffer in their future life, for want of those acquirements, which they neglected the natural season of attaining. If the husbandman
3 See Part ii. Chap. vi.
Chap. 2. by Rewards and Punishments. 41
lets his seed-time paf^ without sowing, the whole year is lost to him beyond recovery. In like man- ner, though after men have been guilty of folly and extravagance up to a certain degree, it is often in their power, for instance, to retrieve their affairs, to recover their health and character ; at least in good measure : yet real reformation is, in many cases, of no avail at all towards preventing the miseries, po- verty, sickneft, infamy, naturally annexed to folly and extravagance exceeding that degree. There is a certain bound to imprudence and misbehaviour, which being transgrefsed, there remains no place for repentance in the natural course of things. It is further very much to be remarked, that negle(5ls from inconsiderateneft, want of attention"*, not look- ing about us to see what we have to do, are often attended with consequences altogether as dreadful, as any active misbehaviour, from the most extrava- gant paftion. And lastly, civil government being natural, the punishments of it are so too : And some of these punishments are capital ; as the effects of a difkolute course of pleasure are often mortal. So that many natural punishments are final^ to him who incurs them, if considered only in his temporal
* Part 11. Chap. vi.
* The general consideration of a future state of punishment, most evidently belongs to the subjedl of natural religion. But if any of these refiedlions should be thought to relate more peculiarly to this dodrine as taught in Scripture j the reader is desired to observe, that Gentile writers, both moralists and poets, speak of the future punishment of the wicked, both as to the duration and degree of it, in a like manner of expreflion and of description, as the Scripture does. So that all which can positively be aflerted to be matter of mere Revelation, with regard to this dodliine, seems to be, that the great distindtlon between the righteous and the wicked, shall be made at the end of this world j that each shall then receive according to his deserts. Reason did, as it well might, conclude that it should.
42 Of the Government of God Part i .
capacity : and seem infli(5led by natural appointment, either to remove the offender out of the way of being further mischievous; or as an example, though fre- quently a disregarded one, to those who are left behind.
These things are not, what we call accidental, or to be met with only now and then; but they are things of every day's experience : They proceed from general laws, very general ones, by which God governs the / world, in the natural course of his providence. And ■ they are so analogous to what Religion teaches us concerning the future punishment of the wicked, so much of a piece with it, that both would naturally be expref^ed in the very same words, and manner of de- scription. In the book of Proferfes^', for instance, Wis- dom is introduced, as frequenting the most public places of resort, and as reje(5ted when she offers her- self as the natural appointed guide of human life. How long, speaking to those who are pafsing through it, how long, ye simple ones, will ye love folly, and the scorners delight in their scorning, and fools hate knowledge ? Turn ye at my reproof. Behold I will pour out my spirit upon you, I will make known my words unto you. But upon being neglected. Because I have called,andye refused, I have stretched
finally and upon the whole, be well with the righteous, and ill with the wicked : But it could not be determined, upon any principles of reason, whether human creatures might not have been appointed to pafs through other states of life and being, before that distributive justice should finally and eft'edlually take place. Revelation teaches us, that the next state of things after the prefent, is appointed for the execution of this justice ; that it shall be no longer delayed : But t/ie mystery of God, the great mystery of his suffering vice and confusion to prevail, s/iail then be fnhhed ; and he will take to him his great poiver andivill reign, by rendering to every one according to his works. 6 Chap. i.
Chap. 2. by Rewards and Punishments. 43
out my hand, and no man regarded ; hut ye have set at nought all my counsel, and would none of my reproof: I also will laugh at your calamity, I will mock when your fear cometh ; when your fear cometh as desolation, and your destru6iion cometh as a whirlwind ; when distrefs and anguish cometh upon you. Then shall they call upon me, hut I will not answer ; they shall seek me early, hut they shall not find me. This pafsage, every one sees, is poeti- cal, and some parts of it are highly figurative ; but their meaning is obvious. And the thing intended is expref^ed more literally in the following words ; For that they hated knowledge, and did not choose the fear of the Lord — therefore shall they eat of the fruit of their own way, and he filled with their own de- vices. For the security of the simple shall slay them, and the prosperity of fools shall destroy them. And the whole paf^age is so equally applicable, to what we experience in the present world, concerning the consequences of men's actions, and to what Religion teaches us is to be expelled in another, that it may be questioned which of the two was principally in- tended.
Indeed when one has been recolle<?ling the proper proofs of a future state of rewards and punishments, nothing methinks can give one so sensible an appre- hension of the latter, or representation of it to the mind ; as observing, that after the many disregarded checks, admonitions, and warnings, which people meet with in the ways of vice and folly and extravagance ; warnings from their very nature ; from the examples of others ; from the lefser inconveniences which they bring upon themselves ; from the instructions of wise and virtuous men : After these have been long de- spised, scorned, ridiculed : after the chief bad con- sequences, temporal consequences, of their follies,
44 Of the Government of God Parti.
have been delayed for a great while ; at length they break in irresistibly, like an armed force : Repentance is too late to relieve, and can serve only to aggra- vate, their distreft : the case is become desperate : and poverty and sickneft, remorse and anguish, in- famy and death, the effects of their own doings, overwhelm them, beyond pofsibility of remedy or escape. This is an account of what is in fa(5l the general constitution of nature.
It is not in any sort meant, that according to what appears at present of the natural course of things, men are always uniformly punished in proportion to their misbehaviour : But that there are very many instances of misbehaviour punished in the several ways now mentioned, and very dreadful instances too ; sufficient to show what the laws of the universe may admit ; and, if thoroughly considered, sufficient fully to answer all obje(5lions against the credibility of a future state of punishments, from any imagina- tions, that the frailty of our nature and external temp- tations, almost annihilate the guilt of human vices: as well as objections of another sort ; from neceftity ; from suppositions, that the will of an infinite Being cannot be contradi<5led, or that he must be incapable of offence and provocation.^
Reflections of this kind are not without their ter- rors to serious persons, the most free from enthu- siasm, and of the greatest strength of mind : But it is fit things be stated and considered as they really are. And there is, in the present age, a certain fear- leftneft, with regard to what may be hereafter under the government of God, which, nothing but an uni- versally acknowledged demonstration on the side of atheism, can justify; and which makes it quite ne-
^ See Chaps, iv. and vi.
Chap. 2. by Rewards and Punishments. 45
cef^ary, that men be reminded, and if pof^ible made to feel, that there is no sort of ground for being thus presumptuous, even upon the most sceptical prin- ciples. For may it not be said of any person upon his being born into the world, he may behave so, as to be of no service to it, but by being made an ex- ample of the woeful effec^ts of vice and folly 1 That he may, as any one may, if he will, incur an infa- mous execution, from the hands of civil justice ; or in some other course of extravagance shorten his days : or bring upon himself infamy and diseases worse than death \ So that it had been better for him, even with regard to the present world, that he had never been born. And is there any pretence of reason, for people to think themselves secure, and talk as if they had certain proof, that let them ac^t as licentiously as they will, there can be nothing ana- logous to this, with regard to a future and more ge- neral interest, under the providence and government of the same God \
CHAPTER III.
Of the Moral Government of God.
S the manifold appearances of design and of final causes, in the constitution of the world, prove it to be the work of an intelligent Mind ; so the parti- cular final causes of pleasure and pain distributed amongst his creatures, prove that they are under his government; what may be called his natu- ral government of creatures endued with sense and reason. This, however, implies somewhat more than
46 Of the Moral Part i.
seems usually attended to, when we speak of God's natural government of the world. It implies govern- ment of the very same kind with that, which a master exercises over his servants, or a civil magistrate over his subjedls. These latter instances of final causes, as really prove an intelligent Governor of the world, in the sense now mentioned, and before^ distin(5lly treated of; as any other instances of final causes prove an intelligent Maker of it.
But this alone does not appear at first sight to de- termine anything certainly, concerning the moral chara(fi;er of the Author of Nature, considered in this relation of governor ; does not ascertain his govern- ment to be moral, or prOve that he is the righteous judge of the world. Moral government consists, not j barely in rewarding and punishing men for their a(9;ions, which the most tyrannical person may do : but in rewarding the righteous and punishing the wicked ; in rendering to men according to their ac- tions, considered as good or evil. And the perfec- tion of moral government consists in doing this, with regard to all intelligent creatures, in an exa(5l pro- portion to their personal merits or demerits.
Some men seem to think the only chara(5lerof the Author of Nature to be that of simple absolute bene- volence. This considered as a principle of action, and infinite in degree, is a disposition to produce the greatest pofsible happinef^, without regard to per- sons' behaviour, otherwise than as such regard would produce higher degrees of it. And supposing this I to be the only chara(?i:er of God, veracity and justice i in him would be nothing but benevolence condu(51:ed ' by wisdom. Now surely this ought not to be af^erted, unleft it can be proved ; for we should speak with
' Chap. ii.
Chap. 2' Government of God. 47
cautious reverence upon such a subject;. And whe- ther it can be proved or no, is not the thing- here to be inquired into ; but whether in the constitution and conducT; of the world, a righteous government be not discernibly planned out : which necefsarily implies a righteous governor. There may pofsibly be in the creation beings, to whom the Author of Nature ma- nifests himself under this most amiable of all charac- ters, this of infinite absolute benevolence ; for it is the most amiable, supposing it not, as perhaps it is not, incompatible with justice: but he manifests him- self to us under the charad^er of a righteous gover- nor. He may, consistently with this, be simply and absolutely benevolent, in the sense now explained : But he is, for he has given us a proof in the consti-f tution and conduct of the world that he is, a governor over servants, as he rewards and punishes us for our actions. And in the constitution and conduct of it, he may also have given, besides the reason of the thing, and the natural presages of conscience, clear and distincft intimations, that his government is right- eous or moral : clear to such as think the nature of it deserving their attention ; and yet not to every carelefs person, who casts a transient reflection upon the subje(5l.^
But it is particularly to be observed, that the Di-
^ The objeftions against Religion, from the evidence of it not being universal, nor so strong as might polHbly have been, may be urged against natural Religion, as well as against re- vealed. And therefore the consideration of them belongs to the First Part of this Treatise, as well as the Second. But as these objedlions are chiefly urged against revealed Religion, I chose to consider them in the Second Part. And the answer to them there, chap, vi., as urged against Christianity, being almost equally applicable to them as urged against the Religion of Nature J to avoid repetition, the reader is referred to that chapter.
48 Of the Moral Parti.
vine government, which we experience ourselves under in the present state, taken alone, is allowed not to be the perfe^lion of moral government. And yet this by no means hinders, but that there may be somewhat, be it more or lef^, truly moral in it. A righteous government may plainly appear to be car-; ried on to some degree : enough to give us the ap- prehension that it shall be completed, or carried on to that degree of perfection which religion teaches us it shall ; but which cannot appear, till much more of the Divine administration be seen, than can in the present life. And the design of this chapter is to enquire, how far this is the case : how far, over and above the m.oral nature^ which God has given us, and our natural notion of him as righteous governor of those his creatures, to whom he has given this na- ture f I say how far besides this, the principles and beginnings of a moral government over the world may be discerned, notwithstanding and amidst all the confusion and disorder of it.
Now one might mention here, what has been often urged with great force, that, in general, left uneasi- neft and more satisfacftion, are the natural conse- quences'^ of a virtuous than of a vicious course of life, in the present state, as an instance of a moral go- vernment established in nature ; an instance of it, colle6led from experience and present matter of fa<51. But it must be owned a thing of difficulty to weigh and balance pleasures and uneasinefses, each amongst themselves, and also against each other, so as to make an estimate, with any exa(9;neft, of the over- plus of happineft on the side of virtue. And it is not impoftible, that, amidst the infinite disorders of
' DlJJertation II. ■* Chap, vi. pp. 167, &c.
' See Lord Shaftesbury's Inquiry concerning Virtue, Part 11.
Chap. 3. Government of God. 49
the world, there may be exceptions to the happi- neis of virtue ; even with regard to those persons, whose course of Hfe from their youth up, has been blamelef^ ; and more with regard to those, who have gone on for some time in the ways of vice, and have afterwards reformed. For suppose an instance of the latter case ; a person with his paf^ions inflamed, his natural faculty of self-government impaired by habits of indulgence, and with all his vices about him, like so many harpies, craving for their accustomed gratification: who can say how long it might be, be- fore such a person would find more satisfa(5lion in the reasonableneft and present good consequences of virtue, than difficulties and self-denial in the re- straints of it ? Experience also shews, that men can, to a great degree, get over their sense of shame, so as that by profefsing themselves to be without prin- ciple, and avowing even dire(51 villany, they can sup- port themselves against the infamy of it. But as the ill adiions of any one will probably be more talked of, and oftener thrown in his way, upon his refor- mation ; so the infamy of them will be much more felt, after the natural sense of virtue and of honour is recovered. Uneasineftes of this kind ought indeed to be put to the account of former vices : yet it will be said, they are in part the consequences of refor- mation. Still I am far from allowing it doubtful, whether virtue, upon the whole, be happier than vice in the present world. But if it were, yet the beginnings of a righteous administration may beyond all question be found in nature, if we will attentively inquire after them. And,
I. In whatever manner the notion of God's moral government over the world might be treated, if it did not appear whether he were in a proper sense our governor at all ; yet when it is certain matter of
E
50 Of the Moral Parti,
experience, that he does manifest himself to us under the chara(9;er of a governor, in the sense explained;^ it must deserve to be considered, whether there be not reason to apprehend, that he may be a righteous* or moral governor. Since it appears to be faifl, that God does govern mankind by the method of rewards and punishments, according to some settled rules of distribution; it is surely a question to be asked, What presumption is there against his finally rewarding and punishing them, according to this particular rule, namely, as they a(9; reasonably or unreasonably, vir- tuously or viciously '\ Since rendering men happy or miserable by this rule, certainly falls in, much more falls in, with our natural apprehensions and sense of things, than doing so by any other rule whatever: Since rewarding and punishing a(5lions by any other rule, would appear much harder to be accounted for, by minds formed as he has formed ours. Be the evidence of Religion then more or lef^ clear, the expe(5lation whi^h Jt raises in^us, that the righteous shall^ upon the whole, be happy, and the vdcked miserable, cannotjiowever poftibly be con- sidered as j^b^urd or chimerical ; because it is no more than an expe(5lation, that a method of govern- ment already begun, shall be carried on, the method of rewarding and punishing alliens ; and shall be carried on by a particular rule, which unavoidably appears to us at first sight more natural than any other, the rule which we call distributive justice. Nor,
II. Ought it to be entirely paired over, that tran- quillity, satisfa(9;ion, and external advantages, being the natural consequences of prudent management of ourselves, and our affairs ; and rashness, profligate
6 Chap. ii.
Chap. 2' Government of God. 51
neg-ligence, and wilful folly, bringing after them many inconveniences and sufferings ; these afford instances of a right constitution of nature : as the correc9;ion of children, for their own sakes, and by way of example, when they run into danger or hurt themselves, is a part of right education. And thus, that God governs the world by general fixed laws, that he has endued us with capacities of reflecfiing upon this constitution of things, and foreseeing the good and bad consequences of our behaviour; plainly implies some sort of moral government ; since from such a constitution of things it cannot but follow, that prudence and imprudence, which are of the nature of virtue and vice,' must be, as they are, respectively rewarded and punished.
III. From the natural course of things, vicious actions are, to a great degree, actually punished as mischievous to society : and besides punishment actually infliCled upon this account, there is also the fear and apprehension of it in those persons, whose crimes have rendered them obnoxious to it, in case of a discovery ; this state of fear being itself often a very considerable punishment. The natural fear and apprehension of it too, which restrains from such crimes, is a declaration of nature against them. It is necefsary to the very being of society, that vices destructive of it, should be punished as being so ; the vices of falsehood, injustice, cruelty : which punishment therefore is as natural as society ; and so is an instance of a kind of moral government, naturally established and aClually taking place. And, since the certain natural course of things, is the con- duCl of Providence or the government of God, though carried on by the instrumentality of men,
7 See Dlfiert. II.
52 Of the Moral Parti.
the observation here made amounts to this, that mankind find themselves placed by him in such circumstances, as that they are unavoidably ac- countable for their behaviour, and are often punished, and sometimes rewarded, under his government, in the view of their being mischievous, or eminently beneficial to society.
If it be objeded that good a(5^ions, and such as are beneficial to society, are often punished, as in the case of persecution and in other cases ; and that ill and mischievous a^lions are often rewarded : it may be answered distinctly; first, that this is in no sort neceftary, and consequently not natural, in the sense in which it is necef^ary, and therefore natural, that ill or mischievous ac^tions should be punished: And in the next place, that good actions are never punished, considered as beneficial to society, nor ill ac^tions rewarded, under the view of their being hurtful to it. So that it stands good, without any thing on the side of vice to be set over against it, that the Author of Nature has as truly dire<5led, that vicious actions considered as mischievous to society, should be punished, and put mankind under a neces- sity of thus punishing them ; as he has directed and necelsitated us to preserve our lives by food.
IV. In the natural course of things, virtue as such is actually rewarded, and vice as such punished : which seems to afford an instance^or jexample, not only of government, but of morai_goyernment, begun and established; moral in the stri(5test sense ; though not in that perfe(?i:ion of degree which Religion teaches us to expert. In order to see this more clearly, we must distinguish between actions them- selves, and that quality ascribed to them, which we call virtuous or vicious. The gratification itself of every natural pafsion, must be attended with delight:
Chap. 3. Government of God. 53
And acquisitions of fortune, however made, are ac- quisitions of the means, ormaterials, of enjoyment. An action then, by which any natural pafsion is gratified or fortune acquired, procures delight or advantage ; abstra<5led from all consideration of the morality of such a(5lion. Consequently the pleasure or advan- tage in this case, is gained by the action itself, not by the morality, the virtuousnei^ or viciousnefs of it; though it be, perhaps, virtuous or vicious. Thus, to say such an a<fl;ion or course of behaviour, procured such pleasure or advantage, or brought on such in- convenience and pain, is quite a different thing from saying, that such good or bad effecft was owing to the virtue or vice of such action or behaviour. In one case, an acT:ion abstracted from all moral con- sideration, produced its efFe(5l : In the other case, for it will appear that there are such cases, the morality of the action, the a(5lion under a moral con- sideration, i. e. the virtuousnef^ or viciousneft of it, produced the effect. Now I say virtue as such, na- turally procures considerable advantages to the vir- tuous, and vice as such, naturally occasions great inconvenience and even misery to the vicious, in very many instances. The immediate effe(?ts of virtue and vice upon the mind and temper, are to be men- tioned as instances of it. Vice as such is naturally attended with some sort of uneasinef^, and, not un- commonly, with great disturbance and apprehension. That inward feeling, which, respecting lefser mat- ters, and in familiar speech, we call being vexed with oneself, and in matters of importance and in more serious language, remorse ; is an uneasinef^ natu- rally arising from an aCtion of a man's own, refle(5ted upon by himself as wrong, unreasonable, faulty, i. e. vicious in greater or lei^ degrees : and this mani- festly is a different feeling from that uneasinef^ which
54 Of the Moral Part I.
arises from a sense of mere loft or harm. What is more common, than to hear a man lamenting an ac- cident or event, and adding but however he
has the satisfa(5lion that he cannot blame himself for it; or, on the contrary, that he has the uneasi- neft of being sensible it was his own doing? Thus also the disturbance and fear, which often follow upon a man's having done an injury, arise from a sense of his being blameworthy ; otherwise there would, in many cases, be no ground of disturbance, nor any reason to fear resentment or shame. On the other hand, inward security and peace, and a mind open to the several gratifications of life, are the natural attendants of innocence and virtue. To which must be added the complacency, satisfaction, and even joy of heart, which accompany the exer- cise, the real exercise, of gratitude, friendship, be- nevolence.
And here, I think, ought to be mentioned, the fears of future punishment, and peaceful hopes of a better life, in those who fully believe, or have any serious apprehension of Religion : because these hopes and fears are present uneasineft and satis- faction to the mind ; and cannot be got rid of by great part of the world, even by men who have thought most thoroughly upon that subject; of Re- ligion. And no one can say, how considerable this uneasineft and satisfaction may be, or what upon the whole it may amount to.
In the next place comes in the consideration, that all honest and good men are disposed to befriend honest good men as such, and to discountenance the vicious as such, and do so in some degree; indeed in a considerable degree : from which favour and discouragement cannot but arise considerable ad- vantage and inconvenience. And though the gene-
Chap. 3. Government of God. 55
rality of the world have little regard to the morality of their own actions, and may be supposed to have lef^ to that of others, when they themselves are not concerned ; yet let any one be known to be a man of virtue, somehow or other he will be favoured, and good offices will be done him, from regard to his chara<5ler without remote views, occasionally, and in some low degree, I think, by the generality of the world, as it happens to come in their way. Public honours too and advantages are the natural conse- quences, are sometimes at least the consequences in fa(5l, of virtuous ac^tions ; of eminent justice, fidelity, charity, love to our country, considered in the view of being virtuous. And sometimes even death itself, often infamy and external inconveniences, are the public consequences of vice as vice. For instance, the sense which mankind have of tyranny, injustice, oppre{^ion, additional to the mere feeling or fear of misery, has doubtleft been instrumental in bringing about revolutions, which make a figure even in the history of the world. For it is plain, men resent injuries as implying faultineft, and retaliate, not merely under the notion of having received harm, but of having received wrong; and they have this re- sentment in behalf of others, as well as of themselves. So likewise even the generality are, in some degree, grateful and disposed to return good offices, not merely because such an one has been the occasion of good to them, but under the view, that such good offices implied kind intention and good desert in the doer. To all this may be added two or three par- ticular things, which many persons will think frivo- lous ; but to me nothing appears so, which at all comes in towards determining a question of such importance, as, whether there be, or be not, a moral institution of government, in the stri(ftest sense
56 Of the Moral Parti.
moral, visibly established and begun in nature. The particular things are these : That in domestic go- vernment, which is doubtlef^ natural, children and others also are very generally punished for falsehood, and injustice, and ill-behaviour, as such, and rewarded for the contrary ; which are instances where veracity, cind justice, and right behaviour, as such, are natu- rally enforced by rewards and punishments, whether more or left considerable in degree : That, though civil government be supposed to take cognizance of a^lions in no other view than as prejudicial to society, without respe(51: to the immorality of them ; yet as such a(?i:ions are immoral, so the sense which men have of the immorality of them, very greatly contri- butes, in different ways, to bring offenders to justice: And that entire absence of all crime and guilt in the moral sense, when plainly appearing, will almost of course procure, and circumstances of aggravated guilt prevent, a remifsion of the penalties annexed to civil crimes, in many cases, though by no means in all. Upon the whole then, besides the good and bad effects of virtue and vice upon men's own minds, the course of the world does, in some measure, turn upon the approbation and disapprobation of them as such, in others. The sense of well and ill doing, the presages of conscience, the love of good charac- ters and dislike of bad ones; honour, shame, resent- ment, gratitude ; all these, considered in themselves, and in their effe(9:s, do afford manifest real instances of virtue as such naturally favoured, and of vice as such discountenanced, more or lef^, in the daily course of human life ; in every age, in every re- lation, in every general circumstance of it. That God has given us a moral nature^, may most justly
8 See Difsert. II.
Chap. 2,- Government of God. 57
be urged as a proof of our being under his moral / , government : But that he has placed us in a con- dition, which gives this nature, as one may speak, scope to operate, and in which it does unavoidably ^ operate ; i. e. influence mankind to a(ft, so as thus to « favour and reward virtue, and discountenance and punish vice ; this is not the same, but a further, additional proof of his moral government : for it is an instance of it. The first is a proof, that he will finally favour and support virtue eflfectually : The second is an example of his favouring and supporting it at present, in some degree.
If a more distinct inquiry be made, whence it arises, that virtue as such is often rewarded, and vice as such is punished, and this rule never inverted : it will be found to proceed, in part, immediately from the moral nature itself, which God has given us ; and also in part, from his having given us, together with this nature, so great a power over each other's happinef^ and misery. For first, it is certain, that peace and delight, in some degree and upon some occasions, are the necefsary and present effe(5ls of virtuous practice ; effects arising immediately from that constitution of our nature. We are so made, that well-doing as such gives us satisfaction, at least, in some instances ; ill-doing as such, in 7 none. And secondly, from our moral nature, joined with God's having put our happinef^ and misery in many respedls in each other's power, it cannot but be, that vice as such, some kinds and instances of it at least, will be infamous, and men will be disposed to punish it as in itself detestable ; and the villain will by no means be able always to avoid feeling that infamy, any more than he will be able to escape this further punishment, which mankind will be disposed to infli^l upon him, under the notion of his deserving
58 Of the Moral Parti,
it. But there can be nothing on the side of vice, to answer this; because there is nothing in the human mind, contradictory, as the logicians speak, to virtue. For virtue consists in a regard to what is light and reasonable, as being so ; in a regard to veracity, justice, charity, in themselves : and there is surely no such thing, as a like natural regard to falsehood, injustice, cruelty. If it be thought, that there are instances of an approbation of vice, as such, in itself, and for its own sake, (though it does not appear to me, that there is any such thing at all ; but suppos- ing there be,) it is evidently monstrous : as much so, as the most acknowledged perversion of any paftion whatever. Such instances of perversion then being left out, as merely imaginary, or, however, unnatural, it must follow, from the frame of our nature, and from our condition, in the respects now described, that vice cannot at all be, and virtue can- not but be, favoured as such by others, upon some occasions ; and happy in itself, in some degree. For what is here insisted upon, is not the degree in which virtue and vice are thus distinguished, but only the thing itself, that they are so in some degree ; though the whole good and bad effeCl of virtue and vice as such, is not inconsiderable in degree. But that they must be thus distinguished in some degree, is in a manner neceftary : It is matter of fac^ of daily ex- perience, even in the greatest confusion of human affairs.
It is not pretended, but that in the natural course of things, happineft and misery appear to be dis- tributed by other rules, than only the personal merit and demerit of characters. They may sometimes be distributed by way of mere discipline. There may be the wisest and best reasons, why the world should be governed by general laws, from whence such
Chap. 3. Government of God. 59
promiscuous distribution perhaps must follow; and also why our happinef^ and misery should be put in each other's power, in the degree which they are. And these things, as in general they contribute to the rewarding virtue and punishing vice, as such : so they often contribute also, not to the inversion of this, which is impoftible ; but to the rendering per- sons prosperous, though wicked; afflicted, though righteous ; and which is worse, to the rewarding some a6iions, though vicious ; and punishing other aSlions, though virtuous. But all this cannot drown the voice of nature in the condu(?i: of Providence, plainly declaring itself for virtue, by way of distinc- tion from vice, and preference to it. For, our being so constituted, as that virtue and vice are thus na- turally favoured and discountenanced, rewarded and punished respe(9:ively as such, is an intuitive proof of the intent of nature, that it should be so : other- wise the constitution of our mind, from which it thus immediately and dire<flly proceeds, would be absurd. But it cannot be said, because virtuous a(51ions are sometimes punished, and vicious a(9:ions rewarded, that nature intended it. For, though this great disorder is brought about, as all acflions are done, by means of some natural pafsion; yet this may be, as it undoubtedly is, brought about by the perver- sion of such paftion, implanted in us for other, and those very good purposes. And indeed these other and good purposes, even of every pafsion, may be clearly seen.
We have then a declaration, in some degree of present effecfl, from him who is supreme in nature, which side he is of, or what part he takes: a declara- tion for virtue, and against vice. So far therefore as a man is true to virtue, to veracity and justice, to equity and charity, and the right of the case, in
6o Of the Moral Parti.
whatever he is concerned ; so far he is on the side of the Divine administration, and co-operates with it ; and from hence, to such a man, arises naturally a secret satisfaction and sense of security, and im- plicit hope of somewhat further. And,
V. This hope is confirmed by the neceftary ten- dencies of virtue, which, though not of present ef- fe(ft, yet are at present discernible in nature; and so afford an instance of somewhat moral in the ef^ential constitution of it. There is, in the nature of things, a tendency in virtue and vice to produce the good and bad effects now mentioned, in a greater degree than they do in fa6l produce them. For instance ; good and bad men would be much more rewarded and punished as such, were it not, that justice is often artificially eluded, that chara61;ers are not known, and many, who would thus favour virtue and discourage vice, are hindered from doing so by accidental causes. These tendencies of virtue and vice are obvious with regard to individuals. But it may require more particularly to be consi- dered, that power in a society, by being under the dire(?tion of virtue, naturally increases, and has a necef^ary tendency to prevail over opposite power, not under the direction of it ; in like manner as power, by being under the dire<9;ion of reason, in- creases, and has a tendency to prevail over brute force. There are several brute creatures of equal, and several of superior strength, to that of men ; and pof^ibly the sum of the whole strength of brutes, may be greater than that of mankind : But reason gives us the advantage and superiority over them ; and thus man is the acknowledged governing animal upon earth. Nor is this superiority considered by any as accidental ; but as what reason has a tendency, in the nature of the thing, to obtain. And yet per-
Chap. 2^. Government of God. 6 1
haps difficulties may be raised about the meaning, as well as the truth, of the af^ertion, that virtue has the like tendency.
To obviate these difficulties, let us see more dis- tin6lly, how the case stands with regard to reason ; which is so readily acknowledged to have this ad- vantageous tendency. Suppose then two or three men, of the best and most improved understanding, in a desolate open plain, attacked by ten times the number of beasts of prey : Would their reason se- cure them the vi(ftory in this unequal combat? Power then, though joined with reason, and under its di- re(5lion, cannot be expe(5led to prevail over opposite power, though merely brutal, unleft the one bears some proportion to the other. Again : put the ima- ginary case, that rational and irrational creatures were of like external shape and manner : it is certain, before there were opportunities for the first to dis- tinguish each other, to separate from their adver- saries, and to form an union among themselves, they might be upon a level, or in several respe(5^s upon great disadvantage ; though united they might be vastly superior : Since union is of such efficacy, that ten men united, might be able to accomplish, what ten thousand of the same natural strength and understanding wholly ununited, could not. In this case then, brute force might more than maintain its ground against reason, for want of union among the rational creatures. Or suppose a number of men to land upon an island inhabited only by wild beasts ; a number of men, who, by the regulations of civil government, the inventions of art, and the experi- ence of some years, could they be preserved so long, would be really sufficient, to subdue the wild beasts, and to preserve themselves in security from them : Yet a conjuncflure of accidents might give such ad-
62 Of the Moral Part i.
vantage to the irrational animals, as that they might at once overpower, and even extirpate, the whole species of rational ones. Length of time then, pro- per scope and opportunities, for reason to exert it- self, may be absolutely neceftary to its prevailing over brute force. Further still : there are many in- stances of brutes succeeding in attempts, which they could not have undertaken, had not their irrational nature rendered them incapable of foreseeing the danger of such attempts, or the fury of paftion hin- dered their attending to it; and there are instances of reason and real prudence preventing men's under- taking what, it hath appeared afterwards, they might have succeeded in by a lucky rashneft. And in certain conjunctures, ignorance and folly, weakneft and discord, may have their advantages. So that rational animals have not neceftarily the superiority over irrational ones : but, how improbable soever it may be, it is evidently pol^ible, that, in some globes, the latter may be superior. And were the former wholly at variance and disunited, by false self-inte- rest and envy, by treachery and injustice, and con- sequent rage and malice against each other, whilst the latter were firmly united among themselves by instin(5l ; this might greatly contribute to the intro- ducing such an inverted order of things. For every one would consider it as inverted : Since reason has, in the nature of it, a tendency to prevail over brute force ; notwithstanding the poftibility it may not prevail, and the necefsity, which there is, of many concurring circumstances to render it prevalent.
Now I say, virtue in a society has a like tendency to procure superiority and additional power: whether this power be considered as the means of security from opposite power, or of obtaining other advan- tages. And it has this tendency, by rendering pub-
Chap. 3. Government of God. 63
lie good, an object and end, to every member of the society ; by putting every one upon considera- tion and diligence, recolle^lion and self-government, both in order to see what is the most effectual method, and also in order to perform their proper part, for obtaining and preserving it ; by uniting a society within itself, and so increasing its strength ; and, which is particularly to be mentioned, uniting it by means of veracity and justice. For as these last are principal bonds of union, so benevolence or public spirit, undire^led, unrestrained by them, is no- body knows what.
And suppose the invisible world, and the invisible dispensations of Providence, to be, in any sort, an- dogous to what appears : or that both together make up one uniform scheme, the two parts of which, the part which we see, and that which is be- yond our observation, are analogous to each other : Then, there must be a like natural tendency in the derived power, throughout the universe, under the dire(9:ion of virtue, to prevail in general over that, which is not under its direcflion ; as there is in rea- son, derived reason in the universe, to prevail over brute force. But then, in order to the prevalence of virtue, or that it may a(5lually produce, what it has a tendency to produce ; the like concurrences are neceftary, as are, to the prevalence of reason. There must be some proportion, between the natural power or force which is, and that which is not, under the dire(5lion of virtue : There must be sufficient length of time; for the complete succei^ of virtue, as of reason, cannot, from the nature of the thing, be otherwise than gradual : There must be, as one may speak, a fair field of trial, a stage large and extensive enough, proper occasions and opportunities, for the virtuous to join together, to exert themselves against
64 Of the Moral Parti.
lawlef^ force, and to reap the fruit of their united labours. Now, indeed, it is to be hoped, that the dis- proportion between the good and bad, even here on earth, is not so great, but that the former have na- tural power sufficient to their prevailing to a consi- derable degree, if circumstances would permit this power to be united. For, much left, very much lefs, power under the direc^tion of virtue, would prevail over much greater not under the dire(5lion of it. However, good men over the face of the earth can- not unite ; as for other reasons, so because they cannot be sufficiently ascertained of each other's characters. And the known course of human things, the scene we are now pairing through, particularly the shortneft of life, denies to virtue its full scope in several other respects. The natural tendency, which we have been considering, though real, is hindered from being carried into effeCl in the present state : But these hinderances may be removed in a future one. Virtue, to borrow the Christian allusion, is militant here ; and various untoward accidents con- tribute to its being often overborne : But it may com- bat with greater advantage hereafter, and prevail completely, and enjoy its consequent rewards, in some future state. Negle(5led as it is, perhaps un- known, perhaps despised and opprefted, here; there may be scenes in eternity, lasting enough, and in every other way adapted, to afford it a sufficient sphere of a6lion ; and a sufficient sphere for the natural consequences of it to follow in h^. If the soul be naturally immortal, and this state be a pro- greft towards a future one, as childhood is towards mature age ; good men may naturally unite, not only amongst themselves, but also with other orders of virtuous creatures, in that future state. For virtue, from the very nature of it, is a principle
Chap. 3. Government of God. 65
and bond of union, in some degree, amongst all who are endued with it, and known to each other ; so as that by it, a good man cannot but recommend himself to the favour and protection of all virtuous beings, throughout the whole universe, who can be acquainted with his chara(5ler, and can any way in- terpose in his behalf in any part of his duration. And one might add, that suppose all this advantageous tendency of virtue to become effeCl, amongst one or more orders of creatures, in any distant scenes and periods, and to be seen by any orders of vicious creatures, throughout the universal Kingdom of God; this happy effect: of virtue would have a tendency, by way of example, and poftibly in other ways, to amend those of them who are capable of amendment, and being recovered to a just sense of virtue. If our notions of the plan of Providence were enlarged, in any sort proportionable to what late discoveries have enlarged our views with respedl to the material world ; representations of this kind would not appear absurd or extravagant. However they are not to be taken, as intended for a literal delineation of what is in facft the particular scheme of the universe, which cannot be known without revelation : for suppositions are not to be looked on as true, because not incredible : But they are mentioned to shew, that our finding virtue to be hindered from procuring to itself such superiority and advantages, is no objecftion against its having, in the ef^ential nature of the thing, a ten- dency to procure them. And the suppositions now mentioned do plainly shew this : For they shew that these hinderances are so far from being necei^ary, that we ourselves can easily conceive, how they may be removed in future states, and full scope be granted to virtue. And all these advantageous tendencies of it, are to be considered as declarations of God in its
F
66 Of the Moral Parti,
favour. This however is taking a pretty large com- paft : though it is certain, that, as the material world appears to be, in a manner, boundleft and immense ; there must be some scheme of providence vast in proportion to it.
But let us return to the earth our habitation; and we shall see this happy tendency of virtue, by im- agining an instance not so vast and remote : by supposing a kingdom or society of men upon it, per- fectly virtuous, for a succef^ion of many ages ; to which, if you please,] may be given a situation ad- vantageous for universal monarchy. In such a state, there would be no such thing as faClion : but men of the greatest capacity would of course, all along, have the chief direction of affairs willingly yielded to them ; and they would share it among themselves without envy. Each of these would have the part ai^igned him, to which his genius was peculiarly adapted : and others, who had not any distinguished genius, would be safe, and think themselves very happy, by being under the protedl:ion and guidance of those who had. Public determinations would really be the result of the united wisdom of the community : and they would faithfully be executed, by the united strength of it. Some would in a higher way contribute, but all would in some way con- tribute, to the public prosperity : and in it, each would enjoy the fruits of his own virtue. And as injustice, whether by fraud or force, would be unknown among themselves ; so they would be suf- ficiently secured from it in their neighbours. For cunning and false self-interest, confederacies in injustice, ever slight, and accompanied with fa(5lion and intestine treachery ; these on one hand would be found mere childish folly and weakneft, when set in opposition against wisdom, public spirit, union
Chap. 3. Government of God. 67
inviolable, and fidelity on the other: allowing both a sufficient length of years to try their force. Add the general influence, which such a kingdom would have over the face of the earth, by way of example particularly, and the reverence which would be paid it. It would plainly be superior to all others, and the world must gradually come under its empire : not by means of lawle{^ violence ; but partly by what must be allowed to be just conquest; and partly by other kingdoms submitting themselves voluntarily to it, throughout a course of ages, and claiming its prote(9;ion, one after another, in succeftive exigencies. The head of it would be an universal monarch, in another sense than any mortal has yet been ; and the eastern style would be literally applicable to him, that all people, nations, and languages should serve him. And though indeed our knowledge of human nature, and the whole history of mankind, shew the impof^ibility, without some miraculous interposition, that a number of men. here on earth, should unite in one society or government, in the fear of God and universal pra6lice of virtue : and that such a govern- ment should continue so united for a succefsion of ages : yet admitting or supposing this, the effe(5l would be as now drawn out. And thus, for instance, the wonderful power and prosperity promised to the Jewish nation in the Scripture, would be, in a great measure, the consequence of what is predicted of them ; that the people should he all righteous and inherit the land for ever^ ; were we to understand the latter phrase of a long continuance only, suffi- cient to give things time to work. The predictions of this kind, for there are many of them, cannot come to pafs, in the present known course of nature ; but
9 Is. Ix. 21.
68 Of the Moral Parti.
suppose them come to paft, and then, the dominion and pre-eminence promised must naturally follow, to a very considerable degree.
Consider now, the general system of Religion : that the government of the world is uniform, and one, and moral ; that virtue and right shall finally have the advantage, and prevail over fraud and law- left force, over the deceits as well as the violence of wickedneft, under the conduct of one supreme governor : And from the observations above made, it will appear, that God has, by our reason, given us to see a peculiar conne(5lion in the several parts of this scheme, and a tendency towards the completion of it arising out of the very nature of virtue : which tendency is to be considered as somewhat moral in the eftential constitution of things. If any one should think all this to be of little importance ; I desire him to consider, what he would think, if vice had, es- sentially, and in its nature, these advantageous ten- dencies ; or if virtue had eftentially the direct con- trary ones.
But it may be obje<?led, that, notwithstanding all these natural effei^ls and these natural tendencies of virtue ; yet things may be now going on throughout the universe, and may go on hereafter, in the same mixed way as here at present upon earth : virtue sometimes prosperous, sometimes deprefted; vice sometimes punished, sometimes succeftful. The answer to which is, that it is not the purpose of this chapter, nor of this treatise, properly to prove God's perfe(5l moral government over the world, or the truth of religion ; but to observe what there is in the con- stitution and course of nature, to confirm the proper proof of it, supposed to be known : And that the weight of the foregoing observations to this purpose, may be thus distinctly proved. Pleasure and pain
Chap. 3. Government of God. 69
are indeed to a certain degree, say to a very high degree, distributed amongst us without any apparent regard to the merit or demerit of characfhers. And were there nothing else, concerning this matter, discernible in the constitution and course of Nature ; there would be no ground from the constitution and course of Nature, to hope or to fear, that men would be rewarded or punished hereafter according to their deserts : which how^ever, it is to be remarked, im- plies, that even then there would be no ground from appearances to think, that vice upon the whole would have the advantage, rather than that virtue would. And thus the proof of a future state of retribution, would rest upon the usual known arguments for it : which are I think plainly unansw^erable ; and would be so, though there were no additional confirmation of them from the things above insisted on. But these things are a very strong confirmation of them. For,
First, They shew, that the Author of nature is not indifferent to virtue and vice. They amount to a declaration from him, determinate and not to be evaded, in favour of one, and against the other : such a declaration, as there is nothing to be set over against or answer, on the part of vice. So that were a man, laying aside the properproof of Religion, to determine from the course of Nature only, whether it were most probable, that the righteous or the wicked, would have the advantage in a future life ; there can be no doubt, but that he would determine the probability to be, that the former would. The course of Nature then, in the view of it now given, furnishes us with a real practical proof of the obligations of Religion.
Secondly, When, conformably to what Religion teaches us, God shall reward and punish virtue and vice as such, so as that every one shall, upon the whole, have his deserts ; this distributive justice will
70 Of the Moral Parti.
\^ not be a thing different in kind, but only in degree, \ from what we experience in his present government. It will be that in effeSi, toward which we now see a tendency. It will be no more than the completion of that moral government, the principles and begin- ning of which, have been shewn, beyond all dispute, discernible in the present constitution and course of Nature. And from hence it follows.
Thirdly, That, as under the natural government of
God, our experience of those kinds and degrees of
•happineft and misery, which we do experience atpre-
I sent, gives just ground to hope for and to fear, higher
I degrees, and other kinds of both in a future state, sup-
I posing a future state admitted : so under his moral
' government, our experience, that virtue and vice are,
in the manners above-mentioned, a(51:ually rewarded
J- and punished at present, in a certain degree, gives
1 just ground to hope and to fear, that they may be
\ rewarded and punished in a higher degree hereafter.
1 It is acknowledged indeed, that this alone is not
j sufficient ground to think, that they aSiually will be
\ rewarded and punished in a higher degree, rather
than in a lower : But then.
Lastly, There is sufficient ground to think so, from / the good and bad tendencies of virtue and vice. For these tendencies are ef^ential, and founded in the nature of things : whereas the hinderances to their becoming effedl:, are, in numberleft cases, not neces- sary, but artificial only. Now it may be much more strongly argued, that these tendencies, as well as the actual rewards and punishments, of virtue and vice, which arise dire(ftly out of the nature of things, will remain hereafter, than that the accidental hinderances of them will. And if these hinderances do not re- main ; those rewards and punishments cannot but be carried on much further towards the perfec^lion of
Chap. 2' Government of God. 71
moral government : i. e. the tendencies of virtue and vice will become effe(ft : But when, or where, or in what particular way, cannot be known at all, but by revelation.
Upon the whole : There is a kind of moral govern- ment implied in God's natural government :^^ virtue and vice are naturally rewarded and punished as be- neficial and mischievous to society ;^^ and rewarded and punished dire(flly as virtue and vice.^^ The notion then of a moral scheme of government, is not fictitious, but natural ; for it is suggested to our thoughts by the constitution and course of Nature: and the execution of this scheme is actually begun, in the instances here mentioned. And these things are to be considered, as a declaration of the Author of nature, for virtue, and against vice : They give a credibility to the supposition of their being rewarded and punished hereafter ; and also ground to hope and to fear, that they may be rewarded and punished in higher degrees than they are here. And all this is confirmed, so the argument for Religion, from the constitution and course of Nature, is carried on far- ther, by observing, that there are natural tendencies, and, in innumerable cases, only artificial hinderances, to this moral scheme's being carried on much farther towards perfe<5lion, than it is at present.^^ The no- tion then of a moral scheme of government, much more perfecl than what is seen, is not a fi(ftitious, but a natural notion : for it is suggested to our thoughts, by the ef^ential tendencies of virtue and vice. And these tendencies are to be considered as intimations, as implicit promises and threatenings, from the Author of nature, of much greater rewards and punishments to follow virtue and vice, than do
'Op. 51. ''ibid. I2p, ^2, &C. 13p. 6o^&C.
72
Moral Government of God. Parti
at present. And indeed, every natural tendency, which is to continue, but which is hindered from be- coming effecl by only accidental causes, affords a presumption, that such tendency will, some time or other, become effe(5l : a presumption in degree proportionable to the length of the duration, through which such tendency will continue. And from these things together, arises a real presumption, that the moral scheme of government established in nature, shall be carried on much farther towards perfe(?iion hereafter ; and, I think, a presumption that it will be absolutely completed. But from these things, joined with the moral nature which God has given us, considered as given us by him, arises a practical proof ^^ that it will be completed: a proof from fadl ; and therefore a distinct one from that, which is deduced from the eternal and unalterable relations, the fitnei^ and unfitnef^ of actions. \
CHAPTER IV.
Of a State of Probation, as implying Trial, Diffi- culties and Danger.
HE general doc^trine of Religion, that our present life is a state of probation for a future one, comprehends under it several particular things, distincl from each other. But the first, and most common meaning of it, seems to be, that our future interest is now depending, and depending upon our-
** See this proof drawn out briefly, ch.
Chap. 4. Of a State of Trial. 73
selves ; that we have scope and opportunities here, for that good and bad behaviour, which God will re- ward and punish hereafter ; together with tempta- tions to one, as well as inducements of reason to the other. And this is, in great measure, the same with saying, that we are under the moral government of God, and to give an account of our ac^tions to him. For the notion of a future account and general righteous judgment, implies some sort of tempta- tions to what is wrong : otherwise there would be no moral pof^ibility of doing wrong, nor ground for judgment, or discrimination. But there is this dif- ference, that the word probation is more distinctly and particularly exprefsive of allurements to wrong, or difficulties in adhering uniformly to what is right, and of the danger of miscarrying by such temp- tations, than the words moral government. A state of probation then, as thus particularly implying in it trial, difficulties and danger, may require to be con- sidered distin(?i:ly by itself.
And as the moral government of God, which Re- ligion teaches us, implies, that we are in a state of trial with regard to a future world : so also his natural government over us, implies that we are in a state of trial, in the like sense, with regard to the present world. Natural government by rewards and punish- ments, as much implies natural trial, as moral government does moral trial. The natural govern- ment of God here meant,^ consists in his annexing pleasure to some actions, and pain to others, which are in our power to do or forbear, and in giving us notice of such appointment beforehand. This ne- cefsarily implies, that he has made our happinel^ and misery, or our interest, to depend in part upon
» Chap. ii.
74 Of a State of Trial. Part i .
ourselves. And so far as men have temptations to any course of a(ftion, which will probably occasion them greater temporal inconvenience and uneasineft, than satisfaction ; so far their temporal interest is in danger from themselves, or they are in a state of trial with respe(5l to it. Now people often blame others, and even themselves, for their miscondu6l in their temporal concerns. And we find many are greatly wanting to themselves, and mifs of that natu- ral happinef^, which they might have obtained in the present life : perhaps every one does in some degree. But many run themselves into great inconvenience, and into extreme distref^ and misery : not through incapacity of knowing better, and doing better for themselves, which would be nothing to the present purpose ; but through their own fault. And these things necef^arily imply temptation, and danger of miscarny'ing, in a greater or lel^ degree, with respedl to our worldly interest or happineft. Every one too, without having Religion in his thoughts, speaks of the hazards which young people run, upon their setting out in the world : hazards from other causes, than merely their ignorance, and unavoidable accidents. And some courses of vice, at least, being contrary to men's worldly interest or good ; temptations to these, must at the same time be temptations to forego our present, and our future interest. Thus in our natural for temporal capacity, we are in a state of trial, i. e. of difficulty and danger, analogous, or like to our moral ^and religious trial.
This wall more distinClly appear to any one, who thinks it worth while, more distinc^ily, to consider, what it is which constitutes our trial in both capaci- ties, and to observe, how mankind behave under it.
And that which constitutes this our trial, in both these capacities, must be somewhat either in our ex-
Chap. 4-' Of a State of Trial. 75
temal circumstances, or in our nature. For, on the one hand, persons may be betrayed into wrong be- haviour upon surprise, or overcome upon any other very singular and extraordinary external occasions ; who would, otherwise, have preserved their cha- racfter of prudence and of virtue : in which cases, every one, in speaking of the wrong behaviour of these persons, would impute it to such particular ex- ternal circumstances. And on the other hand, men who have contra(9;ed habits of vice and folly of any kind, or have some particular paf^ions in exceft, will seek opportunities, and, as it were, go out of their way, to gratify themselves in these respec^ts, at the expense of their wisdom and their virtue ; led to it, as every one would say, not by external temptations, but by such habits and pafsions. And the account of this last case is, that particular pafsions are no more coincident with prudence, or that reasonable self-love, the end of which is our worldly interest, than they are with the principle of virtue and re- ligion ; but often draw contrary ways to one, as well as to the other : and so such particular pafsions are as much temptations, to a6i imprudently with regard to our worldly interest, as to a6{ viciously.^ However, as when we say, men are misled by ex- ternal circumstances of temptation; it cannot but be understood, that there is somewhat within them- selves, to render those circumstances temptations, or to render them susceptible of imprei^ions from them : So when we say, they are misled by pafsions; it is always supposed, that there are occasions, cir- cumstances, and obje(5^s, exciting these pafsions, and affording means for gratifying them. And therefore,
' See Sermons preached at the Rolls, 1726. zd, Ed. p. 205, &c. Pref. p. 25, &c, Serm. p. 21, &c.
76 Of a State of Trial. Part i.
temptations from within, and from without, coincide, Jind mutually imply each other. Now the several external obje(5ls of the appetites, paf^ions, and affec- tions, being present to the senses, or offering them- selves to the mind, and so exciting emotions suitable to their nature ; not only in cases where they can be gratified consistently with innocence and pru- dence, but also in cases where they cannot, and yet can be gratified imprudently and viciously : this as really puts them in danger of voluntarily foregoing their present interest or good, as their future ; and as really renders self-denial necef^ary to secure one, as i the other : i. e. We are in a like state of trial with I respe6l to both, by the very same paf^ions, excited by the very same means. Thus mankind having a temporal interest depending upon themselves, and a prudent course of behaviour being necef^ary to secure it ; paf^ions inordinately excited, whether by means of example, or by any other external circum- stance, towards such objecfts, at such times, or in such degrees, as that they cannot be gratified con- sistently with worldly prudence ; are temptations, dangerous, and too often succef^ful temptations, to forego a greater temporal good for a lef^ ; i. e. to forego what is, upon the whole, our temporal inter- est, for the sake of a present gratification. This is a description of our state of trial in our temporal capacity. Substitute now the word future for tem- poral, and virtue for prudence ; and it will be just as proper a description of our state of trial in our religious capacity : so analogous are they to each other.
If, from consideration of this our like state of trial in both capacities, we go on to observe farther, how mankind behave under it ; we shall find there are some, who have so little sense of it, that they scarce
Chap. 4-' Of a State of Trial. 77
look beyond the pacing day : They are so taken up with present gratifications, as to have, in a manner, no feeling of consequences, no regard to their future ease or fortune in this life ; any more than to their happinef^ in another. Some appear to be blinded and deceived by inordinate paf^ion, in their worldly concerns, as much as in religion. Others are, not deceived, but, as it were, forcibly carried away by the like pal^ions, against their better judgment, and feeble resolutions too of a(51;ing better. And there are men, and truly they are not a few, who shame - leftly avow, not their interest, but their mere will and pleasure, to be their law of life : and who, in open defiance of everything that is reasonable, will go on in a course of vicious extravagance, foresee- ing, with no remorse and little fear, that it will be their temporal ruin ; and some of them, under the apprehension of the consequences of wickednef^ in another state. And to speak in the most moderate way, human creatures are not only continually liable to go wrong voluntarily, but we see likewise that they often a(5lually do so, with respedl: to their temporal interests, as well as with respe^l to Religion,
Thus our difficulties and dangers, or our trials, in our temporal and our religious capacity, as they proceed from the same causes, and have the same effeSi upon men s behaviour, are evidently analogous, and of the same kind.
It may be added, that as the difficulties and dangers of miscarrying in our religious state of trial, are greatly increased, and one is ready to think, in a manner wholly made, by the ill behaviour of others ; by a wrong education, wrong in a moral sense, sometimes positively vicious ; by general bad example ; by the dishonest artifices, which are got into businef^ of all kinds ; and, in very many parts of
78 Of a State of Trial. Part i.
the world, by religion's being corrupted into super- stitions, which indulge men in their vices : So in Hke manner, the difficulties of condudliing ourselves prudently in respe(5l to our present interest, and our danger of being led aside from pursuing it, are greatly increased, by a foolish education ; and, after we come to mature age, by the extravagance and careleftneft of others, whom we have intercourse with ; and by mistaken notions, very generally pre- valent, and taken up for common opinion, concerning temporal happineft, and wherein it consists. And persons, by their own negligence and folly in their temporal affairs, no le(^ than by a course of vice, bring themselves into new difficulties ; and, by habits of indulgence, become left qualified to go through them : And one irregularity after another, embar- raf^es things to such a degree, that they know not where about they are ; and often makes the path of conduct so intricate and perplexed, that it is difficult to trace it out ; difficult even to determine what is the prudent or the moral part. Thus, for instance, wrong behaviour in one stage of life, youth ; wrong, I mean, considering ourselves only in our temporal capacity, without taking in Religion ; this, in several ways, increases the difficulties of right behaviour in mature age ; i. e. puts us into a more disadvan- tageous state of trial in our temporal capacity.
We are an inferior part of the creation of God. There are natural appearances of our being in a state of degradation. 3 And we certainly are in a con- dition, which does not seem, by any means, the most advantageous we could imagine or desire, either in our natural or moral capacity, for securing either our present or future interest. However, this condition,
^ Part II. Chap. v.
Chap. 4. Of a State of Trial. 79
low and careful and uncertain as it is, does not afford any just ground of complaint. For, as men may manage their temporal affairs with prudence, and so paf^ their days here on earth in tolerable ease and satisfatflion, by a moderate degree of care: so like- wise with regard to Religion, there is no more re- quired than what they are well able to do, and what they must be greatly wanting to themselves, if they neglect. And for persons to have that put upon them, which they are well able to go through, and no more, we naturally consider as an equitable thing ; supposing it done by proper authority. Nor have we any more reason to complain of it, with regard to the Author of nature, than of his not having given us other advantages, belonging to other orders of creatures.
But the thing here insisted upon is, that the state of trial which Religion teaches us we are in, is ren- dered credible, by its being throughout uniform and of a piece with the general condudl of Providence towards us, in all other respecfls within the compaf^ of our knowledge. Indeed if mankind, considered in their natural capacity, as inhabitants of this world only, found themselves, from their birth to their death, in a settled state of security and happinef^, without any solicitude or thought of their own : or if they were in no danger of being brought into in- conveniences and distref^, by carelef^nef^, or the folly of pafsion, through bad example, the treachery of others, or the deceitful appearances of things : Were this our natural condition ; then it might seem strange, and be some presumption against the truth of religion, that it represents our future and more general interest, as not secure of course, but as de- pending upon our behaviour, and requiring recol- le(5lion and self-government to obtain it. For it might
8o Of a State of Trial. Part i .
be alleged, " What you say is our condition in one " respe(?l;, is not in any wise of a sort with what we " find, by experience, our condition is in another. " Our whole present interest is secured to our hands, " without any solicitude of ours ; and why should "• not our future interest, if we have any such, be " so too ?" ^But since, on the contrary, thought and consideration, the voluntary denying ourselves many things which we desire, and a course of behaviour, far from being always agreeable to us ; are absolutely neceftary to our acting even a common decent, and common prudent part, so as to paft with any satis- faction through the present world, and be received upon any tolerable good terms in it : since this is the case, all presumption against self-denial and attention being neceftary to secure our higher in- terest, is removed. Had we not experience, it might, perhaps speciously, be urged, that it is improbable anything of hazard and danger should be put upon us by an Infinite Being ; when everything which is hazard and danger in our manner of conception, and will end in error, confusion, and misery, is now already certain in his foreknowledge. And indeed, why anything of hazard and danger should be put upon such frail creatures as we are, may well be thought a difficulty in speculation ; and cannot but be so, till we know the whole, or, however, much more of the case. But still the constitution of nature is as it is. Our happineft and misery are trusted to our conduct, and made to depend upon it. Some- what, and, in many circumstances, a great deal too, is put upon us, either to do, or to suffer, as we choose. And all the various miseries of life, which people bring upon themselves by negligence and folly, and might have avoided by proper care, are instances of this : Which miseries are beforehand, just as contin-
Chap. 4. Of a State of Trial. 8 1
gent and undetermined as their conduct:, and left to be determined by it.
These observations are an answer to the objeclions against the credibility of a state of trial, as implying temptations, and real danger of miscarrying with regard to our general interest, under the moral government of God : and they shew, that, if we are at all to be considered in such a capacity, and as having such an interest ; the general analogy of Providence must lead us to apprehend ourselves in danger of miscarrying, in different degrees, as to this interest, by our negle(5^ing to adl the proper part belonging to us in that capacity. For we have a present interest, under the government of God which we experience here upon earth. And this interest, as it is not forced upon us, so neither is it offered to our acceptance, but to our acquisition ; in such sort, as that we are in danger of miffing it, by means of temptations to negle(5l, or a(5l contrary to it; and without attention and self-denial, must and do mif^ of it. It is then perfe(5lly credible, that this may be our case, with respect to that chief and final good, which Religion proposes to us.
82 Of a State of Part i.
CHAPTER V.
Of a State of Probation, as intended for moral Discipline and Improvement.
ROM the consideration of our being in a probation-state, of so much difficulty and hazard, naturally arises the ques- tion, how we came to be placed in it. But such a general inquiry as this, would be found involved in insuperable difficulties. For, though some of these difficulties would be les- sened by observing, that all wickedneft is voluntary, as is implied in its very notion ; and that many of the miseries of life have apparent good effec^ts : yet, when we consider other circumstances belonging to both, and what must be the consequence of the former in a life to come ; it cannot but be acknow- ledged plain folly and presumption, to pretend to give an account of the whole reasons of this matter : the whole reasons of our being allotted a condition, out of which so much wickedneft and misery, so circumstanced, would in fa^i arise. Whether it be not beyond our faculties, not only to find out, but even to understand, the whole account of this ; or, though we should be supposed capable of under- standing it, yet, whether it would be of service or prejudice to us to be informed of it ; is impoftible to say. But as our present condition can in no wise be shewnlnconsistent with the perfe(5l moral govern- ment of God : so Religion teaches us we were placed in it, that we might qualify ourselves, by the prac-
Chap. 5. Moral Discipline. 83
tice of virtue, for another state which is to follow it. And this, though but a partial answer, a very partial one indeed, to the inquiry now mentioned ; yet, is a more satisfacftory answer to another, which is of real, and of the utmost importance to us to have answered : the inquiry, What is our busineft hereT", The known end then, why we are placed in a state 1 of so much affli6lion, hazard, and difficulty, is, our / improvement in virtue and piety, as the requisite , / qualification for a future state of security and hap- pinei^. —
Now the beginning of life, considered as an education for mature age in the present world, ap- pears plainly, at first sight, analogous to this our trial for a future one : the former being in our tem- poral capacity, what the latter is in our religious capacity. But some observations common to both of them, and a more distin6l consideration of each, will more distin(51;ly shew the extent and force of the analogy between them ; and the credibility, which arises from hence, as well as from the nature of the thing, that th^4)r£s.Q^ntJ[ife was intended Jo be a state of discipline for a future one.
I. Every species of creatures is, we see, designed for a particular way of life ; to which, the nature, the capacities, temper, and qualifications, of each species, are as neceftary, as their external circum- stances. Both come into the notion of such state, or particular way of life, and are constituent parts of it. Change a man's capacities or chara6ler to the degree, in wTuch it is conceivable they may be changed ; and he would be altogether incapable of a human course of life, and human happineft : as incapable, as if, his nature continuing unchanged, he were placed in a world, where he had no sphere of a61;ion, nor any obje^ls to answer his appetites, pas-
84 Of a State of Parti.
sions, and affe(5lions of any sort. One thing is set over against another, as an ancient writer expreftes it. Our nature corresponds to our external condition. Without this correspondence, there would be no pos- sibility of any such thing as human life and human happineft : which life and happineft are, therefore, a result from our nature and condition jointly : mean- ing by human life, not living in the literal sense, but the whole complex notion commonly understood by those words. So that, without determining what will be the employment and happineft, the particular life of good men hereafter ; there must be some de- terminate capacities, some neceftary chara(?i:er and qualifications, without which persons cannot but be utterly incapable of it : in like manner, as there must be some, without which men would be incapable of their present state of life. Now,
II. The constitution of human creatures, and in- deed of all creatures which come under our notice, is such, as that they are capable of naturally be- coming qualified for states of life, for which they were once wholly unqualified. In imagination we may indeed conceive of creatures, as incapable of having any of their faculties naturally enlarged, or as being unable naturally to acquire any new qualifications : But the faculties of every species known to us, are made for enlargement; for acquirements of expe- rience and habits. We find ourselves in particular indued with capacities, not only of perceiving ideas, and of knowledge or perceiving truth, but also of storing up our ideas and knowledge by memory. We are capable, not only of a(5ling, and of having different momentary impref^ions made upon us ; but of getting a new facility in any kind of a(5lion, and of settled alterations in our temper or character. The power of the two last is the power of habits.
Chap. 5. Moral Discipline. 85
But neither the perception of ideas, nor knowledge of any sort, are habits ; though absolutely necef^ary to the forming of them. However, apprehension, reason, memory, which are the capacities of acquir- ing knowledge, are greatly improved by exercise. Whether the word habit is applicable to all these improvements, and in particular how far the powers of memory and of habits may be powers of the same nature, I shall not inquire. But that perceptions come into our minds readily and of course, by means of their having been there before, seems a thing of the same sort, as readinef^ in any particular kind of action, proceeding from being accustomed to it. And aptneft to recolledl; practical observations of service in our condu6l, is plainly habit in many cases. There are habits of perception, and habits of adlion. An instance of the former, is our constant and even involuntary readineft, in correcting the imprefsions of our sight concerning magnitudes and distances, so as to substitute judgment in the room of sensation imperceptibly to ourselves. And it seems as if all other afsociations of ideas not naturally connected, might be called paftive habits ; as properly as our readineft in understanding languages, upon sight or hearing of words. And our readinefs in speaking and writing them is an instance of the latter, of active habits. For distinc^nef^, we may consider habits, as belonging to the body, or the mind: and the latter will be explained by the former. Under the former are comprehended all bodily a(5livities or motions whether graceful or unbecoming, which are owing to use : under the latter, general habits of life and conduct; such as those of obedience and sub- mifsion to authority, or to any particular person ; those of veracity, justice, and charity; those of at- tention, industry, self-government, envy, revenge.
86 Ofa State of Parti.
And habits of this latter kind seem produced by repeated a(fl;s, as well as the former. And in like j manner as habits belonging to the body are produced 1 by external ac^ts : so habits of the mind are produced ', by the exertion of inward practical principles, i. e. \ by carrying them into a6i, or a(5ling upon them ; the principles of obedience, of veracity, justice, and charity. Nor can those habits be formed by any external course of allien, otherwise than as it pro- ceeds from these principles : because it is only these inward principles exerted, which are strictly ac^ts of obedience, of veracity, of justice, and of charity. So likewise habits of attention, industry, self-govern- ment, are in the same manner acquired by exercise ; and habits of envy and revenge by indulgence, whether in outward d.6i, or in thought and intention, i.e. inward a6l: for such intention is an a(5l. Reso- lutions also to do well, are properly a.6is. And endeavouring to enforce upon our own minds, a practical sense of virtue, or to beget in others that pra6lical sense of it, which a man really has himself, is a virtuous a6i. All these, therefore, may and will contribute towards forming good habits. But going over the theory of virtue in one's thoughts, talking well, and drawing fine pi(5lures, of it ; this is so far from neceftarily or certainly conducing to form an habit of it, in him who thus employs himself; that it may harden the mind in a contrary course, and render it gradually more insensible, i. e. form an habit of insensibility, to all moral considerations. For, from our very faculty of habits, paftive impreftions, by being repeated, grow weaker. Thoughts, by often paf^ing through the mind, are felt lei^ sensibly : Being accustomed to danger, begets intrepidity, i. e. lef^ens fear ; to distreft, leftens the pai^ion of pity ; to instances of others' mortality, leftens the sensible
Chap. 5. Moral Discipline. 87
apprehension of our own. And from these two ob- servations together ; that practical habits are formed and strengthened by repeated a6ls, and that paftive impref^ions grow weaker by being repeated upon us ; it must follow, that a(51ive habits may be gra- dually forming and strengthening, by a course of adling upon such and such motives and excitements, whilst these motives and excitements themselves are, by proportionable degrees, growing lef^ sen- sible, i. e. are continually left and left sensibly felt, even as the active habits strengthen. And experience confirms this : For a(51ive principles, at the very time that they are left lively in perception than they were, are found to be, somehow, vv^rought more thoroughly into the temper and chara6ler, and become more effecftual in influencing our pra6lice. The three things just mentioned may afford instances of it. Perception of danger, is a natural excitement of paftive fear, and active caution : And by being inured to danger, habits of the latter are gradually wrought, at the same time that the former gradually leftens. Perception of distreft in others, is a na- tural excitement, paftively to pity, and acftively to relieve it : But let a man set himself to attend to, inquire out, and relieve distrefted persons, and he cannot but grow left and left sensibly affe(5led with the various miseries of life, with which he must become acquainted; when yet, at the same time, benevolence, considered not as a paftion, but as a pracftical principle of a(9:ion, will strengthen : and whilst he paftively compaftionates the distrefted left, he will acquire a greater aptitude actively to aftist and befriend them. So also at the same time that the daily instances of men's dying around us, give us daily a left sensible paftive feeling or apprehension of our own mortality, such instances greatly con-
88 Ofa State of Parti.
tribute to the strengthening a pra(51ical regard to it in serious men ; i. e. to forming an habit of adling with a constant view to it. And this seems again further to shew, that paftive impreftions made upon our minds by admonition, experience, example, though they may have a remote efficacy, and a very great one, towards forming a(51ive habits, yet, can have this efficacy no otherwise than by inducing us to such a course of ac^tion : and that it is, not being affedled so and so, but ac^ting, which forms those habits : Only it must be always remembered, that real endeavours to enforce good imprel^ions upon ourselves, are a species of virtuous action. Nor do we know how far it is poi^ible, in the nature of things, that effe(5ts should be wrought in us at once, equiva- lent to habits, i. e. what is wrought by use and ex- ercise. However, the thing insisted upon is, not what may be poftible, but what is in fa(ft the appoint- ment of Nature : which is, that active habits are to be formed by exercise. Their progreft may be so gradual, as to be imperceptible of its steps : It may be hard to explain the faculty, by which we are capable of habits, throughout its several parts ; and to trace it up to its original, so as to distinguish it from all others in our mind : And it seems as if con- trary effec^ls were to be ascribed to it. But the thing in general, that our nature is formed to yield, in some such manner as this, to use and exercise, is matter of certain experience.
Thus, by accustoming ourselves to any course of a(9:ion, we get an aptnef^ to go on, a facility, readi- nei^, and often pleasure, in it. The inclinations which rendered us averse to it grow weaker : the difficul- ties in it, not only the imaginary but the real ones, leften : the reasons for it, offer themselves of course to our thoughts upon all occasions : and the least
Chap, 5. Moral Discipline. 89
glimpse of them is sufficient to make us go on, in a course of adlion, to which we have been accustomed. And practical principles appear to grow stronger, absolutely in themselves, by exercise ; as well as relatively, with regard to contrary principles ; which, by being accustomed to submit, do so habitually, and of course. And thus a new character, in several respe(?is, may be formed; and many habitudes of life, not given by nature, but which nature directs us to acquire.
III. Indeed we may be allured, that we should never have had these capacities of improving by experience, acquired knowledge, and habits, had they not been neceftary, aod intended to be made use of. And accordingly we find them so necef^ary, and so much intended, that without them we should be utterly incapable of that, which was the end for which we were made, considered in our temporal capacity only : the employments and satisfactions of our mature state of life.
Nature does in no wise qualify us wholly, much left at once, for this mature state of life. Even maturity of uriderstandin^ and bpdily^ stxength, are not only arrived togradually, but are also very much owing to the continued exercise of our powers of body and mind, from infancy. But if we suppose a person brought into the world with both these in maturity, as far as this is conceivable; he would plainly at first be as unqualified for the human life of mature age, as an idiot. He would be in a man- ner distra(5led, with astonishment, and apprehension, and curiosity, and suspense : Nor can one gueft, how long it would be, before he would be familiar- ized to himself and the objects about him enough, even to set himself to anything. It may be ques- tioned too, whether the natural information of his
90 Of a State of Part i.
sight and hearing, would be of any manner of use at all to him in adling, before experience. And it seems, that men would be strangely headstrong and self-willed, and disposed to exert themselves with an impetuosity, which would render society insupport- able, and the living in it impracticable ; were it not for some acquired moderation and self-government, some aptitude and readinef^ in restraining them- selves, and concealing their sense of things. Want of everything of this kind which is learnt, would render a man as incapable of society, as want of language would: or as his natural ignorance of any of the particular employments of life, would render him incapable of providing himself with the com- mon conveniences, or supplying the necef^ary wants of it. In these respe61:s, and probably in many more, of which we have no particular notion, mankind is left, by nature, an unformed, unfinished creature ; utterly deficient and unqualified, before the acquire- ment of knowledge, experience, and habits, for that mature state of life, which was the end of his crea- tion, considering him as related only to this world. But then, as Nature has endued us with a power of supplying those deficiencies, by acquired know- ledge, experience, and habits : so likewise we are placed in a condition, in infancy, childhood, and youth, fitted for it; fitted for our acquiring those qualifications of all sorts, which we stand in need of in mature age. Hence children, from their very birth, are daily growing acquainted with the objec^ts about them, with the scene in which they are placed, and to have a future part ; and learning somewhat or other, neceftary to the performance of it. The subordinations, to which they are accustomed in domestic life, teach them self-government in com- mon behaviour abroad, and prepare them for sub-
Chap. ^. Moral Discipline. 91
je(5lion and obedience to civil autliority. WTiat paftes before their eyes, and daily happens to them, gives them experience, caution against treachery and de- ceit, together with numberleft little rules of a<Si\on and condu(5l, which we could not live without ; and which are learnt so insensibly and so perfe(5lly, as to be mistaken perhaps for instin^l : though they are the effecft of long experience and exercise ; as much so as language, or knowledge in particular busineft, or the qualifications and behaviour belonging to the several ranks and profeftions. Thus the beginning^ of our days is adapted to be, and is, a state of education in the theory and practice of mature life. We are much agisted in it by example, instruction, and the care of others ; but a great deal is left to ourselves to do. And of this, as part is done easify and of course ; so part requires diligence and care, the voluntary foregoing many things which we de- sire, and setting ourselves to what we should have no inclination to, but for the neceftity or expedience of it. For, that labour and industry, which the station of so many absolutely requires, they would be greatly unqualified for, in maturity ; as those in other stations would be, for any other sorts of appli- cation ; if both were not accustomed to them in their youth. And according as persons behave them- selves, in the general education which all go through, and in the particular ones adapted to particular em- ployments ; their chara(fi:er is formed, and made appear ; they recommend themselves more or left; and are capable of, and placed in, different stations in the society of mankind.
The former part of life then, is to be considered f as an important opportunity, which Nature puts into ; our hands ; and which, when lost, is not to be re- \ covered. And our being placed in a state of
92 Of a State of Part i.
discipline throughout this life, for another world, is a providential disposition of things, exa(5lly of the same kind, as our being placed in a state of disci- pline during childhood, for mature age. Our con- dition in both respe^ls is uniform and of a piece, and comprehended under one and the same general law of Nature.
And if we were not able at all to discern, how or
\ in what way the present life could be our prepara- tion for another ; this would be no objection against the credibility of its being so. For we do not discern, how food and sleep contribute to the growth of the body : nor could have any thought that they would, before we had experience. Nor do children at all think, on the one hand, that the sports and exercises, to which they are so much addicfled, contribute to their health and growth ; nor on the other hand, of the neceftity which there is for their being restrained in them : Nor are they capable of understanding the use of many parts of discipline, which neverthelef^ they must be made to go through, in order to qualify them for the busineft of mature age. Were we not able then to discover, in what respects the present life could form us for a future one : yet nothing would be more supposable than that it might, in
^^ some respects or other, from the general analogy of Providence. And this, for aught I see, might reasonably be said, even though we should not take in the consideration of God's moral government over the world. But,
IV. Take in this consideration, and consequently, that the charadler of virtue and piety is a necef^ary qualification for the future state ; and then we may distinctly see, how, and in what respe(9:s the present life may be a preparation for it : since we want, and are capable of, improvement in that charaSier, by
Chap. 5. Moral Discipline. 93
moral and religious habits ; and the present life is Jit to be a state of discipline for such improvement : In like manner as we have already observed, how, and in what respe6ls, infancy, childhood, and youth, are a neceftary preparation, and a natural state of discipline, for mature age.
Nothing which we at present see, would lead us to the thought of a solitary ina(5live state hereafter : but, if we judge at all from the analogy of Nature, we must suppose, according to the Scripture account of it, that it will be a community. And there is no shadow of anything unreasonable in conceiving, though there be no analogy for it, that this com- munity will be, as the Scripture represents it, under the more immediate, or, if such an expreftion may be used, the more sensible government of God. Nor is our ignorance, what will be the employments of this happy community, nor our consequent igno- rance, what particular scope or occasion there will be for the exercise of veracity, justice, and charity, amongst the members of it with regard to each other ; any proof, that there will be no sphere of exercise for those virtues. Much left, if that were poftible, is our ignorance any proof, that there will be no occasion for that frame of mind, or chara(9:er, which is formed by the daily prac^lice of those particular virtues here, and which is a result from it. This at least must be owned in general, that, as the govern- ment established in the universe is moral, the cha- racter of virtue and piety must, in some way or other, be the condition of our happineft, or the qualifica- tion for it.
Now from what is above observed, concerning our natural power of habits, it is easy to see, that we are capable of moral improvement by discipline. And how greatly we want it, need not be proved to
94 Ofa State of Parti.
any one who is acquainted with the great wickedneft of mankind ; or even with those imperfections, which the best are conscious of But it is not perhaps distinctly attended to by every one, that the occasion which human creatures have for discipHne, to im- prove in them this charaCler of virtue and piety, is to be traced up higher than to exceft in the paftions, by indulgence and habits of vice. Mankind, and perhaps all finite creatures, from the very constitu- tion of their nature, before habits of virtue, are de- ficient, and in danger of deviating from what is right : and therefore stand in need of virtuous habits, for a security against this danger. For, together with the general principle of moral understanding, we have in our inward frame various aifeClions towards par- ticular external obje(5ls. These affeClions are na- turally, and of right, subjeCl to the government of the moral principle, as to the occasions upon which they may be gratified ; as to the times, degrees, and manner, in which the objeCIs of them may be pur- sued : But then the principle of virtue can neither excite them, nor prevent their being excited. On the contrary, they are naturally felt, when the ob- jeCls of them are present to the mind, not only before all consideration, whether they can be obtained by lawful means, but after it is found they cannot. For the natural objeCls of affection continue so; the neceftaries, conveniences, and pleasures of life, re- main naturally desirable ; though they cannot be obtained innocently : nay, though they cannot pofti- bly be obtained at all. And when the objects of any affeClion whatever cannot be obtained without unlaw- ful means ; but may be obtained by them : such af- feClion, though its being excited, and its continuing some time in the mind, be as innocent as it is natural and necef^ary ; yet cannot but be conceived to have
Chap. 5. Moral Discipline. 95
a tendency to incline persons to venture upon such unlawful means : and therefore must be conceived as putting them in some danger of it. Now what is the general security against this danger, against their actually deviating from right '? As the danger is, so also must the security be, from within : from the practical principle of virtue.^ And the strength- ening or improving this principle, considered as practical, or as a principle of a(ftion, will lef^en the danger, or increase the security against it. And this moral principle is capable of improvement, by proper discipline and exercise : by recollecting the practical impreftions which example and experience have made upon us : and, instead of follow^ing humour and mere inclination, by continually attending to the equity and right of the case, in whatever we are en- gaged, be it in greater or left matters ; and accus- toming ourselves always to a(51; upon it ; as being itself the just and natural motive of a6lion : and as this moral course of behaviour, must neceftarily,
' It may be thought, that sense of interest would as effedlu- ally restrain creatures from doing wrong. But if by a sense of interest is meant a speculative convidtion or belief, that such and, such indulgence would occasion them greater uneasinefs, upon . the whole, than satisfadtion j it is contrary to present experience ! to say, that this sense of interest is sulficient to restrain them ! from thus indulging themselves. And if by a sense of interest is'\ meant, a practical regard to what is upon the whole our happi- ] nefs : this is not only coincident with the principle of virtue os-^ moral reftitude, but is a part of the idea itself. And it is evi- dent this reasonable self-love wants to be improved, as really as any principle in our nature. For we daily see it overmatched, not only by the more boisterous pafsions, but by curiosity, fhame, love of imitation, by anything, even indolence : efpecially if the interest, the temporal interest, fuppofe, which is the end of such self-love, be at a distance. So greatly are profligate men mis- taken, when they affirm they are wholly governed by interest- ednefs and felf-love. And fo little caule is there for moralists to disclaim this principle. See pp. 75, 76.
96 Ofa State of Parti,
under divine government, be our final interest. Thus the principle of virtue, improved into an habit, of which improvement we are thus capable, will plainly be, in proportion to the strength of it, a security against the danger which finite creatures are in, from the very nature ofpropension, or particular affe6lions. This way of putting the matter, supposes particular affe^lions to remain in a future state ; which it is scarce pofsible to avoid supposing. And if they do ; we clearly see, that acquired habits of virtue and self-government may be neceftary for the regulation of them. However, though we were not distinctly to take in this supposition, but to speak only in ge- neral ; the thing really comes to the same. For habits of virtue, thus acquired by discipline, are im- provement in virtue : and improvement in virtue, must be advancement in happineft, if the govern- ment of the universe be moral.
From these things we may observe, and it will farther shew this our natural and original need of being improved by discipline, how^ it comes to paft, that creatures made upright fall ; and that those who preserve their uprightneft, by so doing, raise them- selves to a more secure state of virtue. To say that the former is accounted for by the nature of liberty, is to say no more, than that an event's ac^tually hap- pening is accounted for by a mere poftibility of its happening. But it seems distindlly conceivable from . the very nature of particular affe(5lions or propen- sions. For, suppose creatures intended for such a particular state of life, for which such propensions were neceftary : suppose them endued with such propensions, together with moral understanding, as well including a pra61ical sense of virtue, as a spe- culative perception of it ; and that all these several principles, both natural and moral, forming an in-
Chap. 5. Moral Discipline. 97
ward constitution of mind, were in the most exacft proportion pof^ible ; i.e. in a proportion the most exactly adapted to their intended state of life : Such creatures would be made upright, or finitely perfe^l. Now particular propensions, from their very nature, must be felt, the obje(5ls of them being present ; though they cannot be gratified at all, or not with the allowance of the moral principle. But if they can be gratified without its allowance, or by contra- dialing it ; then they must be conceived to have some tendency, in how low a degree soever, yet some tendency, to induce persons to such forbidden gratification. This tendency, in some one particular propension, may be increased, by the greater fi-e- quency of occasions naturally exciting it, than of occasions exciting others. The least voluntary in- dulgence in forbidden circumstances, though but in thought, will increase this wrong tendency ; and may increase it further, till, peculiar conjunctures perhaps conspiring, it becomes effect ; and danger of devi- ating from right, ends in a(9;ual deviation from it : a danger neceftarily arising from the very nature of propension ; and which therefore could not have been prevented, though it might have been escaped, or got innocently through. The case would be, as if we were to suppose a straight path marked out for a person, in which such a degree of attention would keep him steady : but if he would not attend in this degree, any one of a thousand objects, catch- ing his eye, might lead him out of it. Now it is im- po(^ible to say, how much, even the first full overt a6l of irregularity, might disorder the inward con- stitution ; unsettle the adjustments, and alter the proportions, which formed it, and in which the up- rightnef^ of its make consisted : But repetition of irregularities would produce habits. And thus the H
98 , Of a State of Part i.
constitution would be spoiled ; and creatures made upright, become corrupt and depraved in their settled character, proportionably to their repeated irregula- rities in occasional a(fts. But on the contrary, these creatures might have improved and raised them- selves, to an higher and more secure state of virtue, by the contrary behaviour : by steadily following the moral principle, supposed to be one part of their nature ; and thus withstanding that unavoidable dan- ger of defe(5lion, which neceftarily arose from pro- pension, the other part of it. For, by thus preserv- ing their integrity for some time, their danger would leflen ; since propensions by being inured to submit, would do it more easily and of course : and their security against this leftening danger would increase; since the moral principle would gain additional strength by exercise : both which things are implied in the notion of virtuous habits. Thus then vicious indulgence, is not only criminal in itself, but also depraves the inward constitution and characfter. And virtuous self-government, is not only right in itself, but also improves the inward constitution or cha- racter : and may improve it to such a degree, that though we should suppose it impoftible, for parti- cular affections to be absolutely coincident with the moral principle ; and consequently should allow, that such creatures as have been above supposed, would for ever remain defe(5tible ; yet their danger of ac- tually deviating from right, may be almost infinitely leftened, and they fully fortified against what re- mains of it : if that may be called danger, against which, there is an adequate effe(5lual security. But still this their higher perfection may continue to consist in habits of virtue formed in a state of disci- pline, and this their more complete security remain to proceed from them. And thus it is plainly con-
Chap. 5. Moral Discipline. 99
ceivable, that creatures without blemish, as they came out of the hands of God, may be in danger of going wrong ; and so may stand in need of the se- curity of virtuous habits, additional to the moral principle wrought into their natures by Him. That which is the ground of their danger, or their want of security, may be considered as a deficiency in them, to which virtuous habits are the natural sup- ply. And as they are naturally capable of being raised and improved by discipline, it may be a thing fit and requisite, that they should be placed in cir- cumst£inces with an eye to it : in circumstances peculiarly fitted to be, to them, a state of discipline for their improvement in virtue.
But how much more strongly must this hold with respe(5l to those, who have corrupted their natures, are fallen from their original re(5litude, and whose paftions are become excef^ive by repeated violations of their inward constitution ? upright creatures may want to be improved : depraved creatures want to be renewed. Education and discipline, which may be in all degrees and sorts of gentleneft and of se- verity, is expedient for those : but must be absolutely neceftary for these. For these, discipline of the severer sort too, and in the higher degrees of it, must be neceftary, in order to wear out vicious habits ; to recover their primitive strength of self-government, which indulgence must have weakened; to repair, as well as raise into an habit, the moral principle, in order to their arriving at a secure state of virtuous happineft.
Now whoever will consider the thing, may clearly see, that the present world is peculiarly jit to be a state of discipline for this purpose, to such as will set themselves to mend and improve. For, the various temptations with which we are surrounded ;
100 Ofa State of Parti.
our experience of the deceits of wickedneft ; having been in many instances led wrong ourselves ; the great viciousnef^ of the world ; the infinite disorders consequent upon it; our being made acquainted with pain and sorrow, either from our own feeling of it, or from the sight of it in others ; these things, though some of them may indeed produce wrong effects upon our minds, yet when duly refle(9:ed upon, have, all of them, a direc?!: tendency to bring us to a settled moderation and reasonableneft of temper : the contrary both to thoughtleft levity, and also to that unrestrained self-will, and violent bent to follow present inclination, which may be observed in undisciplined minds. Such experience, as the present state affords, of the frailty of our nature ; of the boundlef^ extravagance of ungovemed paftion ; of the power which an Infinite Being has over us, by the various capacities of misery which He has given us ; in short, that kind and degree of experi- ence, which the present state affords us, that the constitution of Nature is such as to admit the pof^i- bility, the danger, and the a(5lual event, of creatures losing their innocence and happinef^, and becoming vicious and wretched ; hath a tendency to give us a practical sense of things, very different from a mere speculative knowledge, that we are liable to vice, and capable of misery. And who knows, whether the security of creatures in the highest and most settled state of perfe(51:ion, may not in part arise, from their having had such a sense of things as this, formed, and habitually fixed within them, in some state of probation. And paf^ing through the present world with that moral attention, which is necef^ary to the ailing a right part in it, may leave everlasting impref^ions of this sort upon our minds. But to be a little more distin<5l : allurements to what is wrong ;
Chap. 5. Moral Discipline. 10 1
difficulties in the discharge of our duty ; our not being able to act an uniform right part without some thought and care; and the opportunities which we have, or imagine we have, of avoiding what we dislike, or obtaining what we desire, by unlawful means, when we either cannot do it at all, or at least not so easily, by lawful ones ; These things, I. e. the snares and temptations of vice, are what render the present world peculiarly fit to be a state of discipline, to those who will preserve their in- tegrity : because they render being upon our guard, resolution, and the denial of our paftions, neceftary in order to that endV And the exercise of such particular recollection, intention of mind, and self- government, in the pracftice of virtue, has, from the make of our nature, a peculiar tendency to form habits of virtue ; as implying, not only a real, but also a more continued, and a more intense exercise of the virtuous principle ; or a more constant and a stronger effort of virtue exerted into a6i. Thus suppose a person to know himself to be in particu- lar danger, for some time, of doing anything wrong, which yet he fully resolves not to do : Continued recolle^lion, and keeping upon his guard, in order to make good his resolution, is a continued exerting of that a<5l of virtue in a high degree, which need have been, and perhaps would have been, only in- stantaneous and weak, had the temptation been so. It is indeed ridiculous to aftert, that self-denial is ei^ential to virtue and piety : But it would have been nearer the truth, though not stridlly the truth itself, to have said, that it is ef^ential to discipline and improvement. For though a<5lions materially vir- tuous, which have no sort of difficulty, but are per- fe(5lly agreeable to our particular inclinations, may pof^ibly be done only from these particular incli-
ioi Of a State of Parti.
nations, and so may not be any exercise of the principle of virtue, i. e. not be virtuous actions at all; yet on the contrary, they may be an exercise of that principle : and when they are, they have a tendency to form and fix the habit of virtue. But when the . exercise of the virtuous principle is more continued, X^ oftener repeated, and more intense ; as it must be in circumstances of danger, temptation and difficulty, of any kind and in any degree ; this tendency is in- creased proportionably, and a more confirmed habit is the consequence.
This undoubtedly holds to a certain length ; but how far it may hold, I know not. Neither our intel- lectual powers, nor our bodily strength, can be im- proved beyond such a degree : and both may be over-wrought. Pofsibly there may be somewhat analogous to this, with respect to the moral charac- ter ; which is scarce worth considering. And I mention it only, lest it should come into some per- sons' thoughts, not as an exception to the foregoing observations, which perhaps it is ; but as a confu- tation of them, which it is not. And there may be several other exceptions. Observations of this kind cannot be supposed to hold minutely, and in every case. It is enough that they hold in general. And these plainly hold so far, as that from them may be seen distin(5lly, which is all that is intended by them, ^^ that the present world is peculiarly Jit to be a state / of discipline, for our improvement in virtue and piety : in the same sense as some sciences, by re- quiring and engaging the attention, not to be sure of such persons as will not, but of such as will, set themselves to them ; are fit to form the mind to habits of attention.
Indeed the present state is so far from proving, in event, a discipline of virtue to the generality of
Chap. 5. Moral Discipline. 103
men, that, on the contrary, they seem to make it a discipline of vice. And the viciousneft of the world is, in different ways, the great temptation, which renders it a state of virtuous discipline, in the degree it is, to good men. The whole end, and the whole occasion, of mankind's being placed in such a state as the present, is not pretended to be accounted for. That which appears amidst the general corruption, is, that there are some persons, who, having within them the principle of amendment and recovery, attend to and follow the notices of virtue and religion, be they more clear or more obscure, which are afforded them ; and that the present world is, not only an exercise of virtue in these persons, but an exercise of it in ways and degrees, peculiarly apt to improve it : apt to improve it, in some respe(?l;s, even beyond what would be, by the exercise of it required in a perfe(9:ly virtuous society, or in a society of equally imperfe(5l virtue with themselves. But that the present world does not a6lually become a state of moral discipline to many, even to the generality, i. e. that they do not improve or grow better in it,\ cannot be urged as a proof, that it was not intended ' for moral discipline, by any who at all observe the Analogy of Nature. For, of the numerous seeds of vegetables and bodies of animals, which are adapted and put in the way, to improve to such a point or state of natural maturity and perfedlion, we do not see perhaps that one in a million a(9:ually does. Far the greatest part of them decay before they are im- proved to it; and appear to be absolutely destroyed. Yet no one, who does not deny all final causes, will deny, that those seeds and bodies, which do attain to that point of maturity and perfe(9:ion, answer the end for which they were really designed by Nature ; and therefore that Nature designed them for such
104 Of a State of Part i.
perfe(9:ion. And I cannot forbear adding, though it is not to the present purpose, that the appearance of such an amazing waste in Nature, with respe(?i: to these seeds and bodies, by foreign causes, is to us as unaccountable, as, what is much more terrible, the present and future ruin of so many moral agents by themselves, i. e. by vice.
Against this whole notion of moral discipline, it may be obje(?ted, in another way ; that so far as a course of behaviour, materially virtuous, proceeds '^ from hope and fear, so far it is only a discipline and strengthening of self-love. But doing what God commands, because he commands it, is obedience, though it proceeds from hope or fear. And a course of such obedience will form habits of it. And a con- stant regard to veracity, justice and charity, may form distin(?l; habits of these particular virtues ; and will certainly form habits of self-government, and of denying our inclinations, whenever veracity, justice or charity require it. Nor is there any foundation for this great nicety, with which some affect to dis- tinguish in this case, in order to depreciate all re- ligion proceeding from hope of fear. For, veracity, justice and charity, regard to God's authority, and to our own chief interest, are not only all three co- incident: but each of them is, in itself, a just and natural motive or principle of action. And he who begins a good life from any one of them, and per- severes in it, as he is already in some degree, so he cannot fail of becoming more and more, of that charadler, which is correspondent to the constitution of Nature as moral ; and to the relation, which God stands in to us as moral Governor of it : nor conse- quently can he fail of obtaining that happineft, which this constitution and relation neceftarily suppose conne^led with that chara(^er.
Chap. 5. Moral Discipline. 105
These several observations, concerning the a(9;ive principle of virtue and obedience to God's commands, are applicable to paftive submii^ion or resignation to his will : which is another ei^ential part of a right chara(9:er, conne(5led with the former, and very much in our power to form ourselves to. It may be im- agined, that nothing but afflictions can give occasion for, or require this virtue ; that it can have no respe(?l to, nor be any way neceftary to qualify for, a state of perfect; happineft : But it is not experience which can make us think thus. Prosperity itself, whilst anything supposed desirable is not ours, begets ex- travagant and unbounded thoughts. Imagination is altogether as much a source of discontent, as any- thing in our external condition. It is indeed true, that there can be no scope for patience, when sor- row shall be no more : but there may be need of a temper of mind, which shall have been formed by patience. For, though self-love, considered merely as an a(5live principle leading us to pursue our chief interest, cannot but be uniformly coincident with the principle of obedience to^ God's commands, our in- terest being rightly understood ; because this obe- dience, and the pursuit of our own chief interest, must be in every case one and the same thing : yet it may be questioned, whether self-love, considered merely as the desire of our own interest or happi- nef^, can, from its nature, be thus absolutely and uniformly coincident with the will of God ; any more than particular affe(51;ions can^: coincident in such sort, as not to be liable to be excited upon occasions and in degrees, impof^ible to be gratified consistently with the constitution of things, or the divine ap- pointments. So that habits of resignation may, upon
io6 Of a State of Parti,
this account, be requisite for all creatures ; habits, I say ; which signify what is formed by use. How- ever, in general it is obvious, that both self-love and particular affecflions in human creatures, considered only as paftive feelings, distort and rend the mind ; and therefore stand in need of discipline. Now denial of those particular affe<9:ions, in a course of active virtue and obedience to God's will, has a tendency to moderate them ; and seems also to have a ten- dency to habituate the mind, to be easy and satis- fied with that degree of happinei^ which is allotted us, i. e. to moderate self-love. But the proper discipline for resignation, is afflidlion. For a right behaviour under that trial ; recolleding ourselves so as to consider it in the view,in which Religion teaches us to consider it, as from the hand of God ; receiving it as what he appoints, or thinks proper to permit, in his world and under his government ; this will habituate the mind to a dutiful submiftion. And such submiftion, together with the a(5live principle of obedience, make up the temper and chara<5ler in us, which answers to his sovereignty ; and which absolutely belongs to the condition of our being, as dependent creatures. Nor can it be said, that this is only breaking the mind to a submiftion to mere power ; for mere power may be accidental, and precarious, and usurped : But it is forming within ourselves the temper of resignation to his rightful authority, who is, by nature, supreme over all.
Upon the whole : such a chara(^er, and such qualifications, are neceftaryfor a mature state of life in the present world, as Nature alone does in no wise bestow ; but has put it upon us, in great part, to acquire, in our progref^ from one stage of life to another, from childhood to mature age : put it upon us to acquire them, by giving us capacities of doing
Chap. 5. Moral Discipline. 107
it, and by placing us, in the beginning of life, in a condition fit for it. And this is a general Analogy to our condition in the present world, as in a state of moral discipline for another. It is in vain then to object against the credibility of the present life's being intended for this purpose, that all the trouble and the danger, unavoidably accompanying such disci- pline, might have been saved us, by our being made at once the creatures and the chara(fi:ers, which we were to be. For we experience, that what we were to be, was to be the effecft o{what we would do: and that the general condu(5l of Nature is, not to save us trouble or danger, but to make us capable of going through them, and to put it upon us to do so. Ac- quirements of our own, experience and habits, are the natural supply to our deficiencies, and security against our dangers : since it is as plainly natural to set ourselves to acquire the qualifications, as the external things, which we stand in need of. In particular, it is as plainly a general law of Nature, that we should, with regard to our temporal interest, form and cul- tivate practical principles within us, by attention, use and discipline, as anything whatever is a natural law; chiefly in the beginning of life, but also throughout the whole course of it. And the alternative is left to our choice : either to improve ourselves, and better our condition: or, in default of such improvement, to remain deficient and wretched. It is therefore perfectly credible, from the Analogy of Nature, that the same may be our case, with respe(?i: to the hap- pinei^ of a future state, and the qualifications ne- cef^ary for it.
There is a third thing, which may seem implied in the present world's being a state of probation ; that it is a theatre of action, for the manifestation of persons' characflers, with respe(9: to a future one :
io8 Of a State of Moral Discipline. Part i.
not to be sure to an All -knowing Being, but to his creation or part of it. This may, perhaps, be only a consequence of our being in a state of probation in the other senses. However, it is not impof^ible, that men's shewing and making manifest, what is in their heart, what their real character is, may have respe(5l to a future life, in ways and manners which we are not acquainted with : particularly it may be a means, for the Author of nature does not appear to do anything without means, of their being dis- posed of suitably to their chara(5lers ; and of its being known to the creation, by way of example, that they are thus disposed of But not to enter upon any conjedlural account of this ; one may just mention, that the manifestation of persons' chara(5lers, contri- butes very much, in various ways, to the carrying on a great part of that general course of Nature, re- specfiing mankind, which comes under our observa- tion at present. I shall only add, that probation, in both these senses, as well as in that treated of in the foregoing chapter, is implied in moral government : since by persons' behaviour under it, their charac- ters cannot but be manifested, and if they behave well, improved.
Chap. 6. Opinion of Ncccjsity, &c. 109
CHAPTER VI.
Of the Opinion of Necefiity, considered as influencing Pra6iice.
HROUGHOUT the foregoing treatise it appears, that the condition of man- kind, considered as inhabitants of this world only, and under the govern- ment of God which we experience ; is greatly analogous to our condition, as designed for another world, or under that farther government, which Religion teaches us. If therefore any af^ert, as a fatalist must, that the opinion of universal ne- ceftity is reconcileable with the former ; there im- mediately arises a question in the way of analogy, whether he must not also own it to be reconcileable with the latter, i. e. with the system of Religion itself, and the proof of it. The reader then will observe, that the question now before us is not ab- solute, Whether the opinion of fate be reconcileable with Religion; but hypothetical. Whether, upon sup- position of its being reconcileable with the constitu- tion of Nature, it be not reconcileable with Religion also : Or, what pretence a fatalist, not other persons, but a fatalist, has to conclude from his opinion, that there can be no such thing as Religion. And as the puzzle and obscurity, which must unavoidably arise from arguing upon so absurd a supposition as that of universal neceftity, will, I fear, easily be seen ; it will, I hope, as easily be excused.
no Of the opinion of Neccjsity, Parti.
But since it has been all along taken for granted, as a thing proved, that there is an intelligent Author of nature, or natural Governor of the world ; and since an obje(5lion may be made against the proof of this, from the opinion of universal neceftity, as it may be supposed, that such necef^ity will itself account for the origin and preservation of all things : it is requisite, that this objet^tion be distinctly answered; or that it be shewn, that a fatality, supposed con- sistent with what we certainly experience, does not destroy the proof of an intelligent Author and Gover- nor of nature ; before we proceed to consider, whether it destroys the proof of a moral Governor of it or of our being in a state of Religion.
Now, when it is said by a fatalist, that the whole constitution of Nature, and the a(?l:ions of men, that everything, and every mode and circumstance of everything, is neceftary and could not poftibly have been otherwise ; it is to be observed, that this ne- cei^ity does not exclude deliberation, choice, pre- ference, and a(?t;ing from certain principles, and to certain ends : because all this is matter of undoubted experience, acknowledged by all, and what every man may, every moment, be conscious of And from hence it follows, that necef^ity, alone and of itself, is in no sort an account of the constitution of Nature, and how things came to he and to continue as they are; but only an account of this circumstance, relat- ing to their origin and continuance, that they could not have been otherwise, than they are and have been. The aftertion that everything is by neceftity of Nature, is not an answer to the question ; Whether the world came into being as it is, by an intelligent agent forming it thus, or not : But to quite another question ; Whether it came into being as it is, in that way and manner which we call necejlarily, or in
Chap.6. Considered as influencing Pradice. Ill
that way and manner which we caW freely. For sup- pose farther, that one who was a fatalist, and one who kept to his natural sense of things, and be- lieved himself a free agent, were disputing together, and vindicating their respedlive opinions ; and they should happen to instance in a house ; they would agree, that it w^as built by an architecfi:. Their dif- ference concerning neceftity and freedom, would occasion no difference of judgment concerning this ; but only concerning another matter ; whether the architect built it necei^arily or freely. Suppose then they should proceed to inquire concerning the con- stitution of Nature : in a lax way of speaking, one of them might say, it was by neceftity ; and the other by freedom : But if they had any meaning to their words, as the latter must mean a free agent, so the former must at length be reduced to mean an agent, whether he would say one or more, ailing by neceftity : for abstracfl: notions can do nothing. Indeed we ascribe to God a necefsary existence, uncaused by any agent. For we find within our- selves the idea of infinity, i. e. immensity and eter- nity, impof^ible, even in imagination, to be removed out of being. We seem to discern intuitively, that there must, and cannot but be somewhat, external to ourselves, answering this idea, or the archetype of it. And from hence (for this abstract, as much as any other, implies a concrete) we conclude, that there is and cannot but be, an infinite, and immense Eternal Being existing, prior to all design contri- buting to his existence, and exclusive of it. And from the scantinef^ of language, a manner of speak- ing has been introduced ; that necef^ity is the foun- dation, the reason, the account of the existence of God. But it is not alleged, nor can it be at all in- tended, that everything exists as it does, by this kind
112 Of the Opinion of Necejsity, Parti.
of neceftity ; a neceftity antecedent in Nature to de- sign : it cannot, I say, be meant that everything ex- ists as it does, by this kind of necef^ity, upon several accounts \ and particularly because it is admitted, that design, in the a(?lions of men, contributes to many alterations in Nature. For if any deny this, I shall not pretend to reason with them.
From these things it follows ; First, That when a fatalist afterts, that everything is hy necejlity, he must mean, by an agent a6iing necejlarity ; he must I say mean this, for I am very sensible, he would not choose to mean it : And secondly, That the ne- ceftity, by which such an agent is supposed to ac^, does not exclude intelligence and design. So that, were the system of fatality admitted ; it would just as much account for the formation of the world, as the structure of an house, and no more. Neceftity as much requires and supposes a neceftary agent, as freedom requires and supposes a free agent, to be the former of the world. And the appearances of design and of final causes in the constitution of Nature, as really prove this a(5ling agent, to be an intelligent designer, or to 3i6i from choice ; upon the scheme of neceftity, supposed poftible, as upon that of freedom.
It appearing thus, that the notion of necef^ity does not destroy the proof that there is an intelligent Author of nature and natural Governor of the world; the present question, which the analogy before men- tioned' suggests, and which, I think it will answer, is this : Whether the opinion of necel^ity, supposed consistent with pof^ibility, with the constitution of the world, and the natural government which we experience exercised over it ; destroys all reasonable
' p. 109.
Chap. 6. Considered as influencing Pra6!ice. 113
ground of belief, that we are in a state of Religion: or wliether that opinion be reconcileable with Re- ligion ; with the system, and the proof of it.
Suppose then a fatalist to educate any one, from his youth up, in his own principles ; that the child should reason upon them, and conclude, that since he cannot pof^ibly behave otherwise than he does, he is not a subject of blame or commendation, nor can deserve to be rewarded or punished : Imagine him to eradicate the very perceptions of blame and commendation out of his mind, by means of this system ; to form his temper, and chara(5ler, and behaviour to it ; and from it to judge of the treatment he w^as to expedl, say, from reasonable men, upon his coming abroad into the world : as the fatalist judges from this system, what he is to expe(5l from the Author of nature, and with regard to a future state. I cannot forbear stopping here to ask, whether any one of common sense w^ould think fit, that a child should be put upon these speculations, and be left to apply them to practice. And a man has little pretence to reason, who is not sensible, that we are all children in speculations of this kind. How^- ever, the child would doubtleft be highly delighted to find himself freed from the restraints of fear and shame, with which his play-fellows were fettered and embarrafsed ; and highly conceited in his su- perior know^ledge, so far beyond his years. But conceit and vanity would be the least bad part of the influence, which these principles must have, when thus reasoned and acted upon, during the course of his education. He must either be allowed to go on and be the plague of all about him, and himself too, even to his own destru(9:ion : or else correction must be continually made use of, to supply the want of those natural perceptions of blame and commen- I
114 Of the Opinion of Necejsity, Parti,
dation, which we have supposed to be removed ; and to give him a pra(5lical impreftion, of what he had reasoned himself out of the belief of, that he was in fa(5l an accountable child, and to be punished for doing what he was forbid. It is therefore in re- ality impoftible, but that the correction which he must meet with, in the course of his education, must convince him, that if the scheme he was instru6led in were not false ; yet that he reasoned inconclu- sively upon it, and somehow or other misapplied it to practice and common life : As what the fatalist experiences of the condu61: of Providence at present, ought in all reason to convince him, that this scheme is misapplied, when applied to the subject of ReH- gion.^ But supposing the child's temper could re- main still formed to the system, and his expe(5lation of the treatment he was to have in the world be regulated by it ; so as to expecft that no reasonable man would blame or punish him, for anything which he should do, because he could not help doing it : Upon this supposition, it is manifest he would, upon his coming abroad into the world, be insupportable to society, and the treatment which he would receive from it, would render it so to him ; and he could not fail of doing somewhat, very soon, for which he would be delivered over into the hands of civil justice. And thus, in the end, he would be convinced of the ob- ligations he was under to his wise instructor. Or suppose this scheme of fatality, in any other way, applied to pra(5tice, such practical application of it, will be found equally absurd ; equally fallacious in a practical sense : For instance, that if a man be destined to live such a time, he shall live to it, though he take no care of his own preservation ; or
2 P. 125.
Chap. 6. Considered as influencing Pradice. 115
if he be destined to die before that time, no care can prevent it : therefore all care about preserving one's life is to be negle(5led : which is the fallacy instanced in by the ancients. But now on the contrary, none of these pra(5lical absurdities can be drawn, from reasoning upon the supposition, that we are free ; but all such reasoning with regard to the common affairs of life, is justified by experience. And there-^ fore, though it were admitted that this opinion of necef^ity were speculatively true ; yet, with regard to pra(5fi<±, it is as if it were false, so far as our ex- perience reaches ; that is, to the whole of our pre- sent life. For, the constitution of the present world, and the condition in which we are actually placed, is, as if we were free. And it may perhaps justly be concluded, that since the whole procef^ of action, through every step of it, suspense, deliberation, in- clining one way, determining, and at last doing as we determine, is as if we were free, therefore we are so. But the thing here insisted upon is, that under the present natural government of the world, we find we are treated and dealt with, as if we were free, prior to all consideration whether we are or not. Were this opinion therefore of necef^ity admitted to be ever so true ; yet such is in facl: our' condition and the natural course of things, that whenever we apply it to life and pra(9:ice, this ap- plication of it, always misleads us, and cannot but mislead us, in a most dreadful manner, with regard to our present interest. And how can people think themselves so very secure then, that the same ap- plication of the same opinion may not mislead them also, in some analogous manner, with respe(5t to a future, a more general and more important interest? For, Rehgion being a practical subje(9;; and the Analogy of Nature shewing us, that we have not
Ii6 Of the Opinion of Necejsity, Parti,
faculties to apply this opinion, were it a true one, to .pracftical subjects ; whenever we do apply it to the subject of Religion, and thence conclude, that we are free from its obligations, it is plain this conclusion bannot be depended upon. There will still remain just reason to think, whatever appearances are, that we deceive ourselves ; in somewhat of a like man- ner, as when people fancy they can draw contra- dictory conclusions from the idea of infinity.
From these things together, the attentive reader will see it follows, that if upon supposition of freedom the evidence of Religion be conclusive, it remains so, upon supposition of necei^ity ; because the notion of neceftity is not applicable to pracflical subje(5ls -.i.e. with respe(5l to them, is as if it were not true. Nor does this contain any refle(9:ion upon reason ; but only upon what is unreasonable. For to pretend to act upon reason, in opposition to pra(?i:ical principles, which the Author of our nature gave us to a6l upon ; and to pretend to apply our reason to subjects, with regard to which, our own short views, and even our experience, will shew us, it cannot be depended upon ; and such, at best, the subje(?l; of necefkity must be ; this is vanity, conceit, and unreasonableneft.
But this is not all. For we find within ourselves a will, and are conscious of a chara(51er. Now if this, in us, be reconcileable with fate, it is reconcileable with it, in the Author of nature. And besides, na- tural government and final causes, imply a character and a will in the Governor and Designer ; ^ a will con- cerning the creatures whom he governs. The Au- thor of nature then being certainly by some cha-
^ By iv'dl and charaBer is meant that, which, in fpeaking of men, we should exprefs, not only by these words, but also by the words, temper^ taste, dispositions, pra6iical principles, that ivhole frame ofmind,from'whence ine a£i in one manner rather than another.
Chap,6. Considered as influencing Practice. 117
ra(?l;er or other, notwithstanding neceftity ; it is evi- dent this nece{^ity is as reconcileable with the parti- cular chara(?ter of benevolence, veracity, and justice in him, which attributes are the foundation of Reli- gion, as with any other charac^ter : since we find this necef^ity no more hinders men from being benevo- lent, than cruel ; true, than faithleft ; just, than un- just ; or if the fatalist pleases, what we call unjust. For it is said indeed, that what, upon supposition of freedom, w^ould be just punishment ; upon supposi- tion of necefsity, becomes manifestly unjust : because it is punishment inflidled for doing that, which per- sons could not avoid doing. As if the necef^ity, which is supposed to destroy the injustice of murder, for instance, would not also destroy the injustice of pun- ishing it. However, as little to the purpose as this objection is in itself, it is very much to the purpose to observe from it, how the notions of justice and in- justice remain, even whilst we endeavour to suppose them removed ; how they force themselves upon the mind, even whilst we are making suppositions de- stru(5tive of them: For there is not, perhaps, a man in the world, but would be ready to make this objec- tion at first thought.
But though it is most evident, that universal ne- ceftity, if it be reconcileable with anything, is re- concileable with that chara(5ler in the Author of na- ture, which is the foundation of Religion ; '' Yet, does " it not plainly destroy the proof, that he is of that " charadier, and consequently the proof of Religion?" By no means. For we find, that happineft and mi- sery are not our fate, in any such sense as not to be the consequences of our behaviour ; but that they are the consequences of it.'* We find God exercises the same kind of government over us, with that, which
< Ch. ii.
Ii8 Of the Opinion of Necefsity, Part i.
a father exercises over his children, and a civil ma- gistrate over his subje^ls. Now, whatever becomes of abstracft questions concerning liberty and neceftity, it evidently appears to us, that veracity and justice must be the natural rule and measure of exercising this authority or government, to a Being, who can have no competitions, or interfering of interests, with his creatures and his subje(51:s.
But as the do6lrine of liberty, though we experi- ence its truth, may be perplexed with difficulties, which run up into the most abstruse of all specula- tions ; and as the opinion of necefsity seems to be the very basis, upon which infidelity grounds itself; it may be of some use to offer a more particular proof of the obligations of Religion, which may distin(9:ly be shewn not to be destroyed by this opinion.
The proof from final causes of an intelligent Author of nature, is not affec^ted by the opinion of necefsity ; supposing necefsity a thing poftible in itself, and re- concileable with the constitution of things.^ And it is a matter of fa(5l, independent on this or any other speculation, that he governs the world by the method of rewards and punishments :^ and also that he hath given us a moral faculty, by which we distinguish between a(5lions, and approve some as virtuous and of good-desert, and disapprove others as vicious and of ill-desert.' Now this moral discernment implies, m the notion of it, a rule of a(51ion, and a rule of a very peculiar kind ; for it carries in it authority and a right of direction ; authority in such a sense, as that we cannot depart from it without being self-con- demned.® And that the di<5lates of this moral faculty, which are by nature a rule to us, are moreover the laws of God, laws in a sense including san(5lions ; may
5 Pp. no, &c. ^ Ch. ii. 7 Difsert. II.
* Seim. 2. at the Rolls.
Chap.6. Considered as influencing Pradice. 119
be thus proved. Consciousneft of a rule or guide of a(51ion, in creatures who are capable of considering it as given them by their Maker, not only raises im- mediately a sense of duty, but also a sense of secu- rity in following it, and of danger in deviating from it. A dire(9;ion of the Author of nature, given to creatures capable of looking upon it as such, is plainly a command from him : and a command from him nece{sarily includes in it, at least, an implicit promise in case of obedience, or threatening in case of dis- obedience. But then the sense or perception of good and ill desert,^ which is contained in the moral dis- cernment, renders the san(9;ion explicit, and makes it appear, as one may say, exprefsed. For since his method of government is to reward and punish ac- tions, his having annexed to some adlions an inse- parable sense of good desert, and to others of ill, this surely amounts to declaring, upon whom his pun- ishments shall be inflicted, and his rewards be be- stowed. For he must have given us this discernment and sense of things, as a presentiment of what is to be hereafter : that is, by way of information before- hand, what we are finally to expect in his world. There is then most evident ground to think, that the government of God, upon the whole, will be found to correspond to the nature which he has given us : and that in the upshot and if^ue of things, happineft and misery shall, in fa6i and event, be made to follow vir- tue and vice respe^lively ; as he has already, in so peculiar a manner, aftociated the ideas of them in our minds. And from hence might easily be deduced the obligations of religious worship, were it only to be considered as a means of preserving upon our minds a sense of this moral government of God, and
" Difsert. II.
120 Of the Opinion of Necefsity, Parti,
securing our obedience to it : which yet is an ex- tremely imperfect view of that most important duty. Now I say, no objec^tion from neceftity can lie against this general proof of Religion. None against the proposition reasoned upon, that we have such a moral faculty and discernment; because this is a mere matter of facft, a thing of experience, that hu- man kind is thus constituted : None against the con- clusion ; because it is immediate and wholly from this fa6l. For the conclusion, that God will finally reward the righteous and punish the wicked, is not here drawn, from its appearing to us fit,^*^ that He should; but from its appearing, that he has told us, He will. And this he hath certainly told us, in the promise and threatening, which it hath been observed the notion of a command implies, and the sense of good and ill desert which he has given us, more distinctly expreftes. And this reasoning from fa(5l is confirmed, and in some degree even verified, by other fadls ; by the natural tendencies of virtue and of vice ;^^ and
'" However, I am far from intending to deny, that the will of God is determined, by what is fit, by the ri^ht and reason of the case ; though one chooses to decline matters of such abstract speculation, and to speak with caution when one does speak of them. But if it be intelligible to say, that it is Jit and reasonable for every one to consult his o%vn happinejs^ then,Jitnefs ofa^ion, or the right and reason of the case, is an intelligible manner of speaking. And it seems as inconceivable, to suppose God to approve one course of aftion, or one end, preferably to another, which yet his adling at all from design implies that he does, without sup- posing somewhat prior in that end, to be the ground of the pre- ference J as to suppose him to discern an abstract proposition to be true, without supposing somewhat prior in it, to be the ground of the discernment. It doth not therefore appear, that moral right is any more relative to perception, than abstrad: truth is : orthatitisanymore improper, to speak of the firnefsand rightnefs of anions and ends, as founded in the nature of things, than to speak of abstract truth, as thus founded.
»> P. 60.
Chap. 6. Considered as influencing Pra6!ice. I2i
by this, that God, in the natural course of his Pro- vidence, punishes vicious a(5lions as mischievous to society ; and also vicious a(5lions as such in the stri(?i:- est sense. ^■- So that the general proof of Religion is unanswerably real, even upon the wild supposition which we are arguing upon.
It must likewise be observed farther, that natural Religion hath, besides this, an £X££i2aaL,!LYidepce ; which the doctrine of necefsity, if it could be true, would not affe(5l. For suppose a person, by the ob- servations and reasoning above, or by any other, con- vinced of the truth of Religion ; that there is a God, who made the world, who is the moral Governor and Judge of mankind, and will upon the whole deal with every one according to his works : I say, suppose a person convinced of this by reason; but to know nothing at all of antiquity, or the present state of mankind : it would be natural for such an one to be inquisitive, what was the history of this system of dodfrine ; at what time, and in what manner, it came first into the world ; and whether it were believed by any considerable part of it. And were he upon in- quiry to find, that a particular person, in a late age, first of all proposed it, as a deduc^tion of reason, and that mankind were before wholly ignorant of it : then, though its evidence from reason would remain, there would be no additional probability of its truth, from the account of its discovery. But instead of this being the facl of the case, on the contrary, he would find, what could not but afford him a very strong confirmation of its truth : First, That somewhat of this/ system, with more or fewer additions and alterations/ hath been profefted in all ages and countries, of which we have any certain information relating tp
'2 Pp. 51, Sec.
\
122 Of the Opinion of Necessity, Part i.
this matter. Secondly, That it is certain historical fac^, so far as we can trace things up, that this whole system of belief, that there is one God, the Creator and moral Governor of the world, and that mankind is in a state of Religion, was received in the first ages. And thirdly, That as there is no hint or intimation in history, that this system was first reasoned out ; so there is no expref^ historical or traditional evidence, as ancient as history, that it was taught first by Re- velation. Now these things must be allowed to be of great weight. The first of them, general consent, shews the system to be conformable to the common sense of mankind. The second, namely, that Reli- gion was believed in the first ages of the world, es- pecially as it does not appear that there were then any superstitious or false additions to it, cannot but be a farther confirmation of its truth. For it is a proof of this alternative : either that it came into the world by Revelation ; or that it is natural, obvious, and forces itself upon the mind. The former of these is the conclusion of learned men. And whoever will consider, how unapt for speculation rude and uncul- tivated minds are, will, perhaps from hence alone, be strongly inclined to believe it the truth. And as it is shewn in the second part^^ of this treatise, that there is nothing of such peculiar presumption against a Revelation in the beginning of the world, as there is supposed to be against subsequent ones : a sceptic could not, I think, give any account, which would appear more probable even to himself, of the early pretences to Revelation ; than by supposing some real original one, from whence they were copied. And the third thing abovementioned, that there is exprei^ historical or traditional evidence as ancient
13 Chap. ii.
Chap. 6. Considered as influencing Pradice. 123
as history, of the system of Religion being taught mankind by Revelation ; this must be admitted as some degree of real proof, that it was so taught. For why should not the most ancient tradition be admitted, as some additional proof of a faSi, against which there is no presumption ? And this proof is mentioned here, because it has its weight to shev/, that Religion came into the world by Revelation, prior to all consideration of the proper authority of any book supposed to contain it : and even prior to all consideration, whether the Revelation itself be un- corruptly handed down and related, or mixed and darkened with fables. Thus the historical account, which we have, of the origin of Religion, taking in all circumstances, is a real confirmation of its truth, no way affecfted by the opinion of necef^ity. And the external evidence, even of natural Religion, is by no means inconsiderable.
But it is carefully to be observed, and ought to be recollected after all proofs of virtue and Religion, which are only general ; that as speculative reason may be negle6led, prejudiced, and deceived : so also may our moral understanding be impaired and per- verted, and the dictates of it not impartially attended to. This indeed proves nothing against the reality of our speculative or pra^lical faculties of perception ; against their being intended by Nature, to inform us in the theory of things, and instruct us how we are to behave, and what we are to expec^t in consequence of our behaviour. Yet our liableneft, in the degree we are liable, to prejudice and perversion, is a most serious admonition to us to be upon our guard, with respe6l to what is of such consequence, as our de- terminations concerning virtue and Religion: And par- ticularly not to take custom, and fashion, and slight notions of honour, or imaginations of present ease,
124 Of the Opinion of Necefsity, Parti,
use and convenience to mankind, for the only moral rule.i*
The foregoing observations, drawn from the na- ture of the thing, and the history of Religion, amount, when taken together, to a real prac^hcal proof of it, not to be confuted : Such a proof as, considering the infinite importance of the thing, I apprehend, would be admitted fully sufficient, in reason, to influence the actions of men, who a(5l upon thought and re- fle(51ion ; if it were admitted, that there is no proof of the contrary. But it may be said : " There are " many probabilities, which cannot indeed be con- " futed, i. e. shewn to be no probabilities, and yet may " be overbalanced, by greater probabilities on the " other side ; much more by demonstration. And " there is no occasion to obje^l against particular ar- *' guments alleged for an opinion, when the opinion " itself may be clearly shewn to be false, without " meddling with such arguments at all, but leaving *' them just as they are.^^ Now the method of go- " vernment by rewards and punishments, and espe- '' cially rewarding and punishing good and ill desert '' as such respe^lively, must go upon supposition, " that we are free and not neceftary agents. And it '' is incredible, that the Author of nature should '^ govern us upon a supposition as true, which he '* knows to be false : and therefore absurd to think, " he will reward or punish us for our actions here- " after, especially that he will do it under the notion, " that they are of good or ill desert." Here then the matter is brought to a point. And the answer to all this is full, and not to be evaded : that the whole constitution and course of things, the whole Analogy of Providence, shews beyond pol^ibility of doubt, that
»4 Difsert. II. '5 Pp. I, 9.
Chap. 6. Considered as influencing Pradice. 125
the conclusion from this reasoning is false ; wherever the fallacy lies. The doctrine of freedom indeed clearly shews where : in supposing ourselves neces- sary, when in truth we are free agents. But upon the supposition of necef^ity, the fallacy lies in taking for granted, that it is incredible necef^ary agents should be rewarded and punished. But that, some- how or other, the conclusion now mentioned is false, is most certain. For it is fa6i, that God does go- 1 vern even brute creatures by the method of rewards and punishments, in the natural course of things. I And men are rewarded and punished for their aclions, punished for actions mischievous to society as being so, punished for vicious actions as such ; by the na- tural instrumentality of each other, under the present condu(5l of Providence. Nay even the affe(5tion of gratitude, and the pafsion of resentment, and the re- wards and punishments following from them, which in general are to be considered as natural, i.e. from the Author of nature ; these rewards and punish- ments, beingnaturally^^ annexed to a(5lions considered as implying good intention and good desert, ill in- tention and ill desert ; these natural rewards and punishments, I say, are as much a contradiction to the conclusion above, and shew its falsehood, as a more exaSi and complete rewarding and punishing of good and ill desert as such. So that if it be in- credible, that necefsary agents should be thus re- warded and punished ; then, men are not neceftary but free : since it is matter of fa6i, that they are thus rewarded and punished. But if, on the contrary, which is the supposition we have been arguing upon, it be insisted, that men are necei^ary agents ; then, there is nothing incredible in the farther supposition
'6 Serm. 8th, at the Rolls.
126 Of the Opinion of Necefsity, &c. Part i.
of neceftary agents being- thus rewarded and pun- ished : since we ourselves are thus dealt with.
From the whole therefore it must follow, that a necefsity supposed poftible, and reconcileable with the constitution of things, does in no sort prove that the Author of nature will not, nor destroy the proof that he will, finally and upon the whole, in his eternal government, render his creatures happy or miserable, by some means or other, as they behave well or ill. Or, to expreft this conclusion in words conformable to the title of the chapter, the Analogy of Nature shews us, that the opinion of necefsity, considered as pra^lical, is false. And if neceftity, upon the sup- position abovementioned, doth not destroy the proof of natural Religion, it evidently makes no alteration in the proof of revealed.
From these things likewise we may learn, in what sense to understand that general aftertion, that the opinion of necefsity is eftentially destru6live of all Religion. First in a pra(9:ical sense ; that by this no- tion, atheistical men pretend to satisfy and encourage , themselves in vice, and justify to others their disre- gard to all Religion. And secondly, in the stri(51est sense ; that it is a contradiction to the whole consti- tution of Nature, and to what we may every moment experience in ourselves, and so overturns everything. But by no means is this a{^ertion to be understood, as if necefsity, supposing it could pofsibly be recon- ciled with the constitution of things and with what we experience, were not also reconcileable with Re- ligion : for upon this supposition, it demonstrably is so.
Chap. 7. Of the Government of God, &c. 127
CHAPTER VII.
Of the Government of God, considered as a Scheme or Constitution, imperfe6ily comprehended.
HOUGH it be, as it cannot but be, ac- knowledged, that the Analogy of Na- ture gives a strong credibility to the general do(5lrine of Religion, and to the several particular things contained in it, considered as so many matters of fa6l ; and likev^ase that it shews this credibility not to be de- stroyed by any notions of necefsity : yet still, objec- tions may be insisted upon, against the wisdom, equity and goodneft of the Divine government im- plied in the notion of Religion, and against the method by which this government is conducted ; to which obje(5lions Analogy can be no dire6l answer. For the credibility, or the certain truth, of a matter of facl, does not immediately prove anything concerning the wisdom or goodnefl of it : and Analogy can do no more, immediately or dire611y, than shew such and such things to be true or credible, considered only as matters of fa6l. But still, if, upon supposition of a moral constitution of Nature and a moral govern- ment over it. Analogy suggests and makes it credible, that this government must be a scheme, system, or constitution of government, as distinguished from a number of single unconne(?l:ed acts of distributive jus- tice and goodnefs ; and likewise, that it must be a scheme, so imperfec'lly comprehended, and of such a sort in other respects, as to afford a dire(?t general answer to all objections against the justice and good-
128 The Government of God, Part i.
neft of it : then Analogy is, remotely, of great service in answering those obje^lions ; both by suggesting the answer, and shewing it to be a credible one. Now this, upon inquiry, will be found to be the -^-^ case. For,^r5^, upon supposition that God exercises a moral government over the world, the Analogy of his natural government suggests and makes it cre- dible, that his moral government must be a scheme, quite beyond our comprehension :Nand this affords a general answer to all objections against the justice and goodneft of it. And, secondly, a more distin(5l observation of some particular things contained in God's scheme of natural government, the like things being supposed, by Analogy, to be contained in his moral government, will farther shew, how little weight is to be laid upon these obje(9:ions.
I. Upon supposition that God exercises a moral government over the world, the Analogy of his na- tural government suggests and makes it credible, that his moral government must be a scheme, quite beyond our comprehension : And this affords a ge- neral answer to all obje(?l:ions against the justice and goodnef^ of it. Itjsjnost obvious^Analogy renders it highly credible, that upon supposition of a moral government, it must be a scheme ; for the world and the whole natural government of it, appears to be so : to be a scheme, system or constitution, whose parts correspond to each other, and to a whole ; as really as any work of art, or as any particular model of a civil constitution and government. In this great scheme of the natural world, individuals-have various peculiar relationsjto other individuals of their ov/n species. And whole species are, we find, variously related to other species, upon this earth. Nor do we know, how much farther these kinds of relations may extend. And, as there is not any acftion or na-
Chap. 7. A Scheme Incomprehensible. 129
tural event, which we are acquainted with, so single and unconnected, as not to have a respec^t to some other a(9:ions and events : so pofsibly each of them, when it has not an immediate, may yet have a re- mote, natural relation to other actions and^ events, much beyond the compaf^ of this present world. There seems indeed nothing, from whence we can so much as make a conjecture, whether all creatures, a(5lions and events, throughout the whole of Nature, have relations to each other. But, as it is obvious, that all events have future unknown consequences ; so, if we trace any, as far as we can go, into what is connected with it ; we shall find, that if such event were not connected with somewhat farther in Nature unknown to us, somewhat both past and present, such event could not pofsibly have been at all. Nor can we give the whole account of any one thing what- ever : of all its causes, ends, and necefsary adjun(5ls ; those adjuncts, I mean, without which it could not have been. By this most astonishing connexion, these reciprocal correspondencies and mutual rela- tions, everything which we see in the course of Na- ture, is a(5tually brought about. And things seem- ingly the most insignificant imaginable, are perpe- tually observed to be neceftary conditions to other things of the greatest importance : so that any one thing whatever may, for aught we know to the con- trary, be a neceftary condition to any other. The natural world then, ancLjaatural government ^ it,, being such an incomprehensible scheme ;so_mcom- prehensible, that a man must, really in the literal sense, knov/ nothing at all, who is not sensible of his ignorance in it: this immediately suggests^^nd strongly shews the credibility, that tHe^nioral world and government of it may be so too^ Indeed the natural and moral constitution and government of the
K
130 The Government of God, Part i.
world are so conne(9:ed, as to make up together but ofiF scheme :.and it is hig^hly probable^hat the first is formed and carried-on merely in subserviency^^to the latter ; ks the vegetable world is for the animal, and organized~Bodies for minds. ■ But the thing in- tended here, is, without inquiring how far the admi- nistration of the natural world is subordinate to that of the moral, only to observe the credibility, that one should be analo^;ous_pr^milar to the other : that therefore every aiR of Divine justice and goodnef^, may be supposed to look much beyond itself, and its immediate obje(5l ; may have some reference to other parts of God's moral_axiministm^^^ and to a general moral plan : and that every circumstance of this his moral government, may be adjusted beforehand with a view to the whole of it. Thus for example : the determined lengthoftime, and the degrees and ways, in which^virtue is to remain in a state of warfare and discipline, and in vvTiich wickedneft is permitted to have its progreft ; the times appointed for the exe- cution of justice; the appointed instruments of it ; the kinds of rewards and punishments, and the man- ners of their distribution ; all particular instances of Divine justice and goodneft, and every circumstance of them, may have such respects to each other, as to make up altogether a whole, connected and re- lated in all its parts : a scheme or system, which is as properly one as the natural world is, and of the like kind. And supposing this to be the case ; it is most evident, that we are not competent judges of this scheme, from the small parts of it, which come within our view in the present life : and therefore no objections against any of these parts, can be insisted upon by reasonable men.
This our ignorance, and the consequence here drawn from it, are universally acknowledged, upon
Chap. 7. A Scheme Incomprehensible. 131
other occasions ; and, though scarce denied, yet are universally forgot_, when jiersons.come^to argue against Religion. And it is not perhaps easy, even for the most reasonable men, always to bear in mind the degree of our i^orance, and make due allow- ances for it. Upon tEese~accouhts, it may not be uselei^ to go on a little farther, in order to shew more distin6lly, how just an answer our ignorance is, to ia...,.., objections against the scheme of Providence.. Sup- pose then a person boldly to af^ert, that the things complained of, the origin and continuance of evil, might easily have been prevented by repeated inter- positions;^ interpositions so guarded and circum- <^ -— ^- stanced, as would preclude all mischief arising from them : Or, if this were impracticable, that a scheme of government is itself an imperfection ; since more good might have been produced, without any scheme, system, or constitution at all, by continued single — unrelated aCtsof distributive justice and goodnei^ ;j because these v^ould have occasioned no irregula- rities. And farther than this, it is presumed, the obje(5tions will not be carried. Yet the answer is obvious : that were these aftertions true, still the ob- servations above, concerning our ignorance in the scheme of Divine government, and the consequence drawn from it, would hold, in great measure ; enough to vindicate Religion, against all objections from the disorders of the present state. Were these af^er- tions true, yet the government of the world might be just and good notwithstanding ; for, at the most, they_vvould^mfej^nothir^ more than that it rnight have been better. But indeei3~they are mere arbi- trary ai^ertions : no man being sufficiently acquainted with the poftibilities of things, to bring any proof of
' Pp. i35> 136.
132 The Government of God, Parti.
them, to the lowest degree of probability^ For how- ever pof|ible what is a{^erted may seem ; yet many instanceTmay be alleged, in things much lef^ out of our reach, of suppositions absolutely impoftible, and reducible to the most palpable self-contradicftions, which, not every one by any means would perceive to be such, nor perhaps any one at first sight suspedt. From these things, it is easy to see distin(5lly, how our ignorance, as it is the common, is really a satis- factory answer to all objedlions against the justice and goodneft of Providence. If a man contemplat- ing any one providential dispensation, which had no relation to any others, should object;, that he dis- cerned in it a disregard to justice, or a deficiency of goodneft ; Nothing would be lef^ an answer to such obje(9;ion, than our ignorance in other parts of Pro- vidence, or in the poftibilities of things, no way re- lated to what he was contemplating. But when we know not, but the parts objecfled against may be relative to other parts unknown to us ; and when we are unacquainted with what is, in the nature of the thing, pra(5licable in the case before us ; then our ignorance is a satisfactory answer : Because, some unknown relation, or some unknown impof^ibility, may render what is objected against, just and good; nay good in the highest prac^ticable degree.
II. And how little weight is to be laid upon such obje(9;ions, will farther appear, by a more distin^l observation of some particular things contained in the natural government of God, the like to which may be supposed, from Analogy, to be contained in his moral government.
First, As in the scheme of the natural world, no ends appear to be accomplished without means : so we find that means very undesirable, often conduce to bring about ends in such a measure desirable, as
Chap. 7. A Scheme Incomprehensible. 133
greatly to overbalance the disagreeableneft of the means. And in cases where such means are con- ducive to such ends, it is not reason, but experience, which shews us, that they are thus conducive. Ex- perience also shews many means to be conducive and neceftary to accomplish ends, which means, before experience, we should have thought, would have had even a contrary tendency. Now from these observations relating to the natural scheme of the world, the moral being supposed analogous to it, arises a great credibility, that the putting our misery in each other's power to the degree it is, and making men liable to vice to the degree we are ; and in general, that those things, which are objected against the moral scheme of Providence, may be, upon the whole, friendly and aftistant to virtue, and produc- tive of an over-balance of happineft : i. e. the things objected against, may be means, by which an over- balance of good will, in the end, be found produced. And from the same observations, it appears to be no presumption against this, that we do not, if indeed we do not, see those means to have any such ten- dency ; or that they seem to us to have a contrary one. Thus those things, which we call irregularities, may not be so at all : because they may be means of accomplishing wise and good ends more consider- able. And it may be added, as above,^ that they may also be the only means, by which these wise and good ends are capable of being accomplished.
After these observations it may be proper to add, in order to obviate an absurd and wicked conclusion from any of them, that though the constitution of our nature from whence we are capable of vice and mi- sery, may, as it undoubtedly does, contribute to the
2 P. 132.
134 The Government of God, Part i.
perfecftion and happinef^ of the world ; and though the actual permiision of evil may be beneficial to it : (i. e. it would have been more mischievous, not that a wicked person had himself abstained fi"om his own wickednefk, but that any one had forcibly prevented it, than that it was permitted :) Yet notwithstanding, it might have been much better for the world, if this very evil had never been done. Nay, it is most clearly conceivable, that the very commiftion of wickedneft may be beneficial to the world, and yet, that it would be infinitely more beneficial for men to refrain from it. For thus, in the wise and good con- stitution of the natural world, there are disorders which bring their own cures ; diseases, which are themselves remedies. Many a man would have died, had it not been for the gout or a fever ; yet it would be thought madneft to afkert, that sicknef^ is a better or more perfe(5l state than health ; though the like, with regard to the moral world, has been averted. But,
Secondly, The natural government of the world is carried on by general laws. For this there may be wise and good reasons : the wisest and best, for aught we know to the contrary. And that there are such reasons, is suggested to our thoughts, by the Ana- logy of Nature ; by our being made to experience good ends to be accomplished, as indeed all the good which we enjoy is accomplished, by this means, that the laws, by which the world is governed, are ge- neral. For we have scarce any kind of enjoyments, but what we are, in some way or other, instrumental in procuring ourselves, by acting in a manner which we foresee likely to procure them : Now this fore- sight could not be at all, were not the government of the world carried on by general laws. And though, for aught we know to the contrary, every single case
Chap. 7. A Scheme Incomprehensible. 135
may be, at length, found to have been provided for even by these : yet to prevent all irregularities, or remedy them as they arise, by the wisest and best general laws, may be impofsible in the nature of things ; as we see it is absolutely impofsible in civil government. But then we are ready to think, that, the constitution of Nature remaining as it is, and the course of things being permitted to go on, in other respecfts, as it does, there might be interpositions to prevent irregularities ; though they could not have been prevented or remedied by any general laws. And there would indeed be reason to wish, which, by the way, is very different from a right to claim, that all irregularities were prevented or remedied by present interpositions, if these interpositions would have no other effe(5f; than this. But it is plain they would have some visible and immediate bad effec^ts : for instance, they would encourage idlenefs and neg- ligence ; and they would render doubtful the na- tural rule of life, which is ascertained by this very thing, that the course of the world is carried on by general laws. And farther, it is certain they would have distant effe(5ls, and very great ones too ; by means ofthe wonderful connedlions before mentioned.^ So that we cannot so much as guefk, what would be the whole result of the interpositions desired. It may be said, any bad result might be prevented by farther interpositions, whenever there was occasion for them : But this again is talking quite at random, and in the dark.^ Upon the whole then, we see wise reasons, why the course of the world should be carried on by general laws, and good ends accom- plished by this means: And, for aught we know, there may be the wisest reasons for it, and the best
^ Pp. 128, Scz. •» Pp. 131, 132.
136 The Government of God, Pari 1.
ends accomplished by it. We have no ground to believe, that all irregularities could be remedied as they arise, or could have been precluded, by general laws. We find that interpositions would produce evil, and prevent good : And, for aught we know, they would produce greater evil than they would prevent ; and prevent greater good than they would produce. And if this be the case, then the not in- terposing is so far from being a ground of complaint, that it is an instance of goodnei^. This is intelligible and sufficient : and going farther, seems beyond the utmost reach of our faculties.
But it may be said, that " after all, these supposed " impof^ibilities and relations are what we are unac- " quainted with ; and we must judge of Religion, as *' of other things, by what we do know, and look " upon the rest as nothing : Or however, that the " answers here given to what is objecfled against Re- " ligion, may equally be made use of to invalidate " the proof of it ; since their streft lies so very much *' upon our ignorance." But,
Firsty Though total ignorance in any matter, does indeed equally destroy, or rather preclude, all proof concerning it, and obje(9;ions against it : yet partial ignorance does not. For we may in any degree, be convinced, that a person is of such a character, and consequently will pursue such ends ; though we are greatly ignorant, what is the proper way of a(9:ing, in order, the most effe(51:ually, to obtain those ends : And in this case, objedlions against his manner of a6ling, as seemingly not conducive to obtain them, might be answered by our ignorance ; though the proof that such ends were intended, might not at all be invalidated by it. Thus, the proof of Religion is a proof of the moral character of God, and conse- quently that his government is moral, and that every
Chap. 7. A Scheme Incomprehensible. 137
one upon the whole shall receive according to his deserts ; a proof that this is the designed end of his government. But we are not competent judges, what is the proper way of a(5ling, in order the most effectually to accomplish this end.^ Therefore our ignorance is an answer to objecftions against the con- du6l of Providence, in permitting irregularities, as seeming contradictory to this end. Now, since it is so obvious, that our ignorance may be a satisfa(5lory answer to objections against a thing, and yet not affeCl the proof of it ; till it can be shewn, it is fri- volous to aftert, that our ignorance invalidates the proof of Religion, as it does the objections against it. Secondly, Suppose unknown impoftibilities, and unknown relations, might justly be urged to invali- date the proof of Religion, as well as to answer ob- jections against it: And that in consequence of this, the proof of it were doubtful. Yet still, let the as- sertion be despised, or let it be ridiculed, it is unde- niably true, that moral obligations would remain certain, though it were not certain what would, upon the whole, be the consequences of observing or vio- lating them. For, these obligations arise immedi- ately and neceftarily from the judgment of our own mind, unleft perverted, which we cannot violate with- out being self-condemned. And they would be cer- tain too, from considerations of interest. For though it were doubtful, what will be the future consequences of virtue and vice ; yet it is, however, credible, that they may have those consequences, which Religion teaches us they will : And this credibility is a certain® obligation in point of prudence, to abstain from all wickedneft, and to live in the conscientious praCtice of all that is good. But,
5 Pp. 8, 9. ^ P. 3. and Part II. ch. vi.
138 The Government of God, Parti.
Thirdly, The answers above given to the objec- tions against Religion, cannot equally be made use of to invalidate the proof of it. For, upon supposi- tion that God exercises a moral government over the world. Analogy does most strongly lead us to con- clude, that this moral government must be a scheme, or constitution, beyond our comprehension. And a thousand particular Analogies shew us, that parts of such a scheme, from their relation to other parts, may conduce to accomplish ends, which we should have thought, they had no tendency at all to accom- plish : nay ends, which before experience, we should have thought such parts were contradictory to, and had a tendency to prevent. And therefore all these Analogies shew, that the way of arguing made use of in obje(51ing against Religion, is delusive : because they shew it is not at all incredible, that, could we comprehend the whole, we should find the permis- sion of the disorders objected against, to be consist- ent with justice and goodneft ; and even to be in- stances of them. Now this is not applicable to the proof of Religion, as it is to the objections against it ;' and therefore cannot invalidate that proof, as it does these obje(5lions.
Lastly, From the observation now made, it is easy to see, that the answers above given to the objections against Providence, though, in a general way of speaking, they may be said to be taken from our ignorance ; yet are by no means taken merely from that, but from somewhat which Analogy shews us concerning it. For Analogy shews us positively, that our ignorance in the pof^ibilities of things, and the various relations in Nature, renders us incom- petent judges, and leads us to false conclusions, in
"' Serm. at the Rolh, p. 312, 2nd edit.
Chap. 7. A Scheme Incomprehensible. 139
cases similar to this, in which we pretend to judge and to obje(5l. So that the things above insisted upon, are not mere suppositions of unknown impofsibilities and relations : but they are suggested to our thoughts, and even forced upon the observation of serious men, and rendered credible too, by the Analogy of Nature. And therefore, to take these things into the account, is to judge by experience and what we do know : and it is not judging so, to take no notice of them.
CONCLUSION.
HE observations of the last chapter, lead us to consider this little scene of human life, in which we are so bu- sily engaged, as having a reference,
of some sort or other, to a much
larger plan of things. Whether we are, any way, related to the more distant parts of the boundleft universe, into which we are brought, is altogether uncertain. But it is evident, that the course of things, which comes within our view, is connected with somewhat past, present, and future, beyond it.^ So that we are placed, as one may speak, in the middle of a scheme, not a fixed but a progref^ive one, every way incomprehensible : incomprehensible, in a man- ner equally, with respect to what has been, what now is, and what shall be hereafter. And this scheme cannot but contain in it somewhat, as wonderful, and as much beyond our thought and conception,- as anything in that of Religion. For, will any man in
Pp.
&c.
See Part II. ch.
140 Conclusion. Part i.
his senses say, that it is left difficult to conceive, how the world came to be and to continue as it is, with- out, than with, an intelligent Author and Governor of it ? Or, admitting an intelligent Governor of it, that there is some other rule of government, more natural, and of easier conception, than that, which we call moral 'I Indeed, without an intelligent Author and Governor of nature, no account at all can be given, how this universe, or the part of it particu- larly in which we are concerned, came to be, and the course of it to be carried on, as it is : Nor any, of its general end and design, without a moral Go- vernor of it. That there is an intelligent Author of nature, and natural Governor of the world, is a prin- ciple gone upon in the foregoing treatise, as proved, and generally known and confefted to be proved. And the very notion of an intelligent Author of nature, proved by particular final causes, implies a will and a chara(9:er.'^ Now, as our whole nature, the nature which he has given us, leads us to conclude his will and character to be moral, just, and good : so we can scarce in imagination conceive, what it can be otherwise. However, in consequence of this his will and characfter, whatever it be, he formed the universe as it is, and carries on the course of it as he does, rather than in any other manner ; and has aligned to us, and to all living creatures, a part and a lot in it. Irrational creatures a6l this their part, and enjoy and undergo the pleasures and the pains allotted them, without any refledlion. But one would think it impoftible, that creatures endued with reason could avoid reflecting sometimes upon all this : reflecting, if not from whence we came, yet, at least, whither we are going ; and what the mysterious scheme, in
» P. 116.
Part I. Conclusion. 141
the midst of which we find ourselves, will, at length, come out, and produce : a scheme in which it is certain we are highly interested, and in which we may be interested even beyond conception. For many things prove it palpably absurd to conclude, that we shall cease to be, at death. Particular Ana- logies do most sensibly shew us, that there is nothing to be thought strange, in our being to exist in ano- ther state of life. And that we are now living beings, affords a strong probability, that we shall continue so ; unlefs there be some positive ground, and there is none from Reason or Analogy, to think death will destroy us. Were a persuasion of this kind ever so well grounded, there would, surely, be little reason to take pleasure in it. But indeed it can have no other ground, than some such imagination, as that of our grof^ bodies being ourselves : which is con- trary to experience. Experience too most clearly shews us the folly of concluding, from the body and the living agent affedling each other mutually, that the dif^olution of the former is the destruction of the latter. And there are remarkable instances of their not affe(9:ing each other, which lead us to a contrary conclusion. The supposition then, which in all rea- son we are to go upon, is, that our living nature will continue after death. And it is infinitely unreason- able to form an institution of life, or to a(5l, upon any other supposition. Now all expecftation of im- mortality, whether more or left certain, opens an unbounded prospect to our hopes and our fears: since we see the constitution of Nature is such, as to admit of misery as well as to be produ(9:ive of happineft, and experience ourselves to partake of both in some degree ; and since we cannot but know, what higher degrees of both we are capable of. And there is no presumption against believing farther,
142 Conclusion. Part i.
that our future interest depends upon our present behaviour : For we see our present interest doth ; and that the happinei^ and misery, which are natu- rally annexed to our ac^lions, very frequently do not follow, till long after the actions are done, to which they are respe61:ively annexed. So that were spe- culation to leave us uncertain, whether it were likely, that the Author of nature, in giving happineft and misery to his creatures, hath regard to their a(5lions or not : yet, since we find by experience, that he hath such regard, the whole sense of things which he has given us, plainly leads us, at once and with- out any elaborate inquiries, to think, that it may, in- deed must, be to good a(51ions chiefly that he hath annexed happineft, and to bad actions misery ; or that he will, upon the whole, reward those who do well, and punish those who do evil. To confirm this from the constitution of the world, it has been ob- served ; that some sort of moral government is ne- cef^arily implied in that natural government of God, which we experience ourselves under : that good and bad a(9;ions, at present, are naturally rewarded and punished, not only as beneficial and mischievous to society : but also as virtuous and vicious : and that there is, in the very nature of the thing, a tendency to their being rewarded and punished in a much higher degree, than they are at present. And though this higher degree of distributive justice, which Na- ture thus points out and leads towards, is prevented for a time from taking place : it is by obstacles, which the state of this world unhappily throws in its way, and which therefore are in their nature tem- porary. Now, as these things in the natural condu(ft of Providence, are observable on the side of virtue ; so there is nothing to be set against them, on the side of vice. A moral scheme of government then,
Part I. Conclusion. 143
is visibly established, and, in some degree, carried into execution : And this, together with the eftential tendencies of virtue and vice duly considered, natu- rally raise in us an apprehension, that it will be car- ried on farther towards perfe(5lion, in a future state, and that every one shall there receive according to his deserts. And if this be so, then our future and general interest, under the moral government of God, is appointed to depend upon our behaviour ; not- withstanding the difficulty, which this may occasion, of securing it, and the danger of losing it : just in the same manner as our temporal interest, under his natural government, is appointed to depend upon our behaviour; notwithstanding the like difficulty and danger. For, from our original constitution and that of the world which we inhabit, we are naturally trusted with ourselves; with our own condu(fl: and our ow^n interest. And from the same constitution of Nature, especially joined with that course of things which is owing to men, we have temptations to be unfaithful in this trust ; to forfeit this interest, to neg- lect!: it, and run ourselves into misery and ruin. From these temptations arise, the difficulties of be- having so as to secure our temporal interest, and the hazard of behaving so as to miscarry in it. There is therefore nothing incredible in supposing, there may be the like difficulty and hazard with regard to that chief and final good, which Religion lays before us. Indeed the whole account, how^ it came to paf^, that we w^ere placed in such a condition as this ; must be beyond our comprehension. But it is in part accounted for by what Religion teaches us, that the chara(fler of virtue and piety must be a neceftary qualification for a future state of security and hap- pineft, under the moral government of God ; in like manner, as some certain qualifications or other are
144 Conclusion. Part i.
neceftary for every particular condition of life, under his natural government : And that the present state was intended to be a school of discipline, for im- proving in ourselves that chara(5ler. Now this in- tention of Nature is rendered highly credible by ob- serving ; that we are plainly made for improvement of all kinds : that it is a general appointment of Pro- vidence, that we cultivate pra(?i:ical principles, and form within ourselves habits of a(51ion, in order to become fit for, what we were wholly unfit for before : that in particular, childhood and youth is naturally appointed to be a state of discipline for mature age : and that the present world is peculiarly fitted for a state of moral discipline. And, whereas objecftions are urged against the whole notion of moral govern- ment and a probation-state, from the opinion of ne- cef^ity ; it has been shewn, that God has given us the evidence, as it were, of experience, that all ob- jections against Religion, on this head, are vain and delusive. He has also, in his natural government, suggested an answer to all our short-sighted objec- tions, against the equity and goodneft of his moral government : And in general he has exemplified to us the latter by the former.
These things, which, it is to be remembered, are matters of fact, ought, in all common sense, to awaken mankind ; to induce them to consider in ear- nest their condition, and what they have to do. It is absurd, absurd to the degree of being ridiculous, if the subjeCl were not of so serious a kind, for men to think themselves secure in a vicious life ; or even in that immoral thoughtleftneft, which far the great- est part of them are fallen into. And the credibility of Religion arising from experience and fa(9:s here considered, is fully sufficient, in reason, to engage them to live in the general practice of all virtue and
Part I. Conclusion. 145
piety ; under the serious apprehension, though it should be mixed with some doubt,^ of a righteous administration established in Nature, and a future judgment in consequence of it : Especially when we consider, how very questionable it is, whether any- thing at all can be gained by vice;^ how unques- tionably little, as well as precarious, the pleasures and profits of it are at the best ; and how soon they must be parted with at the longest. For, in the de- liberations of reason, concerning what we are to pursue, and what to avoid, as temptations to anything from mere paf^ion, are supposed out of the case : So inducements to vice, from cool expectations of pleasure and interest so small and uncertain and short, are really so insignificant, as, in the view of reason, to be almost nothing in themselves : And in comparison with the importance of Religion, they quite disappear and are lost. Mere paf^ion indeed may be alleged, though not as a reason, yet as an excuse, for a vicious course of life. And how sorry an excuse it is, will be manifest by observing, that we are placed in a condition, in which we are un- avoidably inured to govern our paf^ions, by being necef^itated to govern them ; and to lay ourselves under the same kind of restraints, and as great ones too, from temporal regards, as virtue and piety, in the ordinary course of things, require. The plea of ungovernable paf^ion then, on the side of vice, is the poorest of all things : for it is no reason, and but a poor excuse. But the proper motives to Religion, are the proper proofs of it, from our moral nature, from the presages of conscience, and our natural apprehension of God under the characfter of a righte- ous Governor and Judge ; a nature and conscience
* Part II. ch. vi. 5 p^ ^g
146 Coiiclusion. Part i.
and apprehension given us by him : and from the confirmation of the dictates of reason, by life and immortality brought to light by the Gospel ; and the wrath of God revealed from Heaven, against all un- godlinefs and unrighteousnefi of men.
The End of the First Part.
THE ANALOGY OF RELIGION TO THE
CONSTITUTION AND COURSE
OF NATURE.
PART II. — Of Revealed Religion. CHAP. I. — Of the Importance of Christianity.
OME persons, upon pretence of the sufficiency of the light of Nature, avowedly reject all Revelation, as, in its very notion, incredible, and what miist be ficT:itious. And indeed it is certain, no Revelation would have been given, had the light of Nature been sufficient in such a sense, as to render one not wanting and useleft. But no man, in seriousneft and simplicity of mind, can pos- sibly think it so, who considers the state of Religion in the heathen world, before Revelation, and its pre- sent state in those places which have borrowed no light from it : particularly, the doubtfulneft of some of the greatest men, concerning things of the utmost importance, as well as the natural inattention and ignorance of mankind in general. It is impof^ible to say, who would have been able to have reasoned out that whole system, which we call natural Religion,
148 Of the Importance Part 2.
in its genuine simplicity, clear of superstition : but there is certainly no ground to affirm, that the ge- nerality could. If they could, there is no sort of probability, that they would. Admitting there were, they would highly want a standing admonition, to remind them of it, and inculcate it upon them. And farther still, were they as much disposed to attend to Religion, as the better sort of men are : yet even upon this supposition, there would be various occa- sions for supernatural instru(5lion and aftistance, and the greatest advantages might be afforded by them. So that to say. Revelation is a thing superfluous, what there was no need of, and what can be of no service ; is, I think, to talk quite wildly and at ran- dom. Nor would it be more extravagant to affirm, that mankind is so entirely at ease in the present state, and life so completely happy ; that it is a con- tradi(5lion to suppose our condition capable of being, in any respe61:, better.
There are other persons, not to be ranked with these, who seem to be getting into a way of neglecft- ing, and, as it were, overlooking Revelation, as of small importance, provided natural Religion be kept to. With little regard, either to the evidence of the former, or to the objec^tions against it, and even upon supposition of its truth ; " the only design of it," say they, " must be, to establish a belief of the moral " system of Nature, and to enforce the pra^lice of " natural piety and virtue. The belief and practice " of these things were, perhaps, much promoted by *' the first publication of Christianity : But whether " they are believed and pra(9:ised, upon the evidence " and motives of Nature or of Revelation, is no great "matter."^ This way of considering Revelation,
' Invenis multos propterea nolle fieri Christianos, quia
quasi sufficiunt sibi de bona vita sua. Bene vivere opus est, ait.
Chap. 1. of Christianity. 149
though it is not the same with the former, yet bor- ders nearly upon it, and very much, at length, runs up into it : and requires to be particularly considered, with regard to the persons, who seem to be getting into this way. The consideration of it will likewise farther shew the extravagance of the former opinion, and the truth of the observations in answer to it, just mentioned. And an inquiry into the importance of Christianity, cannot be an improper introduction to a treatise concerning the credibility of it.
Now if God has given a Revelation to mankind, and commanded those things, which are commanded in Christianity ; it is evident, at first sight, that it cannot in any wise be an indifferent matter, whether we obey or disobey those commands : unlef^ we are certainly aftured, that we know all the reasons for them, and that all those reasons are now ceased, with regard to mankind in general, or to ourselves in particular. And it is absolutely impofsible, we can be ai^ured of this. For our ignorance of these reasons proves nothing in the case : since the whole Analogy of Nature shews, what is indeed in itself evident, that there may be infinite reasons for things, with which we are not acquainted.
But the importance of Christianity will more dis- tin(9;ly appear, by considering it more distindlly : First, as a republication, and external institution, of natural or ef^ential Religion, adapted to the present circumstances of mankind, and intended to promote natural piety and virtue : And secondly, as contain-
Qt£id mihi praecepturus est Christus ? Ut bene vivam ? Jam bene vivo. Quid mihi necefsarius est Christus ? Nullum homicidium, nullum furtum, nullam rapinam facio, res alienas non concupisco, nullo adulterio contaminor. Nam inveniatur in vita mea aliquid quod reprehenditur, et qui reprehenderit faciat Christianum. — yiug. in Psal. xxxi.
150 Of the Importance Part 2.
ing an account of a dispensation of things, not dis- coverable by Reason, in consequence of which, se- veral distinct precepts are enjoined us. For though natural Religion is the foundation and principal part of Christianity, it is not in any sense the whole of it.
I. Christianity is a republication of natural Reli- gion. It instru(5ls mankind in the moral system of the world : that it is the work of an infinitely perfect Being, and under his government ; that virtue is his law ; and that he will finally judge mankind in righte- ousnef^, and render to all according to their works, in a future state. And, which is very material, it teaches natural Religion, in its genuine simplicity ; free from those superstitions, with which it was to- tally corrupted, and under which it was in a manner lost.
Revelation is farther, an authoritative publication of natural Religion, and so affords the evidence of testimony for the truth of it. Indeed the miracles and prophecies recorded in Scripture, were intended to prove a particular dispensation of Providence, the redemption of the world by the Mef^iah : But this does not hinder, but that they may also prove God's general Providence over the world, as our moral Governor and Judge. And they evidently do prove it ; because this chara(5ter of the Author of nature, is necefsarily connected with and implied in that particular revealed dispensation of things : It is like- wise continually taught exprefsly, and insisted upon, by those persons, who wrought the miracles and delivered the prophecies. So that indeed natural Religion seems as much proved by the Scripture Re- velation, as it would have been, had the design of Revelation been nothing else than to prove it. / But it may pof^ibly be disputed, how far miracles can prove natural Religion ; and notable objections
Chap. I. of Christianity. 151
may be urged against this proof of it, considered as a matter of speculation : But considered as a prac- tical thing, there can be none. For suppose a per- son *to teach natural Religion to a nation, who had lived in total ignorance or forgetfulnef^ of it ; and to declare he was commii^ioned by God so to do : Suppose him, in proof of his commii^ion, to foretel things future, which no human foresight could have guef^ed at ; to divide the sea with a word ; feed great multitudes with bread from Heaven ; cure all man- ner of diseases ; and raise the dead, even himself, to life : Would not this give additional credibility to his teaching, a credibility beyond what that of a com- mon man would have ; and be an authoritative pub- lication of the Law of Nature, i. e. a new proof of it *? It would be a practical one, of the strongest kind, perhaps, which human creatures are capable of having given them. The law of Moses then, and the Gospel of Christ, are authoritative publications of the Religion of Nature : They afford a proof of God's general Providence, as moral Governor of the world ; as well as of his particular dispensations of Providence towards sinful creatures, revealed in the Law and the Gospel. As they are the only evidence of the latter ; so they are an additional evidence of the former.
To shew this further, let us suppose a man of the greatest and most improved capacity, who had never heard of Revelation, convinced upon the whole, not- withstanding the disorders of the world, that it was under the direction and moral government of an in- finitely perfe(51 Being; but ready to question, whether he were not got beyond the reach of his faculties : Suppose him brought, by this suspicion, into great danger of being carried away by the universal bad example of almost every one around him, who ap-
152 Of the Importance Part 2.
peared to have no sense, no pra(5lical sense at least, of these things : And this, perhaps, would be as ad- vantageous a situation with regard to Religion, as Nature alone ever placed any man in. What a con- firmation now must it be to such a person, all at once, to find, that this moral system of things was revealed to mankind, in the name of that infinite Being, whom he had from principles of Reason believed in ; and that the publishers of the Revelation proved their commif^ion from him, by making it appear, that he had intrusted them with a power of suspending and changing the general laws of Nature.
Nor must it by any means be omitted, for it is a thing of the utmost importance, that life and im- mortality are eminently brought to light by the Gos- pel. The great do(?l:rines of a future state, the danger of a course of wickedneft, and the efficacy of Re- pentance, are not only confirmed in the Gospel, but are taught, especially the last is, with a degree of light, to which that of Nature is but darknefs.
Farther: As Christianity served these ends and purposes, when it was first published, by the mira- culous publication itself; so it was intended to serve the same purposes, in future ages, by means of the settlement of a visible Church : of a society, distin- guished from common ones, and from the rest of the world, by peculiar religious institutions ; by an insti- tuted method of instruction, and an instituted form of external Religion. Miraculous powers were given to the first preachers of Christianity, in order to their introducing it into the world : A visible Church was established, in order to continue it, and carry it on succef^ively throughout all ages. Had Moses and the Prophets, Christ and his Apostles, only taught, and by miracles proved. Religion to their cotempo- raries ; the benefits of their instru(5lions would have
Chap. I. of Christianity. 153
reached but to a small part of mankind. Christianity must have been, in a great degree, sunk and forgot in a very few ages. To prevent this, appears to have been one reason, why a visible Church was instituted : to be, like a city upon a hill, a standing memorial to the world of the duty which we owe our Maker : to call men continually, both by example and instruc- tion, to attend to it ; and by the form of Religion ever before their eyes, remind them of the reality : to be the repository of the oracles of God : to hold up the light of Revelation in aid to that of Nature, and propagate it throughout all generations to the end of the world the light of Revelation, consi- dered here in no other view, than as designed to enforce natural Religion. And in proportion as Chris- tianity is profel^ed and taught in the world, Religion, natural or efsential Religion, is thus distin(fHy and advantageously laid before mankind ; and brought again and again to their thoughts, as a matter of in- finite importance. A visible Church has also a farther tendency to promote natural Religion, as being an instituted method of education, originally intended to be of more peculiar advantage to those who would conform to it. For one end of the institution was, that by admonition and reproof, as well as instruc- tion ; by a general regular discipline, and public ex- ercises of Religion ; the body of Christ, as the Scrip- ture speaks, should be edified, i.e. trained up in piety and virtue, for a higher and better state. This set- tlement then appearing thus beneficial ; tending in the nature of the thing to answer, and in some de- gree a(5lually answering, those ends ; it is to be re- membered, that the very notion of it implies positive institutions: for the visibility of the Church consists in them. Take away everything of this kind, and you lose the very notion itself. So that if the things
154 Of the Importance Part 2.
now mentioned are advantages, the reason and im- portance of positive institutions in general, is most obvious ; since without them, these advantages could not be secured to the world. And it is mere idle wantonnef^, to insist upon knowing the reasons, why such particular ones were fixed upon, rather than others.
The benefit arising from this supernatural ai^ist- ance, which Christianity affords to natural Religion, is what some persons are very slow in apprehending. And yet it is a thing distinct in itself, and a very plain obvious one. For will any in good earnest really say, that the bulk of mankind in the heathen world, were in as advantageous a situation, with re- gard to natural Religion, as they are now amongst us : That it was laid before them, and enforced upon them, in a manner as distin^l, and as much tending to influence their practice ?
The objections against all this, from the perversion of Christianity, and from the supposition of its having had but little good influence, however innocently they may be proposed, yet cannot be insisted upon as conclusive, upon any principles, but such as lead to downright Atheism : Because the manifestation of the Law of Nature by Reason, which, upon all principles of Theism, must have been from God, has been perverted and rendered inefle^lual in the same manner. It may indeed, I think, truly be said, that the good effecfts of Christianity have not been small : nor its supposed ill efle(51s, any effed^s at all of it, properly speaking. Perhaps too the things them- selves done, have been aggravated: And if not, Christianity hath been often only a pretence : And the same evils in the main would have been done, upon some other pretence. However, great and shocking as the corruptions and abuses of it have really been,
Chap. 1. of Christianity. 155
they cannot be insisted upon as arguments against it, upon principles of Theism. For one cannot pro- ceed one step in reasomng upon natural Religion, any more than upon Christianity, without laying it down as a first principle, that the dispensations of Providence are not to be judged of, by their perver- sions, but by their genuine tendencies : not by what they do actually seem to effect:, but by what they would effedl if mankind did their part ; That part which is justly put and left upon them. It is alto- gether as much the language of one, as of the other ; He that is unjust, let him be unjust still : and he that is holy, let him he holy still.- The light of Reason does not, any more than that of Revelation, force men to submit to its authority : Both admonish them of what they ought to do and avoid, together with the consequences of each ; and after this, leave them at full liberty to act just as they please, till the ap- pointed time of judgment. Every moment's ex- perience shews, that this is God's general rule of government.
To return then : Christianity being a promulga- tion of the Law of Nature ; being moreover an au- thoritative promulgation of it ; with new light, and other circumstances of peculiar advantage, adapted to the wants of mankind ; these things fully shew its importance. And it is to be observed farther, that, as the nature of the case requires, so all Christians are commanded to contribute, by their profef^ion of Christianity, to preserve it in the world, and render it such a promulgation and enforcement of Religion. For it is the very scheme of the Gospel, that each Christian should, in his degree, contribute towards continuing and carrying it on : all by uniting in the
156 Of the Importance Part 2.
public profef^ion and external pra(9;ice of Christi- anity ; some by instructing-, by having the oversight and taking care of this religious community, the Church of God. Now this farther shews the im- portance of Christianity ; and, which is what I chiefly intend, its importance in a pra(5lical sense : or the high obligations we are under, to take it into our most serious consideration; and the danger there must neceftarily be, not only in treating it despite- fully, which I am not now speaking of, but in disre- garding and neglecting it. For this is neglecting to do what is expreftly enjoined us, for continuing those benefits to the world, and transmitting them down to future times. And all this holds, even though the only thing to be considered in Christianity, were its subserviency to natural Religion. But,
II. Christianity is to be considered in a further view : as containing an account of a dispensation of things, not at all discoverable by Reason, in conse- quence of which several distinCl precepts are enjoined us. Christianity is not only an external institution of natural Religion, and a new promulgation of God's general Providence, as righteous Governor and Judge of the world ; but it contains also a Revelation of a particular dispensation of Providence, carrying on by his Son and Spirit, for the recovery and salvation of mankind, who are represented, in Scripture, to be in a state of ruin. And in consequence of this Re- velation being made, we are commanded to be bap- tized, not only in the name of the Father, but also, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost : and other obliga- tions of duty, unknown before, to the Son and the Holy Ghost, are revealed. Now the importance of these duties may be judged of, by observing that they arise, not from positive command merely ; but also from the offices, which appear, from Scripture, to
Chap, I. of Christianity. 157
belong to those Divine Persons in the Gospel dis- pensation ; or from the relations, which, we are there informed, they stand in to us. By Reason is re- vealed the relation, which God the Father stands in to us. Hence arises the obligation of duty, which we are under to him. In Scripture are revealed the relations, which the Son and Holy Spirit stand in to us. Hence arise the obligations of duty, which we are under to them. The truth of the case, as one may speak, in each of these three respe(5ls being admitted : that God is the Governor of the world, upon the evidence of Reason ; that Christ is the Me- diator between God and man, and the Holy Ghost our Guide and Sanclifier, upon the evidence of Re- velation : the truth of the case, I say, in each of these respe<5ls being admitted ; it is no more a question, why it should be commanded, that we be baptized in the name of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, than that we be baptized in the name of the Father. This matter seems to require to be more fully stated.'^
Let it be remembered then, that Religion comes under the twofold consideration of internal and ex- ternal : for the latter is as real a part of Religion, of true Religion, as the former. Now when Religion is considered under the first notion, as an inward principle, to be exerted in such and such inward a<5ls of the mind and heart ; the eftence of natural Reli- gion may be said to consist in religious regards to God the Father Almighty: and the ei^ence of re- vealed Religion, as distinguished from natural, to consist in religious regards to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost. And the obligation we are under, of paying these religious regards to each of these Di-
^ See, the nature, obligation, and efficacy, of the Christian Sacraments, &c. and Colliber of Revealed Religion, as there quoted.
158 Of the Importance Part 2.
vine Persons respec^iively, arises from the respective relations, which they each stand in to us. How these relations are made known, whether by Reason or Revelation, makes no alteration in the case : because the duties arise out of the relations themselves, not out of the manner in which we are informed of them. The Son and Spirit have each his proper office, in that great dispensation of Providence, the redemp- tion of the world : the one our Mediator, the other our Sandlifier. Does not then the duty of religious regards to both these Divine Persons, as immediately arise, to the view of Reason, out of the very nature of these offices and relations ; as the inward good- will and kind intention, which we owe to our fellow- creatures, arise out of the common relations be- tween us and them 1 But it will be asked, " What " are the inward religious regards, appearing thus *' obviously due to the Son and Holy Spirit ; as arising, " not merely from command in Scripture, but from " the very nature of the revealed relations, which " they stand in to us ?" I answer, the religious re- gards of reverence, honour, love, trust, gratitude, fear, hope. In what external manner, this inward worship is to be exprefted, is a matter of pure re- vealed command ; as perhaps the external manner, in which God the Father is to be worshipped, may be more so, than we are ready to think : But the worship, the internal worship itself, to the Son and Holy Ghost, is no farther matter of pure revealed command, than as the relations they stand in to us are matter of pure Revelation : for the relations being known, the obligations to such internal worship are obligations of Reason, arising out of those relations themselves. In short, the history of the Gospel as immediately shews us the reason of these obligations, as it shews us the meaning of the words, Son and Holy Ghost.
Chap. I. of Christianity. 159
If this account of the Christian Religion be just ; those persons who can speak lightly of it, as of little consequence, provided natural Religion be kept to, plainly forget, that Christianity, even what is pecu- liarly so called, as distinguished from natural Reli- gion, has yet somewhat very important, even of a moral nature. For the office of our Lord being made known, and the relation he stands in to us, the obligation of religious regards to him, is plainly moral ; as much as charity to mankind is ; since this obligation arises, before external command, imme- diately out of that his office and relation itself Those persons appear to forget, that Revelation is to be considered, as informing us of somewhat new, in the state of mankind, and in the government of the world : as acquainting us with some ' relations we stand in, which could not otherwise have been known. And these relations being real, (though before Re- velation we could be under no obligations from them, yet upon their being revealed,) there is no reason to think, but that neglecft of behaving suitably to them, will be attended with the same kind of conse- quences under God's government ; as negleci:ing to behave suitably to any other relations made known to us by Reason. And ignorance, whether unavoid- able or voluntary ; so far as we can poftibly see, will, just as much, and just as little, excuse in one case as in the other : the ignorance being supposed equally unavoidable, or equally voluntary, in both cases.
If therefore Christ be indeed the Mediator be- tween God and man, i. e. if Christianity be true ; if he be indeed our Lord, our Saviour, and our God ; no one can say, what may follow, not only the ob- stinate, but the careleft disregard to him, in those high relations. Nay no one can say, what may fol- low such disregard, even in the way of natural con-
l6o Of the Importance Part 2.
sequence.^ For, as the natural consequences of vice in this life, are doubtlef^ to be considered, as judicial punishments infli(5led by God ; so likewise, for aught we know, the judicial punishments of the future life may be, in a like way or a like sense, the natural consequence of vice : ^ of men's violating or disre- garding the relations, which God has placed them in here, and made known to them.
Again : If mankind are corrupted and depraved in their moral charac^ter, and so are unfit for that state, which Christ is gone to prepare for his dis- ciples ; and if the aftistance of God's Spirit be ne- ceftary to renew their nature, in the degree requi- site to their being qualified for that state ; all which is implied in the exprei^, though figurative declara- tion. Except a man be born of the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God :^ Supposing this, is it pofsible any serious person can think it a slight matter, whether or no he makes use of the means, expref^ly commanded by God, for obtaining this Di- vine aftistance f Especially since the whole Analogy of Nature shews, that we are not to expect any be- nefits, without making use of the appointed means for obtaining or enjoying them. Now Reason shews us nothing, of the particular immediate means of obtaining, either temporal or spiritual benefits. This therefore we must learn, either from experience or Revelation. And experience, the present case does not admit of.
The conclusion from all this evidently is ; that, Christianity being supposed either true or credible, it is unspeakable irreverence, and really the most presumptuous rashnef^, to treat it as a light matter. It can never justly be esteemed of little consequence,
* Pp. 30, 31. ^ Ch. V. ^ John iii. 5.
Chap. I. of Christianity. l6l
till it be positively supposed false. Nor do I know a higher and more important obligation which we are under, than that, of examining most seriously into the evidence of it, supposing its credibility ; and of embracing it, upon supposition of its truth.
The two following dedu(5lions may be proper to be added, in order to illustrate the foregoing obser- vations, and to prevent their being mistaken.
First, Hence we may clearly see, where lies the distindl;ion between what is positive and what is moral in Religion. Moral precepts are precepts, the rea- sons of which we see : Positive precepts are precepts, the reasons of which we do not see.'' Moral duties arise out of the nature of the case itself, prior to ex- ternal command. Positive duties do not arise out of the nature of the case ; but from external command : Nor would they be duties at all, were it not for such command, received from him whose creatures and subjects we are. But the manner in which the na- ture of the case, or the fa(5l of the relation, is made known, this doth not denominate any duty either positive or moral. That we be baptized in the name of the Father, is as much a positive duty, as that we be baptized in the name of the Son; because both arise equally from revealed command : though the relation which we stand in to God the Father, is made known to us by Reason ; the relation we stand in to Christ, by Revelation only. On the other hand, the dispensation of the Gospel admitted, gratitude
' This is the distinftion between moral and positive precepts, considered respeftiveljr as such. But yet, since the latter have somewhat of a moral nature, we may see the reason of them, considered in this view. Moral and positive precepts are, in some respefts alike, in other respedls different. So far as they are like, we discern the reasons of both : So far as they are dif- ferent, we discern the reasons of the former, but not of the latter. See pp. 152, &c. and p. 162. M
i62 Of the Importance Parti,
as immediately becomes due to Christ, from his being the voluntary Minister of this dispensation ; as it is due to God the Father, from his being the Fountain of all good : though the first is made known to us, by Revelation only ; the second, by Reason. Hence also we may see, and, for distindlneft sake, it may be worth mentioning, that positive institutions eome under a twofold consideration. They are either in- stitutions founded on natural Religion, as baptism in the name of the Father ; though this has also a par- ticular reference to the Gospel -dispensation, for it is in the name of God, as the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ : Or they are external institutions founded on revealed Religion ; as baptism in the name of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.
Secondly, From the distindlion between what is moral and what is positive in Religion, appears the ground of that peculiar preference, which the Scrip- ture teaches us to be due to the former.
The reason of positive institutions in general, is very obvious : though we should not see the reason, why such particular ones are pitched upon, rather than others. Whoever therefore, instead of cavilling at words, will attend to the thing itself, may clearly see, that positive institutions in general, as distin- guished from this or that particular one, have the nature of moral commands : since the reasons of them appear. Thus, for instance, the external wor- ship of God is a moral duty, though no particular mode of it be so. Care then is to be taken, when a comparison is made between positive and moral du- ties, that they be compared, no farther than as they are different : no farther than as the former are po- sitive, or arise out of mere external command, the reasons of which we are not acquainted with ; and as the latter are moral, or arise out of the apparent
Chap. I. of Christianity. 163
reason of the case, without such external command. Unleft this caution be observed, we shall run into endleft confusion.
Now this being premised, suppose two standing precepts enjoined by the same authority; that, in certain conjunc^tures, it is impoftible to obey both ; that the former is moral, i. e. a precept of which we see the reasons, and that they hold in the particular case before us ; but that the latter is positive, i. e. a precept of which we do not see the reasons : it is indisputable that our obligations are to obey the former ; because there is an apparent reason for this preference, and none against it. Farther, positive institutions, I suppose all those which Christianity enjoins, are means to a moral end : and the end must be acknowledged more excellent, than the means. Nor is observance of these institutions any religious obedience at all, or of any value, otherwise than as it proceeds from a moral principle. This seems to be the strict, logical way of stating and determining this matter : but will, perhaps, be found lef^ appli- cable to practice, than may be thought at first sight.
And therefore, in a more practical, though more lax way of consideration, and taking the words, moral law and positive institutions, in the popular sense ; I add, that the whole moral law is as much matter of revealed command, as positive institutions are : for the Scripture enjoins every moral virtue. In this respe<5l then they are both upon a level. But the moral law is, moreover, written upon our hearts ; interwoven into our very nature. And this is a plain intimation of the Author of it, which is to be pre- ferred, when they interfere.
But there is not altogether so much necef^ity for the determination of this question, as some persons seem to think. Nor are we left to Reason alone to
164 Of the Importance Part 2.
determine it. For, first, though mankind have, in all ages, been greatly prone to place their Religion in peculiar positive rites, by way of equivalent for obedience to moral precepts ; yet, without making any comparison at all between them, and conse- quently without determining which is to have the preference, the nature of the thing abundantly shews all notions of that kind to be utterly subversive of true Religion : as they are, moreover, contrary to the whole general tenor of Scripture ; and likewise to the most expref^ particular declarations of it, that nothing can render us accepted of God, without moral virtue. Secondly, Upon the occasion of men- tioning together positive and moral duties, the Scrip- ture always puts the streft of Religion upon the latter, and never upon the former : Which, though no sort of allowance to negle(51: the former, when they do not interfere with the latter, yet is a plain intimation, that when they do, the latter are to be preferred. And farther, as mankind are for placing the strei^ of their Religion anywhere, rather than upon virtue ; lest both the reason of the thing, and the general spirit of Christianity, appearing in the intimation now mentioned, should be ineffectual against this preva- lent folly : Our Lord himself, from whose command alone the obligation of positive institutions arises, has taken occasion to make the comparison between them and moral precepts ; when the Pharisees cen- sured him, for eating with publicans and sinners ; and also when they censured his disciples, for pluck- ing the ears of corn on the Sabbath-day. Upon this comparison, he has determined exprefsly, and in form, which shall have the preference when they interfere. And by delivering his authoritative de- termination in a proverbial manner of expreftion, he has made it general : I will have mercy, and not sa-
Chap, I. of Christianity. 165
crifice.^ The propriety of the word, proverbial, is not the thing insisted upon : though I think the manner of speaking is to be called so. But that the manner of speaking very remarkably renders the determination general, is surely indisputable. For, had it, in the latter case, been said only, that God preferred mercy to the rigid observance of the Sab- bath; even then, by parity of reason, most justly might we have argued, that he preferred mercy like- ^vise, to the observance of other ritual institutions ; and in general, moral duties, to positive ones. And thus the determination would have been general ; though its being so, were inferred and not exprefted. But as the pafsage really stands in the Gospel, it is much stronger. For the sense and the very literal words of our Lord's answer, are as applicable to any other instance of a comparison, between positive and moral duties, as to this upon which they were spoken. And if, in case of competition, mercy is to be pre- ferred to positive institutions, it will scarce bethought, that justice is to give place to them. It is remark- able too, that, as the words are a quotation from the Old Testament, they are introduced, on both the forementioned occasions, with a declaration, that the Pharisees did not understand the meaning of them. This, I say, is very remarkable. For, since it is scarce pofsible, for the most ignorant person, not to under- stand the literal sense of the paftage, in the Prophet ;^ and since understanding the literal sense would not have prevented their condemning the guiltlejl;^^ it can hardly be doubted, that the thing which our Lord really intended in that declaration, was, that the Pharisees had not learnt from it, as they might, wherein the general spirit of Religion consists : that
^ Matth. ix. 13, and xii. 7. ^ Hos. vi.
*° See Matth. xii. 7.
i66 Of the Importance of Christianity. Part 2,
it consists in moral piety and virtue, as distinguished from forms, and ritual observances. However, it is certain we may learn this from his Divine application of the paf^age, in the Gospel.
But, as it is one of the peculiar weaknef^es of human nature, when, upon a comparison of two things, one is found to be of greater importance than the other, to consider this other as of scarce any import- ance at all : it is highly neceftary that we remind ourselves, how great presumption it is, to make light of any institutions of Divine appointment ; that our obligations to obey all God's commands whatever, are absolute and indispensable ; And that commands merely positive, admitted to be from him, lay us under a moral obligation to obey them : an obliga- tion moral in the stric^test and most proper sense.
To these things I cannot forbear adding, that the account now given of Christianity, most strongly shews and enforces upon us the obligation of search- ing the Scriptures, in order to see, what the scheme of Revelation really is ; instead of determining be- forehand, from Reason, what the scheme of it must be.^^ Indeed if in Revelation there be found any parages, the seeming meaning of which, is contrary to natural Religion ; we may most certainly con- clude, such seeming meaning not to be the real one. But it is not any degree of a presumption against an interpretation of Scripture, that such interpretation contains a do6lrine, which the light of Nature cannot discover ; ^^ or a precept, which the law of Nature does not oblige to.
" Seech, iii. »2 pp, jgg^ ,69.
1 |
m ML |
1 1 |
Chap. 2. Of the Supposed Presumption, &c. 167
CHAPTER II.
Of the supposed Presumption against a Revelation, considered as miraculous.
AVING shewn the importance of the Christian Revelation, and the obliga- tions which we are under seriously to attend to it, upon supposition of its truth, or its credibility: The next thing in order, is to consider, the supposed presump- tions against Revelation in general ; which shall be the subjedl of this chapter : and the objecftions against the Christian in particular ; which shall be the sub- ject: of some following ones.^ For it seems the most natural method, to remove these prejudices against Christianity ; before we proceed to the consideration of the positive evidence for it, and the objections against that evidence.^
It is, I think, commonly supposed, that there is some peculiar presumption, from the Analogy of Nature, against the Christian scheme of things ; at least against miracles : so as that stronger evidence is necef^ary to prove the truth and reality of them, than would be sufficient to convince us of other events, or matters of fact. Indeed the consideration of this supposed presumption, cannot but be thought very insignificant, by many persons. Yet, as it belongs to the subje(5^ of this treatise ; so it may tend to open the mind, and remove some prejudices ; however needlef^ the consideration of it be, upon its own ac- count.
* Ch. iii. iv. v. vi. ' Ch. vii.
1 68 Of the Supposed Presumption Part 2.
I. I find no appearance of a presumption, from the Analogy of Nature, against the general scheme of Christianity, that God created and invisibly governs the world by Jesus Christ ; and by him also will hereafter judge it in righteousneft, i.e. render to every one according to his works : and that good men are under the secret influence of his Spirit. Whether these things are, or are not, to be called miraculous, is, perhaps, only a question about words; or however, is of no moment in the case. If the Analogy of Nature raises any presumption against this general scheme of Christianity, it must be, either because it is not discoverable by reason or experi- ence; or else, because it is unlike that course of Nature, which is. But Analogy raises no presump- tion against the truth of this scheme, upon either of these accounts.
First, There is no presumption, from Analogy, against the truth of it, upon account of its not being discoverable by reason or experience. For suppose one who never heard of Revelation, of the most im- proved understanding, and acquainted with our whole system of natural philosophy and natural Religion : such an one could not but be sensible, that it was but a very small part of the natural and moral system of the universe, which he was acquainted with. He could not but be sensible, that there must be innu- merable things, in the dispensations of Providence past, in the invisible government over the world, at present carrying on, and in what is to come ; of which he was wholly ignorant,^ and which could not be discovered without Revelation. Whether the scheme of Nature be, in the strictest sense, infinite or not ; it is evidently vast, even beyond all poftible
3 P. 129.
Chap, 2. against Miracles. 169
imagination. And doubtlel^ that part of it, which is opened to our view, is but as a point, in comparison of the whole plan of Providence, reaching- through- out eternity past and future ; in comparison of what is even now going on, in the remote parts of the boundleft universe ; nay in comparison of the whole scheme of this world. And therefore, that things lie beyond the natural reach of our faculties, is no sort of presumption against the truth and reality of them: because it is certain, there are innumerable things, in the constitution and government of the universe, which are thus beyond the natural reach of our faculties. Secondly, Analogy raises no pre- sumption, against any of the things contained in this general do6lrine of Scripture now mentioned, upon account of their being unlike the known course of Nature. For there is no presumption at all from Analogy, that the whole course of things, or Divine government, naturally unknown to us, and everything in it, is like to anything in that which is known ; and therefore no peculiar presumption against any- thing in the former, upon account of its being unlike to anything in the latter. And in the constitution and natural government of the world, as well as in the moral government of it, we see things, in a great degree, unlike one another : and therefore ought not to wonder at such unlikenei^ between things visible and invisible. However, the scheme of Christianity is by no means entirely unlike the scheme of Nature ; as will appear in the following part of this treatise.
The notion of a miracle, considered as a proof of a Divine million, has been stated with great exa(5l- ne{^ by divines ; and is, I think, sufficiently under- stood by every one. There are also invisible miracles, the incarnation of Christ, for instance, which, being secret, cannot be alleged as a proof of such a mis-
1 70 Of the Supposed Presumption Part 2.
sion ; but require themselves to be proved by visible miracles. Revelation itself too is miraculous ; and miracles are the proof of it : and the supposed pre- sumption against these, shall presently be considered. All which I have been observing here is, that, whether we choose to call everything in the dispensations of Providence, not discoverable without Revelation, nor like the known course of things, miraculous ; and whether the general Christian dispensation now men- tioned, is to be called so, or not ; the foregoing ob- servations seem certainly to shew, that there is no presumption against it, from the Analogy of Nature.
II. There is no presumption, from Analogy, against some operations, which, we should now call mira- culous ; particularly none against a Revelation, at the beginning of the world : nothing of such pre- sumption against it, as is supposed to be implied or expref^ed in the word, miraculous. For a miracle, in its very notion, is relative to a course of Nature ; and implies somewhat different from it, considered as being so. Now, either there was no course of Nature at the time which we are speaking of: or if there were, we are not acquainted, what the course of Nature is, upon the first peopling of worlds. And therefore the question, whether mankind had a Re- velation made to them at that tiine, is to be consi- dered, not as a question concerning a miracle, but as a common question of fact. And we have the like reason, be it more or lef^, to admit the report of tradition, concerning this question, and concerning common matters of fa(?t of the same antiquity ; for instance, what part of the earth was first peopled.
Or thus : When mankind was first placed in this state, there was a power exerted, totally different from the present course of Nature. Now, whether this power, thus wholly different from the present course of Nature, for we cannot properly apply to it
Chap, 2. against Miracles. 1 71
the word miraculous ; whether this power stopped immediately after it had made man, or went on, and exerted itself farther in giving him a Revelation, is a question of the same kind, as whether an ordinary power exerted itself in such a particular degree and manner, or not.
Or suppose the power exerted in the formation of the world, be considered as miraculous, or rather, be called by that name ; the case will not be different : since it must be acknowledged, that such a power was exerted. For supposing it acknowledged, that our Saviour spent some years in a course of working miracles : there is no more presumption, worth men- tioning, against his having exerted this miraculous power, in a certain degree greater, than in a certain degree left ; in one or two more instances, than in one or two fewer ; in this, than in another manner.
It is evident then, that there can be no peculiar presumption, from the Analogy of Nature, against supposing a Revelation, when man was first placed upon the earth.
Add, that there does not appear the least intima- tion in history or tradition, that Religion was first reasoned out : but the whole of history and tradition makes for the other side, that it came into the world by Revelation. Indeed the state of Religion in the first ages, of which we have any account, seems to suppose and imply, that this was the original of it amongst mankind. And these refle(51;ions together, without taking in the peculiar authority of Scripture, amount to real and a very material degree of evidence, that there was a Revelation at the beginning of the world. Now this, as it is a confirmation of natural Religion, and therefore mentioned in the former part of this treatise ;^ so likewise it has a tendency to re-
♦ Pp. 121, &c.
172 Of the Supposed Presumption Part 2.
move any prejudices against a subsequent Revela- tion.
III. But still it may be obje(5led, that there is some peculiarpresumption,from Analogy, against miracles; particularly against Revelation, after the settlement and during the continuance of a course of Nature.
Now with regard to this supposed presumption, it is to be observed in general; that before we can have ground for raising what can, with any propriety, be called an argument from Analogy, for or against Revelation considered as somewhat miraculous, we must be acquainted with a similar or parallel case. But the history of some other world, seemingly in like circumstances with our own, is no more than a parallel case : and therefore nothing short of this, can be so. Yet, could we come at a presumptive proof, for or against a Revelation, from being in- formed, whether such world had one, or not ; such a proof, being drawn from one single instance only, must be infinitely precarious. More particularly : First of all ; There is a very strong presumption against common speculative truths, and against the most ordinary fa(fi:s, before the proof of them ; which yet is overcome by almost any proof. There is a presumption of millions to one, against the story of CcBsar, or of any other man. For suppose a number of common facets so and so circumstanced, of which one had no kind of proof, should happen to come into one's thoughts ; every one would, without any pof^ible doubt, conclude them to be false. And the like may be said of a single common fa6l. And from hence it appears, that the question of importance, as to the matter before us, is, concerning the degree of the peculiar presumption supposed against miracles ; not whether there be any peculiar presumption at all against them. For, if there be the presumption
Chap. 2. against Miracles. 173
of millions to one, against the most common fa6ls ; What can a small presumption, additional to this, amount to, though it be peculiar ? It cannot be es- timated, and is as nothing. The only material ques- tion is, whether there be any such presumption against miracles, as to render them in any sort in- credible. Secondly, If we leave out the consideration of Religion, we are in such total darkneft, upon what causes, occasions, reasons, or circumstances, the present course of Nature depends ; that there does not appear any improbability for or against suppos- ing, that five or six thousand years may have given scope for causes, occasions, reasons, or circum- stances, from whence miraculous interpositions may have arisen. And from this, joined with the fore- going observation, it will follow, that there must be a presumption, beyond all comparison, greater, against the particular common fa6is just now in- stanced in, than against miracles in general ; before any evidence of either. But, thirdly, take in the consideration of Religion, or the moral system of the world, and then we see distin(5l particular reasons for miracles : to afford mankind instruction additional to that of Nature, and to attest the truth of it. And this gives a real credibility to the supposition, that it might be part of the original plan of things, that there should be miraculous interpositions. Then, lastly, miracles must not be compared to common natural events ; or to events which, though uncom- mon, are similar to what we daily experience : but to the extraordinary phenomena of Nature. And then the comparison will be between the presump- tion against miracles, and the presumption against such uncommon appearances, suppose, as comets, and against there being any such powers in Nature as magnetism and ele(5lricity, so contrary to the pro-
1 74 Of the Supposed Presumption, &c. Part 2.
perties of other bodies not endued with these powers. And before any one can determine, whether there be any peculiar presumption against miracles, more than against other extraordinary things ; he must consider, what, upon first hearing, would be the pre- sumption against the last-mentioned appearances and powers, to a person acquainted only with the daily, monthly, and annual, course of Nature respe^iing this earth, and with those common powers of matter which we every day see.
Upon all this I conclude ; That there certainly is no such presumption against miracles, as to render them in any wise incredible : That on the contrary, our being able to discern reasons for them, gives a positive credibility to the history of them, in cases where those reasons hold : And that it is by no means certain, that there is any peculiar presumption at all, from Analogy, even in the lowest degree, against miracles, as distinguished from other extraordinary phenomena : though it is not worth while to perplex the reader, with inquiries into the abstract nature of evidence, in order to determine a question, which, without such inquiries, we see ^ is of no importance.
^ P. 172,
Chap, 3. The Credibility, &c. 175
CHAPTER III.
0/ our Incapacity of judging, what were to he ex- pelled in a Revelation ; and the Credibility , from Analogy, that it must contain things appearing liable to OhjeStions.
ESIDES the obje(5lions against the evidence for Christianity, many are alleged against the scheme of it ; against the whole manner in which it is put and left with the world ; as well as against several particular relations in Scripture : Obje(5lions drawn, from the deficiencies of Revela- tion ; from things in it appearing to menfoolishnefi ;^ from its containing matters of offence, which have led, and it must have been foreseen would lead, into strange enthusiasm and superstition^ and be made to serve the purposes of tyranny and wickednefs ; from its not being universal ; and, which is a thing of the same kind, from its evidence not being so convincing and satisfactory as it might have been : for this last is sometimes turned into a positive ar- gument against its truth.- It would be tedious, in- deed impof^ible, to enumerate the several particulars comprehended under the obje cations here referred to ; they being so various, according to the different fancies of men. There are persons, who think it a strong obje(5lion against the authority of Scripture, that it is not composed by rules of art, agreed upon by critics, for polite and correal writing. And the
» I Cor. i. 28. 2 See ch. vi.
176 The Credibility, that a Revelation Part 2,
scorn is inexpref^ible, with which some of the pro- phetic parts of Scripture are treated : partly through the rashneft of interpreters ; but very much also, on accountofthe hieroglyphical and figurative language, in which they are left us. Some of the principal things of this sort shall be particularly considered, in following chapters. But my design at present, is to observe in general, with respe^l to this whole way of arguing, that, upon supposition of a Revelation, it is highly credible beforehand, we should be in- competent judges of it, to a great degree : and that it would contain many things appearing to us liable to great objections ; in case we judge of it otherwise, than by the Analogy of Nature. And therefore, though objections against the evidence of Christi- anity are most seriously to be considered ; yet ob- je(5lions against Christianity itself are, in a great measure, frivolous : almost all objections against it, excepting those which are alleged against the parti- cular proofs of its coming from God. I expreft myself with caution, lest I should be mistaken to vilify Rea- son : which is indeed the only faculty we have where- with to judge concerning anything, even Revelation itself: or to be misunderstood to aftert, that a sup- posed Revelation cannot be proved false, from in- ternal chara(5ters. For, it may contain clear immo- ralities or contradictions: and either of these would prove it false. Nor will I take upon me to affirm, that nothing else can pof^ibly render any supposed Revelation incredible. Yet still the observation above is, I think, true beyond doubt ; that objections against Christianity, as distinguished from objections against its evidence, are frivolous. To make out this, is the general design of the present chapter. And with regard to the whole of it, I cannot but particularly wish, that the proofs might be attended to ; rather
Chap. 3. must appear liable to Objedions. 177
than the aftertions cavilled at, upon account of any unacceptable consequences, whether real or sup- posed, which may be drawn from them. For, after all, that which is true must be admitted, though it should shew us the shortnel^ of our faculties ; and that we are in no wise judges of many things, of which we are apt to think ourselves very competent ones. Nor will this be any objection with reasonable men, at least upon second thought it will not be any objection with such, against the justneft of the fol- lowing observations.
As God governs the world, and instructs his crea- tures, according to certain laws or rules, in the known course of Nature ; known by reason together with experience : so the Scripture informs us of a scheme of Divine Providence, additional to this. It relates, that God has, by Revelation, instru^led men in things concerning his government, which they could not otherwise have known ; and reminded them of things, which they might otherwise know : and attested the truth of the whole, by miracles. Now if the natural and the revealed dispensation of things are both from God, if they coincide with each other, and together make up one scheme of Providence : our being in- competent judges of one, must render it credible, that we may be incompetent judges also of the other. Since, upon experience, the acknowledged constitu- tion and course of Nature is found to be greatly dif- ferent from what, before experience, would have been expelled; and such as, men fancy, there lie great obje(?i:ions against : this renders it beforehand highly credible, that they may find the revealed dis- pensation likewise, if they judge of it as they do of the constitution of Nature, very different from ex- pe(5lations formed beforehand ; and liable, in appear- ance, to great objections: ObjecHiions against the
N
178 The Credibility, that a Revelation Part 2.
scheme itself, and against the degrees and manners of the miraculous interpositions, by which it was at- tested and carried on. Thus suppose a prince to govern his dominions in the wisest manner poftible, by common I^nown laws ; and that upon some exi- gencies he should suspend these laws ; and govern, in several instances, in a different manner : If one of his subje(5ls were not a competent judge before- hand, by what common rules the government should or would be carried on ; it could not be expet^ed, that the same person would be a competent judge, in what exigencies, or in what manner, or to what degree, those laws commonly observed would be suspended or deviated from. If he were not a judge of the wisdom of the ordinary administration; there is no reason to think, he would be a judge of the wisdom of the extraordinary. If he thought he had objections against the former ; doubtlei^, it is highly supposable, he might think also, that he had objec- tions against the latter. And thus, as we fall into infinite follies and mistakes, whenever we pretend, otherwise than from experience and Analogy, to judge of the constitution and course of Nature ; it is evidently supposable beforehand, that we should fall into as great, in pretending to judge, in like manner, concerning Revelation. Nor is there any more ground to expe(5l, that this latter should appear to us clear of obje(5lions, than that the former should. These observations, relating to the whole of Chris- tianity, are applicable to inspiration in particular. As we are in no sort judges beforehand, by what laws or rules, in what degree, or by what means, it were to have been expe(5led, that God would natu- rally instru(5l us : so upon supposition of his afford- ing us light and instru(5lion by Revelation, additional to what he has afforded us by reason and experience.
Chap, 3. must appear liable to Objeclions. 179
we are in no sort judges, by what methods and in what proportion, it were to be expe(5led, that this supernatural light and instruction would be afforded us. We know not beforehand, what degree or kind of natural information, it were to be expected God would afford men, each by his own reason and ex- perience : nor how far he would enable, and effec- tually dispose them to communicate it, whatever it should be, to each other : nor whether the evidence of it would be, certain, highly probable, or doubtful : nor whether it would be given with equal clearneis and conviction to all. Nor could we gueft, upon any good ground I mean, whether natural know- ledge, or even the faculty itself, by which we are capable of attaining it, reason, would be given us at once, or gradually. In like manner, we are wholly ignorant what degree of new knowledge, it were to be expected, God would give mankind by Revela- tion, upon supposition of his affording one : or how far, or in what way, he would interpose miraculously. to qualify them, to whom he should originally make the Revelation, for communicating the knowledge given by it ; and to secure their doing it to the age in which they should live ; and to secure its being transmitted to posterity. We are equally ignorant, whether the evidence of it would be, certain, or highly probable, or doubtful:'^ or whether all who should have any degree of instruction from it, and any de- gree of evidence of its truth, would have the same: or whether the scheme would be revealed at once, or unfolded gradually. Nay we are not in any sort able to judge, whether it were to have been expected, that the Revelation should have been committed to writing ; or left to be handed down, and subsequently
' See ch. vi.
i8o The Credibility, that a Revelation Part 2.
corrupted by verbal tradition, and at length sunk under it, if mankind so pleased, and during such time as they are permitted, in the degree they evidently are, to a(5l as they will.
But it may be said, " that a Revelation in some of '' the abovementioned circumstances ; one, for in- " stance, which was not committed to writing, and " thus secured against danger of corruption, would " not have answered its purpose." I ask, what pur- pose ? It would not have answered all the purposes which it has now answered, and in the same degree : but it would have answered others, or the same in different degrees. And which of these were the purposes of God, and best fell in with his general government, we could not at all have determined beforehand.
Now since it has been shewn, that we have no principles of reason, upon which to judge beforehand, how it were to be expected Revelation should have been left, or what was most suitable to the Divine plan of government, in any of the forementioned re- spects ; it must be quite frivolous to obje(5t afterwards as to any of them, against its being left in one way, rather than another: For this would be to objeCl against things, upon account of their being different from expectations, which have been shewn to be without reason. And thus we see, that the only ques- tion concerning the truth of Christianity, is, whether it be a real Revelation : not whether it be attended with every circumstance which we should have looked for : and concerning the authority of Scripture, whe- ther it be what it claims to be ; not whether it be a book of such sort, and so promulged, as weak men are apt to fancy, a book containing a Divine Reve- lation should. And therefore, neither obscurity, nor seeming inaccuracy of style, nor various readings,
Chap. 3. must appear liable to Objedions. 181
nor early disputes about the authors of particular parts ; nor any other things of the like kind, though they had been much more considerable in degree than they are, could overthrow the authority of the Scripture : unle{^ the prophets, apostles, or our Lord, had promised, that the book containing the Divine Revelation, should be secure from those things. Nor indeed can any obje(5lions overthrow such a kind of Revelation as the Christian claims to be, since there are no obje(?i:ions against the morality of it,^ but such as can shew, that there is no proof of miracles wrought originally in attestation of it ; no appearance of any- thing miraculous in its obtaining in the world ; nor any of prophecy, that is, of events foretold, which human sagacity could not foresee. If it can be shewn, that the proof alleged for all these, is absolutely none at all, then is Revelation overturned. But were it allowed, that the proof of any one or all of them, is lower than is allowed ; yet, whilst any proof of them remains. Revelation will stand upon much the same foot it does at present, as to all the purposes of life and prac^tice, and ought to have the like influence upon our behaviour.
From the foregoing observations too, it will follow, and those who will thoroughly examine into Reve- lation, will find it worth remarking ; that there are several ways of arguing, which, though just with re- gard to other writings, are not applicable to Scrip- ture : at least not to the prophetic parts of it. We cannot argue, for instance, that this cannot be the sense or intent of such a parage of Scripture ; for if it had, it would have been exprei^ed more plainly, or have been represented under a more apt figure or hieroglyphic : Yet we may justly argue thus, with
*P. 189.
1 82 The Credibility, that a Revelation Part 2.
respe<?i: to common books. And the reason of this difference is very evident : that in Scripture, we are not competent judges, as we are in common books, how plainly it were to have been expe(5^ed, what is the true sense should have been exprel^ed, or under how apt an image figured. The only question is, what appearance there is, that this is the sense ; and scarce at all, how much more determinately or ac- curately it might have been exprefted or figured.
" But is it not self-evident, that internal improba- '• bilitiesofall kinds, weaken external probable proof?" Doubtlef^. But to what pra(5lical purpose can this be alleged here, when it has been proved before,^ that real internal improbabilities which rise even to moral certainty, are overcome by the most ordinary testimony ; and when it now has been made appear, that we scarce know what are improbabilities, as to the matter we are here considering : as it will farther appear from what follows.
For though from the observations above made, it is manifest, that we are not in any sort competent judges, what supernatural instruction were to have been expec^ted; and though it is self-evident, that the obje(5^ions of an incompetent judgment must be frivolous : Yet it may be proper to go one step far- ther, and observe ; that if men will be regardlef^ of these things, and pretend to judge of the Scripture by preconceived expe<51ations ; the Analogy of Na- ture shews beforehand not only that it is highly cre- dible they may, but also probable that they will, imagine they have strong obje(?i:ions against it, how- ever really unexceptionable : for so, prior to expe- rience, they would think they had, against the cir- cumstances and degrees and the whole manner of
* P. 172,
Chap. 3. must appear liable to Objeflions. 183
that instru(9:ion, which is afforded by the ordinary course of Nature. Were the instruction which God affords to brute creatures by instincts and mere pro- pensions, and to mankind by these together with reason, matter of probable proof, and not of certain observation ; it would be rejected as incredible, in many instances of it, only upon account of the means by which this instruction is given, the seeming dis- proportions, the limitations, necefsary conditions, and circumstances of it. For instance : Would it not have been thought highly improbable, that men should have been so much more capable of discover- ing, even to certainty, the general laws of matter, and the magnitudes, paths and revolutions of the heavenly bodies ; than the occasions and cures of distempers, and many other things, in which human life seems so much more nearly concerned, than in astronomy \ How capricious and irregular a way of information, would it be said, is that of invention, by means of which, Nature instrucls us in matters of science, and in many things, upon which the affairs of the world greatl}'^ depend : That a man should, by this faculty, be made acquainted with a thing in an instant, when perhaps he is thinking of somewhat else, which he has in vain been searching after, it may be, for years. So likewise the imperfections attending the only method, by which Nature enables and directs us to communicate our thoughts to each other, are innumerable. Language is, in its very nature, inadequate, ambiguous, liable to infinite abuse, even from negligence ; and so liable to it from de- sign, that every man can deceive and betray by it. And, to mention but one instance more ; that brutes, without reason, should acl, in many respects, with a sagacity and foresight vastly greater than what men have in those respedls, would be thought impof^ible.
184 The Credibility, that a Revelation Part 2.
Yet it is certain they do 3(9: with such superior fore- sight : whether it be their own indeed, is another question. From these things it is highly credible beforehand, that upon supposition God should afford men some additional instruction by Revelation, it would be with circumstances, in manners, degrees and respeCls, which we should be apt to fancy we had great obje(fi:ions against the credibility of. Nor are the obje(51;ions against the Scripture, nor against Christianity in general, at all more or greater, than
the Analogy of Nature would beforehand not
perhaps give ground to expeCl ; for this Analogy may not be sufficient, in some cases, to ground an ex- pe(fi;ation upon ; but no more nor greater, that Ana- logy would shew it, beforehand, to be supposable and credible, that there might seem to lie against Revelation.
By applying these general observations to a par- ticular obje<5lion, it will be more distinctly seen, how they are applicable to others of the like kind : and indeed to almost all obje(9;ions against Christianity, as distinguished from objections against its evidence. It appears from Scripture, that, as it was not un- usual in the Apostolic Age, for persons, upon their conversion to Christianity, to be endued with mira- culous gifts; so, some of those persons exercised these gifts in a strangely irregular and disorderly manner: And this is made an obje(51;ion against their being really miraculous. Now the foregoing obser- vations quite remove this objec^tion, how considerable soever it may appear at first sight. For, consider a person endued with any of these gifts ; for instance, that of tongues : It is to be supposed, that he had the same power over this miraculous gift, as he would have had over it, had it been the effect of habit, of study and use, as it ordinarily is ; or the same power
Chap. 3. must appear liable to Objedions. 185
over it, as he had over any other natural endowment. Consequently, he would use it in the same manner he did any other ; either regularly and upon proper occasions only, or irregularly and upon improper ones : according to his sense of decency, and his chara(5ter of prudence. Where then is the objection? Why, if this miraculous power was indeed given to the world, to propagate Christianity and attest the truth of it, we might, it seems, have expected, that other sort of persons should have been chosen to be invested with it ; or that these should, at the same time, have been endued with prudence ; or that they should have been, continually, restrained and di- rected in the exercise of it : i. e. that God should have miraculously interposed, if at all, in a different manner or higher degree. But from the observations made above, it is undeniably evident, that w^e are not judges, in what degrees and manners, it were to have been expelled, he should miraculously interpose ; upon supposition of his doing it in some degree and man- ner. Nor, in the natural course of Providence, are superior gifts of memory, eloquence, knowledge, and other talents of great influence, conferred only on persons of prudence and decency, or such as are disposed to make the properest use of them. Nor is the instru(5lion and admonition naturally afforded us for the condu(9: of life, particularly in our educa- tion, commonly given in a manner the most suited to recommend it ; but often with circumstances apt to prejudice us against such instru(9;ion.
One might go on to add, that there is a great re- semblance between the light of Nature and of Re- velation, in several other respe(5ls. Pra(?iical Chris- tianity, or that faith and behaviour which renders a man a Christian, is a plain and obvious thing : like the common rules of condu($l, with respecft to our
1 86 The Credibility, that a Revelation Part 2.
ordinary temporal affairs. The more distindl and particular knowledge of those things, the study of which the apostle calls going on unto p erf eSiion,^ and of the prophetic parts of Revelation, like many parts of natural and even civil knowledge, may require very exac^t thought, and careful consideration. The hinderances too, of natural, and of supernatural light and knowledge, have been of the same kind. And as, it is owned, the whole scheme of Scripture is not yet understood ; so, if it ever comes to be understood, before the restitution of all things,'' and without mi- raculous interpositions ; it must be in the same way as natural knowledge is come at : by the continuance and progreft of learning and of liberty ; and by par- ticular persons attending to, comparing and pursu- ing, intimations scattered up and down it, which are overlooked and disregarded by the generality of the world. For this is the way, in which all improve- ments are made ; by thoughtful men tracing on ob- scure hints, as it were, dropped us by Nature acci- dentally, or which seem to come into our minds by chance. Nor is it at all incredible, that a book, which has been so long in the pofteftion of mankind, should contain many truths as yet undiscovered. For, all the same phenomena, and the same faculties of in- vestigation, from which such great discoveries in natural knowledge have been made in the present and last age, were equally in the pof^ef^ion of man- kind, several thousand years before. And poftibly it might be intended, that events, as they come to paf^, should open and ascertain the meaning of se- veral parts of Scripture.
It may be obje(51ed, that this Analogy fails in a material respect:: for that natural knowledge is of
* Heb. vi. I. ' Afts iii. 21.
Chap. 3. must appear liable to Objedions. 187
little or no consequence. But I have been speaking of the general instruction, which Nature does or does not afford us. And besides, some parts of natural knowledge, in the more common restrained sense of the words, are of the greatest consequence to the ease and convenience of life. But suppose the Ana- logy did, as it does not, fail in this respe^ ; yet it might be abundantly supplied, from the whole con- stitution and course of Nature : which shews, that God does not dispense his gifts, according to our notions of the advantage and consequence they would be of to us. And this in general, with his method of dispensing knowledge in particular, would together make out an Analogy full to the point before us.
But it may be objected still farther and more ge- nerally ; '• The Scripture represents the world as in " a state of ruin, and Christianity as an expedient to " recover it, to help in these respe^ls where Nature " fails : in particular, to supply the deficiencies of " natural light. Is it credible then, that so many " ages should have been let pai^, before a matter of " such a sort, of so great and so general im.portance, ''was made known to mankind; and then that it '' should be made known to so small a part of them *? " Is it conceivable, that this supply should be so very "■ deficient, should have the like obscurity and doubt- " fulneft, be liable to the like perversions, in short, " lie open to all the like objections, as the light of " Nature itself?"^ Without determining how far this in fa(^ is so, I answer ; It is by no means incredible, that it might be so, if the light of Nature and of Re- velation be from the same hand. Men are naturally liable to diseases : for which God, in his good Pro- vidence, has provided natural remedies.^ But reme-
» Ch. vi, 9 See ch. v.
1 88 The Credibility, that a Revelation Part 2.
dies existing in Nature, have been unknown to man- kind for many ages : are known but to few now : probably many valuable ones are not known yet. Great has been and is the obscurity and difficulty, in the nature and application of them. Circumstances seem often to make them very improper, where they are absolutely necef^ary. It is after long labour and study, and many unsuccefsful endeavours, that they are brought to be as useful, as they are ; after high contempt and absolute reje6lion of the most useful we have ; and after disputes and doubts, which have seemed to be endleft. The best remedies too, when unskilfully, much more if dishonestly applied, may produce new diseases : and with the rightest appli- cation, the succef^ of them is often doubtful. In many cases, they are not at all efFe(9;ual : where they are, it is often very slowly: and the application of them, and the neceftary regimen accompanying it, is, not uncommonly, so disagreeable, that some will not submit to them ; and satisfy themselves with the excuse, that if they would, it is not certain, whether it would be succeftful. And many persons, who labour under diseases, for which there are known natural remedies, are not so happy as to be always, if ever, in the way of them. In a word, the remedies which Nature has provided for diseases, are neither certain, perfecft, nor universal. And indeed the same principles of arguing, which would lead us to con- clude, that they must be so, would lead us likewise to conclude, that there could be no occasion for them ; i. e. that there could be no diseases at all. And therefore, our experience that there are diseases, shews, that it is credible beforehand, upon supposi- tion Nature has provided remedies for them, that these remedies may be, as by experience we find they are, not certain, nor perfe(ft, nor universal ; be-
Chap. 3. must appear liable to Obje6!ions. 189
cause it shews, that the principles upon which we should expe(ft the contrary, are fallacious.
And now, what is the just consequence from all these things ? Not that Reason is no judge of what is offered to us as being of Divine Revelation. For this would be to infer, that we are unable to judge of anything, because we are unable to judge of all things. Reason can, and it ought to judge, not only of the meaning, but also of the morality and the evidence, of Revelation. First, It is the province of Reason to judge of the morality of the Scripture ; i.e. not whether it contains things different from what we should have expedled, from a wise, just and good Being; for obje(5lions from hence have been now obviated : but whether it contains things plainly con- tradictory to wisdom, justice or goodneft ; to what the light of Nature teaches us of God. And I know nothing of this sort obje(5led against Scripture, ex- cepting such objections as are formed upon suppo- sitions, which would equally conclude, that the con- stitution of Nature is contradictory to wisdom, justice or goodneft ; which most certainly it is not. Indeed there are some particular precepts in Scripture, given to particular persons, requiring acftions, which would be immoral and vicious, were it not for such precepts. But it is easy to see, that all these are of such a kind, as that the precept changes the whole nature of the case and of the aClion ; and both constitutes, and shews that not to be unjust or immoral, which, prior to the precept, must have appeared and really have been so; which may well be, since none of these precepts are contrary to immutable morality. If it were commanded, to cultivate the principles, and aCl from the spirit of treachery, ingratitude, cruelty ; the command would not alter the nature of the case or of the aClion, in any of these instances. But it is
190 The Credibility, that a Revelation Part 2.
quite otherwise in precepts, which require only the doing an external a(51ion : for instance, taking away the property or life of any. For men have no right to either life or property, but what arises solely from the grant of God : When this grant is revoked, they cease to have any right at all, in either : And when this revocation is made known, as surely it is pof^ible it may be, it must cease to be unjust to deprive them of either. And though a course of external a6ls, which without command would be immoral, must make an immoral habit ; yet a few detached com- mands have no such natural tendency. I thought proper to say thus much of the few Scripture pre- cepts, which require, not vicious a<5lions, but a(?i;ions which would have been vicious had it not been for such precepts ; because they are sometimes weakly urged as immoral, and great weight is laid upon obje(?tions drawn from them. But to me there seems no difficulty at all in these precepts, but what arises from their being offences : i. e. from their being liable to be perverted, as indeed they are, by wicked de- signing men, to serve the most horrid purposes ; and perhaps, to mislead the weak and enthusiastic. And obje(9:ions from this head, are not objections against Revelation ; but against the whole notion of Religion, as a trial ; and against the general constitution of Nature. Secondly, Reason is able to judge, and must, of the evidence of Revelation, and of the obje(5lions urged against that evidence : which shall be the sub- je6f of a following chapter.^*^
But the consequence of the foregoing observations is, that the question, upon which the truth of Chris- tianity depends, is scarce at all, what obje(51ions there are against its scheme, since there are none against
Ch.
Chap. 3. must appear liable to Objedions. 191
the morality of it ; but what obje6iions there are against its evidence : or, what proof there remains of it after due allowances made for the ohjeSlions against that proof: Because it has been shewn that the objeSiions against Christianity, as distinguished from objeSlions against its evidence, are frivolous. For surely very little weight, if any at all, is to be laid upon a way of arguing and objecfting, which, when applied to the general constitution of Nature, experience shews not to be conclusive : and such, I think, is the whole way of objecting treated of throughout this chapter. It is resolvable into prin- ciples, and goes upon suppositions, which mislead us to think, that the Author of nature would not a6i, as we experience he does ; or would acl, in such and such cases, as we experience he does not in like cases. But the unreasonablenef^ of this way of ob- je(9;ing, will appear yet more evidently from hence, that the chief things thus objected against, are jus- tified, as shall be farther shewn,'i by distinc't, parti- cular, and full analogies, in the constitution and course of Nature.
But it is to be remembered, that, as frivolous as obje6^ions of the foregoing sort against Revelation are, yet, when a supposed Revelation is more con- sistent with itself, and has a more general and uni- form tendency to promote virtue, than, all circum- stances considered, could have been expelled from enthusiasm and political views ; this is a presump- tive proof of its not proceeding from them, and so of its truth : because we are competent judges, what might have been expelled from enthusiasm and po- litical views.
" Ch. iv. latter part, and v. vi.
192 Christianity, a Scheme Part 2.
CHAPTER IV.
Of Christianity, considered as a Scheme or Consti- tution, imperfe6ily comprehended.
T hath been now shewn ' that the Ana- logy of Nature renders it highly cre- dible beforehand, that supposing a Revelation to be made, it must con- tain many things very different from what we should have expecfted, and such as appear open to great obje(?lions : And that this observation, in good measure, takes off the force of those objec- tions, or rather precludes them. But it may be al- leged, that this is a very partial answer to such ob- jections, or a very unsatisfactory way of obviating them : because it doth not shew at all, that the things objected against can be wise, just, and good; much left, that it is credible they are so. It will therefore be proper to shew this distinctly ; by applying to these objections against the wdsdom, justice, and goodnef^ of Christianity, the answer above ^ given to the like objeCtions against the constitution of Nature : before we consider the particular Analogies in the latter, to the particular things objeCted against in the former. Now that which affords a sufficient answer to objections against the wisdom, justice and good- nef^ of the constitution of Nature, is its being a con- stitution, a system or scheme, imperfeCtly compre- hended ; a scheme, in which means are made use of to accomplish ends ; and which is carried on by
' In the foregoing chapter.
^ Part I. ch. vii. to which this all along refers.
Chap. 4. imperfectly comprehended. 193
general laws. For from these things it has been proved, not only to be poftible, but also to be cre- dible, that those things which are objedled against, may be consistent with wisdom, justice and good- nefs ; nay, may be instances of them : and even that the constitution and government of Nature may be perfect in the highest poftible degree. If Christi- anity then be a scheme, and of the like kind ; it is evident, the like obje(5lions against it, must admit of the like answer. And
I. Christianity is a scheme, quite beyond our com- prehension. The moral government of God is ex- ercised, by gradually condu(5ling things so in the course of his Providence, that every one, at length and upon the whole, shall receive according to his deserts ; and neither fraud nor violence, but truth and right, shall finally prevail. Christianity is a par- ticular scheme under this general plan of Providence, emd a part of it, conducive to its completion, with regard to mankind : consisting itself also of various parts, and a mysterious economy, which has been carrying on from the time the world came into its present wretched state, and is still carrying on, for its recovery, by a Divine Person, the Mefsiah ; who is to gather together in one, the children of God, that are scattered abroad^"" and establish an everlasting kingdom, wherein dnelleth righteousnejl.^ And in order to it ; after various manifestations of things, relating to this great and general scheme of Provi- dence, through a succefsion of many ages : (For the Spirit of Christ which was in the Prophets, testified beforehand his sufferings, and the glory that should follow: Unto whom it ivas revealed, that not unto themselves, but unto us they did minister the things
^ Joh. xi. 52. * 2 Pet. ill. 13.
194 Christianity, a Scheme Part 2.
which are now reported unto us by them that have preached the Gospel ; which things the Angels desire to look into ;^) after various dispensations, look- ing forward, and preparatory, to this final salvation : in the fulnejl of time, when Infinite Wisdom thought fit ; He, being in the form of God, made him- self of no reputation, and took upon him the form of a servant, and was made in the likenefl of men: And being found in fashion as a man, he humbled himself, and became obedient to death, even the death of the crojl: Wherefore God also hath highly^ ex- alted him, and given him a name which is above every name : That at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, of things in heaven, and things in the earth, and things under the earth ; And that every tongue should confefs, that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father.^ Parts likewise of this economy, are the miraculous mif^ion of the Holy Ghost, and his ordinary aftistances given to good men : the invisible government, which Christ at pre- sent exercises over his Church : That which he him- self refers to in these words. In my Father's house
are many mansions / go to prepare a place for
you ;' and his future return to judge the world in righteousnef,, and completely re-establish the king- dom of God. For the Father judgeth no man ; but hath committed all judgment unto the Son : That all men should honour the Son, even as they honour the Father.^ All power is given unto him in heaven and in earth.^ And he must reign, till he hath put all enemies under his feet. Then cometh the end, when he shall have delivered up the kingdom to God, even the Father ; when he shall have put down all rule.
^ I Pet. i. II, 12. ^ Phil. ii. 6-11. "^ Joh. xiv. 2. ^ Joh. V. 22, 23. ^ Matth. xxviii. 18.
Chap. 4. imperfedly comprehended. 195
and all authority and power. And when all things shall he subdued unto him, then shall the Son also himself be subjeSi unto him that put all things under him, that God may be all in alU^ Now little, surely, need be said to shew, that this system, or scheme of things, is but imperfe(511y comprehended by us. The Scripture expreftly ai^erts it to be so. And in- deed one cannot read a paftag-e relating to this great mystery of godlinejl,^^ but what immediately runs up into something which shews us our ignorance in it ; as everything in Nature shews us our ignorance in the constitution of Nature. And whoever will seriously consider that part of the Christian scheme, which is revealed in Scripture, will find so much more unrevealed, as will convince him, that, to all the pur- poses of judging and objecting, we know as little of it, as of the constitution of Nature. Our ignorance, therefore, is as much an answer to our obje(?tions against the perfedlion of one, as against the perfec- tion of the other.'-
II. It is obvious too, that in the Christian dispen- sation, as much as in the natural scheme of things, means are made use of to accomplish ends. And the observation of this furnishes us with the same answer, to objecftions against the perfection of Chris- tianity, as to objec^tions of the like kind, against the constitution of Nature. It shews the credibility, that the things obje(?i;ed against, ho\N foolish^'' soever they appear to men, may be the very best means of ac- complishing the very best ends. And their appear- ing foolishnejl is no presum.ption against this, in a scheme so greatly beyond our comprehension.^^
III. The credibility, that the Christian dispensa- tion may have been, all along, carried on by general
»" I Cor. XV. 25-28. " I Tim. iii. 16. '=^ Pp. 128, &c. " I Cor. i. '* Pp. 132, 133.
196 Christianity, a Scheme Part 2.
laws/^no lei^ than the course of Nature, may require to be more distinctly made out. Consider then, upon what ground it is we say, that the whole common course of Nature is carried on according to general foreordained laws. We know indeed several of the general laws of matter : and a great part of the na- tural behaviour of living agents, is reducible to ge- neral laws. But we know in a manner nothing, by what laws, storms and tempests, earthquakes, famine, pestilence, become the instruments of destru(9;ion to mankind. And the laws, by which persons born into the world at such a time and place, are of such ca- pacities, geniuses, tempers ; the laws, by which thoughts come into our mind, in a multitude of cases ; and by which innumerable things happen, of the greatest influence upon the affairs and state of the world ; these laws are so wholly unknown to us, that we call the events which come to paf^ by them, ac- cidental : though all reasonable men know certainly, that there cannot, in reality, be any such thing as chance ; and conclude, that the things which have this appearance are the result of general laws, and may be reduced into them. It is then but an ex- ceeding little way, and in but a very few respecfts, that we can trace up the natural course of things before us, to general laws. And it is only from Ana- logy, that we conclude the whole of it to be capable of being reduced into them : only from our seeing, that part is so. It is from our finding, that the course of Nature, in some respedls and so far, goes on by general laws, that we conclude this of the rest. And if that be a just ground for such a conclusion, it is ^ just ground also, if not to conclude, yet to apprehend, to render it supposable and credible, which is suf-
'5 Pp. 134, 135.
Chap. 4. imperfedly comprehended. 197
ficient for answering objecftions, that God's miracu- lous interpositions may have been, all along in like manner, by general laws of wisdom. Thus, that mi- raculous powers should be exerted, at such times, upon such occasions, in such degrees and manners, and with regard to such persons, rather than others ; that the affairs of the world, being permitted to go on in their natural course so far, should, just at such a point, have a new dire(9;ion given them by mira- culous interpositions ; that these inteqDOsitions should be exac9;ly in such degrees and respe(?ts only ; all this may have been by general laws. These laws are unknown indeed to us : but no more unknown, than the laws from whence it is, that some die as soon as they are born, and others live to extreme old age ; that one man is so superior to another in understanding ; with innumerable more things, which, as was before observed, we cannot reduce to any laws or rules at all, though it is taken for granted, they are as much reducible to general ones, as gra- vitation. Now, if the revealed dispensations of Pro- vidence, and miraculous inteq^ositions, be by general laws, as well as God's ordinary government in the course of Nature, made known by reason and expe- rience ; there is no more reason to expe6l, that every exigence, as it arises, should be provided for by these general laws of miraculous interpositions, than that every exigence in Nature should, by the general laws of Nature. Yet there might be wise and good rea- sons, that miraculous interpositions should be by ge- neral laws : and that these laws should not be broken in upon, or deviated from, by other miracles.
Upon the whole then : The appearance of defici- encies and irregularities in Nature, is owing to its being a scheme but in part made known, and of such a certain particular kind in other respe(5ls. Now we
198 Christianity, a Scheme Part 2.
see no more reason, why the frame and course of Nature should be such a scheme, than why Chris- tianity should. And that the former is such a scheme, renders it credible, that the latter, upon supposition of its truth, may be so too. And as it is manifest, that Christianity is a scheme revealed but in part, and a scheme in which means are made use of to accomplish ends ; like to that of Nature : So the credibility, that it may have been all along carried on by general laws, no lef^ than the course of Na- ture, has been distin(511y proved. And from all this it is beforehand credible that there might, I think probable that there would, be the like appearance of deficiencies and irregularities in Christianity, as in Nature : i. e. that Christianity would be liable to the like obje(51:ions, as the frame of Nature. And these obje(9:ions are answered by these observations con- cerning Christianity ; as the like objections against the frame of Nature, are answered by the like ob- servations concerning the frame of Nature.
The objedlions against Christianity, considered as a matter of (a.6i/^ having, in general, been obviated in the preceding chapter ; and the same, considered as made against the wisdom and goodneft of it, hav- ing been obviated in this : the next thing, according to the method proposed, is to shew, that the prin- cipal objections, in particular, against Christianity, may be answered, by particular and full Analogies in Nature. And as one of them is made against the whole scheme of it together, as just now described, I choose to consider it here, rather than in a distin(5l chapter by itself. The thing obje(?i:ed against this scheme of the Gospel, is, " that it seems to suppose,
16 p. 127.
Chap. 4. imperfedly comprehended. 199
" God was reduced to the necefsity of a long series of " intricate means, in order to accomplish his ends, "the recovery and salvation of the world: In like " sort as men, for want of understanding- or power, " not being able to come at their ends directly, are " forced to go roundabout ways, and make use of " many perplexed contrivances to arrive at them." Now everything which we see, shews the folly of this, considered as an obje(9;ion against the truth of Christianity. For, according to our manner of con- ception, God makes use of variety of means, what we often think tedious ones, in the natural course of Providence, for the accomplishment of all his ends. Indeed it is certain, there is somewhat in this matter quite beyond our comprehension : But the mystery is as great in Nature, as in Christianity. We know what we ourselves aim at, as final ends : and what courses we take, merely as means conducing to those ends. But we are greatly ignorant, how far things are considered by the Author of nature, under the single notion of means and ends ; so as that it may be said. This is merely an end, and that merely means, in his regard. And whether there be not some peculiar absurdity in our very manner of con- ception, concerning this matter, somewhat contra- di(5lory arising from our extremely imperfect!; views of things, it is jmpofsible to say. However, thus much is manifest, that the whole natural world and government of it is a scheme or system ; not a fixed, but a progref^ive one : a scheme, in which the ope- ration of various means takes up a great length of time, before the ends they tend to can be attained. The change of seasons, the ripening of the fruits of the earth, the very history of a flower, is an instance of this : And so is human life. Thus vegetable bodies, and those of animals, though poftibly formed at once,
200 Christianity, a Scheme, &c. Part 2.
yet grow up by degrees to a mature state. And thus rational agents, who animate these latter bodies, are naturally dire(?l;ed to form, each his own manners and chara^ler, by the gradual gaining of knowledge and experience, and by a long course of a^lion. Our existence is not only succef^ive, as it must be of ne- ceftity ; but one state of our life and being, is ap- pointed by God, to be a preparation for another ; and that, to be the means of attaining to another suc- ceeding one : Infancy to childhood, childhood to youth ; youth to mature age. Men are impatient, and for precipitating things : but the Author of na- ture appears deliberate throughout his operations ; accomplishing his natural ends, by slow succefsive steps. And there is a plan of things beforehand laid out, which, from the nature of it, requires various systems of means, as well as length of time, in order to the carrying on its several parts into execution. Thus, in the daily course of natural Providence, God operates in the very same manner, as in the dispen- sation of Christianity : making one thing subservient to another ; This, to somewhat farther ; and so on, through a progreftive series of means, which extend, both backward and forward, beyond our utmost view. Of this manner of operation, everything we see in the course of Nature, is as much an instance, as any part of the Christian dispensation.
Chap. 5. The Appointment, &c. 201
CHAPTER V.
Of the particular System of Christianity ; the Ap- pointment of a Mediator, and the Redemption of the World by him.
- - /! HERE is not, I think, anything relating ^^} to Christianity, which has been more 30\i\ obje(?ted against, than the mediation
of Christ, in some or other of its parts.
Yet, upon thorough consideration,there
seems nothing lef^ justly liable to it. For,
I. The whole Analogy of Nature removes all ima- gined presumption against the general notion of a Mediator between God and man} For we find all living creatures are brought into the w'orld, and their life in infancy is preserved, by the instrumentality of others : And every satisfa(51ion of it, some way or other, is bestowed by the like means. So that the visible government, which God exercises over the world, is by the instrumentality and mediation of others. And how far his invisible government be or be not so, it is impofsible to determine at all by rea- son. And the supposition, that part of it is so, ap- pears, to say the least, altogether as credible, as the contrary. There is then no sort of objection, from the light of Nature, against the general notion of a Mediator between God and man, considered as a dodlrine of Christianity, or as an appointment in this dispensation : since we find by experience, that God does appoint mediators, to be the instruments of
' I Tim. ii. 5.
202 Appointment of a Mediator, Part 2.
good and evil to us ; the instruments of his justice and his mercy. And the objection here referred to is urged, not against mediation in that high, eminent and peculiar sense, in which Christ is our Mediator ; but absolutely against the whole notion itself of a mediator at all.
II. As we must suppose, that the world is under the proper moral government of God, or in a state of Religion, before we can enter into consideration of the revealed dodlrine, concerning the redemption of it by Christ ; so that supposition is here to be dis- tinctly taken notice of. Now the Divine moral go- vernment which Religion teaches us, implies, that the consequence of vice shall be misery, in some future state, by the righteous judgment of God. That such consequent punishment shall take effeCl by his appointment, is neceftarily implied. But, as it is not in any sort to be supposed, that we are made acquainted with all the ends or reasons, for which it is fit future punishments should be inflicted, or why God has appointed, such and such consequent misery should follow vice ; and as we are altogether in the dark, how or in what manner it shall follow, by what immediate occasions, or by the instrumentality of what means ; there is no absurdity in supposing, it may follow in a way analogous to that, in which many miseries follow such and such courses of a(5tion at present ; poverty, sicknef^, infamy, untimely death by diseases, death from the hands of civil justice. There is no absurdity in supposing future punish- ment may follow wickedne{^ of course, as we speak, or in the way of natural consequence from God's original constitution of the world ; from the nature he has given us, and from the condition in which he places us : Or in a like manner, as a person rashly trifling upon a precipice, in the way of natural con-
Chap. 5. the Redeemer of the World. 203
sequence, falls down ; in the way of natural conse- quence, breaks his limbs, suppose ; in the way of natural consequence of this, without help, perishes.
Some good men may perhaps be offended, with hearing it spoken of as a supposable thing, that the future punishments of wickednefs may be in the way of natural consequence : as if this were taking the execution of justice out of the hands of God, and giving it to Nature. But they should remember, that when things come to paf^ according to the course of Nature, this does not hinder them from being his doing, who is the God of nature : And that the Scrip- ture ascribes those punishments to Divine justice, which are known to be natural ; and which must be called so, when distinguished from such as are mi- raculous. But after all, this supposition, or rather this way of speaking, is here made use of only by way of illustration of the subjedl before us. For since it must be admitted, that the future punish- ment of wickednefs is not a matter of arbitrary ap- pointment, but of reason, equity and justice ; it comes, for aught I see, to the same thing, whether it is sup- posed to be inflicted in a way analogous to that, in which the temporal punishments of vice and folly are inflicted, or in any other way. And though there were a difference, it is allowable, in the present case, to make this supposition, plainly not an incredible one ; that future punishment may follow wickednefs in the way of natural consequence, or according to some general laws of government already established in the universe.
III. Upon this supposition, or even without it, we may observe somewhat, much to the present pur- pose, in the constitution of Nature or appointments of Providence : the provision which is made, that all the bad natural consequences of men's actions, should
204 Appointment of a Mediator, Part 2.
not always acflually follow ; or that such bad conse- quences as, according to the settled course of things, would inevitably have follow^ed if not prevented, should in certain degrees, be prevented. We are apt pre- sumptuously to imagine, that the world might have been so constituted, as that there would not have been any such thing as misery or evil. On the con- trary we find the Author of nature permits it : But then he has provided reliefs, and, in many cases, perfect; remedies for it, after some pains and diffi- culties : Reliefs and remedies even for that evil, which is the fruit of our own miscondu6l ; and which, in the course of Nature, would have continued, and ended in our destruction, but for such remedies. And this is an instance both of severity and indul- gence, in the constitution of Nature. Thus all the bad consequences, now mentioned, of a man's trifling upon a precipice, might be prevented. And though all were not, yet some of them might, by proper interposition, if not reje(ffed : by another's coming to the rash man's relief, with his own laying hold on that relief, in such sort as the case required. Per- sons may do a great deal themselves towards pre- venting the bad consequences of their follies : and more may be done by themselves, together with the af^istance of others their fellow-creatures ; which afsistance Nature requires and prompts us to. This is the general constitution of the world. Now sup- pose it had been so constituted, that after such ac- tions were done, as were foreseen naturally to draw after them misery to the doer, it should have been no more in human power to have prevented that naturally consequent misery, in any instance, than it is, in all ; no one can say, whether such a more se- vere constitution of things might not yet have been really good. But, that on the contrary, provision is
Chap. 5. the Redeemer of the World. 205
made by Nature, that we may and do, to so great degree, prevent the bad natural effe(fi:s of our follies ; this may be called mercy or companion in the ori- ginal constitution of the world : Compafsion, as dis- tinguished from goodnefs in general. And, the whole known constitution and course of things affording us instances of such compafsion, it would be according to the Analogy of Nature, to hope, that, however ruinous the natural consequences of vice might be, from the general laws of God's government over the universe ; ^^et provision might be made, pol^ibly might have been originally made, for preventing those ruinous consequences from inevitably follow- ing : at least from following universally, and in all cases.
Many, I am sensible, will wonder at finding this made a question, or spoken of as in any degree doubtful. The generality of mankind are so far from having that awful sense of things, which the present state of vice and misery and darknefs seems to make but reasonable, that they have scarce any apprehen- sion or thought at all about this matter, any way : and some serious persons may have spoken unad- visedly concerning it. But let us observe, what we experience to be, and what, from the very constitu- tion of Nature, cannot but be, the consequences of irregular and disorderly behaviour ; even of such rashnefSjwilfulnefs, neglecT:s,as we scarce call vicious. Now it is natural to apprehend, that the bad conse- quences of irregularity will be greater, in proportion as the irregularity is so. And there is no compa- rison between these irregularities, and the greater instances of vice, or a difkolute profligate disregard to all Religion ; if there be anything at all in Reli- gion. For consider what it is for creatures, moral agents, presumptuously to introduce that confusion
2o6 Appointment of a Mediator, Part 2.
and misery into the kingdom of God, which mankind have in fa(9: introduced ; to blaspheme the sovereign Lord of all ; to contemn his authority ; to be inju- rious, to the degree they are, to their fellow-crea- tures, the creatures of God. Add that the effe(51s of vice in the present world, are often extreme mi- sery, irretrievable ruin, and even death. And upon putting all this together, it will appear, that as no one can say, in what degree fatal, the unprevented consequences of vice may be, according to the ge- neral rule of Divine government ; so it is by no means intuitively certain, how far these consequences could pofsibly, in the nature of the thing, be prevented, consistently with the eternal rule of right, or with what is, in fa(5l, the moral constitution of Nature. However, there would be large ground to hope, that the universal government was not so severely strict, but that there was room for pardon, or for having those penal consequences prevented. Yet,
IV. There seems no probability, that anything we could do, would alone and of itself prevent them : prevent their following, or being inflicfled. But one would think, at least, it were impofsible, that the contrary should be thought certain. For we are not acquainted with the whole of the case. We are not informed of all the reasons, which render it fit that future punishments should be infli(51ed : and there- fore cannot know, whether anything we could do, would make such an alteration, as to render it fit that they should be remitted. We do not know, what the whole natural or appointed consequences of vice are ; nor in what way they would follow, if not pre- vented : and therefore can in no sort say, whether we could do anything, which would be sufficient to prevent them. Our ignorance being thus manifest, let us recolle(5l the Analogy of Nature or Providence.
Chap. 5. the Redeemer of the World. 207
For, though this may be but a slight ground to raise a positive opinion upon, in this matter ; yet it is suf- ficient to answer a mere arbitrary aftertion, without any kind of evidence, urged by way of objection against a do(5lrine, the proof of which is not reason, but Revelation. Consider then : People ruin their fortunes by extravagance ; they bring diseases upon themselves by exceft; they incur the penalties of civil laws, and surely civil government is natural : Will sorrow for these follies past, and behaving well for the future alone and of itself, prevent the natural consequences of them ? On the contrary, men's na- tural abilities of helping themselves are often im- pmred : Or if not, yet they are forced to be beholden to the af^istance of others, upon several accounts, and in different ways : Afsistance which they would have had no occasion for, had it not been for their miscondu6l ; but which, in the disadvantageous con- dition they have reduced themselves to, is absolutely neceftary to their recovery, and retrieving their af- fairs. Now since this is our case, considering our- selves merely as inhabitants of this world, and as having a temporal interest here, under the natural government of God, which however has a great deal moral in it : Why is it not supposable, that this may be our case also, in our more important capacity, as under his perfecft moral government, and having a more general and future interest depending \ If we have misbehaved in this higher capacity, and ren- dered ourselves obnoxious to the future punishment, which God has annexed to vice : it is plainly credible,
that behaving well for the time to come, may be
not useleft, God forbid but wholly insufficient
alone and of itself, to prevent that punishment ; or to put us in the condition, which we should have been in, had we preserved our innocence.
2o8 Appointment of a Mediator, Pari 2.
And though we ought to reason with all reverence, whenever we reason concerning the Divine condudl : yet it may be added, that it is clearly contrary to all our notions of government, as well as to what is, in fa(9:, the general constitution of Nature, to suppose that doing well for the future, should, in all cases, prevent all the judicial bad consequences of having done evil, or all the punishment annexed to disobe- dience. And we have manifestly nothing from whence to determine, in what degree and in what cases, reformation would prevent thjs punishment, even supposing that it would in some. And though the efficacy of repentance itself alone, to prevent what mankind had rendered themselves obnoxious to, and recover what they had forfeited, is now insisted upon, in opposition to Christianity : yet, by the general prevalence of propitiatory sacrifices over the heathen world, this notion, of repentance alone being suffi- cient to expiate guilt, appears to be contrary to the general sense of mankind.
Upon the whole then : Had the laws, the general laws of God's government been permitted to operate, without any interposition in our behalf, the future punishment, for aught we know to the contrary, or have any reason to think, must inevitably have fol- lowed, notwithstanding anything we could have done to prevent it. Now,
V. In this darkneft, or this light of Nature, call it which you please, Revelation comes in ; confirms every doubting fear, which could enter into the heart of man, concerning the future unprevented conse- quence of wickednef^ ; supposes the world to be in a state of ruin ; (a supposition which seems the very ground of the Christian dispensation, and which, if not provable by reason, yet is in no wise contrary to it ;) teaches us too, that the rules of Divine govern-
Chap, 5. the Redeemer of the World. 209
ment are such, as not to admit of pardon immediately and dire(?lly upon repentance, or by the sole efficacy of it: But then teaches at the same time, what Na- ture might justly have hoped, that the moral govern- ment of the universe was not so rigid, but that there was room for an interposition, to avert the fatal con- sequences of vice ; which therefore, by this means, does admit of pardon. Revelation teaches us, that the unknown laws of God's more general govern- ment, no left than the particular laws by which w^e experience he governs us at present, are compas- sionate,- as well as good in the more general notion of goodneft : And that he hath mercifully provided, that there should be an interposition to prevent the destruction of human kind ; whatever that destru6lion unprevented would have been. God so loved the world, that he gave his only-begotten Son, that who- soever helieveth, not, to be sure, in a speculative, but in a pracftical sense, that whosoever believeth in him, should not perish :^ Gave his Son in the same w^ay of goodneft to the world, as he affords particular persons the friendly aftistance of their fellow-crea- tures ; when, without it, their temporal ruin w^ould be the certain consequence of their follies : in the same way of goodneft, I say ; though in a transcend- ent and infinitely higher degree. And the Son of God loved us and gave himself for us, with a love, which he himself compares to that of human friend- ship : though, in this case, all comparisons must fall infinitely short of the thing intended to be illustrated by them. He interposed in such a manner, as was neceftary and efteclual to prevent that execution of justice upon sinners, which God had appointed should otherwise have been executed upon them : Or in
' Pp. 203, Sec. 3 Joh^ l\l j6.
210 Appointment of a Mediator, Part 2.
such a manner, as to prevent that punishment from a(51ually following, which, according to the general laws of Divine government, must have followed the sins of the world, had it not been for such interpo- sition.^
If anything here said, should appear, upon first thought, inconsistent with Divine goodnei^ ; a second, I am persuaded, will entirely remove that appear- ance. For were we to suppose the constitution of things to be such, as that the whole creation must have perished, had it not been for somewhat, which God had appointed should be, in order to prevent that ruin : even this supposition would not be incon- sistent, in any degree, with the most absolutely per- fect goodneft. But still it may be thought, that this whole manner of treating the subje(5l before us, sup-
* It cannot, I suppose, be imagined, even by the most cur- sory reader, that it is, in any sort, affiimed or implied in any- thing said in this chapter, that none can have the benefit of the general redemption, but such as have the advantage of being made acquainted with it in the present life. But it may be needful to mention, that several questions, which have been brought into the subjedl before us, and determined, are not in the least enteied into here : Questions which have been, I fear, rashlydetermined, and perhaps with equal rashnefs contrary ways. For instance, Whether God could have saved the world by other means than the death of Christ, consistently with the general laws of his government. And had not Christ come into the world, what would have been the future condition of the better sort of men ; those just persons over the face of the earth, for whom, Manafses in his prayer afserts, repentance was not ap- pointed. The meaning of the first of these questions is greatly ambiguous. And neither of them can properly be answered, without going upon that infinitely absurd supposition, that we know the whole of the case. And perhaps the very inquiry, What luould hwve foUotved if God had not done as he /las, may have in it some very great impropriety ; and ought not to be carried on any farther, than is necefsary to help our partial and inade- quate conceptions of things.
Chap, 5. the Redeemer of the World. 211
poses mankind to be naturally in a very strange state. And truly so it does. But it is not Christianity, which has put us into this state. Whoever will consider the manifold miseries, and the extreme wickednef^ of the world: that the best have great wrongneftes within themselves, which they complain of, and en- deavour to amend ; but that the generality grow more profligate and corrupt with age : that heathen moralists thought the present state to be a state of punishment : and, what might be added, that the earth our habitation has the appearances of being a ruin: whoever, I say, will consider all these, and some other obvious things, will think he has little reason to object against the Scripture account, that mankind is in a state of degradation ; against this being the fa(5l : how difficult soever he may think it to account for, or even to form a distincfl: conception of the occasions and circumstances of it. But that the crime of our first parents was the occasion of our being placed in a more disadvantageous condition, is a thing throughout and particularly analogous to what we see, in the daily course of natural Providence ; as the recovery of the world by the interposition of Christ, has been shewn to be so in general.
VI. The particular manner in which Christ inter- posed in the redemption of the world, or his office as Mediator, in the largest sense, between God and man, is thus represented to us in the Scripture. He is the light of the world ;'^ the Revealer of the will of God in the most eminent sense. He is a propi- tiatory sacrifice ;^ the Lamb of God:"^ and, as he vo- luntarily offered himself up, he is styled our High-
^ Joh. i. and vlii. la.
^ Rom. iii. 25, and v. 1 1 ; i Cor. v. 7 ; Eph, v. 2 ; I Joh. ii. 2 ; Matth. xxvi. 28.
' Joh. i. 29, 36, and throughout the book of Revelation.
212 Appointment of a Mediator, Part 2.
priest.^ And, which seems of peculiar weight, he is described beforehand in the Old Testament, under the same charac^ters of a priest, and an expiatory vi(?i:im.^ And whereas it is obje^led, that all this is merely by way of allusion to the sacrifices of the Mosaic law, the Apostle on the contrary affirms, that the Law was a shadow of good things to come, and not the very image of the things : ^° and that the priests that offer gifts according to the law — serve unto the example and shadow of heavenly things, as Moses was admonished of God, when he was about to make the tabernacle. For see, saith he, that thou make all things according to the pattern shewed to thee in the mount}^ I. e. the Levitical priesthood was a shadow of the priesthood of Christ ; in like manner as the tabernacle made by Moses, was according to that shewed him in the Mount. The priesthood of Christ, and the tabernacle in the Mount, were the originals : of the former of which, the Levitical priest- hood was a type ; and of the latter, the tabernacle made by Moses was a copy. The do61:rine of this epistle then plainly is, that the legal sacrifices were allusions to the great and final atonement, to be made by the blood of Christ ; and not that this was an al- lusion to those. Nor can anything be more expref^ and determinate, than the following pafsage. It is notpojlible that the blood of bulls and of goats should take away sin. Wherefore when he cometh into the world, he saith. Sacrifice and offering, i.e. of bulls and of goats, thou wouldst not, but a body hast thou
prepared me Lo, I come to do thy will, O God
By which will we are sanSiified, through the
offering of the body of Jesus Christ once for all.^^
® Throughout the Epistle to the Hebrews.
^ Ifa. liii ; Dan. ix. 243 Ps. ex. 4. "^ Heb. x, I.
" Heb. viii. 4, 5. '2 j^^b. x. 4, 5, 7, 9, 10.
Chap. S. the Redeemer of the World. 213
And to add one paftage more of the like kind : Christ was once offered to bear the sins of many ; and unto them that look for him shall he appear the second time, without sin; i.e. without bearing sin, as he did at his first coming, by being an offering for it ; without having our iniquities again laid upon him,
without being anymore a sin-offering : unto them
that look for him shall he appear the second time, without sin, unto salvation}-^ Nor do the inspired WTiters at all confine themselves to this manner of speaking concerning the satisfaction of Christ ; but declare an efficacy in what he did and suffered for us, additional to and beyond mere instruction, ex- ample and government, in great variety of expres- sion : That Jesus should die for that nation the Jews : And not for that nation only, but that also, plainly by the efficacy of his death, he should gather together in one, the children ofGodthatwere scattered abroad :^^ That he suffered for sins, the just for the unjust :^^ That he gave his life, himself, a ransom :^^ That we are bought, bought with a price .-^^ That he redeemed us with his blood; redeemed us from the curse of the law, being made a curse for us:^^ That he is our Advocate, Interceflor and Propitiation:^^ That he was made perfect, or consummate, through suffer- ings : and being thus made perfeSi, he became the author of salvation :-^ That God was in Christ re- conciling the world to himself; by the death of his Son, by the crojl ; not imputing their trespajles unto them :"^ And lastly, that through death he destroyed
'3 Heb. ix. 28. '< Joh. xi. 51, 52. '^ j p^^. Hi. 18.
"5 M3tth. XX. 28 ; Mark x. 45 j I Tim. ii. 6.
^' 2 Pet. ii. I ; Rev. xiv. 4; i Cor. vi. 20.
'8 I Pet. i, 19 ; Rev. v. 9 ; Gal. iii. 13.
'9 Heb. vii. 25 j I Joh. ii. 1,2. -" Ileh. ii, 10, and v. 9.
2' 2 Cor. V. 19 j Rom. v. 10; Eph. ii. 16.
214 Appointment of a Mediator, Parti.
him that had the power of death." Christ then having thus humbled himself, and become obedient to death, even the death of the crcjl ; God also hath highly exalted him, and given him a name which is above every name: hath given all things into his hands: hath committed all judgment unto him ; that all men should honour the Son, even as they honour the Father.-'^ For, worthy is the Lamb that was slain, to receive power, and riches, and wisdom, and strength, and honour, and glory, and blefsing. And every creature which is in heaven, and on the earth, heard I, saying, Blefsing, and honour, and glory, and power be unto him that sitteth upon the throne, and unto the Lamb for ever and ever}^
These parages of Scripture seem to comprehend and expreft the chief parts of Christ's office, as Me- diator between God and man, so far, I mean, as the nature of this his office is revealed ; and it is usually treated of by divines under three heads.
First, He was, by way of eminence, the Prophet : That Prophet that should come into the world,^^ to declare the Divine will. He published anew the law of Nature, which men had corrupted ; and the very knowledge of which to some degree, was lost among them. He taught mankind, taught us authoritatively to live soberly, righteously and godly in this present world, in expe(51:ation of the future judgment of God. He confirmed the truth of this moral system of Na- ture, and gave us additional evidence of it ; the evi- dence of testimony .-<' He distin(9;ly revealed, the manner in which God would be worshipped, the efficacy of repentance, and the rewards and punish-
22 Heb. li. 14. See also a remarkable pafsage in the Book of Job, xxxiii. 24.
2^ Phil. ii. 8, 9; John iii. 3<;, and v. 22, 23.
24 Rev. V. 12, 13. '■^ Joh. vi. 14. 26 pp_ j^Q^ 5,j._
Chap. ^. the Redeemer of the World. 215
ments of a future life. Thus he was a Prophet in a sense, in which no other ever was. To which is to be added, that he set us a perfecSl example that we should follow his steps.
Secondly, He has a kingdom which is not of this world. He founded a Church, to be to mankind a standing memorial of Religion, and invitation to it ; which he promised to be with always even to the end. He exercises an invisible government over it, himself, and by his Spirit : Over that part of it, which is militant here on earth, a government of discipline, for the perfecting of the saints, for the edifying his body: till we all come in the unity of the faith, and of the knowledge of the Son of God, unto a perfeSi man, wito the measure of the stature of the fulnefl of Christ.^'' Of this Church, all persons scattered over the world, who live in obedience to his laws, are members. For these he is gone to prepare a place, and will come again to receive them unto himself, that where he is, there they may be also : and reign with him for ever and ever :-^ and likewise to take vengeance on them that know not God, and obey not his gospelP
Against these parts of Christ's office, I find no objections, but what are fully obviated in the begin- ning of this chapter.
Lastly, Christ offered himself a propitiatory sa- crifice, and made atonement for the sins of the world : Which is mentioned last, in regard to what is ob- jected against it. Sacrifices of expiation were com- manded the Jews, and obtained amongst most other nations, from tradition, whose original probably was Revelation. And they were continually repeated, both occasionally, and at the returns of stated times ;
^' Eph. iv. 12, 13. 28 Joh. xiv. 2, 3 ; Pv.ev. iii. 21, and xi. 15. ^ % Th.fs. i. S.
2i6 Appointment of a Mediator, Part 2.
and made up great part of the external religion of mankind. But now once in the end of the world Christ appeared to put away sin by the sacrifice of himself :^^ And this sacrifice was, in the highest de- gree and with the most extensive influence, of that efficacy for obtaining pardon of sin, which the hea- thens may be supposed to have thought their sacri- fices to have been, and which the Jewish sacrifices really were in some degree, and with regard to some persons.
How and in what particular way it had this effi- cacy, there are not wanting persons who have en- deavoured to explain : but I do not find that the Scripture has explained it. We seem to be very much in the dark, concerning the manner in which the ancients understood atonement to be made, i. e. pardon to be obtained by sacrifices. And if the Scrip- ture has, as surely it has, left this matter of the sa- tisfaction of Christ mysterious, left somewhat in it unrevealed, all conjeClures about it must be, if not evidently absurd, yet at least uncertain. Nor has any one reason to complain for want of farther in- formation, unle{^ he can shew his claim to it.
Some have endeavoured to explain the efficacy of what Christ has done and suffered for us, beyond what the Scripture has authorized : Others, pro- bably because they could not explain it, have been for taking it away, and confining his office as Re- deemer of the world, to his instruction, example and government of the Church. Whereas the do<5trine of the Gospel appears to be ; not only that he taught the efficacy of repentance, but rendered it of the ef- ficacy which it is, by what he did and suffered for us : That he obtained for us the benefit of having
^ Heb. ix. 26.
Chap, s, the Redeemer of the World. 217
our repentance accepted unto eternal life : Not only that he revealed to sinners, that they were in a ca- pacity of salvation, and how they might obtain it ; but moreover that he put them into this capacity of salvation, by what he did and suffered for them ; put us into a capacity of escaping future punishment, and obtaining future happineft. And it is our wis- dom thankfully to accept the benefit, by performing the conditions, upon which it is offered, on our part, without disputing how it was procured, on his. For, VII. Since we neither know, by what means pun- ishment in a future state would have followed wick- ednef^ in this ; nor in what manner it would have been inflicted, had it not been prevented ; nor all the reasons why its infii(?i;ion would have been needful ; nor the particular nature of that state of happinef^, which Christ is gone to prepare for his disciples : And since we are ignorant how far anything which we could do, would, alone and of itself, have been effec- tual to prevent that punishment, to which we were obnoxious, and recover that happinef^, which we had forfeited ; it is most evident we are not judges, ante- cedently to Revelation, whether a Mediator, was or was not necefsary, to obtain those ends : to prevent that future punishment, and bring mankind to the final happinef^ of their nature. And for the very same reasons, upon supposition of the necef^ity of a Mediator, we are no more judges, antecedently to Revelation, of the whole nature of his office, or the several parts of which it consists ; of what was fit and requisite to be afkigned him, in order to accom- plish the ends of Divine Providence in the appoint- ment. And from hence it follows, that to obje<9: against the expediency or usefulnef^ of particular things, revealed to have been done or suffered by him, because we do not see how they were conducive
2i8 Appointment of a Mediator, Part 2.
to those ends ; is highly absurd. Yet nothing- is more common to be met with, than this absurdity. But if it be acknowledged beforehand, that we are not judges in the case, it is evident that no obje6lion can, with any shadow of reason, be urged against any particular part of Christ's mediatorial office re- vealed in Scripture, till it can be shewn positively, not to be requisite or conducive to the ends proposed to be accomplished ; or that it is in itself unreason- able.
And there is one obje(?i;ion made against the satis- faction of Christ, which looks to be of this positive kind : that the doClrine of his being appointed to suffer for the sins of the world, represents God as being indifferent whether he punished the innocent or the guilty. Now from the foregoing observations we may see the extreme slightnef^ of all such ob- jections ; and (though it is most certain all who make them do not see the consequence) that they conclude altogether as much against God's whole original constitution of Nature, and the whole daily course of Divine Providence in the government of the world, i. e. against the whole scheme of Theism and the whole notion of Religion ; as against Christianity. For the world is a constitution or system, whose parts have a mutual reference to each other : and there is a scheme of things gradually carrying on, called the course of Nature, to the carrying on of which, God has appointed us, in various ways, to contribute. And when, in the daily course of natural Providence, it is appointed that innocent people should suffer for the faults of the guilty, this is liable to the very same objec^tion, as the instance we are now considering. The infinitely greater importance of that appointment of Christianity which is objeClied against, does not hinder but it may be, as it plainly
Chap, 5. the Redeemer of the World. 219
is, an appointment of the very same kind, with what the world affords us daily examples of. Nay if there were any force at all in the obie(5iion, it would be stronger, in one respe^l, against natural Providence, than against Christianity : because under the former, we are in many cases commanded, and even neces- sitated whether we will or no, to suffer for the faults of others ; w^hereas the sufferings of Christ were voluntary. The world's being under the righteous government of God, does indeed imply, that finally and upon the whole every one shall receive accord- ing to his personal deserts : And the general doc- trine of the whole Scripture is, that this shall be the completion of the Divine government. But during the progrefs, and, for aught we know, even in order to the completion of this moral scheme, vicarious punishments may be fit, and absolutely neceftary. Men by their follies run themselves into extreme distrefs : into difficulties which would be absolutely fatal to them, were it not for the interposition and afsistance of others. God commands by the law of Nature, that we afford them this afsistance, in many cases where we cannot do it without very great pains, and labour, and sufferings to ourselves. And we see in what variety of ways, one person's sufferings con- tribute to the relief of another : and how, or by what particular means, this comes to pa{^ or follow^s, from the constitution and laws of Nature, which come under our notice : and, being familiarized to it, men are not shocked with it. So that the reason of their insisting upon objecT;ions of the foregoing kind against the satisfaction of Christ, is, either that they do not consider God's settled and uniform appointments as his appointments at all : Or else, they forget that vicarious punishment is a providential appointment of every day's experience : And then, from their
220 Appointment of a Mediator, Part 2.
being- unacquainted with the more general laws of Nature or Divine government over the world, and not seeing how the sufferings of Christ could contri- bute to the redemption of it, unleft by arbitrary and tyrannical will ; they conclude his sufferings could not contribute to it any other way. And yet, what has been often alleged in justification of this do(fi:rine, even from the apparent natural tendency of this method of our redemption ; its tendency to vindicate the authority of God's laws, and deter his creatures from sin ; this has never yet been answered, and is I think plainly unanswerable : though I am far from thinking it an account of the whole of the case. But without taking this into consideration, it abundantly appears, from the observations above made, that this obje^lion is, not an obje^lion against Christianity, but against the whole general constitution of Nature. And if it were to be considered as an obje6lion against Christianity, or considering it as it is, an objection against the constitution of Nature ; it amounts to no more in conclusion than this, that a Divine appoint- ment cannot be necef^ary or expedient, because the obje(51or does not discern it to be so : though he must own that the nature of the case is such, as ren- ders him incapable of judging, whether it be so or not ; or of seeing it to be necef^ary, though it were so.
It is indeed a matter of great patience to reason- able men, to find people arguing in this manner : objecting against the credibility of such particular things revealed in Scripture, that they do not see the necef^ity or expediency of them. For though it is highly right, and the most pious exercise of our understanding, to inquire with due reverence into the ends and reasons of God's dispensations : Yet when those reasons are concealed, to argue from our
Chap. 5. the Redeemer of the World. 221
ignorance, that such dispensations cannot be from God, is infinitely absurd. The presumption of this kind of objections, seems almost lost in the folly of them. And the folly of them is yet greater, when they are urged, as usually they are, against things in Christianity analogous or like to those natural dis- pensations of Providence, which are matter of expe- rience. Let reason be kept to : and if any part of the Scripture-account of the redemption of the world by Christ, can be shewn to be really contrary to it, let the Scripture, in the name of God, be given up : But let not such poor creatures as we, go on obje(5l- ing against an infinite scheme, that we do not see the neceftity or usefulnefs of all its parts, and call this reasoning ; And, which still farther heightens the absurdity in the present case, parts which we are not actively concerned in. For it may be worth mentioning.
Lastly, That not only the reason of the thing, but the whole Analogy of Nature, should teach us, not to expe(?i: to have the like information concerning the Divine condu6l, as concerning our own duty. God instructs us by experience, (for it is not reason, but experience which instructs us,) what good or bad consequences will follow from our acting in such and such manners : and by this he directs us, how we are to behave ourselves. But, though we are suf- ficiently instructed for the common purposes of life : yet it is but an almost infinitely small part of natural Providence, which we are at all let into. The case is the same with regard to Revelation. The doc- trine of a Mediator between God and man, against which it is objected, that the expediency of some things in it is not understood, relates only to what was done on God's part in the appointment, and on the Mediator's in the execution of it. For what is
222 Appointment of a Mediator, &c. Part 2.
required of us, in consequence of this gracious dis- pensation, is another subje(ft, in which none can complain for want of information. The constitution of the world and God's natural government over it, is all mystery, as much as the Christian dispensation. Yet under the first, he has given men all things per- taining to life ; and under the other, all things per- taining unto godlinei^. And it may be added, that there is nothing hard to be accounted for in any of the common precepts of Christianity : though if there were, surely a Divine command is abundantly suf- ficient to lay us under the strongest obligations to obedience. But the facl is, that the reasons of all the Christian precepts are evident. Positive institu- tions are manifestly necef^ary to keep up and pro- pagate Religion amongst mankind. And our duty to Christ, the internal and external worship of him ; this part of the religion of the Gospel, manifestly arises out of what he has done and suffered, his au- thority and dominion, and the relation, which he is revealed to stand in to us.'^^
CHAPTER VI.
Of the Want of Universality in Revelation: and of the supposed Deficiency in the Proof of it.
T has been thought by some persons, that if the evidence of Revelation ap- pears doubtful, this itself turns into a positive argument against it : because it cannot be supposed, that if it were true, it would be left to subsist upon doubtful evi- 3» Pp. 156, &c.
"^jhap. 6. Revelation not universal, &c. 223
dence. And the obje<51ion against Revelation from its not being universal, is often insisted upon as of great weight.
Now the weakneft of these opinions may be shewn, by observing the suppositions on which they are founded : Which are really such as these ; that it cannot be thought God would have bestowed any favour at all upon us, unlefs in the degree, which, we think, he might, and which, we imagine, would be most to our particular advantage ; and also that it cannot be thought he would bestow a favour upon any, unlets he bestowed the same upon all : Suppo- sitions which we find contradicfled, not by a few in- stances in God's natural government of the world, but by the general Analogy of Nature together.
Persons who speak of the evidence of Religion as doubtful, and of this supposed doubtfulneft as a po- sitive argument against it, should be put upon con- sidering, what that evidence indeed is, which they a(5l upon with regard to their temporal interests. For, it is not only extremely difficult, but, in many cases, absolutely impofsible, to balance pleasure and pain, satisfaction and uneasinef^, so as to be able to say, on which side the overplus is. There are the like difficulties and impofsibilities in making the due allowances, for a change of temper and taste, for satiety, disgusts, ill-health: any of which render men incapable of enjoying, after they have obtained, what they most eagerly desired. Numberlel^ too are the accidents, besides that one of untimely death, which may even probably disappoint the best-con- certed schemes : And strong objections are often seen to lie against them, not to be removed or answered, but which seem overbalanced by reasons on the other side ; so as that the certain difficulties and dangers of the pursuit are, by every one, thought justly dis-
224 Revelation not universal, Part 2.
regarded, upon account of the appearing greater advantages in case of succel^, though there be but little probabiHty of it. Lastly, every one observes our liableneft, if we be not upon our guard, to be deceived by the falsehood of men, and the false ap- pearances of things : And this danger must be greatly increased, if there be a strong bias within, suppose from indulged pafsion, to favour the deceit. Hence arises that great uncertainty and doubtfulnef^ of proof, wherein our temporal interest really consists ; what are the most probable means of attaining it ; and whether those means will eventually be suc- ceftful. And numberlei^ instances there are, in the daily course of life, in which all men think it reason- able to engage in pursuits, though the probability is greatly against succeeding ; and to make such pro- vision for themselves, as it is supposable they may have occasion for, though the plain acknowledged probability is, that they never shall. Then those who think the obje(9;ion against Revelation, from its Hght not being universal, to be of weight, should ob- serve, that the Author of nature, in numberleft in- stances, bestows that upon some, which he does not upon others, who seem equally to stand in need of it. Indeed he appears to bestow all his gifts, with the most promiscuous variety, among creatures of the same species: Health and strength, capacities of prudence and of knowledge, means of improve- ment, riches, and all external advantages. And as there are not any two men found, of exac^tly like shape and features : so it is probable there are not any two, of an exa6lly like constitution, temper and situation, with regard to the goods and evils of life. Yet, notwithstandingthese uncertainties and varieties, God does exercise a natural government over the world : and there is such a thing as a prudent and
Chap. 6. and its Proof supposed deficient. 225
imprudent institution of life, with regard to our health and our affairs, under that his natural government. As neither the Jewish nor Christian Revelation have been universal ; and as they have been afforded to a greater or lef^ part of the world, at different times : so likewise, at different times, both Revela- tions have had different degrees of evidence. The Jews who lived during the succefsion of Prophets, that is, from Moses till after the captivity, had higher evidence of the truth of their religion, than those had, who lived in the interval between the last-men- tioned period, and the coming of Christ. And the first Christians had higher evidence of the miracles wrought in attestation of Christianity, than what we have now. They had also a strong presumptive proof of the truth of it, perhaps of much greater force, in way of argument, than many think, of which we have very little remaining ; I mean the presump- tive proof of its truth, from the influence which it had upon the lives of the generality of its profefsors. And we, or future ages, may pofsibly have a proof of it, which they could not have, from the confor- mity between the prophetic history, and the state of the world and of Christianity. And farther : If we were to suppose the evidence, which some have of Religion, to amount to little more, than seeing that it may be true ; but that they remain in great doubts and uncertainties about both its evidence and its na- ture, and great perplexities concerning the rule of life: Others to have a full conviction of the truth of Religion, with a distinct kno\\ ledge of their duty : and others severally to have ail the intermediate de- grees of religious light and evidence, which lie be- tween these two If we put the case, that for the
present it was intended. Revelation should be no more than a small light, in the midst of a world
226 Revelation not universal. Part 2.
greatly overspread, notwithstanding it, with igno- rance and darknei^ : that certain glimmerings of this light should extend, and be directed, to remote dis- tances, in such a manner as that those who really partook of it, should not discern from whence it ori- ginally came : that some in a nearer situation to it, should have its light obscured, and, in different ways and degrees, intercepted : and that others should be placed within its clearer influence, and be much more enlivened, cheered and directed by it ; but yet that even to these, it should be no more than a light shining in a dark place : All this w ould be perfe^^ly uniform and of a piece with the conduct of Provi- dence, in the distribution of its other biddings. If the fact of the case really were, that some have re- ceived no light at all from the Scripture ; as many ages and countries in the heathen world : that others, though they have, by means of it, had eftential or natural Religion enforced upon their consciences, yet have never had the genuine Scripture-revelation, with its real evidence, proposed to their considera- tion ; and the ancient Persians, and modern Maho- medans, may pofsibly be instances of people in a situation somewhat like to this : that others, though they have had the Scripture laid before them as of Divine Revelation, yet have had it with the system and evidence of Christianity so interpolated, the sys- tem so corrupted, the evidence so blended with false miracles, as to leave the mind in the utmost doubt- fulnef^ and uncertainty about the whole ; which may be the state of some thoughtful men, in most of those nations w^ho call themselves Christian : And lastly, that others have had Christianity offered to them in its genuine simplicity, and with its proper evidence, as persons in countries and churches of civil and of Christian liberty ; but however that even these per-
Chap. 6. and its Proof supposed deficient. 227
sons are left in great ignorance in many respects, and have by no means light afforded them enough to satisfy their curiosity, but only to regulate their life, to teach them their duty and encourage them in the careful discharge of it : I say, if we were to suppose this somewhat of a general true account of the degrees of moral and religious light and evidence, which were intended to be afforded mankind, and of what has actually been and is their situation, in their moral and religious capacity ; there would be nothing in all this ignorance, doubtfulnef^ and uncertainty, in all these varieties, and supposed disadvantages of some in comparison of others, respecting Religion, but may be parallelled by manifest Analogies in the natural dispensations of Providence at present, and considering ourselves merely in our temporal capa- city.
Nor is there anything shocking in all this, or which would seem to bear hard upon the moral adminis- tration in Nature, if we would really keep in mind, that every one shall be dealt equitably with : instead of forgetting this, or explaining it away, after it is acknowledged in words. All shadow of injustice, and indeed all harsh appearances, in this various economy of Providence, would be lost; if we would keep in mind, that every merciful allowance shall be made, and no more be required of any one, than what might have been equitably expelled of him, from the circumstances in which he was placed ; and not what might have been expected, had he been placed in other circumstances : i. e. in Scripture lan- guage, that every man shall be accepted according to what he had, not according to what he had not.^ This however doth not by any means imply, that all
' 2 Cor. viii. 12.
228 Revelation not universal, Part 2.
persons' condition here, is equally advantageous with respedl to futurity. And Providence's designing to place some in greater darknel^ with respecft to reli- gious knowledge, is no more a reason why they should not endeavour to get out of that darkneis, and others to bring them out of it ; than why ignorant and slow people, in matters of other knowledge, should not endeavour to learn, or should not be in- strucled.
It is not unreasonable to suppose, that the same wise and good principle, whatever it was, which dis- posed the Author of nature to make different kinds and orders of creatures, disposed him also to place creatures of like kinds, in different situations : And that the same principle which disposed him to make creatures of different moral capacities, disposed him also to place creatures of like moral capacities, in different religious situations ; and even the same creatures, in different periods of their being. And the account or reason of this, is also most probably the account, why the constitution of things is such, as that creatures of moral natures or capacities, for a considerable part of that duration in which they are living agents, are not at all subje(9:s of morality and Religion ; but grow up to be so, and grow up to be so more and more, gradually from childhood to mature age.
What, in particular, is the account or reason of these things, we must be greatly in the dark, were it only that we know so very little even of our own case. Our present state may pofsibly be the con- sequence of somewhat past, which we are wholly ig- norant of: as it has a reference to somewhat to come, of which we know scarce any more than is neces- sary for practice. A system or constitution, in its notion, implies variety ; and so complicated an one
Chap. 6. and its Proof supposed deficient. 229
as this world, very great variety. So that were Re- velation universal, yet from men's different capacities of understanding, from the different lengths of their lives, their different educations and other external circumstances, and from their difference of temper cind bodily constitution; their religious situations would be widely different, and the disadvantage of some in comparison of others, perhaps, altogether as much as at present. And the true account, whatever it be, why mankind or such a part of mankind are placed in this condition of ignorance, must be sup- posed also the true account of our farther ignorance, in not knowing the reasons, why, or whence it is, that they are placed in this condition. But the fol- lowing practical refle(9:ions may deserve the serious consideration of those persons, who think the cir- cumstances of mankind or their own, in the fore- mentioned respe(51;s, a ground of complaint.
First, The evidence of Religion not appearing ob- vious, may constitute one particular part of some men's trial in the religious sense : as it gives scope, for a virtuous exercise, or vicious neglect of their understanding, in examining or not examining into that evidence. There seems no poftible reason to be given, why we may not be in a state of moral probation, with regard to the exercise of our under- standing upon the subjecl of Religion, as we are with regard to our behaviour in common affairs. The former is as much a thing within our power and choice, as the latter. And I suppose it is to be laid down for certain, that the same charac1;er, the same inward principle, which, after a man is convinced of the truth of Religion, renders him obedient to the precepts of it, would, were he not thus convinced, set him about an examination of it, upon its system and evidence being offered to his thoughts : And that
230 Revelation not universal, Part 2.
in the latter state, his examination would be with an impartiality, seriousnef^ and solicitude, proportion- able to what his obedience is in the former. And as inattention, negligence, want of all serious con- cern, about a matter of such a nature and such im- portance, when offered to men's consideration, is, before a distin(5^ convic^iion of its truth, as real im- moral depravity and difsolutenefs ; as neglecft of religious pradice after such convidlion : so a6live solicitude about it, and fair impartial consideration of its evidence before such convi(?i;ion, is as really an exercise of a morally right temper ; as is religious pra(9;ice after. Thus, that Religion is not intuitively true, but a matter of deduction and inference ; that a convic^tion of its truth is not forced upon every one, but left to be, by some, collected with heedful at- tention to premises ; this as much constitutes reli- gious probation, as much affords sphere, scope, op- portunity, for right and wrong behaviour, as anything whatever does. And their manner of treating this subje<?l: when laid before them, shows what is in their heart, and is an exertion of it.
Secondly, It appears to be a thing as evident, though it is not so much attended to, that if upon consideration of Religion, the evidence of it should seem to any persons doubtful, in the highest sup- posable degree ; even this doubtful evidence will, however, put them into a general state of probation in the moral and religious sense. For, suppose a man to be really in doubt, whether such a person had not done him the greatest favour ; or, whether his whole temporal interest did not depend upon that person : No one, who had any sense of grati- tude and of prudence, could poftibly consider him- self in the same situation with regard to such per- son, as if he had no such doubt. In truth, it is as
Chap. 6. and its Proof supposed deficient. 231
just to say, that certainty and doubt are the same ; as to say, the situations now mentioned, would leave a man as entirely at liberty in point of gratitude or prudence, as he would be, were he certain he had received no favour from such person, or that he no way depended upon him. And thus, though the evidence of Religion which is afforded to some men, should be little more than that they are given to see, the system of Christianity, or Religion in general, to be supposable and credible ; this ought in all reason to beget a serious practical apprehension, that it may be true. And even this will afford matter of exercise, for religious suspense and deliberation, for moral resolution and self-government ; because the apprehension that Religion may be true, does as really lay men under obligations, as a full convic^lion that it is true. It gives occasion and motives to con- sider farther the important subject ; to preserve at- tentively upon their minds, a general implicit sense that they may be under Divine moral government, an awful solicitude about Religion, whether natural or revealed. Such apprehension ought to turn men's eyes to every degree of new light which may be had, from whatever side it comes ; and induce them to refrain, in the mean time, from all immoralities, and live in the conscientious practice of every common virtue. Especially are they bound to keep at the greatest distance from all dif^olute profanenef^ ; for this the very nature of the case forbids ; and to treat with highest reverence a matter, upon which their own whole interest and being, and the fate of Nature depends. This behaviour, and an aclive endeavour to maintain within themselves this temper, is the businef^, the duty and the wisdom of those persons, who complain of the doubtfulnef^ of Religion : is what they are under the most proper obligations to.
232 Revelation not universal, Part 2.
And such behaviour is an exertion of, and has a ten- dency to improve in them, that charadler, which the pra(5lice of all the several duties of Religion, from a full convic'lion of its truth, is an exertion of, and has a tendency to improve in others : Others, I say, to whom God has afforded such conviciiion. Nay, con- sidering the infinite importance of Religion, revealed as well as natural, I think it may be said in general, that whoever will weigh the matter thoroughly may see, there is not near so much difTerence, as is com- monly imagined, between what ought in reason to be the rule of life, to those persons who are fully convinced of its truth, and to those who have only a serious doubting apprehension, that it may be true. Their hopes and fears and obligations will be in va- rious degrees: But, as the subject-matter of their hopes and fears is the same ; so the subje(5l-matter of their obligations, what they are bound to do and refrain from, is not so very unlike.
It is to be observed farther, that, from a chara(5^er of understanding, or a situation of influence in the world, some persons have it in their power to do infinitely more harm or good, by setting an example of profanenef^ and avowed disregard to all Religion, or, on the contrary, of a serious, though perhaps doubting, apprehension of its truth, and of a reverend regard to it under this doubtfulnef^ ; than they can do, by acting well or ill in all the common inter- courses amongst mankind. And consequently they are most highly accountable for a behaviour, which, they may easily foresee, is of such importance, and in which there is most plainly a right and a wrong ; even admitting the evidence of Religion to be as doubtful, as is pretended.
The ground of these observations, and that which renders them just and true, is, that doubting neces-
Chap. 6. and its Proof supposed deficient. 233
sarily implies some degree of evidence for that, of which we doubt. For no person would be in doubt, concerning the truth of a number of facts so and so circumstanced, which should accidentally come into his thoughts, and of which he had no evidence at all. And though in the case of an even chance, and where consequently we were in doubt, we should in common language say, that we had no evidence at all for either side ; yet that situation of things, which renders it an even chance and no more, that such an event will happen, renders this case equivalent to all others, where there is such evidence on both sides of a question,^ as leaves the mind in doubt concerning the truth. Indeed in all these cases, there is no more evidence on one side, than on the other; but there is (what is equivalent to) much more for either, than for the truth of a number of fa61s which come into one's thoughts at random. And thus in all these cases, doubt as much presup- poses evidence, lower degrees of evidence ; as belief presupposes higher, and certainty higher still. Any one, who will a little attend to the nature of evidence, will easily carry this observation on, and see, that between no evidence at all, and that degree of it which affords ground of doubt, there are as many intermediate degrees ; as there are, between that degree which is the ground of doubt, and demon- stration. And though we have not faculties to dis- tinguish these degrees of evidence, with any sort of exa(9;neft ; yet, in proportion as they are discerned, they ought to influence our pra^lice. For it is as real an imperfe<51ion in the moral character, not to be influenced in pra(51:ice by a lov^'er degree of evi- dence when discerned, as it is, in the understanding,
' Introdudion,
234 Revelation not universal, Part 2.
not to discern it. And as, in all subjecSls which men consider, they discern the lower as well as higher degrees of evidence, proportionably to their capacity of understanding : so, in pra6lical subjecl:s, they are influenced in practice, by the lower as well as higher degrees of it, proportionably to their fairneft and honesty. And as, in proportion to defedls in the understanding, men are unapt to see lower degrees of evidence, are in. danger of overlooking evidence when it is not glaring, and are easily imposed upon in such cases : so, in proportion to the corruption of the heart, they seem capable of satisfying them- selves with having no regard in praclice to evidence acknowledged real, if it be not overbearing. From these things it must follow, that doubting concern- ing Religion implies such a degree of evidence for it, as joined with the consideration of its importance, unquestionably lays men under the obligations be- fore mentioned, to have a dutiful regard to it in all their behaviour.
Thirdly, The difficulties in which the evidence of Religion is involved, which some complain of, is no more a just ground of complaint, than the external circumstances of temptation, which others are placed in ; or than difficulties in the practice of it, after a full conviction of its truth. Temptations render our state a more improving state of discipline,-^ than it would be otherwise : as they give occasion for a more attentive exercise of the virtuous principle, which confirms and strengthens it more, than an easier or lei^ attentive exercise of it could. Now speculative difficulties are, in this respe(5l, of the very same nature with these external temptations. For the evidence of Religion not appearing obvious, is, to some persons, a temptation to rejedl it, with-
^ Part I. ch. V.
Chap. 6. and its Proof supposed deficient. 235
out any consideration at all ; and therefore requires such an attentive exercise of the virtuous principle, seriously to consider that evidence, as there would be no occasion for, but for such temptation. And the supposed doubtfulnef^ of its evidence, after it has been in some sort considered, affords opportunity to an unfair mind of explaining away, and deceitfully hiding from itself, that evidence which it might see ; and also for men's encouraging themselves in vice from hopes of impunity, though they do clearly see thus much at least, that these hopes are uncertain : In like manner as the common temptation to many instances of folly which end in temporal infamy and ruin, is, the ground for hope of not being detected, and of escaping with impunity ; i. e. the doubtfulnef^ of the proof beforehand, that such foolish behaviour will thus end in infamy and ruin. On the contrary, supposed doubtfulnefs in the evidence of Religion calls for a more careful and attentive exercise of the virtuous principle, in fairly yielding themselves up to the proper influence of any real evidence, though doubtful ; and in practising conscientiously all virtue, though under some uncertainty, whether the govern- ment in the universe may not pofsibly be such, as that vice may escape with impunity. And in gene- ral, temptation, meaning by this word, the lefser allurements, the wrong and difficulties in the dis- charge of our duty, as well as the greater ones ; Temptation, I say, as such and of every kind and degree, as it calls forth some virtuous efforts, addi- tional to what would otherwise have been wanting, cannot but be an additional discipline and improve- ment of virtue, as well as probation of it in the other senses of that word.^ So that the very same ac-
* Part I. ch. iv. anJ p. 107.
236 Revelation not universal, Part 2.
count is to be given, why the evidence of Religion should be left in such a manner, as to require, in some, an attentive, solicitous, perhaps painful exer- cise of their understanding about it ; as why others should be placed in such circumstances, as that the practice of its common duties, after a full conviction of the truth of it, should require attention, solicitude and pains : Or, why appearing doubtfulnei^ should be permitted to afford matter of temptation to some ; as why external difficulties and allurements should be permitted to afford matter of temptation to others. The same account also is to be given, why some should be exercised with temptations of both these kinds ; as why others should be exercised with the latter in such very high degrees, as some have been, particularly as the primitive Christians were.
Nor does there appear any absurdity in supposing, that the speculative difficulties in which the evidence of Religion is involved, may make even the principal part of some person's trial. For, as the chief temp- tations of the generality of the world, are, the ordi- nary motives to injustice or unrestrained pleasure ; or to live in the negle(51; of Religion from that frame of mind, which renders many persons almost with- out feeling as to anything distant, or which is not the object of their senses : So there are other per- sons without this shallownef^ of temper, persons of a deeper sense as to what is invisible and future ; who not only see, but have a general pra<51ical feel- ing, that what is to come will be present, and that things are not lel^ real for their not being the ob- je(51;s of sense ; and who, from their natural consti- tution of body and of temper, and from their external condition, may have small temptations to behave ill, small difficulty in behaving well, in the common course of life. Now when these latter persons have
Chap. 6. and its Proof supposed deficient. 237
a distin(5l full convit^ion of the truth of Religion, without any pofsible doubts or difficulties, the prac- tice of it is to them unavoidable, unlei^ they will do a constant violence to their own minds ; and Re- ligion is scarce any more a discipline to them, than it is to creatures in a state of perfecT;ion. Yet these persons may poftibly stand in need of moral disci- pline and exercise in a higher degree, than they would have by such an easy practice of Religion. Or it may be requisite, for reasons unknown to us, that they should give some farther manifestation^ what is their moral character, to the creation of God, than such a prac^tice of it would be. Thus in the great variety of religious situations in which men are placed, what constitutes, what chiefly and peculiarly constitutes, the probation, in all senses, of some persons, may be the difficulties in which the evidence of Religion is involved : and their principal and dis- tinguished trial, may be, how they will behave under and with respe6l to these difficulties. Circum- stances in men's situation in their temporal capacity, analogous in good measure to this respecting ReH- gion, are to be observed. We find some persons are placed in such a situation in the world, as that their chief difficulty with regard to conducT:, is not the doing what is prudent when it is known ; for this, in numberlef^ cases, is as easy as the contrary : but to some the principal exercise is, recollection and being upon their guard against deceits, the deceits suppose of those about them ; against false appear- ances of reason and prudence. To persons in some situations, the prinr ipnl exercise with respecft to conduct, is, attention in order to inform themselves what is proper, what is really the reasonable and prudent part to a<5l.
* P. 107.
238 Revelation not universal, Part 2.
But as I have hitherto gone upon supposition, that men's diisatisfadlion with the evidence of Reli- gion is not owing to their negle(5ls or prejudices ; it must be added, on the other hand, in all common reason, and as what the truth of the case plainly re- quires should be added, that such difsatisfadlion poftibly may be owing to those, pofsibly may be men's own fault. For,
If there are any persons, who never set themselves heartily and in earnest to be informed in Religion : if there are any, who secretly wish it may not prove true ; and are left attentive to evidence than to dif- ficulties, and more to objections than to what is said in answer to them: these persons will scarce be thought in a likely way of seeing the evidence of Religion, though it were most certainly true, and capable of being ever so fully proved. If any ac- custom themselves to consider this subject usually in the way of mirth and sport : if they attend to forms and representations and inadequate manners of expref^ion, instead of the real things intended by them : (for signs often can be no more than inade- quately exprefsive of the things signified :) or if they substitute human errors, in the room of Divine truth : Why may not all, or any of these things, hinder some men from seeing that evidence, which really is seen by others ; as a like turn of mind, with re- spect to matters of common speculation and pradliice, does, we find by experience, hinder them from at- taining that knowledge and right understanding, in matters of common speculation and pra(5tice, which more fair and attentive minds attain to ? And the effect will be the same, whether their negle^l of seriously considering the evidence of Religion, and their indirect behaviour with regard to it, proceed from mere carelefsneft, or from the grower vices ;
Chap. 6. and its Proof supposed deficient. 239
or whether it be owing to this, that forms and figu- rative manners of exprefsion, as well as errors, ad- minister occasions of ridicule, when the things in- tended, and the truth itself, would not. Men may indulge a ludicrous turn so far as to lose all sense of condu6l and prudence in worldly affairs, and even, as it seems, to impair their faculty of reason. And in general, levity, carelefsnef^, pafsion, and preju- dice, do hinder us from being rightly informed, with respect to common things : And they may, in like manner, and perhaps in some farther providential manner, with respecl to moral and religious subjects ; may hinder evidence from being laid before us, and from being seen when it is. The Scripture^ does declare, that every one shall not understand. And it makes no difference, by what providential conduct, this comes to pafs : Whether the evidence of Chris- tianity was, originally and with design, put and left; so, as that those who are desirous of evading moral obligations, should not see it ; and that honest- minded persons should : Or, whether it comes to paft by any other means.
Farther : The general proof of natural Religion and of Christianity, does, I think, lie level to common men ; even those, the greatest part of whose time, from childhood to old age, is taken up with pro- viding, for themselves and their families, the com-
^ Dan. xii. lo. See also Is. xxix. 13, 14; Mat. vi. 23, and xi. 25, and xiii. 11, 125 Joh. iii. 19, and v. 44; i Cor. ii. 14, and 2 Cor. iv. 4; 2 Tim. iii. 13, and that affedtionate, as well as authoritative admonition, so very many times incul- cated, He that hath ears to hear^ let him hear. Grctius saw so strongly the thing intended in these and other pafsages of Scrip- ture of the like sense, as to say, that the proof given us of Chris- tianity was lefs than it might have been, for this very purpose : Ut ita Jermo E'vangelU tanquam lapis ejset Lydius ad quern ingenia fanabilia explorarentur. De Ver. R. C. L. 2, towards the end.
240 Revelation not universal, Part 2.
mon conveniencies perhaps neceftaries of life : those, I mean, of this rank, who ever think at all of asking after proof or attending to it. Common men, were they as much in earnest about Religion, as about their temporal affairs, are capable of being convinced upon real evidence, that there is a God who governs the world : and they feel themselves to be of a moral nature, and accountable creatures. And as Chris- tianity entirely falls in with this their natural sense of things ; so they are capable, not only of being persuaded, but of being made to see, that there is evidence of miracles wrought in attestation of it, and many appearing completions of prophecy. But though this proof is real and conclusive, yet it is liable to objec5}ions, and may be run up into difficulties; which, however, persons who are capable, not only of talking of, but of really seeing, are capable also of seeing through : i. e. not of clearing up and an- swering them, so as to satisfy their curiosity, for of such knowledge we are not capable with respect to any one thing in Nature ; but capable of seeing that the proof is not lost in these difficulties, or destroyed by these obje^ions. But then a thorough exami- nation into Religion, with regard to these objections, which cannot be the businef^ of every man, is a matter of pretty large compaft, and, from the nature of it, requires some knowledge, as well as time and attention ; to see, how the evidence comes out, upon balancing one thing with another, and what, upon the whole, is the amount of it. Now if persons who have picked up these objections from others, and take for granted they are of weight, upon the word of those from whom they received them, or, by often retailing of them, come to see or fancy they see them to be of weight ; will not prepare themselves for such an examination, with a competent degree
Chap. 6. and its Proof supposed deficient. 24.1
of knowledge ; or will not give that time and atten- tion to the subje(5l, which, from the nature of it, is neceftary for attaining such information : in this case, they must remain in doubtfulneft, ignorance or error ; in the same way as they must, with regard to com- mon sciences and matters of common life, if they negledl the neceftary means of being informed in them.
But still perhaps it will be objected, that if a prince or common master were to send diredlions to a ser- vant, he would take care, that they should always bear the certain marks, who they came from, and that their sense should be always plain : so as that there should be no pofsible doubt, if he could help it, concerning the authority or meaning of them. Now the proper answer to all this kind of objections is, that, wherever the fallacy lies, it is even certain we cannot argue thus with respeCf to him, who is the Governor of the w^orld : and particularly that he does not afford us such information, with respeCf to our temporal affairs and interest, as experience abundantly shews. However, there is a full answer to this objection, from the very nature of Religion. For the reason why a prince would give his direc- tions in this plain manner, is, that he absolutely de- sires such an external adlion should be done, without concerning himself with the m.otive or principle upon which it is done : i. e. he regards only the external event, or the thing's being done ; and not at all, properly speaking, the doing of it, or the action. Whereas the whole of morality and Religion con- sisting merely in action itself, there is no sort of pa- rallel between the cases. But if the prince be sup- posed to regard only the a(?tion ; i. e. only to desire to exercise, or in any sense prove, the understanding or loyalty of a servant ; he would not always give
R
242 Revelation not universal, Part 2.
his orders in such a plain manner. It may be proper to add, that the will of God, respedling morality and Religion, may be considered, either as absolute, or as only conditional. If it be absolute, it can only be thus, that we should ac^ virtuously in such given circumstances ; not that we should be brought to a6l so, by his changing of our circumstances. And if God's will be thus absolute, then it is in our power, in the highest and strictest sense, to do or to con- tradict his will ; which is a most weighty considera- tion. Or his will may be considered only as condi- tional, that if we a(5l so and so, we shall be rewarded ; if otherwise, punished : of which conditional will of the Author of nature, the whole constitution of it affords most certain instances.
Upon the whole : that we are in a state of Reli- gion neceftarily implies, that we are in a state of. probation : and the credibility of our being at all in such a state being admitted, there seems no pecu- liar difficulty in supposing our probation to be, just as it is, in those respects which are above objected against. There seems no pretence, from the reason of the thing, to say, that the trial cannot equitably be anything, but whether persons will a6l suitably to certain information, or such as admits no room for doubt ; so as that there can be no danger of mis- carriage, but either from their not attending to what they certainly know, or from overbearing paftion hurrying them on to acft contrary to it. For, since ignorance and doubt afford scope for probation in all senses, as really as intuitive convi(9;ion or certainty ; and since the two former are to be put to the same account, as difficulties in pra(5i:ice ; men's moral pro- bation may also be, whether they will take due care to inform themselves by impartial consideration, and afterwards whether they will a6l as the case requires,
Chap, 6. and its Proof supposed deficient. 243
upon the evidence which they have, however doubt- ful. And this we find by experience, is frequently our probation,'^ in our temporal capacity. For, the information which we want with regard to our worldly interests, is by no means always given us of course, without any care of our own. And we are greatly liable to self-deceit from inward secret pre- judices, and also to the deceits of others. So that to be able to judge what is the prudent part, often requires much and difficult consideration. Then after we have judged the very best we can, the evi- dence upon which we must acft, if we will live and adl at all, is perpetually doubtful to a very high de- gree. And the constitution and course of the world in fact is such, as that want of impartial considera- tion what we have to do, and venturing upon extra- vagant courses because it is doubtful what will be the consequence, are often naturally, i.e. providen- tially, altogether as fatal, as misconduct occasioned by heedlef^ inattention to what we certainly know, or disregarding it from overbearing pafsion.
Several of the observations here made, may well seem strange, perhaps unintelligible, to many good men, but if the persons for whose sake they are made, think so; persons who object as above, and throw off all regard to Religion under pretence of want of evidence ; I desire them to consider again, whether their thinking so, be owing to anything un- intelligible in these observations, or to their own not having such a sense of Religion and serious solici- tude about it, as even their state of scepticism does in all reason require ? It ought to be forced upon the reflection of these persons, that our nature and condition necefsarily require us, in the daily course
' Pp. 40, 234, 237, 238.
244 Revelation not universal, &c. Part 2.
of life, to acl upon evidence much lower than what is commonly called probable ; to guard, not only against what we fully believe will, but also against what we think it supposable may, happen ; and to engage in pursuits when the probability is greatly against succeft, if it be credible, that poftibly we may succeed in them.
CHAPTER VII.
Of the particular Evidence for Christianity.
HE presumptions against Revelation, and obje6lions against the general scheme of Christianity, and particular things relating to it, being removed ; there remains to be considered, what positive evidence we have for the truth of it : chiefly in order to see, what the Analogy of Nature sug- gests with regard to that evidence, and the objec- tions against it : or to see what is, and is allowed to be, the plain natural rule of judgment and of action, in our temporal concerns, in cases where we have the same kind of evidence, and the same kind of objedlions against it, that we have in the case before us.
Now in the evidence of Christianity, there seem to be several things of great weight, not reducible to the head, either of miracles, or the completion of prophecy, in the common acceptation of the words. But these two are its direcT; and fundamental proofs : And those other things, however considerable they are, yet ought never to be urged apart from its di-
Chap. 7. Of the particular Evidence, &c. 245
re(9; proofs, but always to be joined with them. Thus the evidence of Christianity will be a long se- ries of things, reaching, as it seems, from the be- ginning of the world to the present time, of great variety and compai^, taking in both the dire(5l, and also the collateral, proofs ; and making up, all of them together, one argument : the con\i(ftion aris- ing from which kind of proof may be compared to what they call the effe6i in archite(5lure or other works of art ; a result from a great numbet of things so and so disposed, and taken into one view. I shall therefore, FIRST, make some observations relating to miracles, and the appearing completions of pro- phecy ; and consider what Analogy suggests, in an- swer to the objections brought against this evidence. And, SECONDLY, I shall endeavour to give some account of the general argument now mentioned, consisting both of the direct and collateral evidence, considered as making up one argument : this being the kind of proof upon which we determine most questions of difficulty, concerning common facls, al- leged to have happened or seeming likely to happen ; especially questions relating to conduct.
FIRST, I shall make some observations upon the direct proof of Christianity from miracles and pro- phecy, and upon the objections alleged against it.
I. Now the following observations, relating to the historical evidence of miracles wrought in attestation of Christianity, appear to be of great weight.
1. The Old Testament affords us the same his- torical evidence of the miracles of Moses and of the prophets, as of the common civil history of Moses and the kings of Israel ; or, as of the affairs of the Jewish nation. And the Gospels and the ASis afford us the same historical evidence of the miracles of Christ and the Apostles, as of the common matters
246 Of the particular Evidence Part 2.
related in them. This indeed could not have been affirmed by any reasonable man, if the authors of these books, like many other historians, had ap- peared to make an entertaining manner of writing their aim ; though they had interspersed miracles in their works, at proper distances and upon proper occasions. These might have animated a dull re- lation, amused the reader and engaged his attention. And the same account would naturally have been given of them, as, of the speeches and descriptions of such authors : the same account, in a manner, as is to be given, why the poets rra^ce use of wonders and prodigies. But the fa6^s, both miraculous and natural, in Scripture, are related in plain unadorned narratives : and both of them appear, in all respedls, to stand upon the same foot of historical evidence. Farther : Some parts of Scripture, containing an ac- count of miracles fully sufficient to prove the truth of Christianity, are quoted as genuine, from the age in which they are said to be written, down to the present : And no other parts of them, material in the present question, are omitted to be quoted in such manner, as to afford any sort of proof of their not being genuine. And, as common history, when called in question in any instance, may often be greatly confirmed by cotemporary or subsequent events more known and acknowledged ; and as the common Scripture-history ; like many others, is thus confirmed: so likewise is the miraculous history of it, not only in particular instances, but in general. For, the establishment of the Jewish and Christian Religions, which were events cotemporary with the miracles related to be wrought in attestation of both, or subsequent to them, these events are just what we should have expecfled, upon supposition such miracles were really wrought to attest the truth of
Chap. 7. for Christianity. 247
those Religions. These miracles are a satisfa(5lory account of those events: of which, no other satis- factory account can be given ; nor any account at all, but what is imaginary merely and invented, it is to be added, that the most obvious, the most easy and direct account of this history, how it came to be written and to be received in the world, as a true history ; is, that it really is so : nor can any other account of it be easy and dire(5l. Now, though an account, not at all obvious, but very far-fetched and indire(5^, may indeed be, and often is, the true ac- count of a matter; yet it cannot be admitted on the authority of its being af^erted. Mere guef^, suppo- sition, and pofsibility, when opposed to historical evidence, prove nothing, but that historical evidence is not demonstrative.
Now the just consequence from all this, I think, is, that the Scripture-history in general is to be ad- mitted as an authentic genuine history, till somewhat positive be alleged sufficient to invalidate it. But no man will deny the consequence to be, that it cannot be rejected, or thrown by as of no authority, till it can be proved to be of none ; even though the evi- dence now mentioned for its authority, were doubt- ful. This evidence may be confronted, by historical evidence on the other side, if there be any : or ge- neral incredibility in the things related, or incon- sistence in the general turn of the history, would prove it to be of no authority. But since, upon the face of the matter, upon a first and general view, the appearance is, that it is an authentic history ; it cannot be determined to be fi«5^itious without some proof, that it is so. And the following observations, in support of these and coincident with them, will greatly confirm the historical evidence for the truth of Christianity.
248 Of the particular Evidence Part 2.
2. The Epistles of St. Paul, from the nature of epistolary writing, and moreover from several of them being written, not to particular persons, but to Churches ; carry in them evidences of their being genuine, beyond what can be in a mere historical narrative, left to the world at large. This evidence, joined with that which they have in common with the rest of the New Testament, seems not to leave so much as any particular pretence for denying their genuinenefk, considered as an ordinary matter of facl or of criticism : I say particular pretence, for denying it ; because any single fa(9:, of such a kind and such antiquity, may have general doubts raised concerning it, iVom the very nature of human affairs and human testimony. There is also to be men- tioned, a distinct and particular evidence of the ge- nuinenefs of the Epistle chiefly referred to here, the first to the Corinthians ; from the manner in which it is quoted by Clemens Romanus, in an Epistle of his own to that Church.^ Now these Epistles afford a proof of Christianity, detached from all others, which is, I think, a thing of weight ; and also a proof of a nature and kind peculiar to itself. For,
In them the author declares that he received the Gospel in general, and the institution of the Com- munion in particular, not from the rest of the Apostles, or jointly together with them, but alone, from Christ himself; whom he declares likewise, conformably to the history in the A6is, that he saw after his ascen- sion.^ So that the testimony of St. Paul is to be considered, as detached from that of the rest of the Apostles.
And he declares farther, that he was endued with
* Clem. Rom. Ep. I. c. 47.
' Gal. i j I Cor. xi. 23, &c. j 1 Cor. xv, 8.
Chap. 7. for Christianity. 249
a power of working miracles, as what was publicly known to those very people, speaks of frequent and great variety of miraculous gifts as then subsisting in those very Churches, to which he was writing ; which he w as reproving for several irregularities ; and where he had personal opposers : He mentions these gifts incidentally, in the most easy manner and without effort ; by way of reproof to those who had them, for their indecent use of them ; and by way of depreciating them, in comparison of moral virtues ; in short he speaks to these Churches, of these mi- raculous powers, in the manner, any one would speak to another of a thing, which was as familiar and as much known in common to them both, as anything in the world.-' And this, as hath been observed by several persons, is surely a very considerable thing. 3. It is an acknowledged historical fact, that Chris- tianity offered itself to the world, and demanded to be received, upon the allegation, i. e. as unbelievers would speak, upon the pretence, of miracles, pub- licly wrought to attest the truth of it, in such an age ; and that it was actually received by great numbers in that very age, and upon the profef^ed belief of the reality of these miracles. And Chris- tianity, including the dispensation of the Old Testa- ment, seems distinguished by this from all other Religions. I mean, that this does not appear to be the case with regard to any other : for surely it will not be supposed to lie upon any person, to piove by positive historical evidence, that it was not. It does in no sort appear, that Mahometanism was first re- ceived in the world upon the foot of supposed mi- racles,^ i.e. public ones: for, as Revelation is itself
5 Rom. XV. 19 ; i Cor. xii. 8, 9, 10-28, &c. and c. xiii. 1, 2,8, anJ the wholcxivth ch. 5 2 Cor. xii. 12,13 5 Gal. iii.2, 5. * See the Koran, c. xiii. and c. xvii.
250 Of the particular Evidence Part 2.
miraculous, all pretence to it must necef^arily imply some pretence of miracles. And it is a known fa(ft, that it was immediately, at the very first, propagated by other means. And as particular institutions, whether in Paganism or Popery, said to be con- firmed by miracles after those institutions had ob- tained, are not to the purpose : So, were there what might be called historical proof, that any of them were introduced by a supposed Divine command, believed to be attested by miracles ; these would not be in any wise parallel. For single things of this sort are easy to be accounted for, after parties are formed, and have power in their hands ; and the leaders of them are in veneration with the multitude ; and political interests are blended with religious claims, and religious distin(5lions. But before any- thing of this kind, for a few persons, and those of the lowest rank, all at once, to bring over such great numbers to a new Religion, and get it to be received upon the particular evidence of miracles ; this is quite another thing. And I think it will be allowed by any fair adversary, that the fa(5l now mentioned, taking in all the circumstances of it, is peculiar to the Christian Religion. However, the fa(ft itself is allowed, that Christianity obtained, i. e. was profef^ed to be received in the w^orld, upon the belief of mi- racles, immediately in the age in which it is said those miracles were WTought : Or that this is what its first converts would have alleged, as the reason for their embracing it. Now certainly it is not to be supposed, that such numbers of men, in the most distant parts of the world, should forsake the Reli- gion of their country, in which they had been edu- cated ; separate themselves from their friends, par- ticularly in their festival shows and solemnities, to which the common people are so greatly addi(5led,
Chap. 7. for Christianity. 251
and which were of a nature to engage them much more, than anything of that sort amongst us ; and embrace a Religion, which could not but expose them to many inconveniencies, and indeed must have been a givmg up the world in a great degree, even from the very first, and before the Empire engaged in form against them : it cannot be supposed, that such numbers should make so great, and, to say the least, so inconvenient a change in their whole insti- tution of life, unleft they were really convinced of the truth of those miracles, upon the knowledge or belief of which, they profefsed to make it. And it will, I suppose, readily be acknowledged, that the generality of the first converts to Christianity, must have believed them : that as by becoming Christians, they declared to the world, they were satisfied of the truth of those miracles ; so this declaration was to be credited. And this their testimony is the same kind of evidence for those miracles, as if they had put it in writing, and these writings had come down to us. And it is real evidence, because it is of facts, which they had capacity and full opportunity to in- form themselves of. It is also distin(5l from the di- rect or expreft historical evidence, though it is of the same kind : and it would be allowed to be dis- tinct in all cases. For were a fact expret^ly related by one or more ancient historians, and disputed in after ages ; that this facl is acknowledged to have been believed, by great numbers of the age in which the historian says it was done, would be allowed an additional proof of such faCl, quite distinCl from the expref^ testimony of the historian. The credulity of mankind is acknowledged : and the suspicions of mankind ought to be acknowledged too ; and their backwardneft even to believe, and greater still to pra(51ise, what makes against their interest. And it
252 Of the particular Evidence Part 2.
must particularlybe remembered, that education, and prejudice, and authority, were against Christianity, in the age I am speaking of. So that the immediate conversion of such numbers, is a real presumption of somewhat more than human in this matter : I say presumption, for it is not alleged as a proof alone and by itself Nor need any one of the things men- tioned in this chapter, be considered as a proof by itself: and yet all of them together may be one of the strongest.^
Upon the whole : As there is large historical evi- dence, both dire(?t and circumstantial, of miracles wrought in attestation of Christianity, colle(9;ed by those who have writ upon the subje^l ; it lies upon unbelievers to shew, why this evidence is not to be credited. This way of speaking is, I think, just ; and what persons who write in defence of Religion, naturally fall into. Yet, in a matter of such unspeak- able importance, the proper question is, not whom it lies upon, according to the rules of argument, to maintain or confute objecfiions : but, whether there really are any, against this evidence, sufficient, in reason, to destroy the credit of it. However, un- believers seem to take upon them the part of shew- ing that there are.
They allege, that numberlei^ enthusiastic people, in different ages and countries, expose themselves to the same difficulties which the primitive Chris- tians did ; and are ready to give up their lives, for the most idle follies imaginable. But it is not very clear, to what purpose this obje(?lion is brought. For every one, surel^^, in every case, must distin- guish between opinions and facls. And though tes- timony is no proof of enthusiastic opinions, or of any
* Pp. 284, &c.
Chap. 7. for Christianity. 253
opinions at all ; yet it is allowed, in all other cases, to be a proof of facts. And a person's laying down his life in attestation of facets or of opinions, is the strongest proof of his believing them. And if the Apostles and their cotemporaries did believe the fa61s, in attestation of which they exposed themselves to sufferings and death ; this their belief, or rather knowledge, must be a proof of those facts : for they were such as came under the observation of their senses. And though it is not of equal weight, yet it is of weight, that the martyrs of the next age, notwithstanding they were not eye-witnefses of those fa6ls, as were the Apostles and their cotemporaries, had, however, full opportunity to inform themselves, whether they were true or not, and gave equal proof of their believing them to be true.
But enthusiasm, it is said, greatly weakens the evidence of testimony even for facts, in matters re- lating to Religion : Some seem to think, it totally and absolutely destroys the evidence of testimony upon this subjecl:. And indeed the powers of enthu- siasm, and of diseases too which operate in a like manner, are very wonderful, in particular instances. But if great numbers of men, not appearing in any peculiar degree weak, nor under any peculiar sus- picion of negligence, affirm that they saw and heard such things plainly with their eyes and their ears, and are admitted to be in earnest; such testimony is evidence of the strongest kind we can have, for any matter of facl. Yet pofsibly it may be over- come, strong as it is, by incredibility in the things thus attested, or by contrary testimony. And in an instance where one thought it was so overcome, it might be just to consider, how far such evidence could be accounted for, by enthusiasm : for it seems as if no other imaginable account were to be given
254 Of the particular Evidence Part 2.
of it. But till such incredibility be shewn, or con- trary testimony produced, it cannot surely be ex- pelled, that so far-fetched, so indire(5t and won- derful an account of such testimony, as that of en- thusiasm must be ; an account so strange, that the generality of mankind can scarce be made to un- derstand what is meant by it : it cannot, I say, be expe(5led ; that such account will be admitted of such evidence ; when there is this direct, easy and ob- vious account of it, that people really saw and heard a thing not incredible, which they affirm sincerely and with full afsurance, they did see and hear. Granting then that enthusiasm is not (strictly speak- ing) an absurd, but a pol^ible account of such testi- mony : it is manifest that the very mention of it, goes upon the previous supposition, that the things so attested are incredible ; and therefore need not be considered, till they are shewn to be so. Much lef^ need it be considered, after the contrary has been proved. And I think it has been proved, to full sa- tisfa(Rion, that there is no incredibility in a Revela- tion, in general ; or in such an one as the Christian, in particular. However ; as Religion is supposed peculiarly liable to enthusiasm, it may just be ob- served, that prejudices almost without number and without name, romance, affectation, humour, a de- sire to engage attention or to surprise, the party- spirit, custom, little competitions, unaccountable likings and dislikings, these influence men strongly in common matters. And as these prejudices are often scarce known or refleCled upon by the persons themselves who are influenced by them, they are to be considered as influences of a like kind to enthu- siasm. Yet human testimony in common matters is naturally and justly believed notwithstanding. It is intimated farther, in a more refined way of
Chap. 7. for Christianity. 255
observation, that though it should be proved, that the Apostles and first Christians could not, in some respeds, be deceived themselves, and, in other re- spec^ls, cannot be thought to have intended to im- pose upon the world ; yet it will not follow, that their general testimony is to be believed, though truly handed down to us: because they might still in part, I. e. in other respe<?i;s, be deceived themselves, and in part also designedly impose upon others ; which, it is added, is a thing very credible, from that mixture of real enthusiasm, and real knavery, to be met with in the same characters. And, I must con- feft, I think the matter of fa6l contained in this ob- servation upon mankind, is not to be denied; and that somewhat very much akin to it, is often sup- posed in Scripture as a very common case, and most severely reproved. But it were to have been ex- pecTted, that persons capable of applying this obser- vation as applied in the objec^lion, might also fre- quently have met with the like mixed character, in instances where Religion was quite out of the case. The thing plainly is, that mankind are naturally en- dued with reason, or a capacity of distinguishing between truth and falsehood ; and as naturally they are endued with veracity, or a regard to truth in what they say : But from many occasions, they are liable to be prejudiced and biaf^ed and deceived themselves, and capable of intending to deceive others, in every different degree : Insomuch that, as we are all liable to be deceived by prejudice, so likewise it seems to be not an uncommon thing, for persons, who, from their regard to truth, would not invent a lie entirely without any foundation at all, to propagate it with heightening circumstances, after it is once invented and set a-going. And others, though they would not propagate a lie, yet, which
256 Of the particular Evidence Part 2.
is a lower degree of falsehood, will let it paft without contradiction. But notwithstanding all this, human testimony remains still a natural ground of aftent ; and this afsent, a natural principle of a(?l;ion.
It is objected farther, that however it has hap- pened, the fa6l is, that mankind have, in different ages, been strangely deluded with pretences to mi- racles and wonders. But it is by no means to be admitted, that they have been oftener, or are at all more liable to be deceived by these pretences, than by others.
It is added, that there is a very considerable de- gree of historical evidence for miracles, which are, on all hands, acknowledged to be fabulous. But suppose there were even the like historical evidence for these, to what there is for those alleged in proof of Christianity, which yet is in no wise allowed, but suppose this ; the consequence would not be, that the evidence of the latter is not to be admitted. Nor is there a man in the w^orld who, in common cases, would conclude thus. For, what would such a conclusion really amount to but this, that evidence confuted by contrary evidence, or any way over- balanced, destroys the credibility of other evidence, neither confuted, nor overbalanced 1 To argue, that because there is, if there were, like evidence from testimony, for miracles acknowledged false, as for those in attestation of Christianity, therefore the evidence in the latter case is not to be credited ; this is the same as to argue, that if two men of equally good reputation, had given evidence in dif- ferent cases no way conne(5led, and one of them had been convicted of perjury, this confuted the testi- mony of the other.
Upon the whole then, the general observation that human creatures are so liable to be deceived, from
Chap. 7. for Christianity. 257
enthusiasm in Religion, and principles equivalent to enthusiasm in common matters, and in both from negligence ; and that they are so capable of disho- nestly endeavouring to deceive others ; this does indeed weaken the evidence of testimony in all cases, but does not destroy it in any. And these things will appear, to different men, to weaken the evidence of testimony, in different degrees : in degrees pro- portionable to the observations they have made, or the notions they have any way taken up, concern- ing the weaknef^ and negligence and dishonesty of mankind ; or concerning the powers of enthusiasm, and prejudices equivalent to it. But it seems to me, that people do not know what they say, who affirm these things to destroy the evidence fi-om testimony, which we have of the truth of Christianity. Nothing can destroy the evidence of testimony in any case, but a proof or probability, that persons are not com- petent judges of the fadls to which they give testi- mony ; or that they are actually under some indirect influence in giving it, in such particular case. Till this be made out, the natural laws of human a6f ions require, that testimony be admitted. It can never be sufficient to overthrow dire6f historical evidence, indolently to say, that there are so many principles, from whence men are liable to be deceived them- selves and disposed to deceive others, especially in matters of Religion, that one knows not what to be- lieve. And it is surprising persons can help reffe^l;- ing, that this very manner of speaking, supposes they are not satisfied that there is nothing in the evidence, of which they speak thus; or that they can avoid observing, if they do make this refle(5f ion, that it is, on such a subje(5f, a very material one.*^
^ See the foregoing chapter. S
258 Of the particular Evidence Part 2.
And over against all these obje(?i:ions, is to be set, the importance of Christianity, as what must have engaged the attention of its first converts, so as to have rendered them lef^ liable to be deceived from careleftnef^, than they would in common matters ; and likewise the strong obligations to veracity, which their Religion laid them under : So that the first and most obvious presumption is, that they could not be deceived themselves, nor would deceive others. And this presumption in this degree, is peculiar to the testimony we have been considering.
In argument, aftertions are nothing in themselves, and have an air of positivenefs, which sometimes is not very easy : Yet they are necef^ary, and neces- sary to be repeated ; in order to conne6l a discourse, and distin(9:ly to lay before the view of the reader, what is proposed to be proved, and what is left as proved. Now the conclusion from the foregoing observations is, I think, beyond all doubt, this : That unbelievers must be forced to admit the external evidence for Christianity, i. e. the proof of miracles wrought to attest it, to be of real weight and very considerable ; though they cannot allow it to be suf- ficient, to convince them of the reality of those mi- racles. And as they must, in all reason, admit this ; so it seems to me, that upon consideration they would, in fa(9;, admit it ; those of them, I mean, who know anything at all of the matter : In like manner as persons, in many cases, own, they see strong evi- dence from testimony, for the truth of things, which yet they cannot be convinced are true : Cases, sup- pose, where there is contrary testimony : or things which they think, whether with or without reason, to be incredible. But there is no testimony con- trary to that which we have been considering : and it has been fully proved, that there is no incre-
Chap. 7. for Christianity. 259
dibility, in Christianity in general, or in any part of it.
II. As to the evidence for Christianity from pro- phecy, I shall only make some few general obser- vations, which are suggested by the Analogy of Na- ture ; i. e. by the acknowledged natural rules of judging in common matters, concerning evidence of a like kind to this from prophecy.
1 . The obscurity or unintelligiblenei^ of one part of a prophecy, does not, in any degree, invalidate the proof of foresight, arising from the appearing completion of those other parts which are under- stood. For the case is evidently the same, as if those parts, which are not understood, were lost, or not written at all, or written in an unknown tongue. Whether this observation be commonly attended to or not, it is so evident, that one can scarce bring oneself to set down an instance in common matters, to exemplify it. However, suppose a writing, partly in cypher, and partly in plain words at length ; and that in the part one understood, there appeared mention of several known facts : It would never come into any man's thoughts to imagine, that if he un- derstood, the whole, perhaps he might find, that those fa(5ls were not in reality known by the writer. Indeed, both in this example and the thing intended to be exemplified by it, our not understanding the whole (the whole suppose of a sentence or a para- graph) might sometimes occasion a doubt, whether one understood the literal meaning of such a part ; But this comes under another consideration.
For the same reason, though a man should be in- capable, for want of learning, or opportunities of in- quiry, or from not having turned his studies this way, even so much as to judge, whether particular prophecies, have been throughout completely ful-
26o Of the particular Evidence Part 2.
filled ; yet he may see, in general, that they have been fulfilled to such a degree, as, upon very good ground, to be convinced of foresight more than hu- man in such prophecies, and of such events being intended by them. For the same reason also, though, by means of the deficiencies in civil history, and the different accounts of historians, the most learned should not be able to make out to satisfaction, that such parts of the prophetic history have been minutely and throughout fulfilled ; yet a very strong proof of foresight may arise, from that general com- pletion of them, which is made out : As much proof of foresight, perhaps, as the Giver of prophecy intended should ever be afforded by such parts of prophecy.
2. A long series of prophecy being applicable to such and such events, is itself a proof, that it was intended of them : as the rules, by which we natu- rally judge and determine, in common cases parallel to this, will shew. This observation I make in an- swer to the common objection against the applica- tion of the prophecies, that considering each of them distinctly by itself, it does not at all appear, that they were intended of those particular events to which they are applied by Christians ; and therefore it is to be supposed, that, if they meant anything, they were intended of other events unknown to us, and not of these at all.
Now there are two kinds of writing, which bear a great resemblance to prophecy, with respe(5l to the matter before us : the mythological, and the satirical where the satire is, to a certain degree, concealed. And a man might be allured, that he understood what an author intended by a fable or parable, re- lated without any application or moral, merely from seeing it to be easily capable of such application, and that such a moral might naturally be deduced
Chap, 7. for Christianity. 261
from it. And he might be fully aftured, that such persons and events were intended in a satirical writing, merely from its being applicable to them. And, agreeably to the last observation, he might be in a good measure satisfied of it, though he were not enough informed in affairs, or in the story of such persons, to understand half the satire. For, his satisfacftion, that he understood the meaning, the intended meaning, of these writings, would be greater or left, in proportion as he saw the general turn of them to be capable of such application : and in pro- portion to the number of particular things capable of it. And thus, if a long series of prophecy is appli- cable to the present state of the Church, and to the political situations of the kingdoms of the world, some thousand years after these prophecies were delivered, and a long series of prophecy delivered before the coming of Christ is applicable to him ; these things are in themselves a proof, that the pro- phetic history was intended of him, and of those events : in proportion as the general turn of it is capable of such application, and to the number and variety of particular prophecies capable of it. And, though in all just way of consideration, the appear- ing completion of prophecies, is to be allowed to be thus explanatory of, and to determine their mean- ing ; yet it is to be remembered farther, that the ancient Jews applied the prophecies to a Meftiah before his coming, in much the same manner as Christians do now: And that the primitive Chris- tians inteqDreted the prophecies respecting the state of the Church and of the world in the last ages, in the sense, which the event seems to confirm and verify. And from these things, it may be made ap- pear:
3. That the shewing even to a high probability, if
262 Of the particular Evidence Part 2.
that could be, that the Prophets thought of some other events, in such and such predications, and not those at all, which Christians allege to be comple- tions of those predictions ; or that such and such prophecies are capable of being applied to other events than those, to which Christians apply them
that this would not confute or destroy the force
of the argument from prophecy, even with regard to those very instances. For, observe how this matter really is. If one knew such a person to be the sole author of such a book, and was certainly allured, or satisfied to any degree, that one knew the whole of what he intended in it ; one should be af^ured or satisfied to such degree, that one knew the whole meaning of that book : for the meaning of a book, is nothing but the meaning of the author. But if one knew a person to have compiled a book out of me- moirs, which he received from another, of vastly superior knowledge in the subject!; of it, especially if it were a book full of great intricacies and diffi- culties ; it would in no wise follow, that one knew the whole meaning of the book, from knowing the whole meaning of the compiler: for the original memoirs, i. e. the author of them, might have, and there would be no degree of presumption, in many cases, against supposing him to have, some farther meaning, than the compiler saw. To say then, that the Scriptures and the things contained in them can have no other or farther meaning, than those per- sons thought or had, who first recited or wrote them ; is evidently saying, that those persons were the ori- ginal, proper, and sole authors of those books, i. e. that they are not inspired : which is absurd, whilst the authority of these books is under examination ; i. e. till you have determined they are of no Divine authority at all. Till this be determined, it must in
Chap. 7. for Christianity. 263
all reason be supposed, not indeed that they have, for this is taking for granted that they are inspired, but that they may have, some farther meaning than what the compilers saw or understood. And upon this supposition, it is supposable also, that this far- ther meaning may be fulfilled. Now events corre- sponding to prophecies, interpreted in a different meaning from that, in which the Prophets are sup- posed to have understood them ; this affords, in a manner, the same proof, that this different sense was originally intended, as it would have afforded, if the Prophets had not understood their prediclions in the sense it is supposed they did : because there is no presumption of their sense of them, being the whole sense of them. And it has been already shewn, that the apparent completions of prophecy, must be allowed to be explanatory of its meaning. So that the question is, whether a series of prophecy has been fulfilled, in a natural or proper, i. e. in any real, sense of the words of it. For such completion is equally a proof of foresight more than human, whe- ther the Prophets are, or are not, supposed, to have understood it in a different sense. I say, supposed : for, though I think it clear, that the Prophets did not understand the full meaning of their predictions ; it is another question, how far they thought they did, and in what sense they understood them.
Hence may be seen, to how little purpose those persons busy themselves, who endeavour to prove, that the prophetic history is applicable to events, of the age in which it was written, or of ages be- fore it. Indeed to have proved this before there was any appearance of a farther completion of it, might have answered some purpose ; for it might have prevented the expe(5lation of any such farther com- pletion. Thus could Porphyry have shewn, that
264 Of the particular Evidence Part 2.
some principal parts of the book of Daniel, for in- stance, the seventh verse of the seventh chapter, which the Christians interpreted of the latter ages, was applicable to events, which happened before or about the age of Antiochus Epiphanes ; this might have prevented them from expelling any farther completion of it. And, unlei^ there was then, as I think there must have been, external evidence con- cerning that book, more than is come down to us ; such a discovery might have been a stumblingblock in the way of Christianity itself: considering the au- thority which our Saviour has given to the book of Daniel, and how much the general scheme of Chris- tianity presupposes the truth of it. But even this discovery, had there been any such,' would be of very little weight with reasonable men now ; if this padage, thus applicable to events before the age of Porphyry, appears to be applicable also to events, which succeeded the dif^olution of the Roman em- pire. I mention this, not at all as intending to in- sinuate, that the division of this Empire into ten parts, for it plainly was divided into about that num- ber, were, alone and by itself, of any moment in verifying the prophetic history : but only as an ex- ample of the thing I am speaking of And thus upon the whole, the matter of enquiry evidently must be, as above put. Whether the prophecies are applicable to Christ, and to the present state of the
' It appears, that Porphyry did nothing worth mentioning in this way. For Jerom on the place fays : Duas posteriores bestias
in uno Macedonum regno ponit. And as to the ten kings ;
Decern reges enumerat, qui fuerunt sce-vifsimi : ipsosque reges nan unius ponit regni, 'verbi gratia, Macedonia, Syria, Ana, et j^gypti ; sed de diver sis regnis unum eff.cit regum ordinem. And in this way of interpretation, anything may be made of any- thing.
Chap, 7. for Christianity. ' 265
world and of the Church ; applicable in such a de- gree, as to imply foresight: Not whether they are capable of any other application ; though I know no pretence for saying, the general turn of them is ca- pable of any other.
These observations are, I think, just ; and the evidence referred to in them, real : Though there may be people who will not accept of such imper- fe(5l information from Scripture. Some too have not integrity and regard enough to truth, to attend to evidence, which keeps the mind in doubt, perhaps perplexity, and which is much of a different sort from what they expecfted. And it plainly requires a degree of modesty and faimeft, beyond what every one has, for a man to say, not to the world, but to himself, that there is a real appearance of somewhat of great weight in this matter, though he is not able thoroughly to satisfy himself about it ; but it shall have its influence upon him, in proportion to its ap- pearing reality and weight. It is much more easy, and more falls in with the negligence, presumption, and wilfulneft of the generality, to determine at once, with a decisive air, there is nothing in it. The pre- judices arising from that absolute contempt and scorn, with which this evidence is treated in the w^orld, I do not mention. For what indeed can be said to persons, who are weak enough in their un- derstandings, to think this any presumption against it ; or, if they do not, are yet weak enough in their temper to be influenced, by such prejudices, upon such a subjedl:.
I shall now, SECONDLY, endeavour to give some account of the general argument for the truth of Christianity, consisting both of the direcft and cir- cumstantial evidence, considered as making up one argument. Indeed to state and examine this argu-
266 Of the particular Evidence Part i.
ment fully, would be a work much beyond the com- paft of this whole treatise : Nor is so much as a proper abridgment of it to be expeifted here. Yet the present subje(5l requires to have some brief ac- count of it given. For it is the kind of evidence, upon which most questions of difficulty, in common pradlice, are determined : Evidence arising from various coincidences, which support and confirm each other, and in this manner prove, with more or lef^ certainty, the point under consideration. And I choose to do it also : First, because it seems to be of the greatest importance, and not duly attended to by every one, that the proof of Revelation is, not some dire(5l and expreft things only, but a great va- riety of circumstantial things also ; and that though each of these dire(5l and circumstantial things, is indeed to be considered separately, yet they are af- terwards to be joined together ; for that the proper force of the evidence consists in the result of those several things, considered in their respects to each other, and united into one view: And in the next place, because it seems to me, that the matters of fa6l here set down, which are acknowledged by un- believers, must be acknowledged by them also to contain together a degree of evidence of great weight, if they could be brought to lay these several things before themselves distin(9;ly, and then with attention consider them together ; instead of that cursory thought of them, to which we are familiarized. For being familiarized to the cursory thought of things, as really hinders the weight of them from being seen, as from having its due influence upon pra^lice. The thing averted, and the truth of which is to be enquired into, is this : that over and above our reason and affec^lions, which God has given us for the information of our judgment and the condudl of
Chap. 7. for Christianity. 267
our lives, he has also, by external Revelation, given us an account of himself, and his moral government over the world, implying a future state of rewards and punishments; i.e. hath revealed the system of natural Religion : for natural Religion may be ex- ternally^ revealed by God, as the ignorant may be
taught it by mankind, their fellow-creatures that
God, I say, has given us the evidence of Revelation, as well as the evidence of reason, to ascertain this moral system ; together with an account of a parti- cular dispensation of Providence, which reason could no way have discovered, and a particular institution of Religion founded on it, for the recovery of man- kind out of their present wretched condition, and raising them to the perfe(?tion and final happinefs of their nature.
This Revelation, whether real or supposed, may be considered as wholly historical. For prophecy is nothing but the history of events before they come to pafs : Dodlrines also are matters of fa6l : and pre- cepts come under the same notion. And the gene- ral design of Scripture, which contains in it this Re- velation, thus considered as historical, may be said to be, to give us an account of the world, in this one single view, as God's world : by which it appears eftentially distinguished from all other books, so far as I have found, except such as are copied from it. It begins with an account of God's creation of the world, in order to ascertain, and distinguish from all others, who is the objecT: of our worship, by what he has done : In order to ascertain, who he is, concern- ing whose Providence, commands, promises and threatenings, this sacred book, all along, treats ; the Maker and Proprietor of the world, he whose crea-
8 Pp. 149, &c.
268 Of the particular Evidence Part 2.
lures we are, the God of nature : In order likewise to distinguish him from the idols of the nations, which are either imaginary beings, i. e. no beings at all ; or else part of that creation, the historical relation of which is here given. And St. John, not impro- bably, with an eye to this Mosaic account of the Creation, begins his Gospel with an account of our Saviour's pre-existence, and that All things were made by him ; and without him was not anything made that was made :^ agreeably to the do(?trine of St. Paul, that God created all things by Jesus Christ.^^ This being premised, the Scripture, taken together, seems to profeft to contain a kind of an abridgment of the history of the world, in the view just now mentioned : that is, a general account of the condition of Religion and its profeftors, during the continuance of that apostacy from God, and state of wickedneft, which it everywhere supposes the world to lie in. And this account of the state of Religion, carries with it some brief account of the political state of things, as Religion is affected by it. Revelation indeed considers the common affairs of this world, and what is going on in it, as a mere scene of distraction ; and cannot be supposed to con- cern itself with foretelling, at what time, Rome or Babylon or Greece, or any particular place, should be the most conspicuous seat of that tyranny and dif^oluteneft, which all places equally aspire to be ; cannot, I say, be supposed to give any account of this wild scene for its own sake. But it seems to contain some very general account of the chief go- vernments of the world, as the general state of Re- ligion, has been, is, or shall be, affected by them, from the first transgref^ion, and during the whole
5 John i. 3. 10 Eph. iii. 9.
Chap. 7. for Christianity. 269
interval of the world's continuing in its present state, to a certain future period, spoken of both in the Old and New Testament, very distinctly, and in great variety of expreftion : The times of the restitution of all things :^^ When the mystery of God shall be finished, as he hath declared to his servants the Prophets :^^ When the God of heaven shall set up a kingdom, which shall never he destroyed : And the kingdom shall not he left to other people,^^ as it is represented to be during this apostacy, but judg- ment shall be given to the saints,^^ and they shall reign :^^ And the kingdom and dominion, and the greatnejl of the kingdom under the whole heaven, shall be given to the people of the saints of the most High}^
Upon this general view of the Scripture, I would remark, how great a length of time, the whole re- lation takes up, near six thousand years of which are past: and how great a variety of things it treats of; the natural and moral system or history of the world, including the time when it was formed, all contained in the very first book, and evidently written in a rude and unlearned age ; and in subsequent books, the various common and prophetic history, and the par- ticular dispensation of Christianity. Now all this together gives the largest scope for criticism ; and for confutation of what is capable of being confuted, either from reason or from common history, or from any inconsistence in its several parts. And it is a thing which deserves, I think, to be mentioned, that whereas some imagine, the supposed doubtfulneft of the evidence for Revelation implies a positive argu- ment that it is not true ; it appears, on the contrary,
" Afts iii. 21. *- Rev. x. 7. ^^ Dan. ii. 44.
•* Dan. vii. 22. '* Rev. xxii. 5. '^ Dan. vii. 27.
270 Of the particular Evidence Part 2,
to imply a positive argument that it is true. For, could any common relation, of such antiquity, ex- tent, and variety (for in these things the stref^ of what I am now observing lies) be proposed to the examination of the world: that it could not, in an age of knowledge and liberty, be confuted, or shewn to have nothing in it, to the satisfaction of reasonable men ; this would be thought a strong presumptive proof of its truth. And indeed it must be a proof of it, just in proportion to the probability, that if it were false, it might be shewn to be so : and this, I think, is scarce pretended to be shewn, but upon principles and in ways of arguing, which have been clearly ob- viated.^^ Nor does it at all appear, that any set of men who believe natural Religion, are of the opinion, that Christianity has been thus confuted. But to proceed :
Together with the moral system of the world, the Old Testament contains a chronological- account of the beginning of it, and from thence, an unbroken genealogy of mankind for many ages before common history begins ; and carried on as much farther, as to make up a continued thread of history of the length of between three and four thousand years. It contains an account of God's making a covenant with a particular nation, that they should be his people, and he would be their God, in a peculiar sense ; of his often interposing miraculously in their affairs ; giving them the promise, and, long after, the pofseftion, of a particular country ; afsuring them of the greatest national prosperity in it, if they would worship him, in opposition to the idols which the rest of the world worshipped, and obey his com- mands; and threatening them with unexampled pun-
" Chs. ii, iii, &c.
Chap. 7. for Christianity, 271
ishments, if they disobeyed him, and fell into the general idolatry: insomuch that this one nation should continue to be the observation and the won- der of all the world. It declares particularly, that God would scatter them among all people, from one end of the earth unto the other: but that when they should return unto the Lord their God, he would have compafsion upon them, and gather them from all the nations, whither he had scattered them: that Israel should be saved in the Lord, with an ever- lasting salvation ; and not he ashamed or confounded world without end. And as some of these promises are conditional, others are as absolute, as anything can be expref^ed : That the time should come, when the people should be all righteous, and inherit the land for ever: that though God would make a full end of all nations whither he had scattered them, yet would he not make a full end of them : that he would bring again the captivity of his people Israel, and plant them upon their land, and they should be no more pulled up out of their land: that the seed of Israel should not cease from being a nation for ever.^^ It foretells, that God would raise them up a particular person, in whom all his promises should finally be fulfilled ; the Meftiah, who should be, in an high and eminent sense, their anointed Prince and Saviour. This was foretold in such a manner, as raised a general expectation of such a person in the nation, as appears from the New Testament, and is an acknowledged fa(5f ; an expectation of his coming at such a particular time, before any one appeared claiming to be that person, and when there was no ground for such an expecT:ation but from the pro-
'8 Deut. xxviii. 64 j xxx. 2, 3; Is. xlv. 17 j Ix. 21 5 Jer. XXX. 1 1 ; xlvi. 28 i Amos ix. 155 Jer. xxxi. 36.
272 Of the particular Evidence Parti.
phecies : whicli expe(5lation, therefore, must in all reason be presumed to be explanatory of those pro- phecies, if there were any doubt about their mean- ing. It seems moreover to foretell, that this person should be reje(51:ed by that nation, to whom he had been so long promised, and though he was so much desired by them.^^ And it expref^ly foretells, that he should be the Saviour of the Gentiles ; and even that the completion of the scheme, contained in this book, and then begun, and in its progreft, should be somewhat so great, that, in comparison with it, the restoration of the Jews alone would be but of small account. It is a light thing that thou shouldest he my servant to raise up the tribes of Jacob, and to restore the preserved of Israel: I will also give thee for a light to the Gentiles, that thou mayest be for salvation unto the end of the earth. And, In the last days, the mountain of the Lord's house shall be established in the top of the mountains, and shall be exalted above the hills ; and all nations shall flow
into it for out of Zion shall go forth the law,
and the word of the Lord from Jerusalem. And he
shall judge among the nations and the Lord
alone shall be exalted in that day, and the idols he shall utterly abolish.-^ The Scripture farther con- tains an account, that at the time the Meftiah was expelled, a person rose up, in this nation, claiming to be that Meftiah, to be the Person, whom all the prophecies referred to, and in whom they should
'9 Is. viii. 14, 15 ; xlix. 5j ch. liii iii.
20 Is. xlix. 6 5 ch. ii 5 ch. xi ; Ivi. 7 ; Mai. i. 1 1. To which must be added, the other prophecies of the like kind, several in the New Testament, and very many in the Old ; which de- scribe what shall be the completion of the revealed plan of Pro- vidence.
Chap. 7. for Christianity. 273
centre : that he spent some years in a continued course of miraculous works ; and endued his imme- diate disciples and followers, with a power of doing the same, as a proof of the truth of that Religion, which he commifsioned them to publish : that, in- vested with this authority and power, they made numerous converts in the remotest countries, and settled and established his Religion in the world ; to the end of which, the Scripture profeftes to give a prophetic account of the state of this Religion amongst mankind.
Let us now suppose a person utterly ignorant of history, to have all this related to him, out of the Scripture. Or suppose such an one, having the Scripture put into his hands, to remark these things in it, not knowing but that the whole, even its civil history, as well as the other parts of it, might be, from beginning to end, an entire invention ; and to ask, what truth was in it, and whether the Revela- tion here related, was real or a fi^lion ? And instead of a 6\ve£i answer, suppose him, all at once, to be told the following confefted facls ; and then to unite them into one view.
Let him first be told, in how great a degree the profef^ion and establishment of natural Religion, the belief that there is one God to be worshipped, that virtue is his law, and that mankind shall be rewarded and punished hereafter, as they obey and disobey it here ; in how very great a degree, I say, the pro- feftion and establishment of this moral system in the world, is owing to the Revelation, whether real or supposed, contained in this Book : the establishment of this moral system, even in those countries which do not acknowledge the proper authority of the Scripture.^^ Let him be told also, what number of 21 P. 226.
T
274 Of the particular Evidence Part 2.
nations do acknowledge its proper authorit3\ Let him then take in the consideration, of what im- portance Religion is to mankind. And upon these things, he might, I think, truly observe, that this sup- posed Revelation's obtaining and being received in the world, with all the circumstances and effe(9:s of it, considered together as one event, is the most conspicuous and important event in the story of man- kind : that a book of this nature, and thus promulged and recommended to our consideration, demands, as if by a voice from heaven, to have its claims most seriously examined into : and that, before such ex- amination, to treat it with any kind of scoffing and ridicule, is an offence against natural piety. But it is to be remembered, that how much soever the es- tablishment of natural Religion in the world is owing to the Scripture-Revelation, this does not destroy the proof of Religion from reason ; any more than the proof of Euclid^ s Elements is destroyed, by a man's knowing or thinking, that he should never have seen the truth of the several propositions con- tained in it, nor had those propositions come into his thoughts, but for that mathematician.
Let such a person as we are speaking of, be, in the next place, informed, of the acknowledged an- tiquity of the first parts of this Book : And that its chronology, its account of the time when the earth, and the several parts of it, were first peopled with human creatures, is no way contradicted, but is really confirmed, by the natural and civil history of the world, colle(5led from common historians, from the state of the earth, and from the late invention of arts and sciences. And as the Scripture contains an un- broken thread of common and civil history, from the Creation to the Captivity, for between three and four thousand years : Let the person we are speak-
Chap. 7. for Christianity. 275
ing of be told in the next place, that this general history, as it is not contradicted, but is confirmed by profane history as much as there would be reason to expedl, upon supposition of its truth ; so there is nothing in the whole history itself, to give any rea- sonable ground of suspicion, of its not being, in the general, a faithful and literally true genealogy of men, and series of things. I speak here only of the common Scripture -history, or of the course of ordi- nary events related in it ; as distinguished from mi- racles, and from the prophetic history. In all the Scripture -narrations of this kind, following events arise out of foregoing ones, as in all other histories. There appears nothing related as done in any age, not conformable to the manners of that age : nothing in the account of a succeeding age, which, one would say, could not be true, or was improbable, from the account of things in the preceding one. There is nothing in the charadlers, which would raise a thought of their being feigned ; but all the internal marks imaginable of their being real. It is to be added also, that 'mere genealogies, bare narratives of the number of years, which persons called by such and •such names lived, do not carr^' the face of fic^^ion ; perhaps do carry some presumption of veracity : and all unadorned narratives, which have nothing to surprise, may be thought to carry somewhat of the like presumption too. And the domestic and the political history is plainly credible. There may be incidents in Scripture, which taken alone in the naked way they are told, may appear strange ; especially to persons of other manners, temper, education : But there are also incidents of undoubted truth, in many or most persons' lives, which, in the same circumstances, would appear to the full as strange. There may be mistakes of transcribers, there may
276 Of the particular Evidence Part 2.
be other real or seeming mistakes, not easy to be particularly accounted for : But there are certainly no more things of this kind in the Scripture, than what were to have been expelled in books of such antiquity ; and nothing, in any wise, sufficient to discredit the general narrative. Now, that a history claiming to commence from the Creation, and ex- tending in one continued series, through so great a length of time, and variety of events, should have such appearances of reality and truth in its whole contexture, is surely a very remarkable circumstance in its favour. And as all this is applicable to the common history of the New Testament ; so there is a farther credibility, and a very high one, given to it, by profane authors : many of these writing of the same times, and confirming the truth of customs and events, which are incidentally as well as more purposely mentioned in it. And this credibility of the common Scripture -history, gives some credi- bility to its miraculous history : especially as this is interwoven with the common, so as that they imply each other, and both together make up one relation. Let it then be more particularly observed to this person, that it is an acknowledged matter of fa(9:, which is indeed implied in the foregoing observation, that there was such a nation as the Jews, of the greatest antiquity, whose government and general polity was founded on the Law, here related to be given them by Moses as from heaven : that natural Religion, though with rites additional yet no way contrary to it, was their established Religion, which cannot be said of the Gentile world : and that their very being as a nation, depended upon their acknow- ledgment of one God, the God of the universe. For, suppose in their captivity in Babylon, they had gone over to the Religion of their conquerors, there
Chap, 7. for Christianity. 277
would have remained no bond of union, to keep them a distinct people. And whilst they were under their own kings, in their own country, a total apostacy from God would have been the diftolution of their whole government. They, in such a sense, nation- ally acknowledged and worshipped the Maker of heaven and earth, when the rest of the world were sunk in idolatry, as rendered them, in fadl, the pe- culiar people of God. And this so remarkable an establishment and preservation of natural Religion amongst them, seems to add some peculiar credi- bility to the historical evidence for the miracles of Moses and the Prophets : Because these miracles are a full satisfa(?l:ory account of this event, which plainly wants to be accounted for, and Ccinnot other- wise.
Let this person, supposed wholly ignorant of his- tory, be acquainted farther, that One claiming to be the Mef^iah, of Jewish extraction, rose up at the time when this nation, from the prophecies above- mentioned, expe(5led the Meftiah : that he was re- je(5led, as it seemed to have been foretold he should, by the body of the people, under the direction of their rulers : that in the course of a very few years, he was believed on and acknowledged as the pro- mised Meftiah, by great numbers among the Gen- tiles, agreeably to the prophecies of Scripture, yet not upon the evidence of prophecy, but of miracles,^ of which miracles we also have strong historical evi- dence ; (by which I mean here no more than must be acknowledged by unbelievers, for let pious frauds and follies be admitted to weaken, it is absurd to say they destroy, our evidence of miracles wrought in proof of Christianity : ^^) that this Religion approving
22 Pp. 249, &C. 23 pp, 257, &C.
278 Of the particular Evidence Part 2.
itself to the reason of mankind, and carrying its own evidence with it, so far as reason is a judge of its system, and being no way contrary to reason, in those parts of it which require to be believed upon the mere authority of its Author ; that this Religion, I say, gradually spread and supported itself, for some hundred years, not only without any aftistance from temporal power, but under constant discou- ragements, and often the bitterest persecutions from it ; and then became the Religion of the world : that in the mean time, the Jewish nation and govern- ment were destroyed, in a very remarkable manner, and the people carried away captive and dispersed through the most distant countries ; in which state of dispersion, they have remained fifteen hundred years : and that they remain a numerous people, united amongst themselves, and distinguished from the rest of the world, as they were in the days of Moses, by the profeftion of his Law ; and everywhere looked upon in a manner, which one scarce knows how distinctly to expreft, but in the words of the prophetic account of it, given so many ages before it came to paft ; Thou shalt become an astonishment, a proverb, and a by -word, among all nations whither the Lord shall lead thee.^^
The appearance of a standing miracle, in the Jews remaining a distin<5t people in their dispersion, and the confirmation which this event appears to give to the truth of Revelation ; may be thought to be an- swered, by their Religion's forbidding them inter- marriages with those of any other, and prescribing them a great many peculiarities in their food, by which they are debarred from the means of incor- porating with the people, in whose countries they
^* Deut. xxviii. 37. _.
Ckap. J. for Christianity. 279
live. This is not, I think, a satisfa<5lory account of that which it pretends to account for. But what does it pretend to account for? The correspondence between this event and the prophecies ; or the co- incidence of both, with a long dispensation of Pro- vidence of a peculiar nature, towards that people formerly ? No. It is only the event itself, which is offered to be thus accounted for ; which single event taken alone, abstracted from all such correspondence and coincidence, perhaps would not have appeared miraculous: but that correspondence and coinci- dence may be so, though the event itself be sup- posed not. Thus the concurrence of our Saviour's being born at Bethlehem, with a long foregoing se- ries of prophecy and other coincidences, is doubt- left miraculous, the series of prophecy, and other coincidences, and the event, being admitted : though the event itself, his birth at that place, appears to have been brought about in a natural way ; of which, however, no one can be certain.
And as several of these events seem, in some de- gree exprefkly, to have verified the prophetic history already : so likewise they may be considered farther, as having a peculiar aspect towards the full comple- tion of it ; as affording some presumption that the whole of it shall, one time or other, be fulfilled. Thus, that the Jews have been so wonderfully preserved in their long and wide dispersion ; which is indeed the dire(5l fulfilling of some prophecies, but is now mentioned only as looking forward to somewhat yet to come : that natural Religion came forth from Ju- dea, and spread, in the degree it has done over the world, before lost in idolatry ; which, together with some other things, have distinguished that very place, in like manner, as the people of it are distinguished : that this great change of Religion over the earth,
28o Of the particular Evidence Part 2.
was brought about under the profeftion and acknow- ledgment, that Jesus was the promised Meftiah : Things of this kind naturally turn the thoughts of serious men, towards the full completion of the pro- phetic history, concerning the final restoration of that people ; concerning the establishment of the everlasting kingdom among them, the kingdom of the Mefsiah ; and the future state of the world, un- der this sacred government. Such circumstances and events compared with these prophecies, though no completions of them, yet would not, I think, be spoken of as nothing in the argument, by a person upon his first being informed of them. They fall in with the prophetic history of things still future, give it some additional credibility, have the appearance of being somewhat in order to the full completion of it.
Indeed it requires a good degree of knowledge, and great calmneft and consideration, to be able to judge, thoroughly, of the evidence for the truth of Christianity, from that part of the prophetic history, which relates to the situation of the kingdoms of the world, and to the state of the church, from the es- tablishment of Christianity to the present time. But it appears, fi^om a general view of it, to be very ma- terial. And those persons who have thoroughly ex- amined it, and some of them were men of the coolest tempers, greatest capacities, and least liable to im- putations of prejudice, insist upon it as determinatdy conclusive.
Suppose now a person quite ignorant of history, first to recollect: the parages abovementioned out of Scripture, without knowing but that the whole was a late fic^tion, then to be informed of the cor- respondent fa(51s now mentioned, and to unite them all into one view ; That the profeftion and establish-
Chap. 'J, for Christianity. 281
ment of natural Religion in the world, is greatly owing, in different ways, to this Book, and the sup- posed Revelation which it contains ; that it is ac- knowledged to be of the earliest antiquity ; that its chronology and common history are entirely credible ; that this ancient nation, the Jews, of whom it chiefly treats, appear to have been, in fa6t, the people of God, in a distinguished sense ; that, as there was a national expectation amongst them, raised from the prophecies, of a Mefsiah to appear at such a time, so one at this time appeared claiming to be that Meftiah ; that he was reje(5led by this nation ; but received by the Gentiles, not upon the evidence of prophecy, but of miracles ; that the Religion he taught supported itself under the greatest difficul- ties, gained ground, and at length became the Re- ligion of the world ; that in the mean time the Jewish polity was utterly destroyed, and the nation dispersed over the face of the earth ; that notwithstandmg this, they have remained a distinct!: numerous people for so many centuries, even to this day ; which not only appears to be the expreft completion of several pro- phecies concerning them ; but also renders it, as one may speak, a visible and easy pofsibility, that the promises made to them as a nation,* may yet be ful- filled. And to these acknowledged truths, let the person we have been supposing, add, as I think he ought, whether every one will allow it or no, the ob- vious appearances which there are, of the state of the world, in other respects besides what relates to the Jews, and of the Christian Church, having so long answered, and still answering to the prophetic history. Suppose, I say, these fa(5ls set over against the things before-mentioned out of the Scripture, and seriously compared with them ; the joint view of both together, must, I think, appear of very great
282 Of the particular Evidence Part 2.
weight to a considerate reasonable person : of much greater indeed, upon having them first laid before him, than is easy for us, who are so familiarized to them, to conceive, without some particular attention for that purpose.
All these things, and the several particulars con- tained under them, require to be distinctly and most thoroughly examined into ; that the weight of each may be judged of, upon such examination, and such conclusion drawn as results from their united force. But this has not been attempted here. I have gone no farther than to show, that the general imperfect: view of them now given, the confei^ed historical evi- dence for miracles, and the many obvious appearing completions of prophecy, together with the collateral things ^^ here mentioned, and there are several others of the like sort ; that all this together, which, being fa(?i;, must be acknowledged by unbelievers, amounts to real evidence of somewhat more than human in this matter : evidence much more important, than careleft men, who have been accustomed only to transient and partial views of it, can imagine ; and indeed abundantly sufficient to a(5l upon. And these things, I apprehend, must be acknowledged by un- beUevers. For'though they may say, that the his- torical evidence of miracles wrought in attestation of Christianity, is not sufficient to convince them that such miracles were really wrought ; they cannot deny, that there is such historical evidence, it being a known matter of fac^t, that there is. They may say, the conformity between the prophecies and events, is by accident : but there are many instances, in
2* All the particular things mentioned in this chapter, not reducible to the head, of certain miracles, or determinate com- pletions of prophecy. See pp. 244, 245.
Chap. 7. for Christianity. 283
which such conformity itself cannot be denied. They may say, with regard to such kind of collateral things as those abovementioned, that any odd accidental events, without meaning, will have a meaning found in them by fanciful people : and that such as are fan- ciful in any one certain way, will make out a thou- sand coincidences, which seem to favour their pecu- liar follies. Men, I say, may talk thus : But no one who is serious, can poftibly think these things to be nothing, if he considers the importance of collateral things, and even of lef^er circumstances, in the evi- dence of probability, as distinguished, in nature, from the evidence of demonstration. In many cases in- deed it seems to require the truest judgment, to determine with exa(fine{^ the weight of circumstan- tial evidence : but it is very often altogether as con- vincing, as that, which is the most exprei^ and direct:. This general view of the evidence for Christianity, considered as making one argument, may also serve to recommend to serious persons, to set down every- thing, which they think may be of any real weight at all in proof of it, and particularly the many seem- ing completions of prophecy : and they will find, that, judging by the natural rules, by which we judge of probable evidence in common matters, they amount to a much higher degree of proof, upon such a joint review, than could be supposed upon considering them separately, at different times ; how strong so- ever the proof might before appear to them, upon such separate views of it. For probable proofs, by being added, not only increase the evidence, but multiply it. Nor should I dif^uade any one from setting down, what he thought made for the con- trary side. But then it is to be remembered, not in order to influence his judgment, but his pra(5lice, that a mistake on one side, may be, in its conse-
284 Of the particular evidence Part 2.
quences, much more dangerous, than a mistake on the other. And what course is most safe, and what most dangerous, is a consideration thought very ma- terial, when we deliberate, not concerning events, but concerning condu^l in our temporal affairs. To be influenced by this consideration in our judgment, to believe or disbelieve upon it, is indeed as much prejudice, as anything whatever. And, like other prejudices, it operates contrary ways, in different men. For some are inclined to believe, what they hope ; and others, what they fear. And it is mani- fest unreasonablenei^, to apply to men's paf^ions in order to gain their af^ent. But in deliberations con- cerning conduct, there is nothing which reason more requires to be taken into the account, than the im- portance of it. For, suppose it doubtful, what would be the consequence of acting in this, or in a contrary manner : still, that taking one side could be attended with little or no bad consequence, and taking the other might be attended with the greatest, must ap- pear, to unprejudiced reason, of the highest moment towards determining, how we are to a(5l. But the truth of our Religion, like the truth of common mat- ters, is to be judged of by all the evidence taken to- gether. And unlef^ the whole series of things which may be alleged in this argument, and every par- ticular thing in it, can reasonably be supposed to have been by accident ; (for here the stref^ of the argument for Christianity lies ;) then is the truth of it proved : In like manner, as if in any common case, numerous events acknowledged, were to be alleged in proof of any other event disputed ; the truth of the disputed event would be proved, not only if any one of the acknowledged ones did of itself clearly imply it, but, though no one of them singly did so, if the whole of the acknowledged events taken to-
Chap. 7. for Christianity. 285
gether, could not in reason be supposed to have happened, unlei^ the disputed one were true.
It is obvious, how much advantage, the nature of this evidence gives to those persons, who attack Christianity, especially in conversation. For it is easy to shew, in a short and lively manner, that such and such things are liable to obje(9:ion, that this and another thing, is of little weight in itself; but im- poftible to shew, in like manner, the united force of the whole argument in one view.
However, lastly, as it has been made appear, that there is no presumption against a Revelation as mi- raculous ; that the general scheme of Christianity, and the principal parts of it, are conformable to the experienced constitution of things, and the whole perfe(5^1y credible : So the account now given of the positive evidence for it, shews, that this evidence is such, as, from the nature of it, cannot be destroyed ; though it should be leftened.
CHAPTER VIII.
Of the Ohje6lions which may he made against ar- guing from the Analogy of Nature, to Religion.
F every one would consider with such attention as they are bound, even in point of morality, to consider, what they judge and give chara(5lers of; the occasion of this chapter would be, in some good measure at least, superseded. But since this is not to be expe(5ied ; for some we find do not concern themselves to understand even what they write against : Since this treatise, in common
286 Objections against arguing from Part 2.
with most others, lies open to objections, which may appear very material to thoughtful men at first sight ; And, besides that, seems peculiarly liable to the ob- je(5lions, of such as can judge without thinking, and of such as can censure without judging ; it may not be amif^ to set down the chief of these objections which occur to me, and consider them to their hands. And they are such as these ;
" That it is a poor thing to solve difficulties in ' Revelation, by saying, that there are the same in ' natural Religion ; when what is wanting is to clear '■ both of them, of these their common, as well as ' other their respective, difficulties : But that it is a ' strange way indeed of convincing men of the ob- ' ligations of Religion, to shew them, that they have ' as little reason for their worldly pursuits : And a ' strange way of vindicating the justice and good- ' nel^ of the Author of nature, and of removing the ' objections against both, to which the system of ' Religion lies open, to shew, that the like objections ' lie against natural Providence ; a way of answer- ' ing objections against Religion, without so much ' as pretending to make out, that the system of it, ' or the particular things in it objeCted against, are
' reasonable especially, perhaps some may be
• inattentive enough to add, must this be thought ' strange, when it is confef^ed that Analogy is no ' answer to such objeCtions : That when this sort of ' reasoning is carried to the utmost length it can be ' imagined capable of, it will yet leave the mind in ' a very unsatisfied state : And that it must be un- ' accountable ignorance of mankind, to imagine they ' will be prevailed with to forego their present in- ' terests and pleasures from regard to Religion, upon ^ doubtful evidence." Now, as plausible as this way of talking may ap-
Chap. 8. Analogy of Nature to Religion. 28-^
pear, that appearance will be found in a great mea- sure owing to half-views, which shew but part of an objeci:, yet shew that indistin(5lly ; and to undeter- minate language. By these means weak men are often deceived by others, and ludicrous men, by themselves. And even those, who are serious and considerate, cannot always readily disentangle, and at once clearly see through the perplexities, in which subjecT;s themselves are involved ; and which are heightened by the deficiencies and the abuse of words. To this latter sort of persons, the following reply to each part of this objedlion severally, may be of some afsistance ; as it may also tend a little to stop and silence others.
First, The thing wanted, i. e. what men require, is to have all difficulties cleared. And this is, or at least for anything we know to the contrary, it may be, the same, as requiring to comprehend the Divine nature, and the whole plan of Providence from ever- lasting to everlasting. But it hath always been al- lowed to argue, from what is acknowledged, to what is disputed. And it is in no other sense a poor thing, to argue from natural Religion to revealed, in the manner found fault with, than it is to argue in numberleft other ways of probable dedu(5lion and inference, in matters of conduct, which we are con- tinually reduced to the necefsity of doing. Indeed the epithet poor, may be applied, I fear as properly, to great part or the whole of human life, as it is to the things mentioned in the objection. Is it not a poor thing, for a physician to have so little know- ledge in the cure of diseases, as even the most emi- nent have ? To a6i upon conje6lure and gueft, where the life of man is concerned ? Undoubtedly it is : but not in comparison of having no skill at all in that useful art, and being obliged to act wholly in the dark.
288 Objeflions against arguing from Part 2.
Further : since it is as unreasonable, as it is com- mon, to urge objections against Revelation, which are of equal weight against natural Religion ; and those who do this, if they are not confuted them- selves, deal unfairly with others, in making it seem, that they are arguing only against Revelation, or particular docftrines of it, when in reality they are arguing against moral Providence ; it is a thing of consequence to shew, that such objections are as much levelled against natural Religion, as against revealed. And objections, which are equally appli- cable to both, are properly speaking answered, by its being shewn that they are so, provided the former be admitted to be true. And without taking in the consideration how distinctly this is admitted, it is plainly very material to observe, that as the things objected against in natural Religion, are of the same kind with what is certain matter of experience in the course of Providence, and in the information which God affords us concerning our temporal interest under his government; so the objeCtions against the system of Christianity and the evidence of it, are of the very same kind with those which are made against the system and evidence of natural Religion. However, the reader upon review may see, that most of the Analogies insisted upon, even in the latter part of this treatise, do not neceftarily require to have more taken for granted than is in the former ; that there is an Author of nature, or natural Go- vernor of the world : and Christianity is vindicated, not from its Analogy to natural Religion, but chiefly, from its Analogy to the experienced constitution of Nature.
Secondly, Religion is a praCtical thing, and con- sists in such a determinate course of life ; as being what there is reason to think, is commanded by the
Chap, 8. Analogy of Nature to Religion. 289
Author of nature, and will, upon the whole, be our happineft under his government. Now if men can be convinced, that they have the like reason to be- lieve this, as to believe, that taking care of their temporal affairs will be to their advantage ; such convi<9:ion cannot but be an argument to them for the pra(51ice of Religion. And if there be really any reason for believing one of these, and endeavouring to preserve life, and secure ourselves the neceftaries and conveniences of it : Then there is reason also for believing the other, and endeavouring to secure the interest it proposes to us. And if the interest, which Religion proposes to us, be infinitely greater than our whole temporal interest; then there must be proportionably greater reason, for endeavouring to secure one, than the other : since, by the supposi- tion, the probability of our securing one, is equal to the probability of our securing the other. This seems plainly unanswerable ; and has a tendency to influence fair minds, who consider what our condi- tion really is, or upon what evidence we are natu- rally appointed to di£i ; and who are disposed to ac- quiesce in the terms upon which we live, and attend to and follow that practical instruction, whatever it be, which is afforded us.
But the chief and proper force of the argument referred to in the objection, lies in another place. For, it is said that the proof of Religion is involved in such inextricable difficulties, as to render it doubt- ful ; and that it cannot be supposed, that if it were true, it v^ould be left upon doubtful evidence. Here then, over and above the force of each particular difficulty or objection, these difficulties and objec- tions taken together, are turned into a positive ar- gument against the truth of Religion : which argu- ment would stand thus. If Religion were true, it u
ago Obje£lions against arguing from Part 2.
would not be left doubtful, and open to objec^tions to the degree in which it is : therefore that it is thus left, not only renders the evidence of it weak, and le{^ens its force, in proportion to the weight of such obje(5lions; but also shews it to be false, or is a general presumption of its being so. Now the ob- servation, that from the natural constitution and course of things, we must in our temporal concerns, almost continually, and in matters of great conse- quence, a(5i: upon evidence of a like kind and degree to the evidence of Religion ; is an answer to this ar- gument : because it shews, that it is according to the condu(?t and character of the Author of nature, to appoint we should a(?i: upon evidence like to that, which this argument presumes he cannot be sup- posed to appoint we should a(9; upon : It is an in- stance, a general one made up of numerous parti- cular ones, of somewhat in his dealing with us, similar to what is said to be incredible. And as the force of this answer lies merely in the parallel, which there is between the evidence for Religion and for our temporal condu(5t ; the ansv^er is equally just and conclusive, whether the parallel be made out, by shewing the evidence of the former to be higher, or the evidence of the latter to be lower.
Thirdly y The design of this treatise is not to vin- dicate the character of God, but to shew the obli- gations of men : It is not to justify his Providence, but to shew what belongs to us to do. These are two subjects, and ought not to be confounded. And though they may at length run up into each other, yet observations may immediately tend to make out the latter, which do not appear, by any immediate connection, to the purpose of the former ; which is lef^ our concern than many seem to think. For, first, it is not necei^ary we should justify the dis-
Chap. 8. Analogy of Nature to Religion. 291
pensations of Providence against obje^lions, any far- ther than to shew, that the things objected against may, for aught we know, be consistent with justice and goodneft. Suppose then, that there are things in the system of this world, and plan of Providence relating to it, which taken alone would be unjust; yet it has been shewn unanswerably, that if we could take in the reference, which these things may have, to other things present, past and to come ; to the whole scheme, which the things objecfled against are parts of; these very things might, for aught we know, be found to be, not only consistent with jus- tice, but instances of it. Indeed it has been shewn, by the Analogy of what we see, not only poftible that this may be the case, but credible that it is. And thus obje(5lions, drawn from such things, are answered, and Providence is vindicated, as far as Religion makes its vindication nece{^ary. Hence it appears, secondly, that objections against the Divine justice and goodnef^ are not endeavoured to be re- moved, by shewing that the like objec^tions, allowed to be really conclusive, lie against natural Provi- dence : but those objedlions being supposed and shewn not to be conclusive, the things objected against, considered as matters of faCt, are farther shewn to be credible, from their conformity to the constitution of Nature ; for instance, that God will reward and punish men for their a6lions hereafter, from the observation, that he does reward and pun- ish them for their actions here. And this, I appre- hend, is of weight. And I add, thirdly, it would be of weight, even though those objeClions were not answered. For, there being the proof of Religion above set down ; and Religion implying several facets ; for instance, again, the faCt last mentioned, that God will reward and punish men for their adlions here-
292 Objedions against arguing from Part 2.
after ; the observation that his present method of government is by rewards and punishments, shews that future fa^l not to be incredible : whatever ob- je<5lions men may think they have against it, as un- just or unmerciful, according to their notions of jus- tice and mercy ; or as improbable from their belief of neceftity. I say, as improbable : for it is evident no objection against it, as unjust, can be urged from neceftity ; since this notion as much destroys in- justice, as it does justice. Then, fourthly, though obje(9;ions against the reasonableneft of the system of Religion, cannot indeed be answered without en- tering into consideration of its reasonablenefs ; yet objections against the credibility or truth of it, may. Because the system of it is reducible into what is properly matter of fad : And the truth, the probable truth, of fac^s, may be shewn without consideration of their reasonablenefs. Nor is it neceftary, though, in some cases and respects, it is highly useful and proper, yet it is not neceftary, to give a proof of the reasonablenefs of every precept enjoined us, and of every particular dispensation of Providence, which comes into the system of Religion. Indeed the more thoroughly a person of a right disposition is convinced of the perfe^lion of the Divine nature and condudi, the farther he will advance towards that perfe(?i:ion of Religion, which St. John ^ speaks of. But the general obligations of Religion are fully made out, by proving the reasonablenefs of the prac- tice of it. And that the practice of Religion is rea- sonable, may be shewn, though no more could be proved, than that the system of it may be so, for aught we know to the contrary : and even without entering into the distin(?t consideration of this. And
' I John iv. i8.
Chap. 8. Analogy of Nature to Religion. 293
from hence, fifthly, it is easy to see, that though the Analogy of Nature is not an immediate answer to objections against the wisdom, the justice or good- neft, of any docftrine or precept of Religion : j^et it may be, as it is, an immediate and dire(?l: answer to what is really intended by such obje(ftions ; which is, to shew that the things objected against are incre- dible.
Fourthly, It is most readily acknowledged, that the foregoing treatise is by no means satisfactory ; very far indeed from it : But so would any natural institution of life appear, if reduced into a system, together with its evidence. Leaving Religion cut of the case, men are divided in their opinions, Whe- ther our pleasures overbalance our pains : And whe- ther it be, or be not, eligible to live in this world. And were all such controversies settled, which per- haps, in speculation, would be found involved in great difficulties ; and were it determined upon the evi- dence of reason, as Nature has determined it to our hands, that life is to be preserved : Yet still, the rules which God has been pleased to afford us, for escaping the miseries of it and obtaining its satis- faClicns, the rules, for instance, of preserving health and recovering it when lost, are not only fallible and precarious, but very far from being exa6l. Nor are we informed by Nature, in future contingencies and accidents, so as to render it at all certain, what is the best method of managing our affairs. What will be the succef^ of our temporal pursuits, in the com- mon sense of the word succeft, is highly doubtful. And what will be the succef^ of them, in the proper sense of the word ; i.e. what happinef^ or enjoy- ment we shall obtain by them, is doubtful in a much higher degree. Indeed the unsatisfa(51:ory nature of the evidence, with which we are obliged to take up,
294 Objedions against arguing from Part 2.
in the daily course of life, is scarce to be expref^ed. Yet men do not throw away life, or disregard the interests of it, upon account of this doubtfulnef^. The evidence of Religion then being admitted real, those who objec^l: against it, as not satisfactory, i. e. as not being what they wish it, plainly forget the very condition of our being : For satisfa(51icn^ in this sense, does not belong to such a creature as man. And, which is more material, they forget also the very nature of Religion. For, Religion presupposes, in all those who will embrace it, a certain degree of integrity and honesty ; which it was intended to try whether men have or not, and to exercise in such as have it, in order to its improvement. Religion presupposes this as much, and in the same sense, as speaking to a man, presupposes he understands the language in which you speak ; or as warning a man of any danger, presupposes that he hath such a regard to himself, as that he will endeavour to avoid it. And therefore the question is not at all. Whether the evidence of Religion be satisfac^tory : but Whether it be, in reason, sufficient to prove and dis- cipline that virtue, which it presupposes. Now the evidence of it is fully sufficient for all those purposes of probation ; how far soever it is from being satis- fa(5lory, as to the purposes of curiosity, or any other : and indeed it answers the purposes of the former in several respecfts, which it would not do, if it were as overbearing as is required. One might add farther ; that Whether the motives or the evidence for any course of a(5lion be satisfactory, meaning here by that word, what satisfies a man, that such a course of aClion will in event be for his good; this need never be, and I think, strictly speaking, never is, the practical question in common matters. But the praClical question in all cases, is, Whether the evi-
Chap. 8. Analogy of Nature to Religion. 295
dence for a course of acftion be such, as, taking in all circumstances, makes the faculty within us, which is the guide and judge of conducft,^ determine that course of adlion to be prudent. Indeed satisfa(5lion that it will be for our interest or happineft, abund- antly determines an action to be prudent : But evi- dence almost infinitely lower than this, determines actions to be so too ; even in the condudl of every day.
Fifthly, As to the obje(5tion concerning the influ- ence which this argument, or any part of it, may or may not, be expected to have upon men ; I observe, as above, that Religion being intended for a trial and exercise of the morality of every person's cha- racter, who is a subject of it ; And there being, as I have shewn, such evidence for it, as is sufficient, in reason, to influence men to embrace it : To object, that it is not to be imagined mankind will be influ- enced by such evidence, is nothing to the purpose of the foregoing treatise. For the purpose of it is not to enquire, what sort of creatures mankind are ; but what, the light and knowledge, which is afforded them, requires they should be : to shew how, in reason, they ought to behave ; not how, in fadl, they will behave. This depends upon themselves, and is their own concern ; the personal concern of each man in particular. And how little regard the gene- rality have to it, experience indeed does too fully shew. But Religion, considered as a probation, has had its end upon all persons, to whom it has been proposed with evidence sufficient in reason to influ- ence their practice : For by this means they have been put into a state of probation ; let them behave as they will in it. And thus, not only Revelation,
2 See Difsert. II.
296 Obje6!ions against arguing from Part 2.
but reason also, teaches us, that by the evidence of Religion being laid before men, the designs of Pro- vidence are carrying on, not only with regard to those who will, but likewise with regard to those who will not, be influenced by it. However, lastly, the objection here referred to, allows the things insisted upon in this treatise to be of some weight : And if so, it may be hoped it will have some influence. And if there be a probability that it will have any at all, there is the same reason in kind, though not in degree, to lay it before men, as there would be, if it were likely to have a greater influence.
And farther, I desire it may be considered, with respect to the whole of the foregoing obje^lions, that in this treatise I have argued upon the principles of others,^ not my own : and have omitted what I think true, and of the utmost importance, because by others thought unintelligible, or not true. Thus I have argued upon the principles of the Fatalists, which I do not believe : and have omitted a thing of the ut- most importance, which I do believe, the moral fit- neft and unfitneft of adlions, prior to all will what- ever ; which I apprehend as certainly to determine the Divine conduct, as speculative truth and falsehood neceftarily determine the Divine judgment. Indeed the principle of liberty and that of moral fitneft so force themselves upon the mind, that moralists, the ancients as well as moderns, have formed their lan- guage upon it. And probably it may appear in mine : though I have endeavoured to avoid it ; and in order to avoid it, have sometimes been obliged to
^ By arguing upon the principles of others^ the reader will ob- serve is meant 5 not proving diXiy th\ng from those principles, but notnvithstanding them. Thus Religion is proved, not from the opinion of necefsity ; which is absurd : But, notwithstanding or even though that opinion were admitted to be true.
Chap. 8. Analogy of Nature to Religion. 297
expreft myself in a manner, which will appear strange to such as do not observe the reason for it : But the general argument here pursued, does not at all sup- pose, or proceed upon, these principles. Now, these two abstra(5l principles of liberty and moral fitnef^ being omitted, Religion can be considered in no other view, than merely as a question of fadt : And in this view, it is here considered. It is obvious, that Christianity, and the proof of it, are both historical. And even natural Religion is, properly, a matter of fa(5l. For, that there is a righteous Governor of the world, is so : And this proposition contains the ge- neral system of natural Religion. But then, several abstra(5l truths, and in particular those two principles, are usually taken into consideration in the proof of it : Whereas it is here treated of only as a matter of fa6l. To explain this : That the three angles of a triangle are equal to two right ones, is an abstradl truth : but that they appear so to our mind, is only a matter of fa(9:. And this last must have been ad- mitted, if anything was, by those ancient sceptics, who would not have admitted the former ; but pre- tended to doubt, WTiether there were any such thing as truth, or WTiether we could certainly depend upon our faculties of understanding for the knowledge of it, in any case. So Hkewise, that there is, in the nature of things, an original standard of right and wrong in actions, independent upon all will, but which unalterably determines the will of God, to exercise that moral government over the world which Religion teaches, i. e. finally and upon the whole to reward and punish men respectively as they acft right or wrong; this af^ertion contains an abstract truth, as well as matter of fadl:. But suppose in the present state, every man, without exception, was re- warded and punished, in exadl proportion, as he
298 Objedions against arguing from Part 2.
followed ortransgrefted that sense of right and wrong, which God has implanted in the nature of every man : this would not be at all an abstract truth, but only a matter of fa(^. And though this fa(5l were acknowledged by every one ; yet the very same dif- ficulties might be raised, as are now, concerning the abstra(51: questions of liberty and moral fitnef^ : And we should have a proof, even the certain one of ex- perience, that the government of the world was per- fe(?i;lv moral, without taking in the consideration of those questions : and this proof would remain, in what way soever they were determined. And thus, God having given mankind a moral faculty, the ob- je6l of which is actions, and which naturally approves some a(?i;ions as right and of good desert, and con- demns others as wrong, and of ill-desert ; that he will, finally and upon the whole, reward the former and punish the latter, is not an aftertion of an ab- stract truth, but of what is as mere a fa(?l:, as his doing so at present would be. This future fa6l I have, not indeed proved with the force with which it might be proved, from the principles of liberty and moral fitneft ; but without them have given a really conclusive pra(5lical proof of it, which is greatly strengthened by the general Analogy of Nature : a proof, easily cavilled at, easily shewn not to be de- monstrative, for it is not offered as such ; but im- poftible, I think, to be evaded or answered. And thus the obligations of Religion are made out, ex- clusively of the questions concerning liberty and moral fitnei^ ; which have been perplexed v/ith dif- ficulties and abstruse reasonings, as everything may. Hence therefore may be observed distincftly, what is the force of this treatise. It will be, to such as are convinced of Religion upon the proof arising out of the two last-mentioned principles, an additional
Chap. 8. Analogy of Nature to Religion. 299
proof and a confirmation of it : To such as do not admit those principles, an original proof of it,"* and a confirmation of that proof. Those who believe, will here find the scheme of Christianity cleared of ob- je(flions, and the evidence of it in a peculiar manner strengthened: Those who do not believe, will at least be shewn the absurdity of all attempts to prove Christianity false, the plain undoubted credibility of it ; and, I hope, a good deal more.
And thus, though some perhaps may seriously think, that Analogy, as here urged, has too great streft laid upon it ; and ridicule, unanswerable ridi- cule, may be applied, to shew the argument from it in a disadvantageous light : yet there can be no question, but that it is a real one. For Religion, both natural and revealed, implying in it numerous fa61:s ; Analogy, being a confirmation of all fa^ls to which it can be applied, as it is the only proof of most, cannot but be admitted by every one to be a material thing, and truly of weight on the side of Religion, both natural and revealed : And it ought to be particularly regarded by such as profeft to follow Nature, and to be left satisfied with abstradl reasonings.
CONCLUSION.
HATEVER account may be given, of the strange inattention and disregard, in some ages and countries, to a mat- ter of such importance as Religion ; it would, before experience, be in- credible that there should be the like disregard in
* Pp. 118, &c.
300 Conclusion. Part 2.
those, who have had the moral system of the world laid before them, as it is by Christianity, and often inculcated upon them : Because this moral system carries in it a good degree of evidence for its truth, upon its beingbarely proposed to our thoughts. There is no need of abstruse reasonings and distinctions, to convince an unprejudiced understanding, that there is a God who made and governs the world, and will judge it in righteousneft ; though they may be ne- ceftary to answer abstruse difficulties, when once such are raised : When the very meaning of those words, which expref^ most intelligibly the general dodirine of Religion, is pretended to be uncertain ; and the clear truth of the thing itself is obscured, by the intricacies of speculation. But to an unpre- judiced mind, ten thousand thousand instances of design, cannot but prove a designer. And it is in- tuitively manifest, that creatures ought to live under a dutiful sense of their Maker ; and that justice and charity must be his laws, to creatures whom he has made social, and placed in society, hideed the truth of revealed Religion, peculiarly so called, is not self- evident ; but requires external proof, in order to its being received. Yet inattention, among us, to re- vealed Religion, will be found to imply the same dissolute immoral temper of mind, as inattention to natural Religion : because, when both are laid before us, in the manner they are in Christian countries of liberty ; our obligations to enquire into both, and to embrace both upon supposition of their truth, are obligations of the same nature. For, Revelation claims to be the voice of God : and our obligation to attend to his voice, is, surely, moral in all cases. And as it is insisted, that its evidence is conclusive, upon thorough consideration of it ; so, it offers itself to us with manifest obvious appearances of having
Part 2. Conclusion. 301
something more than human in it, and therefore in all reason requires, to have its claims most seriously examined into. It is to be added, that though light and knowledge, in what manner soever afforded us, is equally from God ; yet a miraculous Revelation has a peculiar tendency, from the first principles of our nature, to awaken mankind, and inspire them with reverence and awe : And this is a peculiar ob- ligation, to attend to what claims to be so with such appearances of truth. It is therefore most certain, that our obligations to enquire seriously into the evi- dence of Christianity, and, upon supposition of its truth, to embrace it; are of the utmost importance, and moral in the highest and most proper sense. Let us then suppose, that the evidence of Religion in general, and of Christianity, has been seriously enquired into, by all reasonable men among us. Yet we find many profefsedly to reje(?i: both, upon spe- culative principles of infidelity. And all of them do not content themselves with a bare neglect; of Re- ligion, and enjoying their imaginary freedom fi-om its restraints. Some go much beyond this. They deride God's moral government over the world. They renounce his protec'tion, and defy his justice. They ridicule and vilify Christianity, and blaspheme the Author of it ; and take all occasions to manifest a scorn and contempt of Revelation. This amounts to an adlive setting themselves against Religion ; to what may be considered as a positive principle of irreligion : which they cultivate within themselves, and, whether they intend this effe6\ or not, render habitual, as a good man does the contrary principle. And others, who are not chargeable with all this pro- fligateneft, yet, are in avowed opposition to Religion, as if discovered to be groundleft. Now admitting, which is the supposition we go upon, that these per-
302 Conclusion. Part 2.
sons a<5l upon what they think principles of reason, and otherwise they are not to be argued with ; it is really inconceivable, that they should imagine they clearly see the v/hole evidence of it, considered in itself, to be nothing at all : Nor do they pretend this. They are far indeed from having a just notion of its evidence : but they would not say its evidence was nothing, if they thought the system of it, with all its circumstances, were credible, like other matters of science or history. So that their manner of treating it must proceed, either from such kind of obje(5lions against all Religion, as have been answered or ob- viated in the former part of this treatise ; or else from obje(9;ions and difficulties, supposed more peculiar to Christianity. Thus, they entertain prejudices against the whole notion of a Revelation, and miraculous in- terpositions. They find things in Scripture, whe- ther in incidental passages, or in the general scheme of it, which appear to them unreasonable. They take for granted, that if Christianity were true, the light of it must have been more general, and the evidence of it more satisfactory, or rather overbearing : that it must and would have been, in some way, other- wise put and left, than it is. Now this is not imagin- ing they see the evidence itself to be nothing, or in- considerable ; but quite another thing. It is being fortified against the evidence, in some degree ac- knowledged, by thinking they see the system of Christianity, or somewhat which appears to them neceftarily conne(5led with it, to be incredible or false : fortified against that evidence, which might, otherwise, make great impreftion upon them. Or, lastly, if any of these persons are, upon the whole, in doubt concerning the truth of Christianity ; their behaviour seems owing to their taking for granted, through strange inattention, that such doubting is,
Part 2. Conclusion. 303
in a manner, the same thing, as being certain against it.
To these persons, and to this state of opinion con- cerning Religion, the foregoing treatise is adapted. For, all the general obje(?i:ions against the moral system of Nature having been obviated, it is shewn, that there is not any peculiar presumption at all against Christianity, either considered as not dis- coverable by reason, or as unlike to what is so dis- covered ; nor any worth mentioning, against it as miraculous, if any at all ; none certainly, which can render it in the least incredible. It is shewn, that upon supposition of a Divine Revelation, the Analogy of Nature renders it beforehand highly credible, I think probable, that many things in it must appear liable to great obje(5lions ; and that we must be in- competent judges of it, to a great degree. This observation is, I think, unquestionably true, and of the very utmost importance : But it is urged, as I hope it will be understood, with great caution of not vilifying the faculty of reason, which is the candle of the Lord within us ;^ though it can afford no light where it does not shine ; nor judge, where it has no principles tojudge upon. The objections here spoken of, being first answered in the view of objections against Christianity as a matter of fa(ft, are in the next place considered as urged, more immediately, against the wisdom, justice and goodneft of the Christian Dispensation. And it is fully made out, that they admit of exa(ftly the like answer, in every respe(ft, to what the like obje(5lions against the con- stitution of Nature admit of: That, as partial views give the appearance of wrong to things, which, upon farther consideration and knowledge of their rela-
' Prov. XX, 27.
304 Conclusion. Part 2.
tions to other things, are found just and good ; so it is perfectly credible, that the things objedled, against the wisdom and goodneft of the Christian Dispensation, may be rendered instances of wisdom and goodnei^, by their reference to other things be- yond our view : Because Christianity is a scheme as much above our comprehension, as that of Na- ture ; and like that, a scheme in which means are made use of to accomplish ends, and which, as is most credible, may be carried on by general laws. And it ought to be attended to, that this is not an answer taken, merely or chiefly, from our ignorance ; but from somewhat positive, which our observation shews us. For, to like obje(51:ions, the like answer is experienced to be jufl, in numberlefs parallel cases. The obje(?i;ions against the Christian Dispensation, and the method by which it is carried on, having been thus obviated, in general and together ; the chief of them are considered distin<?l:ly, and the par- ticular things obje(5^ed to are shewn credible, by their perfect Analogy, each apart, to the constitu- tion of Nature. Thus ; If man be fallen from his primitive state, and to be restored, and infinite wis- dom and power engages in accomplishing our re- covery : it were to have been expelled it is said, that this should have been effected at once ; and not by such a long series of means, and such a va- rious economy of persons and things ; one dispen- sation preparatory to another, this to a farther one, and so on through an indefinite number of ages, before the end of the scheme proposed can be com- pletely accomplished : a scheme conducted by in- finite wisdom, and executed by almighty power. But now on the contrary, our finding that every- thing in the constitution and course of Nature is thus carried on, shews such expectations concerning
Part 2. Conclusion. 305
Revelation to be highly unreasonable ; and is a satis- facflory answer to them, when urged as obje(5lions against the credibility, that the great scheme of Providence in the redemption of the world may be of this kind, and to be accomplished in this manner. As to the particular method of our redemption, the appointment of a Mediator between God and man : this has been shewn to be most obviously analogous to the general condu^l of Nature, i. e. the God of Nature, in appointing others to be the instruments of his mercy, as we experience in the daily course of Providence. The condition of this world, which the do(5lrine of our redemption by Christ presup- poses, so much falls in with natural appearances, that heathen moralists inferred it from those appearances : inferred, that human nature was fallen from its ori- ginal re(5^itude, and, in consequence of this, degraded from its primitive happineft. Or, however this opin- ion came into the world, these appearances must have kept up the tradition, and confirmed the belief of it. And as it was the general opinion under the light of Nature, that repentance and reformation, alone and by itself, was not sufficient to do away sin, and procure a full remiftion of the penalties annexed to it ; and as the reason of the thing does not at all lead to any such conclusion : So every day's expe- rience shews us, that reformation is not, in any sort, sufficient to prevent the present disadvantages and miseries, which, in the natural course of things, God has annexed to folly and extravagance. Yet there may be ground to think, that the punishments, which, by the general laws of Divine government, are an- nexed to vice, may be prevented : that provision may have been, even originally, made, that they should be prevented by some means or other, though they could not by reformation alone. For we have
X
3o6 Conclusion. Part 2.
daily instances of such mercy, in the general condu(5l of Nature : Compaf^ion provided for misery ,2 medi- cines for diseases, friends against enemies. There is provision made, in the original constitution of the world, that much of the natural bad consequences of our follies, which persons themselves alone cannot prevent,may be prevented by the aftistance of others ; aftistance, which Nature enables, and disposes, and appoints them to afford. By a method of goodnei^ analogous to this, when the world lay in wickednei^ and consequently ruin, God so loved the world, that he gave his only-begotten Son to save it: And he being made perfeSi by suffering, became the author of eternal salvation to all them that obey him.^ In- deed neither reason nor Analogy would lead us to think, in particular, that the interposition of Christ, in the manner in which he did interpose, would be of that efficacy for recovery of the world, which the Scripture teaches us it was : But neither would rea- son nor Analogy lead us to think, that other parti- cular means would be of the efficacy, which expe- rience shews they are, in numberlef^ instances. And therefore, as the case before us does not admit of experience ; so, that neither reason nor Analogy can shew, how or in what particular way, the inter- position of Christ, as revealed in Scripture, is of that efficacy, which it is there represented to be ; this is no kind nor degree of presumption against its being really of that efficacy. Farther: The objections against Christianity, from the light of it not being universal, nor its evidence so strong as might pos- sibly be given us, have been answered by the general Analogy of Nature. That God has made such va-
2 Serm. at the Rolls, p. io6. ' John iii. i6 j Heb. v. 9.
Part 2. Conclusion. 307
riety of creatures, is indeed an answer to the former : But that he dispenses his gifts in such variety, both of degrees and kinds, amongst creatures, of the same species, and even to the same individuals at different times ; is a more obvious and full cinsvver to it. And it is so far from being the method of Providence in other cases, to afford us such overbearing evidence, as some require in proof of Christianity ; that on the contrary, the evidence upon which we are naturally appointed to acl in common matters, throughout a very great part of life, is doubtful in a high degree. And admitting the facl, that God has afforded to some, no more than doubtful evidence, of Religion ; the same account may be given of it, as of difficul- ties and temptations with regard to pra(5lice. But as it is not impof^ible,^ surely, that this alleged doubtfulnef^ may be men's own fault; it deserves their most serious consideration, whether it be not so. However, it is certain, that doubting implies a degree of evidence for that, of which we doubt : and that this degree of evidence, as really lays us under obligations, as demonstrative evidence.
The whole then of Religion is throughout credible : Nor is there, I think, anything relating to the re- vealed dispensation of things, more different from the experienced constitution and course of Nature, than some parts of the constitution of Nature are from other parts of it. And if so, the only question which remains, is, what positive evidence can be alleged for the truth of Christianity. This too in general has been considered, and the obje(5lions against it estimated. Deducl: therefore what is to be dedudled from that evidence, upon account of any weight which may be thought to remain in these
« Pp. 238, &c.
3o8 Conclusion. Part 2.
objections, after what the Analogy of Nature has suggested in answer to them: and then consider, what are the practical consequences from all this, upon the most sceptical principles, one can argue upon: (for I am writing to persons who entertain these principles :) And upon such consideration, it will be obvious, that immorality, as little excuse as it admits of in itself, is greatly aggravated, in persons who have been made acquainted with Christianity, whether they believe it, or not : Because the moral system of Nature, or natural Religion, which Chris- tianity lays before us, approves itself, almost intui- tively, to a reasonable mind upon seeing it proposed. In the next place, with regard to Christianity, it will be observed ; that there is a middle, between a full satisfaction of the truth of it, and a satisfaction of the contrary. The middle state of mind between these two, consists in a serious apprehension, that it may be true ; joined with doubt, whether it be so. And this, upon the best judgment I am able to make, is as far towards speculative infidelity, as any sceptic, can at all be supposed to go, who has had true Christianity, with the proper evidence of it, laid be- fore him, and has in any tolerable measure consi- dered them. For I would not be mistaken to com- prehend all, who have ever heard of it : Because it seems evident that in many countries, called Chris- tian, neither Christianity, nor its evidence are fairly laid before men. And in places where both are, there appear to be some, who have very little at- tended to either, and who reject Christianity with a scorn proportionate to their inattention ; and yet are by no means without understanding in other matters. Now it has been shewn, that a serious apprehension that Christianity may be true, lays persons under the strictest obligations of a serious regard to it.
Part 2. Conclusion. 309
throughout the whole of their life : a regard not the same exactly, but in many respects nearly the same, with what a full convi(5lion of its truth would lay them under. Lastly, it will appear, that blasphemy and profanenef^, I mean with regard to Christianity, are absolutely without excuse. For there is no temp- tation to it, but from the wantonnef^ of vanity or mirth : And these, considering the infinite import- cince of the subje(?l:, are no such temptations as to afford any excuse for it. If this be a just account of things, and yet men can go on to vilify or disregard Christianity, which is to talk and a(5l, as if they had a demonstration of its falsehood ; there is no reason to think they would alter their behaviour to any purpose, though there were a demonstration of its truth.
The End of the Second Part,
TWO BRIEF DISSERTATIONS.
I. OF PERSONAL IDENTITY. II. OF THE NATURE OF VIRTUE.
ADVERTISEMENT.
In the first copy of these papers ^ I had inserted the two following Dijlertations into the chapters Of a Future Life, and. Of the Moral Government of God, with which they are closely conneSied. But as they do not direSily fall under the title of the foregoing treatise, and would have kept the subje6i of it too long out of sight ; it seemed more proper to place them by themselves.
DISSERTATION I.
Of personal Identity.
HETHER we are to live in a future state, as it is the most important ques- tion which can pof^ibly be asked, so it is the most intelligible one which can be exprefted in lan^age. Yet strange perplexities have been raised about the meaning of that identity or samenei^ of person, which is implied in the notion of our living now and here- after, or in any two succef^ive moments. And the solution of these difficulties hath been stranger, than the difficulties themselves. For, personal identity has been explained so by some, as to render the en- quiry concerning a future life, of no consequence at all to us the persons who are making it. And though few men can be misled by such subtleties ; yet it may be proper a little to consider them.
Now when it is asked, Wherein personal identity consists, the answer should be the same, as if it were asked, wherein consists similitude or equality ; that all attempts to define, would but perplex it. Yet there is no difficulty at all in ascertaining the idea. For as, upon two triangles being compared or viewed together, there arises to the mind the idea of simi-
314 Of personal Identity. D'lfs. i.
litude ; or upon twice two and four, the idea of equality : so likewise, upon comparing the conscious- neftes of one's self or one's own existence in any two moments, there as immediately arises to the mind the idea of personal identity. And as the two former comparisons not only give us the ideas of similitude and equality ; but also shew us, that two triangles are alike, and twice two and four are equal : so the latter comparison not only gives us the idea of per- sonal identity, but also shews us the identity of our- selves in those two moments ; the present, suppose, and that immediately past ; or the present, and that, a month, a year, or twenty years past. Or in other words, by refle(^ing upon that, which is myself now, and that, which was myself twenty years ago, I dis- cern they are not two, but one and the same self.
But though consciousneft of what is past does thus ascertain our personal identity to ourselves, yet to say, that it makes personal identity, or is neces- sary to our being the same persons, is to say, that a person has not existed a single moment, nor done one action, but what he can remember ; indeed none but what he refle(5ls upon. And one should really think it self-evident, that consciousneft of personal identity presupposes, and therefore cannot consti- tute, personal identity ; any more than knowledge, in any other case, can constitute truth, which it pre- supposes.
This wonderful mistake may poftibly have arisen from hence, that to be endued with consciousnei^, is inseparable from the idea of a person, or intelligent being. For, this might be exprefted inaccurately thus, that consciousnef^ makes personality : And from hence it might be concluded to make personal identity. But though present consciousnei^ of what we at present do and feel, is neceftary to our being
Difs. I. Of personal Identity. 315
the persons we now are ; yet present consciousneft of past actions or feelings, is not neceftary to our being the same persons who performed those acftions or had those feelings.
The enquiry, what makes vegetables the same in the common acceptation of the word, does not ap- pear to have any relation to this of personal identity : because the word, same, when applied to them and to person, is not only applied to different subjects, but it is also used in different senses. For when a man swears to the same tree, as having stood fifty years in the same place, he means only the same as to all the purposes of property and uses of common life, and not that the tree has been all that time the same in the stricft philosophical sense of the word. For he does not know, whether any one particle of the present tree, be the same with any one particle of the tree which stood in the same place fifty years ago. And if they have not one common particle of matter, they cannot be the same tree in the proper philosophic sense of the word same: it being evi- dently a contradi(5lion in terms, to say they are, when no part of their substance, and no one of their pro- perties is the same : no part of their substance, by the supposition : no one of their properties, because it is allowed, that the same property cannot be trans- ferred from one substance to another. And there- fore, when we say the identity or samenef^ of a plant consists in a continuation of the same life, commu- nicated under the same organization, to a number of particles of matter, whether the same or not ; the word same, when applied to life and to organization, cannot pofsibly be understood to signify, what it sig- nifies in this very sentence, when applied to matter. In a loose and popular sense then, the life and the organization and the plant are justly said to be the
3i6 Of personal Identity. D'lfs, i.
same, notwithstanding- the perpetual change of the parts. But in a stri^l and philosophical manner of speech, no man, no being, no mode of being, no anything, can be the same with that, with which it hath indeed nothing the same. Now samenef^ is used in this latter sense when applied to persons. The identity of these, therefore, cannot subsist with diversity of substance.
The thing here considered, and, demonstratively, as I think, determined, is proposed by Mr. Locke in these words, Whether it, i.e. the same self or per- son, he the same identical substance? And he has suggested what is a much better answer to the ques- tion, than that which he gives it in form. For he defines person, a thinking intelligent being, &c. and personal identity, the samenejl of a rational being,^ The question then is, whether the same rational being is the same substance : which needs no an- swer, because being and substance, in this place, stand for the same idea. The ground of the doubt, whether the same person be the same substance, is said to be this ; that the consciousneft of our own existence, in youth and in old age, or in any two joint succe{^ive moments, is not the same individual a6iion,~ i.e. not the same consciousnef^, but different succeftive consciousneftes. Now it is strange that this should have occasioned such perplexities. For it is surely conceivable, that a person may have a capacity of knowing some object or other to be the same now, which it was when he contemplated it formerly : Yet in this case, where, by the supposi- tion, the obje6l is perceived to be the same, the per- ception of it in any two moments cannot be one and the same perception. And thus, though the suc-
' Locke's Works, vol. I. p. 146. ' Locke ^ pp. 146, 147.
Difs. I, Of personal Identity. 317
ceftive consciousneftes which we have of our own existence are not the same, yet are they conscious- neftes of one and the same thing or object ; of the same person, self, or living agent. The person, of whose existence the consciousneft is felt now, and was felt an hour or a year ago, is discerned to be, not two persons, but one and the same person ; and therefore is one and the same.
Mr. Locke's observations upon this subject: appear hasty : and he seems to profeft himself difsatisfied with suppositions, which he has made relating to it.^ But some of those hasty observations have been car- ried to a strange length by others, whose notion, when traced and examined to the bottom, amounts, I think, to this :^ " That personality is not a perma- *^ nent, but a transient thing : That it lives and dies, " begins and ends continually : That no one can any "^ more remain one and the same person two mo- " ments together, than two succef^ive moments can " be one and the same moment : That our substance " is indeed continually changing ; but whether this " be so or not, is, it seems, nothing to the purpose ; " since it is not substance, but consciousneft alone, " which constitutes personality ; which conscious- " neft, being succeftive, cannot be the same in any " two moments, nor consequently the personality " constituted by it." And from hence it must fol- low, that it is a fallacy upon ourselves, to charge our present selves with anything we did, or to imagine our present selves interested in anything which be- fell us, yesterday ; or that our present self will be interested in what will befall us to-morrow: since our present self is not, in reality, the same with the
^ Locke, p. 152.
* See an Answer to Dr. Clarke's Third Defence of his Letter to Mr. Dodivell, 2nd edit. pp. 44, 56, &c.
3i8 Of personal Identity. Difs. i.
self of yesterday, but another like self or person coming in its room, and mistaken for it ; to which another self will succeed to-morrow. This, I say, must follow : for if the self or person of to-day, and that of to-morrow, are not the same, but only like persons ; the person of to-day, is really no more in- terested in what will befall the person of to-morrow, than in what will befall any other person. It may be thought perhaps, that this is not a just represen- tation of the opinion we are speaking of: because those who maintain it allow, that a person is the same as far back as his remembrance reaches. And indeed they do use the words, identity and same person. Nor will language permit these words to be laid aside : since if they were, there must be, I know not what ridiculous periphrasis, substituted in the room of them. But they cannot, consistently with themselves, mean, that the person is really the same. For, it is self-evident, that the personality cannot be really the same, if, as they expreftly as- sert, that in which it consists, is not the same. And as, consistently with themselves, they cannot, so, I think it appears, they do not, mean, that the person is really the same, but only that he is so in a fic- titious sense : in such a sense only as they aftert, for this they do af^ert, that any number of persons whatever may be the same person. The bare un- folding this notion, and laying it thus naked and open, seems the best confutation of it. However, since great streft is said to be put upon it, I add the fol- lowing things.
First, This notion is absolutely contradi(fl:ory to that certain conviction, which neceftarily and every moment rises within us, when we turn our thoughts upon ourselves, when we reflect upon what is past, and look forward upon what is to come. All imagi-
Difs. I. Of personal Identity. 319
nation of a daily change of that living- agent which each man calls himself, for another, or of any such change throughout our whole present life, is entirely borne down by our natural sense of things. Nor is it poftible for a person in his wits, to alter his con- ducfl;, with regard to his health or affairs, from a sus- picion, that though he should live to-morrow, he should not however, be the same person he is to-day. And yet, if it be reasonable to ac^, with respedl to a future life, upon this notion that personality is tran- sient ; it is reasonable to a(9; upon it, with respecl to the present. Here then is a notion equally applicable to Religion and to our temporal concerns : And every one sees and feels the inexpreftible absurdity of it in the latter case. If therefore any can take up with it in the former, this cannot proceed from the reason of the thing, but must be owing to an inward un- faimeft, and secret corruption of heart.
Secondly, It is not an idea, or abstract notion, or quality, but a being only, which is capable of life and a^lion, of happineft and misery. Now all beings confeftedly continue the same, during the whole time of their existence. Consider then a living being now existing, and which has existed for any time alive : this living being must have done and suffered and enjoyed, what it has done and suffered and en- joyed formerly, (this living being, I say, and not another,) as really as it does and suffers and enjoys, what it does and suffers and enjoys this instant. All these succef^ive ad^ions, enjoyments, and sufferings, are acflions, enjoyments, and sufferings, of the same living being. And they are so, prior to all consi- deration of its remembering or forgetting : since re- membering or forgetting can make no alteration in the truth of past matter of fact. And suppose this being endued with limited powers of knowledge and
320 Of personal Identity. Difs. i,
memory, there is no more difficulty in conceiving it to have a power, of knowing itself to be the same living being which it was some time ago, of remem- bering some of its a(5lions, sufferings, and enjoy- ments, and forgetting others, than in conceiving it to know or remember or forget anything else.
Thirdly, Every person is conscious, that he is now the same person or self he was, as far back as his remembrance reaches : since when any one refle<?ts upon a past action of his own, he is just as certain of the person who did that ac^tion, namely, himself, the person who now reflects upon it, as he is certain that the a<$l;ion was at all done. Nay, very often a person's afturance of an acflion having been done, of which he is absolutely aftured, arises wholly from the consciousneft that he himself did it. And this he, person, or self, must either be a substance, or the property of some substance. If he, if person, be a substance ; then consciousneft that he is the same person, is consciousnef^ that he is the same substance. If the person, or he, be the property of a substance ; still consciousnef^ that he is the same property is as certain a proof that his substance re- mains the same, as consciousnef^ that he remains the same substance would be : since the same property cannot be transferred from one substance to another.
But though we are thus certain, that we are the same agents, living beings, or substances, now, which we were as far back as our remembrance reaches ; yet it is asked. Whether we may not pof^ibly be de- ceived in it ? And this question may be asked at the end of any demonstration whatever : because it is a question concerning the truth of perception by me- mory. And he who can doubt, whether perception by memory can in this case be depended upon, may doubt also, whether perception by dedud^ion and
Difs. I. Of personal Identity. 321
reasoning, which also include memory, or indeed whether intuitive perception can. Here then we can go no farther. For it is ridiculous to attempt to prove the truth of those perceptions, whose truth we can no otherwise prove, than by other perceptions of exacflly the same kind with them, and which there is just the same ground to suspect ; or to attempt to prove the truth of our faculties, which can no otherwise be proved, than by the use or means of those very suspedled faculties themselves.
DISSERTATION II.
Of the Nature of Virtue.
7, HAT which renders beings capable of moral government, is their having a moral nature, and moral faculties of perception and of adlion. Brute crea- tures are imprefsed and a6^uated by
various instinc9;s and propensions : so also are we. But additional to this, we have a capacity of refle(5l- ing upon a(51ions and characfiers, and making them an objecl to our thought : And on doing this, we naturally and unavoidably approve some a(5lions, under the peculiar view of their being virtuous and of good desert ; and disapprove others, as vicious and of ill-desert. That we have this moral approv- ing and disapproving' faculty, is certain from our
* This way of speaking is taken from EpiBetus (Arr. Epift. L. I. c. i), and is made use of as seeming the most full, and least liable to cavil. And the moral faculty may be understood to have these two epithets, t^o/cz/yaoTtic^ and a.7ro£oKifxa(TTiKri, upon a double account: Because, upon a survey of adtions, Y
322 Of the Nature of Virtue. Difs. 2,
experiencing it in ourselves, and recognizing it in each other. It appears from our exercising it un- avoidably, in the approbation and disapprobation even of feigned characfters : From the words, right and w^rong, odious and amiable, base and worthy, with many others of like signification in all lan- guages, applied to a(51:ions and characters : From the many written systems of morals which suppose it ; since it cannot be imagined, that all these authors, throughout all these treatises, had absolutely no meaning at all to their words, or a meaning merely chimerical : From our natural sense of gratitude, which implies a distin(51;ion between merely being the instrument of good, and intending it : From the like distin(5lion, every one makes, between injury and mere harm, which, Hobbs says, is peculiar to mankind ; and between injury and just punishment, a distin(?lion plainly natural, prior to the considera- tion of human laws. It is manifest great part of common language, and of common behaviour over the world, is formed upon supposition of such a mo- ral faculty ; whether called conscience, moral rea- son, moral sense, or Divine reason ; whether consi- dered as a sentiment of the understanding, or as a perception of the heart, or, vvhich seems the truth, as including both. Nor is it at all doubtful in the ge- neral, what course of a(9:ion this faculty, or pra6lical discerning power within us, approves, and what it
whether before or after they are done, it determines them to be good or evil j and also because it determines itself to be the guide of adtion and of life, in contradistinftion from all other faculties, or natural principles of adlion : in the very same man- ner, as speculative reason dire^lly and naturally judges of spe- culative truth and falsehood j and, at the same time, is attended with a consciousnefs upon refieBion, that the natural right to judge of them belongs to it.
Dtfs.2. Of the Nature of Virtue. 323
disapproves. For, as much as it has been disputed wherein virtue consists, or whatever ground for doubt there may be about particulars ; yet, in ge- neral, there is in reality an universally acknowledged standard of it. It is that, which all ages and all countries have made profef^ion of in public : it is that, which every man you meet, puts on the show of: it is that, which the primary and fundamental laws of all civil constitutions, over the face of the earth, make it their businei^ and endeavour to en- force the pra(5lice of upon mankind : namely, justice, veracity, and regard to common good. It being manifest then, in general, that we have such a faculty or discernment as this ; it may be of use to remark some things, more distinctly, concerning it.
Firsts It ought to be observed, that the obje(5l of thiis faculty is actions,'- comprehending under that name a(Sii\e or practical principles : those principles from which men would a<fl:, if occasions and circum- stances gave them power; and which, when fixed and habitual in any person, we call, his characfter. It does not appear, that brutes have the least reflex sense of a(5lions, as distinguished from events : or that will and design, which constitute the very na- ture of a(5lions as such, are at all an objedl to their perception. But to ours they are : And they are the object:, and the only one, of the approving and disapproving faculty. A(Si\ng, condu(fi:, behaviour, abstratfled from all regard to what is, in fa6l and event, the consequence of it, is itself the natural ob- ject of the moral discernment ; as speculative truth and falsehood is, of speculative reason. Intention of such and such consequences, indeed, is always in-
M. Auton. L. 9, 16. Virtutis laus omnis in adlione consibtic. Cic. Off. L. I. c. 6.
324 Of the Nature of Virtue. Difs. 2.
eluded ; for it is part of the a(?i;ion itself: but though the intended good or bad consequences do not fol- low, we have exa(5lly the same sense of the action as if they did. In like manner we think well or ill of characflers, abstracted from all consideration of the good or the evil, which persons of such chara(5lers have it a(?i:ually in their power to do. We never, in the moral way, applaud or blame either ourselves or others, for what we enjoy or what we suffer, or for having impreftions made upon us which we consider as altogether out of our power : but only for what we do, or would have done had it been in our power ; or for what we leave undone which we might have done, or would have left undone though we could have done it.
Secondly, Our sense or discernment of a(9;ions as morally good or evil, implies in it a sense or dis- cernment of them as of good or ill desert. It may be difficult to explain this perception, so as to answer all the questions which may be asked concerning it : But every one speaks of such and such a6lions as deserving punishment ; and it is not, I suppose, pre- tended that they have absolutely no meaning at all to the expreftion. Now the meaning plainly is not, that we conceive it for the good of society, that the doer of such a(5lions should be made to suffer. For if unhappily it were resolved, that a man who, by some innocent a(?l:ion, was infected with the plague, should be left to perish, lest, by other peoples' com- ing near him, the infection should spread : no one would say, he deserved this treatment. Innocence and ill-desert, are inconsistent ideas. Ill-desert al- ways supposes guilt : and if one be not part of the other, yet they are evidently and naturally connecfled in our mind. The sight of a man in misery raises our companion towards him ; and, if this misery be
D'ifs.1. Of the Nature of Virtue. 3^5
infli(fi:ed on him by another, our indignation against the author of it. But when we are informed, that the sufferer is a villain, and is punished only for his treachery or cruelty ; our compafsion exceedingly lei^ens, and, in many instances, our indignation wholly subsides. Now what produces this effe(5l, is the conception of that in the sufferer, which we call ill-desert. Upon considering then, or viewing to- gether, our notion of vice and that of misery, there results a third, that of ill-desert. And thus there is in human creatures an afsociation of the two ideas, natural and moral evil, wickednef^ and punishment. If this afsociation were merely artificial or accidental, it were nothing : but being most unquestionably na- tural, it greatly concerns us to attend to it, instead of endeavouring to explain it away.
It may be observed farther, concerning our per- ception of good and of ill-desert, that the former is very weak with respe6^ to common instances of virtue. One reason of which may be, that it does not appear to a speculator, how far such instances of virtue pro- ceed from a virtuous principle, or in what degree this principle is prevalent : since a very weak regard to virtue may be sufficient to make men acl well in many common instances. And on the other hand, our perception of ill-desert in vicious actions lef^ens, in proportion to the temptations men are thought to have had to such vices. For, vice in human crea- tures consisting chiefly in the absence or want of the virtuous principle ; though a man be overcome, sup- pose, by tortures, it does not from thence appear, to what degree the virtuous principle was wanting. Ail that appears is, that he had it not in such a de- gree, as to prevail over the temptation : But pol^ibly he had it in a degree, which would have rendered him proof against common temptations.
326 Of the Nature of Virtue. D'tfs. 1.
Thirdly, Our perception of vice and ill-desert arises from, and is the result of, a comparison of ac- tions with the nature and capacities of the agent. For, the mere neglect; of doing what we ought to do, would, in many cases, be determined by all men to be in the highest degree vicious. And this de- termination must arise from such comparison, and be the result of it ; because such neglecfl would not be vicious in creatures of other natures and capa- cities, as brutes. And it is the same also with re- spect; to positive vices, or such as consist in doing what we ought not. For, every one has a different sense of harm done by an idiot, madman or child, and by one of mature and common understanding ; though the a61ion of both, including the intention which is part of the a(?i;ion, be the same : as it may be, since idiots and madmen, as well as children, are capable not only of doing mischief, but also of intend- ing it. Now this difference must arise fiom some- what discerned in the nature or capacities of one, which renders the a(fl:ion vicious ; and the want of which in the other, renders the same a^lion innocent or lef^ vicious : And this plainly supposes a com- parison, whether reflected upon or not, between the a<9;ion and capacities of the agent, previous to our determining an a(?i;ion to be vicious. And hence arises a proper application of the epithets, incon- gruous, unsuitable, disproportionate, unfit, to ac^tions which our moral faculty determines to be vicious.
Fourthly, It deserves to be considered, whether men are more at liberty, in point of morals, to make themselves miserable without reason, than to make other people so : or difsolutely to neglecfl their own greater good, for the sake of a present lef^er grati- fication, than they are to negle(fl; the good of others, whom Nature has committed to their care. It should
Difs,2. Of the Nature of Virtue. 327
seem, that a due concern about our own interest or happineft, and a reasonable endeavour to secure and promote it, which is, I think very much the mean- ing of the word, prudence, in our language ; it should seem, that this is virtue, and the contrary behaviour faulty and blameable : Since, in the calmest way of refle(fi:ion, we approve of the first, and condemn the other conduct:, both in ourselves and others. This approbation and disapprobation are altogether dif- ferent from mere desire of our own or of their hap- pineft, and from sorrow upon mifsing it. For the obje(51; or occasion of this last kind of perception, is satisfaction, or uneasinefs : whereas the object of the first is a(?live behaviour. In one case, what our thoughts fix upon, is our condition : in the other, our condu(?t:. It is true indeed, that Nature has not given us so sensible a disapprobation of imprudence and folly, either in ourselves or others, as of false- hood, injustice and cruelty : I suppose, because that constant habitual sense of private interest and good, which we alwaj's carry about with us, render such sensible disapprobation lef^ necefsary, left wanting, to keep us from imprudently neglecting our own happineft, and foolishly injuring ourselves, than it is neceftary and wanting to keep us from injuring others, to whose good we cannot have so strong and constant a regard : And also because imprudence and folly, appearing to bring its own punishment more immediately and constantly than injurious be- haviour, it left needs the additional punishment, which would be inflic-led upon it by others, had they the same sensible indignation against it, as against injustice and fraud and cruelty. Besides, unhappi- neft being in itself the natural object of compaftion ; the unhappineft whicli people bring upon themselves, though it be wilfully, excites in us some pity for
328 Of the Nature of Virtue. Difs.i.
them : and this of course leftens our displeasure against them. But still it is matter of experience, that we are formed so, as to refle61 very severely upon the greater instances of imprudent negle<5ls and foolish rashnefs, both in ourselves and others. In instances of this kind, men often say of them- selves with remorse, and of others with some indig- nation, that they deserved to suffer such calamities, because they brought them upon themselves, and would not take warning. Particularly when persons come to poverty and distref^ by a long course of ex- travagance, and after frequent admonitions, though without falsehood or injustice ; we plainly do not regard such people as alike obje^ls of compafsion with those, who are brought into the same condition by unavoidable accidents. From these things it appears, that prudence is a species of virtue, and folly of vice : meaning hy folly, somewhat quite dif- ferent from mere incapacity ; a thoughtlef^ want of that regard and attention to our own happineft, which we had capacity for. And this the word properly includes ; and, as it seems, in its usual acceptation ; for we scarce apply it to brute creatures.
However, if any person be disposed to dispute the matter, I shall very willingly give him up the words virtue and vice, as not applicable to prudence and folly ; but must beg leave to insist, that the fa- culty within us, which is the judge of actions, ap- proves of prudent a(5iions, and disapproves imprudent ones ; I say prudent and imprudent afiions as such, and considered distin(9:ly from the happinef^ or mi- sery which the^?^ occasion. And by the way, this observation may help to determine, what justneft there is in that obje(5lion against Religion, that it teaches us to be interested and selfish.
Fifthly, Without enquiring how far, and in what
Difs. 2. Of the Nature of Virtue. 329
sense, virtue is resolvable into benevolence, and vice into the want of it ; it may be proper to observe, that benevolence and the want of it, singly consi- dered, are in no sort the whole of virtue and vice. For if this were the case, in the review of one's own character or that of others, our moral understanding and moral sense would be indifferent to everything, but the degrees in which benevolence prevailed, and the degrees in which it was wanting. That is, we should neither approve of benevolence to some per- sons rather than to others, nor disapprove injustice and falsehood upon any other account, than merely as an overbalance of happinef^ was foreseen likely to be produced by the first, and of misery by the se- cond. But now, on the contrary, suppose two men competitors for anything whatever, which would be of equal advantage to each of them : Though no- thing indeed would be more impertinent, than for a stranger to busy himself to get one of them preferred to the other ; yet such endeavour would be virtue, in behalf of a friend or benefactor, abstracted from all consideration of distant consequences : as that examples of gratitude, and the cultivation of friend- ship, would be of general good to the world. Again, suppose one man should, by fraud or violence, take from another the fruit of his labour, with intent to give it to a third, who, he thought, would have as much pleasure from it, as would balance the pleasure which the first pof^efsor would have had in the en- joyment, and his vexation in the lof^ of it ; suppose also that no bad consequences would follow : yet such an action would surely be vicious. Nay, farther, were treachery, violence and injustice, no otherwise vicious, than as foreseen likely to produce an over- balance of misery to society ; then, if in any case a man could procure to himself as great advantage by
330 Of the Nature of Virtue. Difs.i.
an a(5t of injustice, as the whole foreseen inconve- nience, likely to be brought upon others by it, would amount to ; such a piece of injustice would not be faulty or vicious at all : Because it would be no more than, in any other case, for a man to prefer his own satisfaction to another's in equal degrees. The fadl then appears to be, that we are constituted so as to condemn falsehood, unprovoked violence, injustice, and to approve of benevolence to some preferably to others, abstracted from all consideration, which con- duct is likeliest to produce an overbalance of happi- nei^ or misery. And therefore, were the Author of nature to propose nothing to himself as an end but the produ(5lion of happinef^, were his moral charac^ter merely that of benevolence ; yet ours is not so. Upon that supposition indeed, the only reason of his giving us the abovementioned approbation of bene- volence to some persons rather than others, and dis- approbation of falsehood, unprovoked violence, and injustice, must be, that he foresaw, this constitution of our nature would produce more happinef^, than forming us with a temper of mere general benevo- lence. But still, since this is our constitution ; false- hood, violence, injustice, must be vice in us, and benevolence to some preferably to others, virtue ; abstra(51ed from all consideration of the overbalance of evil or good, which they may appear likely to produce.
Now if human creatures are endued with such a moral nature as we have been explaining, or with a moral faculty, the natural object of which is a(51ions : moral government must consist, in rendering them happy and unhappy, in rewarding and punishing them, as they follow, neglecft, or depart from, the moral rule of adiion interwoven in their nature, or
Difs. 2. Of the Nature of Virtue. 331
suggested and enforced by this moral faculty;^ in rewarding and punishing them upon account of their so doing.
I am not sensible, that I have, in this fifth obser- vation, contradicted what any author designed to as- sert. But some of great and distinguished merit, have, I think, exprei^ed themselves in a manner, which may occasion some danger to careleft readers, of imagining the whole of virtue to consist in singly aiming, according to the best of their judgment, at promoting the happinef^ of mankind in the present state ; and the whole of vice, in doing what they foresee, or might foresee, is likely to produce an overbalance of unhappineft in it : than which mis- takes, none can be conceived more terrible. For it is certain, that some of the most shocking instances of injustice, adultery, murder, perjury, and even of persecution, may, in many supposable cases, not have the appearance of being likely to produce an overbalance of misery in the present state : perhaps sometimes may have the contrary appearance. For this reflecftion might easily be carried on, but I for- bear The happineft of the world is the concern
of him, who is the Lord and the Proprietor of it : Nor do we know what we are about, \\hen we en- deavour to promote the good of mankind in any ways, but those which he has directed ; that is in- deed in all ways, not contrary to veracity and justice. I speak thus upon supposition of persons really en- deavouring, in some sort, to do good without regard to these. But the truth seems to be, that such sup- posed endeavours proceed, almost always, from am- bition, the spirit of party, or some indirecfl: principle, concealed perhaps in great measure from persons
3 P. 124.
332 Of the Nature of Virtue. Difs. 2.
themselves. And though it is our businef^ and our duty to endeavour, within the bounds of veracity and justice, to contribute to the ease, convenience, and even cheerfulnef^ and diversion of our fellow-crea- tures: yet from our short views, it is greatly uncer- tain, whether this endeavour will, in particular in- stances, produce an overbalance of happineft upon the whole ; since so many and distant things must come into the account. And that which makes it our duty, is, that there is some appearance that it will, and no positive appearance sufficient to balance this, on the contrary side ; and also, that such be- nevolent endeavour is a cultivation of that most ex- cellent of all virtuous principles, the a^ive principle of benevolence.
However, though veracity, as well as justice, is to be our rule of life ; it must be added, otherwise a snare will be laid in the way of some plain men, that the use of common forms of speech generally un- derstood, cannot be falsehood ; and, in general, that there can be no designed falsehood v^ithout design- ing to deceive. It must likewise be observed, that in numberlef^ cases, a man may be under the stri(5l- est obligations to what he foresees will deceive, with- out his intending it. For it is impofsible not to fore- see, that the words and ac^tions of men in different ranks and employments, and of different educations, will perpetually be mistaken by each other : And it cannot but be so, whilst they will judge with the ut- most careleftnei^, as they daily do, of what they are not, perhaps, enough informed to be competent judges^of, even though they considered it with great attention.
INDEX OF WORDS AND THINGS.
BSTRACT NOTIONS must be applied to practical sub- jects with great caution,' 115. KEASONiNG iiiust be joined with the obser- vation of facts, 6. TRUTHS, how distinguished from matters of fact, 297. Abstracts imply concretes, 111.
Abstruse reasonings necessary chiefly to answer abstruse ob- jections, 300. ACCIDENTAL. See Chance. what we call accidental, 42.
events of which we know not, the laws are called so, 196. the punishments of vice are not accidental, 42. the hinderances to the prevalence of virtue are so, 64, 70. accidental hinderances are not likelv always to continue, 72. Account, we cannot give the whole account of anything, 129. Acquirements, the natural supply of our deficiencies, 107. ACTION. See Habits.
the whole of morality and religion consists in action
merely, 241. this world a theatre of it, 107. manifests our character, 107. effects of a course of action, 88. ACTIONS. See Endeavours, Resolution.
will and design distinguish actions from events, 323. the intention but not the actual consequences included
in our sense of an action, 323-4. the object of the moral faculty, 323. what the name comprises in moral questions, 323.
334 Index of Words and Things.
ACTIONS (cojithuied).
when they have a tendency to fonn and fix the habit of
vh-tue/l02. our own are the sources of our pleasures and great part
of our pains, 33. they are rewarded and punished, 37. are to be distinguished from tlieir moral qualities, 52. every action and event has relations with others, we
know not how many, 129. Affections. See Particular affections.
AFFLICTION. See Hazard.
the end of our being placed in a state of affliction, &c. is moral improvement, 83.
it is the proper discipline for resignation, 106. Allurements to wrong. See Temptations.
AMENDMENT. See Repentance.
b}'- itself does not prevent punishment, 207.
may be proinoted by seeing the success of virtue, 65.
ANALOGICAL REASONING. ^q& Probability, Coincidences, Continuance. •
not thoroughh' considered by writers on logic, 4.
cSiia.not perfectly satisfy men, 286.
cannot give a direct answer to all objections, 127.
can only directly prove things true or credible as facts, 127.
is the ground of probability in various degrees, 2.
is of weight in determining our judgment and practice, 4. though perhaps not in all cases, 4.
ought to be particularly attended to by those who pro- fess to follow nature, 299.
is a confirmation of all, the only proof of most facts, 299.
is practical and conclusive, 6.
Origen's application of it, 5.
how the author means to apply it, 6.
there can be no argument from analogy without a pa- rallel case, 172, 29.
of objections against arguing from the analogy of nature to religion, Pt. II. Ch. VIII., 285.
ANALOGY.
of the difficulties in nature to those in Holy Scripture, 5. of the changes we have undergone and those of insects,
&c. to our entry on a future life, 12, 13. there is none to show that we lose our living powers at
death, 16.
Index of Words and Things, 335
ANALOGY (continued).
confirms the proof of our indiscerptibility, 19.
of the case of brutes no objection to our immortality, 24.
of death to birth, possible, 28.
of vegetables in their decay does not hold, 29, 315.
the end of our creation may be to us as colour to a blind
man, 35. bet^veen God's government and that of civil magistrates,
37. of God's temporal to His future rewards and punish- ments, 32-8, 125.
of His punishments in detail, 38-45. of the proofs of the Ci'eator's intelligence to those of His
goodness, 46. of the increase of power given by reason to that given
by goodness, 60, &c. of our state of trial in this world to that for another, 73.
considered in detail, 74-9. of youth as a state of discipline for mature age to this
world as one for a future life, 84, &c., 106, ckc. leads us to suppose the future life a communit}', 93. of our limited capacity for improvement in body and
mind, to that in our moral characters, 102. of some sciences Avhich form habits of attention to the
world as a state of discipline, 102. of the waste of seeds to the loss of souls, 103-4. of the inapplicability of the opinion of necessity in com- mon life to its effect on the proofs, &c. of religion,
111, &c. of our speculative to our moral understandings, 123. of the incomprehensibility of the natural to that of the
moral government of the world, 128. of the use of strange and apparently undesirable means
in the natural to the same in the moral world, 132,
&c., 138. of the government by general laws in the natural to the
same in the moral world, 134 between diseases and moral evil, 134, 187, 287. of our knowledge of a person's character but ignorance of
his proper mode of acting to what we know of God, 136. shows that God's moral government may be a scheme
with parts misunderstood, 138. of our ignorance of the reasons of things in nature to the
same in Christianity, 149. of the perversions of reason to those of Christianity, 154.
33^ Index of Words and Things.
ANALOGY {conthmcd).
of the judicial punishments inflicted by God in the pre- sent world to those to come hereafter, 160, 43.
of our ignorance of how to obtain temporal to the same of spiritual benefits, 160.
raises no presumption against" the general scheme of Christianity, 168.
none arises from its not being discoverable by rea- son, 168.
raises no presumption that everything in the whole course of things is like anything known to us, 169.
raises no presumption against miracles at the first peo- pling of a world, 170.
nor against a revelation considered as miraculous at any time, 171.
of the presumptions against the story of Ca;sar to those against miracles, 172.
of miracles to the extraordinary pha^nomena of nature, 173.
shows Christianity likely to contain things apparently liable to great objections, 176
of what reason and experience tell ixs of the government of the world to what revelation declares of its scheme, 177.
of a prince governing ordinarily bv general laws to GoD, 178.
of our instruction by reason, &c., to that by inspiration, 178.
of the ways in which the meaning of other books is to be ascertained cannot be applied to Scripture, 181, 186.
of the objections men might make against the instruc- tion given in the course of nature to those made against the Scriptures, 182-4.
of the abuse of miraculous gifts to that of natural gifts, &c., 184.
of the light of nature to that of revelation in their ef- fects, hinderances, and our possible improvement in knowledge by them, 185-7.
of the light of revelation to the remedies for diseases, 187, 287.
of the existence of diseases to the imperfections of their
remedies, 188. of the constitution of nature as a system to that of Chris- tianity, 192.
in theuse of means and those gradual, 195, 199-200. in their being carried on by general laws, 196.
Index of Words and Things. 337
ANALOGY (^cojitinued').
shows that the world is governed by general laws, 196.
of the intervention of others for our temporal benefit to that of a Mediator for our salvation', 201.
of tlie present ill effects of vice to its mode of future pun- ishment, possible, 202, 205.
of a man's trifling on the edge of a precipice to his being- careless about religion, 202, 204.
of the inefficacy of repentance in temporal to the same in religious matters, 206-8.
of the effects of the Fall to what we see daily, 211.
of the sacrifices of Jews and heathens to that of Christ, 215-6.
of Christ's sufi'ering for the guilty to what we see dailv, 218, cScc.
teaches us not to expect the same information concern- ing the Divine conduct and our OAvn duty, 221.
of the mysteriousness of nature to that of Christianity, 222.
of the evidence we usually act upon to what we have of Christianity, 223, 242, 290, 293.
of the varieties of natural gifts to the different degrees of light from revelation, 224-7, 228.
of the duty of learning and teaching common things to the same concerning Christianity, 228.
of some men's ignorance of revelation to ours of why they are ignorant, 229.
of probation by defect of evidence to that in common behaviour, 285, &c., 236, &c.
of defects in understanding to moral corruption, 233.
of speculative difficulties to external temptations, 234.
of the effects of levity, &c. in common matters to the same in estimating the evidence of revelation, 238.
of the picking up of objections by incompetent persons in science to the same in religion, 240.
of a prince's directions to his servants to God's revela- tion, will not always hold, 241 .
of the conviction produced by the evidence of Christi- anity to the effect in architecture, &c., 245.
of the mode in Avhich St. Paul speaks of miracles to ours in speaking of common things, 249.
of the first Christian miracles to those of paganism and popery, and those known to be fabulous, will not hold, 250, 256.
of enthusiasm to ordinary prejudices, 254. and of their effects, 255.
338 Index of Words and Things.
ANALOGY {continued).
of the obscure parts of prophecy to parts of a document written in cypher, 259.
of the prophetical to the mythological and satiric styles of writing, 260.
of the prophets to the compilers of memoirs from older documents, 262.
of the revelation of natural religion to the ordinary teaching of the ignorant, 267.
of a common relation of similar antiquity, &c. to the Scriptures, 270.
of the proof of natm*al religion by revelation to that of geometrical truth b}'^ Euclid's elements, 274.
of the effect of hope and fear upon the belief of Christi- anity to the same in other matters, 284.
of the practical question in common matters to that in religion, 294.
of the idea of equality to that of personal identity, 313.
of consciousness to other knowledge, 314, 316.
of the unreasonablenes of acting on the idea that per- sonal identity is fleeting in the present to the same in regard to a future life, 319. Antiochus Epiphanes, 264. ANTIQUITY. See History.
or RELIGION one of its evidences, 121.
OP SCRIPTURE, 122, 270. Antoninus, 31. cited 28, n. 323, n.
Apostles and 3Iartt/rs, their death in attestation of facts, evi- dence of them, 253. APPREHENSION. See Fear.
effects of a serious apprehension that Christianity may be true, 231, 308. APPROBATION. See 3Ioral Faculty, Virtue.
course of nature turns in some degree on our approba tion of actions, 56.
moral approving and disapproving faculty, 321.
approbation and disapprobation of prudence and follv, .327. Assertions in argument, nothing in themselves but sometimes
necessar}', 258. ASSISTANCE OF OTHERS. See Vicarious, Mediator.
of much use in our youth, 91,
may help to obviate the consequences of our folly, 204.
allowed by the constitution of the world to have a good effect, 204.
Index of Words and Things. 339
ASSISTANCE OF OTHERS {continued).
absolutely necessary to some men's recovery, 207.
perhaps the constitution of the world would not have been good without allowing it, 204. Association of ideas, sometimes passive habits, 85.
ASTRONOMY.
discoveries in it, 65.
wonderful that it should be more easily known than me- dicine, 183.
ATHEISM. See Scepticism.
as consistent with a futui'e life as with this, 32.
a demonstration of it necessary to justify fearlessness, 44. Atoms, materia.], 19-20.
ATONEMENT. See Christ, Sacrifice.
we are greatly in the dark how the ancients supposed it made, 216.
ATTENTION. See Consideration.
in considering doubtful evidence part of our probation, 235.
necessary in considering the evidence of Christianitv, 266, 283.
moral attention how improved by the present state of the world, 100.
practical principles formed by attention, use and disci- pline, 107.
some sciences form the mind to habits of it, 102. Augustine, S., cited 148, n.
AUTHOR OP NATURE. See God.
to be assumed, 6.
without an intelligent Author and Governor no account can be given of the world, 140.
the opinion of necessity does not deny the proof of His intelligence, 110.
the true notion of Him is that of a moral Governor, 38.
uses means, 108.
is deliberate throughout His operations, 200.
has a will and character, 116.
His character proved by revelation, 150.
has declared on the side of virtue, 69.
has put mankind under the necessity of punishing vi- cious actions, 52.
a direction from Him implies a promise and a threat, 119.
were His own character that of mere benevolence. He has not made om'S so, 330.
34-0 Index of Words and Things.
BABYLON. 268, 276. Baptism, form of, 156.
BEINGS- See Living beings.
beings only, not ideas, abstract notions, or qualities are
capable of life, happiness, &c., 319. Benefits not to be expected without the use of the appointed
means of obtaining them, 160.
BENE VOL EXCE. See Goodness.
benevolence and the want of it in no sense the whole of
virtue and vice, 329. active principle of it the most excellent of all virtuous principles, 332.
strengthened by relieving distress, 87. absolute benevolence the most amiable of all characters
so far as compatible with justice, 47. God may manifest Himself under this character to some
beings, 47. true benevolence implies a regard to veracity and justice, 63, 330. Bethlehem, 279.
Birds, the hatching of their eggs goes to prove a law of pro- gress in nature, 13.
BIRTH,
continuance of the life we had in the womb, 28. death may resemble it, 28.
BLAMEWORTHINESS. See Desert.
sense of it produces a peculiar kind of uneasiness, 53-4. Blasphemy and profaneness, inexcusable, 309.
BODY. See 3Iatter, Organs of sense.
made up of organs and instruments of perception and
motion, 21. our existence may be considered without it, 18. reason and memory independent of it, 25. seemingly not necessary to our intellectual enjoyments
and sufierings, 26. our organized bodies not ourselves or part of ourselves,
18, &c. our [supposed] original solid body no part of ourselves, 20. dissolution of it has no conceivable tendency to destroy
ourselves, 18, 20. foreign matter has the same relation to us [in kind], 21. the bodies of all animals in a constant flux, 19. Book, when we knov/ the meaning of a book, 262.
Index of Words and Things. 341
BOUXDS.
to the impunity of imprudence, 41, 43.
to the possibility of recovery, 41, 43.
to improvement, 102. Brurhmaus, their opinion concerning death, 28, n.
BRUTES.
instructed by instincts and propensions, 183.
act in many respects Avith more sagacity than men, 183.
stronger perhaps than men and why overcome, 60.
succeed sometimes in what they could not have at- tempted if rational, 62.
it does not appear that they have any reflex sense of ac- tions, or of will and design, 323.
their suggested immortality no objection to the immor- tality of man, 24.
CJESAR, story of, its antecedent improbability, 172. CAPACITY. See Faculties. of happiness and misery, 32. for improving intended to be made use of, 89.
CERTAINTY.
what is meant by moral certainty, 3.
the highest degree of probable evidence, 1 .
CHANCE. See Accidental.
there cannot be any such thing as chance, 196. Chanc/es, Avhich we ma}' undergo without destruction, 12.
CHARACTER.
of the Author of nature, 46.
of God, not designed to be vindicated in this treatise, 290. being known, our ignorance answers objections to His mode of Avorking, 136.
will and character defined, 116, ii. .323.
why we think well or ill of characters, 324.
we are bound to consider attentively what we give cha- racters of, 285.
it is formed and shown b}' our conduct, 91.
its manifestation implied in probation, and may have reference to a future life, 107.
contributes to the carrying on of the course of na- ture, 108.
how that of upright beings might become depraved, 97.
that which makes a man obedient to religion would set him to examine it duly, 229.
342 Index of Words and Things.
CHARACTER (continued).
may be known by those ignorant of its propex* mode of
working, 136. Childhood, See Infancy. CHRIST. See Mediator, Messiah.
our Lord, our Saviour and our GoD, 159.
His preexistence taught by St. John and St. Paul, 268.
His office of Mediator how represented in Scripture,
211-14. Prophet, 214.
King over His Church, 215. His government over His Church, 194. Priest offering Himself a propitiatory Sacrifice, 211-215. way in which this sacrifice had its effect nn-sterious, 216. objections on this ground absurd, 218, 220. voluntary, and therefore not so strange as many things
in nature, 219. why men object against the sacrifice of Christ, 219. His satisfaction has an efficacy beyond mere example,
213, 216. apparent natural tendency of^His sufferings, 220. on what ground acknowledged by the Gentiles, 277. Ch-istian Dispensation may seem natural to some order of be- ings, 31, 195-6. CHRISTIANITY. See Gospel, Revelation, Evidence. Its importance, Pt. II. Ch. I. 147. Considered as a scheme imperfectly comprehended, Pt.
II. Ch. IV., 192. the particular evidence for it, Pt. II. Ch. VII., 244, Practical Christianity a plain thing, 185. the general proof of it lies level to common men, 239. it cannot be unimportant if it come from God, 149. a republication of natural religion, 149.
supplies new means for its preservation, 152. does that now by the Church which it did at first by
miracles, 152. without the Church might have been sunk and forgot,! 53. its good effects manifest, its bad small or none, 154. corruptions of it not arguments against it, 155. Christians are bound to contribute to preserve it in the
world, 155. the profession and duties of Christians are important to
natural religion, 156. is a revelation of a particular scheme carried on by the
Son and Holy Spirit, 156.
Index of Words and Things. 343
CHRISTIANITY (continued).
as distinguished from natural religion has somewhat of moral importance, 159.
unspeakable irreverence and rashness to treat it as a light matter, 160.
a statement of its general scheme, 168, a fuller one, 193.
the question is whether it be a real revelation, not whe- ther it be so attended as Ave expected, 180.
a particular scheme under the general plan of Provi- dence, 193.
a mysterious economy for the recovery of the world b}' a Divine Person, 193.
part of a scheme not entirely revealed in Scripture, 195.
God works by slow and successive means in nature as well as in it, 200.
different degrees of evidence for, and light from it, 225.
its establishment confirms the miraculous history of the Scripture, 246.
offered itself and was received upon the evidence of mi- racles, 249.
this peculiar to it, 249.
persons alleging the power of enthusiasm admit that it has some evidence, 258.
its nature supports the testimony of its witnesses, 258.
unbelievers must admit its external evidence considerable, 258.
a general argument for its truth, 265, &c.
advantage Avhich the nature of its evidence gives to those who attack it, 285.
we are under a moral obligation to inquire into its truth, and embrace it if true, 300.
no reason to expect men to behave better were it demon- strated, 309. CHURCH, visible.
what it is, 152.
what uses it seizes, 152.
is an instituted method of education, 153.
it is the duty of all to become members of it, 156. Cicero, cited, 323, n. CIVIL GOVERNMENTS.
natural, 51, 207.
punish actions prejudicial to society, 51.
and this not without regard to their moral character, 56, CLARKE, Dr. S., cited, 17^ n.
answer to his third defence of his letter to Dodwell re- ferred to, 317.
•344 Index of Words and Things.
CItmens Romunus, cited, 248. COIXCIDENCES.
evidence arising from them often determines practice, 266. fanciful men apt to malie tliem out to fa%^our their follies, 283. Colliber, S. Of revealed religion, pp. 154-5, cited, 157, n. Colour may be as intelligible to the blind as the end of our
creation to us, 35. Convminion, the institution of it, 248. COMPASSION.
vmhappiness its natural object, 327.
less to the guilty than to the innocent, 325.
lessened, by imprudent neglect and foolish rashness, 328.
lessened, as a sentiment, by being used to see suffering,
87. its existence in the constitution of the world, 205. and in the laws of God's government declared by reve- lation, 209. Complacency, attends the exercise of virtue, 54. CONSCIENCE. See 3Ioral Faculty. a name of the moral faculty, 322. its presages declare God's government moral, 47. a real instance of virtue favoured and vice discounte- nanced, 56. consciousness of a rule of action given by our Maker raises a sense of security in following and danger in deviating from it, 119.
CONSCIOUSNESS. See Personal Identity.
single and indivisible, and proves its subject to be so, 17.
does not make personal identity, but presupposes it, 314.
successive consciousnesses not the same but of the same, 31 6.
of a rule of action. See Conscience. CONSEQUENCES. See Tendencies.
those of actions ai-e rewards and punishments, 35.
those of vice, judicial punishments inflicted by GoD, 160.
those of foolish actions are like those of vicious actions as declared by religion, 42.
some men disregard them as much in temporal as in re- ligious matters, 76.
possible consequences of one overt act of irregularity, 97.
unacceptable consequences no reason to cavil at truths, 1 7 7 .
future punishments may be by way of natural conse- quence, 202.
natural consequences of vice and folly sometimes pre- vented, 204.
Index of Words and Things. 345
Consideration, often necessary, and eftects of the want of it, 243.
COXSTITUTIOX. See Scheme, World.
the notion of a constitution implies variety, 228.
the inward constitution of a finitely perfect being, 96.
how far one overt act might disoi"der it, 97. of the -world all mystery, 222.
and its government may be perfect in the highest
degree, 193. severity and indulgence in it, 204. Continuance, as expected for the future, a probability from
analogy, 14. Conviction, raised by probability, 1, 4. Corruption of heart makes men disregard evidence, 234.
COURSE OF NATURE. See Law of Nature, Nature.
the ground of all analogy, 2.
implies an operating agent, 35, 203.
what comes to pass in it is God's work, 203.
is an instance of government by rewards and punish- ments, 38.
the whole of it may not be like what is known to us, 169.
upon the first peopling of worlds, what ? 170.
creation of mankind totally different from the present, 170.
so dark without revelation that it might give occasion to miraculous interpositions, 173.
governed by general laws, and how we conclude this, 196. Avith respect to intelligent creatures, 9, 134, 196. Creation of the world, why the Scriptures commence with an
account of it, 267. CREATURES. See Finite Creatures, Hitman Creatures.
upright creatures need improvement, and depraved crea- tvu-es renewal, 99.
of moral natures, not subjects of morality during part of their lives, 228.
ought to live under a dutiful sense of their Maker, 309.
submission and obedience make up our proper character as such, 106.
all creatures may require habits of resignation, 10.5-6.
their awful presumption in bringing confusion, &c., into the world, 205-6. Credibility merely, of religion produces an obligation in pru- dence, 137, 144, 230. Cunning, false self-interest, &c. essentially weaker than wis- dom, public spirit, Sec, 66.
34^ Index of Words and Things.
Curiosity, concerning a future life, 32.
Cursory thought of tilings, Avlien familiar, hinders our seeing
their 'weight, 266. Cypher, half understood prophecies are like a writing partly
in it, 259.
DANGER. See Hazard, Affliction.. perception of it a natural incitement to passive fear, and active caution, 87. consciousness of a danger of doing wrong may improve
virtue, 101. of actually deviating from right may be infinitely les- sened, 98. dangers of our miscarrving in our religious state of trial, 77.
analogous to those that affect our temporal success, 80, 78. DANIEL, THE BOOK of.
authority given to it \>j Christ, 264.
presupposed true by the general scheme of Christianitv,
264. how impeached by Porphyry, 263-4 and n. had more external evidence once than we have now of it, 264.
DEATH, 13, &c. See Future Life, Living Beings, Brachmans. a gi'eat shock, or alteration, 15. our substances will continue after it, 14, n. we do not know Avhat it is in itself, but only some effects
of it, 15. no ground to think it the destruction of living agents, 24. no reason to think it the destruction, or suspension of our
reflecting powers, 27. reason does not at all show us in what state it leaves us,
29. may be analogous to birth, 28. imagination likely to mislead us concerning it, 17. Deceit. See Falsehood. Definitions, attempts to give them sometimes onlv perplex,
313. Degradation of mankind, the Scripture account of it confirmed
by the state of the world, 211. See Fall of Man, Degrees of evidence, 233, 225.
Demonstration, how it differs from probable evidence, 1 . Destruction oi living powers, what this means, 14, n.
Index of Words and Things. 347
Delay of Punisliment, 39, 43.
Des Cartes, built a -world ou hypothesis, 5.
DESERT. See Shame, Resentment, Gratitude.
deserving punishment does not merely mean that such
suffering is for the good of Society, 324. ill desert ahvays supposes guilt, 324. perception of good and ill desert contained in moral dis- cernment, 118.
unavoidable and natural, 321.
of good desert, why very weak in common instances
of virtue, 325. of ill desert, lessens in proportion to the force of
temptation, 325. arises from a comparison of the action with the ca- pacity of the agent, 326. arising from the perception of imprudence and follv, 328. DESIGN. See Final Causes. appearances of, 45, 300.
not excluded by the opinion of necessity. 111. ten thousand instances of it must prove a designer, 300. Differeyice of vieii's situation in religious matters, 224. would continue under a universal revelation, 229.
DIFFICULTIES. See Temptations, Objections.
analogy between those in Scripture and those in the world, 5.
actions materially virtuous, which have no diificulty, may not be really virtuous at all, 101.
speculative difficulties are of the same nature with ex- ternal temptations, 236.
may make the larger part of some persons' trial, 236.
seeing through difficulties, 240.
difficulties and objections wrongly turned into positive arguments against religion, 289.
to clear them all it may be necessary to comprehend the Divine nature, &c,, 287.
those concerning personal identity and their strange so- lutions, 313. DISCIPLINE. See Temptations.
state of Probation as intended for Moral Discipline, Pt. I. Ch. v., 82.
happiness and misery may be distributed by way of mere discipline, 58.
need of it may be traced higher than to excess of pas- sion, &c., 94.
348
Index of Words and Things.
DISCIPLINE (continued).
upright creatures may be improved by it, 99. depraved creatures need the severer and higher, 99. the present workl peculiarly tit to be a state of it, 99, 102, 234.
though made by mau}^ a discipline of vice, 103. speculati\e difficulties may be necessarv to put some men in a state of sutBcient discipline, 236. Discoveries in natural knowledge, 65, 187. DISEASES.
their very existence raises a presumption that their re- medies would not be certain, perfect and universal, 188. they are not so in fact, 188.
this refutes an objection against Christianity, 187. some diseases are themselves remedies, 134. some mortal diseases do not affect our mental powers, 27. some operate like enthusiasm, 253. Disorders, their permission may be consistent with justice and
goodness, 138. Dissatisfaction with the evidence of religion, often owing to
men's own fault, 238. Dissolution of organized bodies has no tendency to destroy the
living being, 18. DISTRESS. See Compassion, Happiness.
the perception of it arouses passive pity and active bene- volence, 87. DIVIXE GOVERNMENT. See God, Moral Governor, &c. wbat is implied in the notion of it, 10. not perfectly moral as we see it, 48. DOMESTIC.
GOVERNMENT, analogous to the moral government of the
universe, 56. LIFE teaches us self-government, &c., 90. DOUBTFULNESS, See Scepticism, General Douhts, Evi- dence. doubting implies some degree of evidence, 232, 269-70. not so much difference between the duties arising from
conviction and serious doubt, 232. the duty of those who complain of the doubtfulness of
religion, 231. of i-eligion calls for a more careful exercise of the vir- tuous principle, 235.
puts men in a general 'State of probation, 230. of the best mode of preserving life, and attaining tem- poral success, 293, 243.
Index of Words r.nd Things. 349
Dreams show that we can have a lively perception of external
objects, without the use of our organs of sense, 22. Drowsiness. See Sleep. DUTIES. See 3Ioral duties, Doiihtfulness.
arise out of relations, however made known, 158.
the reasons of Christian duties evident, 222.
EARTH, the Earth has the appearance of being a ruin, 210. EDUCATION. See Instriiction, Assistance.
its power for evil, 77. Effect, in architecture, &c., 245. Effects. See Consequences. ENDS. See Final Causes, Means.
for which the world may have been constituted, 7.
these may be beyond our faculties, 35. of creation, as regards this world, a mature state of life,
90. the whole end of man's being placed here not pretended
to be accounted for, 103. we unavoidably judge certain ends preferable to others, 8. we are not competent judges as to the mode of bringing
about the ends of God's government, 137. it is doubtful whether the Author of nature sees things as ends and means, 199. Endeavours to enforce upon ourselves and others good im- pressions are virtuous acts, 86, 88. ENTHUSIASM.
its effects strange, 253. often mixed with deceit, 255. prejudices of like effects to it, common, 255. does not destroy the evidence of testimony, 253. cannot be alleged as destroying the evidence of Christi- anity, 257. not to be considered till the matter in dispute is proved
incredible, 254. Christianity has more consistency and a greater tendency to promote virtue, than could have been expected from enthusiasm, &c., 191. Epictetus, cited, 321, n, Euclid's Elements, 274. Events have always unknown future consequences, 129.
EVIDENCE. See Probable, Historical, Testimony, Christi- anity.
350 Index of Words and Things.
EVIDENCE (continued).
which leaves room for doubt should influence practice, 3,
234, 289, 290. perceived degrees of it should have proportionate weight,
234. on which we act as regards our temporal interests, 223. conviction arising from many items of it is like the effect
in architecture, &c., 245. cannot be trulv judged of without careful consideration,
266. circumstantial evidence often as convincing as direct, 283. degrees of it not distinguishable with perfect exactitude,
233. confuted in one case, may be sufficient in another, 256. which keeps the mind in doubt, is not acknowledged
without modesty and fairness, 265. we are obliged ordinarilj^ to take up with extremely un- satisfactory evidence, 293. the practical question concerning it in ordinary matters,
294-5. overbearing evidence is not according to the method of
Providence, 307. OF Religion must be judged of by reason, 190.
may be designedly left by God less than it might
have been, 241. liable to objections which those who can see, can
see through, 240. even when doubtful should beget a serious appre- hension that it may be true, 231. dissatisfaction with it may be men's own fault, 238. less than it might have been, to serve as a proba- tion, 239, n. sufficient for purposes of probation, 294. of natural religion, the external not affected by the opi- nion of necessity, 121. of revelation, different in different ages, 225.
not appearing obvious may be part of some men's trial, 229. OF Christianity considered in its particular nature, Pt. II. Ch. VII., 244.
such as in the nature of it cannot be destroyed,
however lessened, 285. consists of miracles and prophecy and other things,
making up a long series, 244. the fact of converts having believed its miracles,
Index of Words and Things. 351
EVIDEXCE OF Christianity (^continued).
testimony distinct from the mere historical evi- dence, 251. how unbelievers pretend to refute it, 252. its weight impaired by our being familiarized with it, 282. EVILs See Wickedness, 3Iisery.
our ignorance an answer to objections drawn from its
existence, 131. though it may effect good, possibly more good might
have been effected without it, 134. presumptuous to imagine that the world might have
been so constituted a^ to exclude it, 204. reliefs and remedies even for voluntary evil, provided by
the Author of nature, 204. mankind naturally connect natural and moral evil, 325.
EXAMPLE. See Education.
tendency and influence of virtue byway of example, 65,
67. bad example a temptation, 77.
those who are doubtful about religion, responsible for the example they set, 232. Existence. See Necessary, Present.
EXPERIENCE. See Freedom, Instinct.
how it confirms the unity of the mind, 19.
it is doubtful whether our natm-al faculties would be of
use without it, 89. it and revelation alone show us how to obtain any kind
of benefits, 160. teaches us the good and bad consequences of our actions,
221. EXTERNAL.
as really a part of religion as the internal, 157. 3IANNER of WORSHIP, matter of revelation, 158. WORSHIP of GOD a moral duty, 162.
EYES.
are passive instruments, like glasses, not percipients, 21. given us for what pui-poses, 36.
FACT. See Matters of fact. there is the strongest presumption against the most ordinary facts, before the proof of them, 172. Faction, impossible in a virtuous kingdom, or society, 66.
352 Index of Words and Things.
FACULTIES. See 3Ioral Faculty, Capacihj, Powers.
our want of, for speculation upon the constitution of
the world, 8. natural faculties not given at once, 89. their truth only proved by means of themselves, 321-2.
FALL or MAN. See Goodness, 3IanMnd.
it may be accounted for by the existence of particular
affections, 94, 96. possible consequences of one sin, 97. makes more and severer discipline necessary, 99. our state not to be complained of, 79, 210. Christianity supposes the world in a state of ruin, 208. there are natural appearances of our being in a state of
degradation, 78, 305. and the earth has the appearance of being a ruin, 211-
305. It is not Christianity that has put us in this state, 211. heathen moralists thought this a place of punishment,
211,305. it is likely that the sin of our first parents should change our state for the worse, 211. FALSEHOOD. See Veracity.
naturally disapproved by us, 330.
men deal differently with different degrees of it, 255.
the use of common forms of speech commonly understood
is not falsehood, 332. no designed fiilsehood without intention to deceive, 332. a man may be obliged to what he foresees will deceive, without intending it, 332. FATALIST. See Necessity.
what he asserts, and must assert, 109-12. could not educate a child on his own principles, 113-14. Fate. See Necessity.
Faulty, nature and effects of feeling ones self so, 53. FEAR. See Immortality.
a punishment in itself, 51.
of future punishment cannot be got rid of by a great
part of the world, 54. the impression of it Aveakened by repetition, 86. hope and fear proper motives to religious obedience, 104. have various effects on men's opinions, 284. Fearlessness with regard to futurity unreasonable, 44. FINAL CAUSES. See Design, Ends.
appearance of them proves an intelligent designer of the world. 45.
Index of Words and Things. 353
FINAL CAUSES {continued).
even under the opinion of necessity, 112, 118. and in spite of partial ignorance, 134-72. pleasures and pains, instances of them, 37. the notion of them does not always suppose the end an- swered, 103. Final and irremediable punishments, instances of, 41, 43. FINITE CREATURES.
perhaps uecessai-ily defectible, 94, 96. how the danger of defection may be diminished, perhaps removed, 98.
FITNESS OF ACTIONS.
founded in the nature of things, 120, n.
whether and in Avhat sense it may determine the Will
of God, 369, 120, n. supplies a proper proof of God's moral government, 72,
298. the language of moralists fomied upon it, 296. how applied to moral actions, 326. believed in by Butler, 296. the argument given by him independent of it, 296-9.
FOLLY and Foolish Rashness. See Imprudence, Negligence. a vice, 328.
somewhat quite different from mere incapacity, 328. whv not so sensibly disapproved by nature as falsehood,
&c., 327. as to present and futm-e interests, compared, 77, 42.
FOOLISHNESS.
of the Gospel, 175, 195.
of the means used in the Christian dispensation, 195. Force of this treatise, 298. FORESIGHT. See Prophecy.
a warning, 33, 37.
impossible without general laws, 134.
of brutes, 183.
superhuman, proved by the fulfilment of predictions, 263. FREEDOM. See Liberty.
the principle of it forces itself upon the mind, 296.
believed in by Butler though not used in his argument, 296.
the opinion that we are free, supported by experience, 115.
the world is constituted as though we were free, 115.
A A
354 Index of Words and Things.
FREEDOM {continued).
if necessary agents cannot be punished, we must be free,
125-6. the principle of liberty makes a fall only possible, 96. in the creation of the world not necessary to the proof of an intelligent Creator, 110. Frost, expected on analogical reasoning only, 3.
FUTURE LIFE. See Atheism, Punishincnt, Personal Iden- tity, Particular Affections, Death.
its probability considered, Ft. I. Ch. I., 12.
this life a state of Discipline for it, Ft. I. Ch. V., 82.
the qiiestions concerning it, 28, n.
what makes the question concerning it of so great im- portance to us, 32.
opens an unbounded prospect to our hopes and fears, 141 .
foundation of all our hopes and fears, 11, 32.
implied in religion, 32.
proof of it does not prove religion, 32.
belief of it greatly disposes the mind to attend to the evidence of religion, 32.
its credibility of equal practical effect with a demonstra- tion of it, 31, 32.
taught by the Gospel, 152.
what revelation alone teaches us concerning it, 41, n.
some determinate capacities and qualifications must be necessary for it, 84.
analogy as to the conditions of our happiness in it, 107.
men's showing Avhat is in their hearts may have respect to it, 108.
probably not a solitary state, but a communit}', 93. Future Judgment implies some sort of temptation, 73. Future period looked forward to throughout Scripture, 269. Future Punishment. See Punishment.
G^ ENERAL doubts may be raised concerning any fact, r 248.
GENERAL LAWS. See Foresight.
our knowledge and our ignorance concerning them, 196. the government of the world is carried on by them, 51, 134, 196. this is proved by analogy, 196. there may be the wisest and best reasons for it, 58, 134. interference with them would produce some bad effects, 135.
Index of Words and Things. 355
GENERAL LAWS {contimied).
the Christian dispensation may have been carried on
mider them, 31, 197. miracles may be possible under them, 197. future punishments may follow wickedness under them,
203. . '
GENTILES.
Our Lord, their Saviour, 271.
on what evidence they received Him, 277. Gifts, miraculous. See Miracles, God. Glasses, prepare objects for the sight, as eyes do, 21.
GOD. See Author of nature, Character, Christ, Goodness, Governor, Government, Moral, Infinite intelliqence. Love, Will, Design. our duties to God the Father, 157.
to His Son and Spirit, 158. His existence should be admitted by a Fatalist, 110. has necessary existence, 111. has a character and will, 116. is all perfect, 9.
may be simply and absolutely benevolent, 47. our whole nature leads us to ascribe all moral perfection
to Him, 9. thorough conviction of His perfection leads to perfection
in Religion, 292. His government by rewards and punishments, Pt. I
Ch. XL, 32. is the natural Governor of the world, 35. the end for which He made and governs the world may
be utterly beyond our faculties, 35. He gives us pleasures and pains by showing us how to
obtain them, 33. His general providence proved by miracles and pro- phecy, 150. is a moral Governor, 50. dictates of the moral faculty His laws, 118. regard to His authority coincident with justice and our
own chief interest, 104. the absence of interpositions may be an instance of His
goodness, 136. does not dispense His gifts according to our notion of
the advantage they Avould be to us, 187. we must not expect the same information concerning
His conduct, as concerning our duties, 221.
35^ Index of Words and Things.
GOD (^continued).
how He has given us all things necessary to life and
godliness, 222. we do not know in what manner He would be likely to
instruct us, 179. does instruct us by experience, 221.
and invention, 183. objections to His scheme of a Mediator obscure, but our
duties plain, 221. His visible government carried on by the mediation of
others, 51, 201. makes use of a variety of means, 199. uses a progressive series of means, 200. is the original Author of prophecy, 262. His covenant with a particular nation, 270. GOOD ACTIONS. See Virtue.
never punished as beneficial to society, 52. not natural that they should be punished, 52. GOOD MEN.
disposed to befriend good men as such, 54. how hindered from union in this life, 64.
GOODNESS. See Virtue, Benevolence, Interpositions. What the Divine goodness may consist in, 34. it is consistent with perfect goodness that all creation might have been in a state to perish, but for what God had appointed to prevent it, 210. GOSPEL. See Foolishness, Christianity. an evidence of natural religion, 151. light and immortality brought to light by it, 146, 152. GOVERNMENT. See Civil, Domestic, Divine, Moral, 3Iu- gistrates, Natural. the formal notion of it, 37. or THE WORLD, proof of it, 45, 36.
is a scheme, or system, 128. OF God, a scheme incomprehensible, Pt. I. Ch. VII., 127. a scheme, system, or constitution, 127. coiu-se of nature another name for it, 35, 51. uniformity of it no reason to deny it, 35. veracity and justice its natural rule, 118. reason to think it will be found to correspond to
our nature, 119. we are not competent judges of its scheme, 130. may be just and good notwithstanding the exist- ence of evil, 131.
Index of Words and Things. 357
GOVERXOR OF THE WORLD. See Moral, God, Govern- ment.
to be assumed, 6.
the opinion of necessity does not destroy the proof of His intelligence, 110.
GRATITUDE.
due to Christ the moment the Gospel is believed, 161-2. implies a distinction between being the mere instrument
of good and having a good intention, 322. contradicts the objection to religion on the opinion of necessity, 125. Greece, 268. Grotius, cited, 239, n.
GUILT.
not annihilated by frailty and temptations, 44. taken into account in civil tribunals, 56. the idea of it always associated with that of ill desert, 324.
H
ABITS. — Of Resignation, Virtue, SiC. See Improve- ment.
of the body and mind, 85. of perception and of action, 85. passive habits, 85. faculty of acquiring them, 84. are the means by which Ave are prepared in one state for
another, 84. we get by them aptness, readiness, and often pleasure in
a course of action, 88. thev are produced bv repeated acts, 86, and by acts onlv,
88. active habits grow more powerful as the motives are by
repetition less felt, 87. we know not how far similar effects might be wrought
in us at once, 88. nature puts us in a position to acquire them, 90.
and this opportunity must not be lost, 91. an immoral habit is not raised by obedience to a few
detached commands, 190. Half views, a source of error, 287.
HAPPINESS. See Interest, Pleasure, Prosperitij.
AND MISERY, not always distributed according to per- sonal merit, 58.
358 Index of Words and Things.
HAPPINESS AND MISERY (continued).
are not our fate so as not to depend upon our ac- tions, 117. ours as men are very much in one another's power, 57. hereafter may depend upon our actions here, 32. results from our nature and condition jointly, 84. our present enjoyments are very much in our own power,
33. possible reasons why we are not made happy without
our own actions, 34. improvement in virtue improvement in happiness, 96. virtue produces it, 48-58.
and tends to produce it in a higher degree, 60. a necessary qualification for a future state of it, 92, the balance of it now, not always perhaps on the side of
virtue, 48-9. a due concern for it is the same as prudence, 327. HAZARD. See Banger.
Hazard and danger being put upon us is a speculative difficulty, 80. He that hath ears to hear, let him hear, 239. HEATHEN. See Atonement.
not in so advantageous a position in regard to natural
religion as we, 152, 154. some may have had natural religion specially enforced upon them in consequence of the existence of revela- tion, 225. Hebrews, doctrine of the Epistle to the Hebrews, 212. HINDERANCES.
to justice accidental, 65.
accidental hinderances and natural tendencies in respect
to virtue, 65, 71. those to natural and supernatural light of the same kind,
186. levity, carelessness, passion and prejudice hinderances to right information, 239. HISTORICAL EVIDENCE. See Testimony, Christianity. not demonstrative, 246. not destroyed by saying that men may deceive or be
deceived, 257. of the miracles the same as of the common facts in Scrip- ture, 246. HISTORY. See Scripture.
its account of religion in the first ages, 122.
Index of Words and Things. 359
HISTORY (continued).
tends to show that religion was first introduced by rev- elation, 171, 122. may be confirmed by cotemporaiy or subsequent events,
246. Scripture history is so confirmed, 246.
testimony of profane history to it, 276, 275. a sketch of it, 267.
how much of profane history appears in it, 268. that it cannot be clearly disproved an evidence of its truth, 269. Christianity and the proof of it are both historical, 297. prophecy is the history of things before they come to pass, 267. Hobbes. Leviathan, c. 17, p. 87, cited, 322.
HOLY SPIRIT.
our Guide and Sanctifier, 157. His miraculous mission, &c., 194.
our duties to Him moral, and obligations of reason, 156-8. Hope and Fear. See Fear.
HUMAX. See Mankind.
Creatures perpetually liable to go wi-ong, and actually doing so, 77.
capable of becoming qualified for new states of life, 84. Life, part of a much larger plan of things, 139.
and human happiness require fitting capacities and circumstances, 84. Nature prone to think the less important of two things of no value, 166.
HYPOTHESIS.
building a world on it, 5. applying reasoning by it, 6.
ICE, its existence disbelieved before experience, 2. Identity. See Personal Ideyitity.
IGNORANCE.
how this life is the preparation for another no reason against the fact, 92.
of the employments of a future life, no ground to expect a virtuous character unnecessar}', 93.
ours of the natural should lead us to expect not to un- derstand the moral world, 127,
360 Index of Words and Things.
IGNORANCE (continued).
ours concerning the relations of things to one another and to ourselves, 128-30.
answers objections against God's Providence, 131.
not easy for any one always to bear in mind its extent, and make due allowance for it, 131.
■what it is not an answer to, 132.
may answer objections to a thing without aflfecting its proof, 137.
•when an argument from it is valid, 136-9.
different effects of total and partial ignorance, 136.
total ignorance would not destro}^ moral obligations, 137.
the answers to objections against Providence are taken not from it, but from something analogv tells us of it, 138.
as much and as little an excuse for neglecting the obli- gations shown by revelation as those shown by rea- son, 159.
those Avho know most ignorant of many things, 168.
ours of the course of nature so deep that we know not whether it may include miracles, 172-4.
objections against Christianity mostly refuted by it, 175.
we are in no wise judges of many things we are apt to think ourselves very competent judges of, 177.
ours, how it might be expected that natural and super- natural knowledge should be given, 179.
concerning the laws of miracles, not greater than
concerning many natural occurrences, 197. concerning the reason and extent of natural punish- ment, 206.
we are not judges whether a Mediator were necessary, or of the nature, or parts of His office, 217.
absurd to argue that dispensations cannot be from God, because we do not discern the reasons of them, 220.
in matters of religion, often owing to men's own fault, 238. Ill behaviour punished as such, 56.
IMAGINATION.
author of all error, 17.
a source of discontent, 105.
difficultv of silencing it, and reasons of that difficulty,
17, 29-30. likely to mislead us concerning the effect of death, 17. must not be substituted for experience, 30.
Index of Words and Things. 361
IMMORALITY.
■would prove a pretended revelation false, 176.
falsely objected to some precepts in Scripture, 189.
its heinousness greatly increased by becoming acquainted with Christianity, 308. Immortality. See Future life, Gospel.
IMPOSSIBILITIES.
many unknown to us, 34.
real, are not always apparent, 131.
IMPROBABLE.
improbable events to be considered in action, 3, 223. internal inipi-obabilities do not weigh against external probable proof, 182.
IMPROVEMENT. See Virtue, Capacity, Habits.
in virtue and piety, the end of our being placed here, 83.
in understanding and natural faculties, gradual, 89.
gained by exercise, 89.
wisdom of this, 89.
we are capable of moral improvement, and want it, 93.
moral and religious habits, the instruments of it, 92-3.
of the principle of virtue by habit, a defence against the
dangers incident to finite creatures, 96. in virtue, advancement in happiness, 96. the capacity of it limited in respect of our intellectual
and bodily, perhaps also of our moral powers, 102.
IMPRUDENCE. See Folly, Prudence. naturally punished, 39, 327. why not so strongly condemned by conscience as other
vices, 327-8. beyond a certain bound, cannot escape punishment, 41.
INCONSIDERATENESS. See Folly.
often punished as much as any active vice, 41, 238. Indivisible powers imply indivisible subjects, 17.
INDULGENCE.
the least in forbidden circumstances increases the tend- ency to wrong, 97. vicious indulgences not only criminal but depraving, 98.
INFANCY.
the proper state for acquiring what is necessary in man- hood, 90.
passing from it to manhood proves a law of progress, 12- 13.
362 Index of Words and Things.
Infamy, a punishment of vice, 57.
INFINITE INTELLIGENCE. See God.
no object of knowledge can be to it the subject of prob- able evidence, 3.
Information needed in temporal matters, not always given us, 242.
INJURY.
always distinguished from mere harm, and just punish- ment, 322. Hobbes says that this is peculiar to mankind, 322. Innocent people daily suffer for the guilty, 218. Insects, their changes prove a law of progress in states of being, 13.
INSPIRATION. See Prophecy.
we are no judges by what laws GoD would give it, 178.
makes a difference in the rules of interpretation, 166, 181, 262-5. Instruction, not commonly given in the manner best suited to
recommend it, 185, 183. Instrumentality of others. See Assistance, Mediator. Intellectual powers noi affected by some mortal diseases, there- fore probably not destroyed by death, 27. Intemperance, its consequences, 39.
INTENTION.
of such and such consequences, part of the action itself,
323-4. madmen and idiots capable of the intention of doing
harm, 326.
INTEREST. See Self-love, Temporal
a moral course of behaviour must be our final interest, 95. our own chief interest a just and natural principle of
action, 104. SENSE OF INTEREST, not sufficient to restrain us, 95, n. needs improvement, 95, n. in Avhat sense part of the idea of virtue, 95, n. our present interest, not forced upon us, 80.
not to be secured Avithout danger and difficulty, 74. origin of doubtfulness concerning our temporal interest,
223. due concern for it the same as prudence, 327.
INTERPOSITIONS. See General laws, Miracles, might have bad effects, 133.
Index of Words and Things. 363
INTERPOSITIOXS {continued).
God's not interposing may be an instance of His good- ness, 136. to save man from destruction, possible, 209. Invention seems a capricious mode of instruction, 183. IRREGULAEITY.
irregular behaviour, its ill consequences, 205.
what we call irregularities may not really be so, 133-196.
it may be impossible to prevent them by general laws,
135. unreasonable to wish them remedied by special interpo- sitions, 135. lERELIGION.
one of the greatest instances of vice, 205.
especially in persons of influence or with a character for
understanding, 232. not justified by the doubtfulness of the evidence for re- ligion, 234. a positive principle of irreligion, 301.
JEROM'S account of Porphyrin's explanation of Daniel, 264, n.
JEWS.
their promised prosperity, naturally connected with their
predicted holiness, 67. the establishment of their religion confirms the miracu- lous history of the Scriptures, 246. their sacrifices of expiation ended in Christ, 215. a statement of their scriptural histoiy, 270-3. which is confirmed by known facts, 276. seems only to be accounted for by the truth of the miracles recorded, 277. their dispersion a fulfilment of prophecy, 278. their continuance a standing miracle, 278.
not accounted for by the natm-e of their religion, 279. their ultimate restoration made probable by present
facts, 280. their histoiy, as gathered from profane writers, 281. S. JOHN.
to what he probably alludes in the first words of his
Gospel, 268. his doctrine of Christ's preexistence confirmed by S.
Paul, 268. his description of perfect religion (1 John iv. 18), 292.
364 Index of Words and Things.
JUDGMENT. See Future judgment.
involuntarily substituted for sensation in several cases, 85. Just persons, their future condition, 210, n.
JUSTICE. See Virtue, Veracity.
a natural rule of government, 50.
often artificially eluded, 60.
a special means of uniting society, 63.
the doctrine of distributive justice only the completion of
what we now see, 69-70. coincident with our own chief interest, and a regard to
God's authoritj^ 104. notions of justice and injustice remain even while we are
making suppositions inconsistent with them, 117. not to be sacrificed to supposed benevolence, 330-2. justice and veracity our rule of life, 332.
KINGDOM. of Christ how described in Scripture, 215. the Church His Kingdom, 215. the hypothesis of one perfectly virtuous and its conse- quences, 66.
KNOWLEDGE.
in the Sci-iptures to be acquired like natural knowledge and how, 186.
with time and attention necessary to examine into reli- gion and its evidences, 240.
cannot constitute truth but presupposes it, 314. Koran, referred to, 249.
LABOUR and industry absolutely necessary to us, 91. LANGUAGE. See Words. its inherent defects, 183. learnt by long experience and exercise, 91. of the prophecies, figurative and hieroglyphical, 176. of moralists, 296. Law of Moses an authoritative republication of natural reli- gion, 151.
LAWS OF NATURE. See Course of Nature, Providence, Analogy^ Natural Laws. that the same being should exist in different states, 13. that by which we may lose part of the body, 19. that one state is a state of discipline for another, 92.
Index of Words and Things. 365
LAWS or NATURE (continued).
that we should form practical principles by attention,
use and discipline, 107. many of them unknown to us, 196. Levity, carelessness, passion and prejudice hinder our being
rightly informed in anything, 239, 308. LIBERTY. See Freedom.
necessary to the progress of knowledge, 186. Lies, persons who would not invent will propagate, and some
who would not propagate will let them pass, 255. LIFE. See Future life, Gospel, Human.
everv- species of creature is adapted to its own state of
life, 83. creatures genei-ally capable of becoming adapted to a
new state of life, 84. our human life a result of our nature and condition
jointly, 84. two states of life in which men live, 25. whether life is desirable or no, sometimes questioned, 293. it is not preserved to us without our care and attention,
33. justice and veracity our rule of life, 332. probability to us the guide of life, 3. LIGHT OF NATURE. See Natural religion, Reason. has a great resemblance to revelation, 185. not so sufficient as to make revelation superfluous, 147. only warns men, leaving them to act as they please till the time of judgment, 155. Likely, its meaning and how attained, 2. Likeness begets in every one presumption, opinion and full
conviction, 2-5. Limbs have no power of moving themselves, 23. Living agents, no reason to think any system of matter essen- tial to them, 20. LIVING BEINGS. See Personal Identity, Death. not discerptible or compounded, 17. must have greater size than a material atom, or be in- capable of dissolution, 19-20. organs of sense, no part of them, 22. no probability of their ever ceasing to be, 30. their sameness independent of their memory, 319. LIVING POWERS.
what, 13, their destruction, 14, n., 16.
no ground to think them destroyed by death, 16.
366 Index of Words and Things.
LIVING POWERS {continued).
nothing but death can be supposed to destroy them, 14. we know not on what they depend, 15. may exist though suspended, 15.
LOCKE, J.
his story of the Prince of Siam, 2. on person and personal identity, 316.
his observations on them hasty, 317. Locomotive powers, to what part of us they belong, 22. Logic, the examination of the force of analogy belongs to it, 4. Love, all comparisons must fall short of God's love, 209. Ludicrous turn may be indulged in till we lose all sense of prudence and conduct, 238.
MA GISTRATES, their government analogous to God's government, 37. 3Iahometanism, not offered on the foot of public miracles, 249. 3Iahometans, how probably affected by the light of revelation,
226. Manifestation of Character. See Character.
MANKIND. See Full of 3Ian, Human creatures, &c., Mer- ciful.
their whole nature leads them to ascribe all moral per- fection to God, 9. - unavoidably accountable for their behaviour, 52.
why they prevail over the brutes, 60.
an inferior part of the creation of God, 78.
their natural condition one of trial and difficulty, 79.
left by nature unformed and unfinished creatures, 90.
creatures who are fallen from their original rectitude, 99.
before the formation of habits of virtue deficient and in danger of falling, 94.
are evidently permitted to act as they will, 180.
prone to place religion in peculiar positive rites, 164.
have no right to life and property but by the gift of God, 190.
their life is not only successive but progressive, 199-200.
impatient, 200.
generally do not realize the present awful consequences of vice, &c., 205.
naturally in a very strange state, 211.
no two men exactly alike, 224.
their suspicions should be acknowledged as well as their credulity, 251.
naturally endowed with a regard to truth, 255.
Index of Words and Things. 367
MARTYRS. See Apostles.
objections to their testimony insufficient, 252, &c. Ilaterial world, in a manner boundless and immense, 66. MATTER. See Bodi/.
when proved indivisible, 1 7.
solid elementary particles of it, 19.
our matter does not cease to exist by death, 14, n.
foreign matter has the same relation to us as our mate- rial body, 21.
MATTERS OF FACT.
in this treatise Christianity, &c., are so regarded, 297.
distinction between them and abstract truths, 297.
their credibility or truth proves nothing of their wisdom or goodness, 127.
analogy can only prove things true or credible as mat- ters of fact, 127.
analogy is the only proof of most and a confirmation of all matters of fact to which it can be applied, 299,
the proof of religion as a matter of fact cannot be aftected by the opinion of necessity, 117, &c.
MATURITY or UNDERSTANDING.
not given at once, 89.
might not be useful if so given, 89. MEANS. See Ends.
are used in Christianity as in nature, 195.
experience and not reason is the judge of their effects, 133.
undesirable means often conduce to desirable ends, 132.
their apparent may be contrary to their real tendency, 133.
those bv which instruction is given to brutes and men, 183."
why God makes use of those he does, a mystery in na- ture as well as in revelation, 199.
MEDIATOR. See Assistance, Christ.
the appointment of a Mediator considered, Pt. II. Ch. v., 201.
we are brought into the world and receive its satisfac- tions by the mediation of others, 201.
one between God and man, agreeable to the course of nature, 201.
Christ's office of Mediator how represented in Scripture, 211.
368 Index of Words and Things.
Memory, enables us to store up our ideas and knowledge, 84.
Merciful alloicances will be made for man, 227.
Mercy, in the constitution of the world, 205.
Merit and demerit, not always the measm-e of happiness and
misery, 58. MESSIAH. See C/aist
His office, 193.
prophecies concerning Him, 271.
facts concerning Him from profane history, 277.
METHOD.
of providential conduct. See Law of Nature, Course of Nature, Providence.
of the argument of this treatise, 9, ^Horoscope, used in the same way that the eye is, 23. Militant, virtue is militant here, 64. MIRACLES. See Particular Institutions.
supposed presumptions against them, Ft. II. Ch. 11., 167.
miracle a relative term, 31, 170.
may be natural to other beings, 31.
may happen in obedience to general laws, 197.
their design, 150.
natural religion may be proved by them, 150.
the notion of them, 169.
visible and invisible, 169.
no presumption against them at the beginning of the world, 170.
no presumption against the more or less of its exercise, when once a miraculous power is admitted, 171.
no argument from analogy for, or against them, in themselves, 172.
the presumptions against them after the settlement of [a course of nature considered, 172, &c.
the state of religion in the first ages seems to imply a miraculous origin, 171, 122.
religion and the moral system of the universe give dis- tinct reasons for miracles, 173.
must be compared with the extraordinary phsenomena of nature, 173.
occasions for them might arise in the long lapse of ages, 173.
our seeing reasons for them makes them credible, 174.
miraculous gifts not unusual in apostolic times, and ir- regularly u^ed then, 184.
Index of Words and Things. 369
MIRACLES (continued).
observations upon the evidence of miracles, 245.
the evidence of the miracles in scripture, the same as of
the common facts, 245. Christianity alone propounded as proved by public mi- racles, 249. the fact that it was embraced on that ground proves
their truth, 250. their truth necessary to account for the establishment of
Judaism and Christianity, 246. St. Paul speaks of them as matters of course, 249. pagan and popish miracles do not stand on the same
basis, 250. the Jews a standing miracle, 278. events apparently natural may by relation be miraculous,
279. MISERY. See Happiness.
much misery brought by men upon themselves, 39. various miseries of life, contingent upon our actions, 80. we mav make ourselves as miserable as ever we please,
34. ' the sight of it produces compassion and indignation,
upon Avhat conditions, 324-5.
MODERATION. See Self-government.
the state of the world has a tendency to produce it, 100. MORAL.
Duties. See Duties.
take precedence of positive ones, 163.
our Lord declares expressly for them before positive
ones, 164. duties resulting from revealed relations are moral, 156-7. Faculty. See Conscience.
"we have a moral approving and disapproving fa- culty, 321. different appellations of it, 322, 321, n. implies a rule of action, 118. carries authority with it, 118, 321, n. the guide of action and life, 321, n. its dictates are the laws of GoD in a sense including
sanctions, 118, 56. proofs of its existence, 321-3. its object is actions and practical principles, 323, 321, n.
B B
370 Index of Words and Things.
MORAL Faculty (^continued).
deals, not with what we enjoy or suffer, but with what we do or might have done, 324. Good and evil, imply good and ill desert, 324. Government. See God.
God's moral government, Pt. I., Ch. III., 45. Government, a practical proof of it, 65-70. what makes us capable of it, 321. what it consists in, 46, 330. probation implied in it, 108. an instance of it, 56.
implied in God's natural government, 71, scheme of it not fictitious but natural, 71. differences between what is implied in it, and in a
state of Probation, 73. our present condition cannot be shown inconsistent
with it, 82. the moral and natural government of the world
make up one scheme, 129-30. how it is exercised, 193. is not perfect as we see it now, 48. may be perfect in the highest degree, 193. has a tendency to perfection, 60. Law, as much a matter of revealed command as positive institutions are, 163. written in our hearts, 163. Nature, has scope to act in us, this an instance of moral government, 57. it is itself a proof that God will support virtue, 57,
72. our having it makes us capable of moral govern- ment, 321. Precepts and duties, what they are, 161.
in some respects resemble positive precepts, 161, n. Principle rightly controls but does not originate par- ticular affections, 94. Understanding, 96.
may be perverted, 123. Virtue, nothing can make us acceptable to GOD with- out it, 164. MORALITY OF ACTIONS. See Htness.
depends partly on the intention of the agent, 323. partly on a comparison between them and His nature
and capacities, 326. is immutable, 189.
'• Index of Words and Things. 371
Moses, his miracles, 245, 277. Motives, to religion, 145. MYSTERIES.
in Christianity, 195.
as great in nature as in Christianity, 196, &c., 217-22.
Mystery of God, 42, n. of godliness, 195.
NATURE. See Author, Course, Law, Light, Government, Mankind, World. its scheme, evidently vast beyond all imagination, 168. we see but as a point in it, 169. gives us power to supply our natural deficiencies, 90. intent of nature that virtue should be rewarded, &c. 59. its necessary tendencies show something moral in it, 60. severity and indulgence in its constitution, 204, man's nature leads him to ascribe all moral perfection to
God, 9. our nature corresponds to om* external condition, 84. what position nature places us in as to the knowledge of
religion, 152. no presumption that everything in the whole course of nature is like what is knoAvn to us, 169. NATURAL.
meaning of the word, 31. Government of the world. See World. in what it consists, 73.
we are dealt with under it, as if Ave were free, 115. makes up one scheme with its moral government, 129-30. Laws of human actions require that testimony be ad- mitted, 257. Religion. See Religion.
future punishments belong to it, 41, n.
proved by history and general consent, 121.
its external evidence by no means inconsiderable,
123. scarcely any one could have reasoned out its system,
147, 274. ought not to be the sole object of our regard, 148. taught by Christianity in its genuine simplicity, and
authoritativeh', 150. the profession and establishment of it, much owing to the Scriptures, 273, 226. "^ its proof from reason is not thereby destroyed, 274.
372 Index of Words and Things.
NATURAL Religion {continued).
may be proved by prophecy and miracles, 151.
what it contains, 122, 273.*^
its essence, in one sense, religious regards to GoD the
Father, 157. may be revealed and is so, 267. objections to it answered from analogy, 10. promoted by the establishment of the Church, 153. general proof of it level to common men, 239.
approves itself almost intuitively to a reasonable
mind, 308. its analogy to Revelation, a good ground of argu- ment, 286. Necessary existence of GOD, 111.
NECESSITY, OPINION of. See Fatalist, Freedom.
practically considered, Ft. I., Ch. VI., 109.
does not exclude deliberation, choice, preference, and acting from certain principles to certain ends, 110.
in itself no account of the constitution of nature, but only of a circumstance of it, 110.
does not exclude an agent, but only a free agent, 111.
effects of educating a child in this opinion, 113.
misapplied, when applied to the subject of religion, 114.
all practical applications of it practically fallacious, 114.
how reconcileable with benevolence, veracity, and jus- tice in the Author of nature, 117.
neeessary agents may be rewarded and punished, 125.
how it destroys religion, 126.
does not make punishment unjust, even if improbable, 125, 292.
NEGLIGENCE. See FoIIi/.
may make us as miserable as we please, 34.
no more excusable in revealed than in natural religion,
156, 300. a source of dissatisfaction with the evidence of religion,
238.
OBEDIENCE not the less real, because proceeding from hope, or fear, 104. OBJECTIONS.
Revelation likely to seem liable to them, Pt. II., Ch. III.,
175. those against arguing from the analogy of nature to re- ligion, Pt. II., Ch. VIII., 285.
index of Words and Things. 373
OBJECTIONS (continued).
those against a proof, none against the thing proved, 10. some may be seen through, though not cleared up, 240. in matters of importance, the question is, not upon whom it lies to support them, but whether they have any real existence, 252. men will probably fancy they have strong ones against
what is really unexceptionable, 182. those who pick them up without qualifying themselves for their examination are in doubt by their own fault, 240. what qualifications are necessary in examining them,
240. some may be urged not directly answerable by analogy,
127. they need not alwaj's be removed, 291. how far analogy answers them, 10. those from ignorance, when particularly absurd, 221. those to the scheme of Providence, generally mere arbi- trary assertions, 131. those against divine justice are first shown inconclusive,
and then its credibility is established, 291. nature of those urged against Christianity, 302.
they are not valid unless they overthrow all that
is miraculous in it, 181. not greater than analogy would lead us to expect,
184. those against its evidence, most important, 175. those against itself, generally frivolous, 168, 175-
91. unreasonable way of objecting against it, 191.
OBJECTIONS CONSIDERED.
against arguing from the analogy of nature to religion, Pt. II., Ch. VIII., 285.
that it is a poor thing to show the same difficulties
in natural and revealed religion, 286. that it does not clear up difficulties, 287. that it does not show the evidence of religion not
to be doubtful, 289. that it does not vindicate God's character, 290. that it is not satisfactory, 293. that it is not likely to have influence, 295. against the constitution of the world as imperfect, 7. against our natural immortalitv from the case of brutes, 24.
374 Index of Words and Things.
OBJECTIOXS CONSIDERED {continued). from that of vegetables, 29, 315.
that the pleasure attached to all gratifications of the passions is intended as a reward, 36.
against the credibility of future punishments, 38.
against religion that its evidence is not so strong as it might be, 47, n.
that things may go on for ever as they are, without any triumph of virtue, 68.
against this world's being a state of trial, 81.
that we cannot discern how thi^ life is a preparation for another, 92.
that our powers of improvement may be limited, 102.
that this world is in fact a discipline of vice, 103.
that \artuous habits proceeding from hope and fear only strengthen self-love, 104.
against rewards and punishments on the opinion of ne- cessity, 124, 292.
against religion on the same opinion, 117.
against the justice and goodness of Providence, 132. from seeming irregularities, 133.
that evil might easily have been prevented by repeated interpositions, 131.
that our ignorance may be objected against the proof of religion, as well as against the objections to it, 136.
that revelation is of little importance, if natural religion be kept to, 148.
that natural religion cannot be proved by miracles, 150.
that the analogy between natural and revealed know- ledge fails, on account of the impoi-tance of the last, 186-7.
against miraculous gifts from their iiTegular use, 184.
against the analogy between the methods of natural and revealed instruction, 187.
against the notion of a Mediator at all, 202.
that the nature of the Jewish religion kept the Jews dis- tinct, 278.
that religion teaches us to be interested and selfish, 328, 104, 95, n.
against Scripture, that it is not written according to the rules of art, 175, 180.
that it contains immoral precepts, 189.
against Christianity generally, 181.
from the sufiiciency of the light of nature, 147. from the supposed incredibility of miracles, 167.
Index of Words and Things. 375
OBJECTIONS CONSIDERED ^continued).
especially after the settlement of a course of na- ture, 172. from the unequal distribution of religious know- ledge, 185. from its complex contrivances and slow develop- ments, 187, 199. to its wisdom, justice, and goodness, 192. from its disappointing anticipations, 182, 192. from its mysteriousness, 193, 220. from its want of universality, 223. from its being perverted and having little influence,
154. from its supposed deficiency of proof, 229, 258. from its lateness, partiality, and obscurity, 187. that it supposes God obliged to use roundabout
means, 199. that Christ's suffering for the guilty makes GoD indifferent whether he punish the innocent or the guilty, 218. that a master would give clear directions to his ser- vants, 241. that there have been enthusiastic people in all ages,
252. that the apostles might partly deceive, partly be
deceived, 254. that in fact men have been strangel}' deluded by
pretended miracles, 255. from the obscurity of some parts of prophecy, 259. from the difficulty of showing its exact fulklnient,
260. from the suppositions that the prophets intended something else, 261-2. OBLIGATIONS. See Duties.
raised in practical matters by the slightest balance of probability, 3.
nay, even by the smallest presumption alone, 3. those of religion practically proved by the course of na- ture, 69. those of religious worship, 119. moral obligations remain, though religion be not proved,
137. arise from the bare credibility of religion, 137, 230,243-4. the mere credibility of the consequences of virtue and vice raises some, 137.
376 Index of Words and Things.
OBLIGATIONS (continued).
those of duty to the Son and Holy Spirit, revealed by Christianity, 157.
arise naturally from our relations to them, 157. those of a command remain until we knoiv that the rea- son of it has ceased, 149. Obscurity of the Scripture does not overthrow its authority,
180. Observation in like cases, a common ground of conclusion, 2. Omission, when vicious, 324.
ONENESS. See Sameness, Personal Identity.
the absolute oneness of a living agent cannot be proved by experiment, 18, 19.
how it may be proved, 17, 18. OPPORTUNITIES.
may be lost for ever, 40.
for deceiving ourselves, 235.
ORGANS OF SENSE. See Body.
not percipients but instruments, 21, 23. our connection with them may be a hinderance to a higher life, 28. Origen, his hint concerning analogy, 5.
Outward circumstances may be changed so as to ensure the triumph of virtue, 71.
PA GANIS3I, its miracles, 250. See Heathen. Pain. See Pleasure, Punishment, Misery. Pardon, grounds for hoping there may be room for it, 207. PARTICULAR AFFECTIONS, 94. involuntarily excited, 94.
tend to incline to unlawful means of gratification, 95. the practical principle of virtue, our only safeguard
against this, 95. they may remain in a future state, 96. show how the fall and improvement of finite creatures
may take place, 96. stand in need of discipline, 106. Particular Institutions, their having been brought in and con- firmed by miracles, not analogous to the case of Chris- tianity, 250.
PASSIONS. See Particular Affections, Levity. particular gratifications of them, 36. all actions are done by means of some natural passion, 59.
Index of Words and Things. 377
PASSIONS {continued).
good purposes of every natural passion may be seen, 59. particular passions not more consistent with self-love,
than with virtue, 75. no excuse for a vicious life, 145.
PASSIVE.
Habits. See Habits.
Impressions, grow weaker by repetition, 86.
only effective as they tend to produce active habits, 87-8. SuB>nssiON. See Resignation. Patience, a matter of gi-eat patience to reasonable men, 220.
S. PAUL.
his epistles carry with them evidence of their genuine- ness, 248.
prove the truth of Christianity, 248, &c. He teaches Christ's pre-existence, 268.
PERCEPTION. See Sensation, Judgment.
our powers of perception distinct from our organs of
sense, 21. dreams prove a latent power of perception, 22. the truth of perceptions cannot \)Q proved, 321. difficult fully to explain our perceptions of good and ill
desert, 324.
PERFECTION.
of finite creatures, 96.
their higher perfection may consist in habits of vir- tue, 98. going on unto perfection, 186. of religion, 292. of moral government, 46. Persecution, considered as an objection to God's moral go- vernment, 52. Persians, perhaps influenced by revelation, 226. Person, Locke's definition, 316.
PERSONAL IDENTITY. See Sameness, Oneness. Dissertation upon it, 313.
personality a permanent, not a transient thing, 317-21. the sameness of living agents, 12, 316. cannot be defined, 313. the body no part of it, 19. ascertained by consciousness, 314. organs of sense not essential to it, 22.
37^ Index of Words and Things.
PERSONAL IDENTITY (contmued).
" consciousness makes personality " false, probable origin
of it, 314. Locke's definition, 316. absurd consequences of the opinion, that it is constituted
by consciousness, 317. consciousness proves the sameness of our substance, 320. Pious frauds may weaken, but cannot destroy our evidence
of miracles, 277. PLEASURE. See Happiness.
or advantage of actions sometimes independent of their
morality, .53. and pain consequences of our actions, 33.
in some degree distributed without regard to cha- racter, 69. this would not even alone disprove moral govern- ment, 69. how far intended to put us upon gratifying our passions,
36. annexing it to some actions and pain to others is our
proper notion of government, 37. when a reward, 45, 53.
whether our pleasures overbalance our pains ? 293. Political state of things, incidentally referred to in Scripture,
268. Poor (as an epithet), 287. Popery, its miracles, 250. Porphyry, his objections to the book of Daniel, 263-4, and n.
POSITIVE.
Precepts and duties. See Moral. what they are, 161.
danger of being misled in comparing them with moral, 166. Institutions, reasonable and important, 153. come under a twofold distinction, 162. have the nature of moral commands, 162, 166. their observation only valuable, as it proceeds from
a moral principle, 163. great presumption of making light of them, 166. Rites, mankind always prone to place religion in them, 164. Possibilities of things unknown to any man, 131. POWERS. See Living, Reflecting. limit to their improvement, 102.
Index of Words and Things. 379
PRACTICAL. See Religion.
PRINCIPLE of Yirtue. See Virtue. QUESTION concerning conduct, 294-5.
PRACTICE. See Actions.
in matters of practice, their importance is always to be
considered, 284. differently influenced by different degrees of evidence, 234. Precepts change the nature of some acts in Scripture, 189. Precipice, effects of trifling on the edge of one, 202, 204. Preexistence of our Saviour, 268.
PRESENT EXISTENCE. See Life.
aftbrds a presumption of continuance, 13.
as gi-eat a difiicult}' to atheism as a future state, 32. Present state of man may be a consequence of somewhat past,
228.
PRESUMPTIONS. See Probability.
the lowest preponderance on one side, acted on, 3. presumptions against revelation, 167. there are strong ones against common truths and ordinary facts, 172.
PRESUMPTUOUSNESS.
not justified by scepticism, 45. implied in sin, 205.
PRIESTHOOD.
of Christ, 215.
the Levitical, a shadow of Christ's, 212. Primitive Christians, purity of their lives, 225.
PRINCIPLES.
of the Author, not here argued upon, 296. Avhat is meant by arguing on the principles of others, 296, n.
PROBABLE EVIDENCE and pkobabilitt. See Evidence, Analogical reasoning. admit of degrees, 1.
there may be probabilities on both sides, 1, 233, the slightest possible presumption is of this nature, 1. lowest presumption often repeated produces conviction, 1 . chiefl)' constituted by likeness — likelihood, 2. rule of our hopes, fears, expectations, and judgments, 2. peculiar to beings of a limited capacity, 3. to them the very guide of life, 3.
380 Index of Words and Things.
PROBABLE EVIDENCE {continued).
extremely small probabilities acted on, 4, 223, 244. importance of collateral things in probable evidence, 283. the addition of probable proofs multiplies the evidence,
283. PROBATION, STATE OF. See Trial.
as implying trial, &c. Pt. I., Ch. IV., 72.
as intended for discipline and improvement, Pt. I., Ch.
v., 82. as implying a theatre of action, 107. religion as a Probation has its end on all, 295. how it differs from moral government, 73. general doctrine of religion concerning it, 73. how we come to be placed in it involves unanswerable
difficulties, 82. we may be in one as to the use of our understanding in
religious matters, 229. religious probation, 230. doubtfulness of the evidence of religioa puts us in a
general one, 230. PROFANENESS.
to be shunned by those, who are not certain that religion
cannot be true, 231. especially if in an influential position, 232.
PROOF. See Evide?ice.
of God's perfect moral government and of the truth of
religion, not to be sought in this work, 68. of the future completion of a moral scheme of govern- ment, 72. when very slight, overcomes innumerable presumptions,
172. Propensions. See Particular Affections, Brutes. PROPHECY. See 3Iiracles, Jeivs.
intended to prove a particular dispensation of Providence,
150. proves God's general Providence, &c., 150. the obscurity of one part does not defeat the evidence of
another, 259. may give proof of foresight to those, who cannot make
out its exact fulfilment, 260. expressed in figurative and hieroglyphical language, 175. prophetical parts of Scripture treated with scorn, 175. its applicability proves the propriety of its application,
260.
Index of Words and Things. 381
PROPHECY (continued).
its applicatii)n to an expected event proves the propriety of its apjjlication to that event, when it has happened, 261.
as in the case of the Messiah, and of the last ages of the world, 261.
not inapplicable because the Prophets understood it otherwise, 262,
its applicability to some events, no proof of its inappli- cability to others, 263.
resembles a compilation from memoirs, not fully under- stood, 262.
is the history of things before they come to pass, 267.
summary of it, 268-9, 270-3.
concerning the kingdoms of the world and state of the Church, 280.
tendency of things towards the future completion of it, 279.
qualifications necessary to judge thoroughly the force of its evidence, 280.
the conformity between prophecy and events not to be lightly set aside, 282-3.
PROPHET.
Christ a Prophet, 214.
Prophets not the sole authors of what they wrote, 262.
PROSPERITY. See Happmess.
in a virtuous kingdom all would contribute to it, 66.
naturall}' connected with virtue, 67.
begets unbounded and extravagant thoughts, 105.
PROVIDENCE, See God.
how our ignorance is an answer to objections against its
scheme, 131. how far it is necessary to vindicate it, 291. there must be some scheme of Providence in a manner
boundless, 66.
PRUDENCE. See Folly.
meaning of the word, 327.
there is such a thing notwithstanding the uncertainties
and variety of things, 224. how a virtue, 326-7.
requires often very much and difficult consideration, 243. may oblige us to act on verv slight presumptions, 3, 223,
244, 295.
382 Index of Words and Things,
PRUDENCE {continued).
capacities of it, the gift of God, 224.
what determines actions to be prudent, 295. Public Spirit, the true notion of it includes veracity and jus- tice, 63.
PUNISHMENT. See Consequences, Vicarious, Pardon. government by it, 8.
the government of God by it, Pt. I., Ch. II., 32, 38. its injustice destroyed by the opinion of necessity, 117,
292. we do not know all the ends and reasons of future punish- ment, 202. means of it, unknown to us, 202. may be by way of natural consequence, 202-3. to be ascribed to God's justice, 203. not a matter of arbitrary appointment, 203. repentance does not necessarily prevent it, 207. contrary to nature that future doing well should prevent
the consequences of past evil, 208, 40. natural provisions for saving men from it, 207. Son of God interposed to prevent that appointed to our
sin, 209. wickedness and punishment, naturally connected, 325. heathen moralists thought this life a state of it, 211. natural, analogous to that taught by religion as future, 38.
in being often long delayed, 39, 43, often much greater than the pleasures gained by in- curring it, 39. uncertain, 39. sudden, 39.
not escaped by the excuse of youth, &c., 40. sometimes final and irremediable, 41, 43. the offices of reason and revelation concerning future
punishment, 41, n. Gentile writers speak of it as the Scriptures do, 41, n. of vice as folly, 51.
as hurtful to society, 51. as such, 52.
in ourselves and by others, 54. virtue never punished as such, 53, incompleteness and seeming doubtfulness of evidence may be a punishment, 238.
" Index of Words and Things. 383
REASON. See Experience, IgnorancCy Abstruse, Abstract, Analogical.
is the candle of the Lord within us, 303.
the only fticulty whereby we can judge anj^thing, 176.
must judge of the morality of Scripture, 189.
and of the evidence of revelation and the objections to it, 190.
Scripture if really contrary to it must be given up, 22 1 .
power under its directiou does prevail over brute force, 60.
conditions of this, 61.
it has a natural tendency to prevail over brute force, 62.
shows us a general connection in the system of religion and a tendency to its completion, 68.
to pretend to act upon it against plain practical princi- ples is unreasonable, 116.
its light does not force men to obey it, 155.
may be impaired by the indulgence of a ludicrous turn, 239.
cannot judge where it has no principles to judge upon, 303.
teaches a certain doctrine of a future state, 41, n.-
might not have discovered natural religion, 147.
could not have discovered Christianity, 156.
this is no objection against Christianity, 168.
gives us no principles by which to judge of how revela- tion should have been left in the world, 180.
shows us nothing of the immediate means of obtaining benefits, Avhether spiritual, or temporal, 160.
absurd reasoning against Christianity, 221.
unreasonable objections to Christiauit}', 302.
it is highly useful and proper to show the reasonableness of all God's dealings, 292, 220. Reason to wish, different from a right to claim, 135.
REASONS.
of a Divine command must be known, and known to
have ceased, before the obligation ceases, 149. reasons why God made different creatures, and why he
put similar creatures in different positions, unknown
to us, but probably similar, 228. inquiring into the reasons of God's dispensations, right
and pious, 220, 292. RecoUtction and being on their guard against deceits, the greatest
difficulty to some, 237.
384 Index of Words and Things.
Recovery, only possible up to a certain degree, 40, 43.
Rectitude. See Virtue.
REDEMPTION, See Christ, Mediator, Assistance.
the i-edemptiou of the world by a Mediator, Pt. II., Ch. v., 201.
Scripture account of it, 211-16.
analogous to the use of natural remedies, 204.
may extend to those who have never heard of it in this fife, 210, n.
moral tendency of the scriptural doctrine, 220.
how it makes the innocent suffer for the guilty, 218.
REFLECTION. See Intellectual powers. Moral faculty. a STATE of reflection, 26.
POWERS of reflection may not be destroyed by death, 26. or even suspended, 26. it may improve them, 28.
REFORMATION. See Repentance, Amendment. the uneasiness attending it, 49.
to be put to the account of the former vice, 49. not sufficient to hinder the effect of past vice, 305. RELATIONS. See Duties.
exist between the individuals, species, &c., in the world,
128. revealed, as well as natural, give rise to obligations, 157. relations of moral action, &c., may be infinite, 129. eternal and unalterable relations of things, 72. to us of the Son and Spirit of GoD, revealed in Scripture,
157. to us of God the Father, revealed by reason, 157.
RELIGION. See Natural, Revelation, Christianity, GoD, Mi- racles, Obligations.
requires no more than we are well able to do, 79, 227.
proof of a future life no proof of it, 32.
what the notion of it contains, 10.
is here considered as a question of fact, 297.
its general system, &c., shows a tendency to its comple- tion, 68.
teaches that we are in a state of probation, 72.
whether the opinion of fate be consistent with it, 109, &c.
a practical subject, therefore the opinion of necessity is inapplicable to it, 116.
a proof of it as a matter of fact, 117.
how destroyed by the opinion of necessity, 126.
Index of Words and Things. 385
RELIGION (continued).
what position nature places us in regard to a knowledge
of it, 152. twofold, internal and external, 157. distinction between the moral and positive in it, 161. moral piety and virtue its general spirit, as distinguished
from ritual observances, 166. indifference about it, real immoral depravity, 230. its practice, to whom unavoidable, 237. does not regard the thing done, but the mode of doing it,
241. a practical thing, consisting in a course of life agreeable
to the Avill of God, 288. presupposes integrity and honesty, and in what sense, 294. the incredible inattention to it, 299. its origin according to history and tradition, 122. apparently pure in the first ages of the world, 122. probably introduced at first by revelation, 122, 171. its general truth proved by a dilemma as to its origin,
122. state of it in the heathen world, 147. unreasonableness of the opposition to it, 301-2. its great importance, 145. its evidence not appearing obvious may be some men's
trial, 229. the temper, which would cause obedience to it, would
lead a man to examine its evidence, 229, degrees of acquaintance with it, not a subject of com- plaint, 227. proper motives to it, 145. a practical and the proper proof of it, 69-72. it implies, a future life, 32.
God's government by rewards and punishments, 38,
292. God's peifect moral government, 68. founded in the moral character of the Author of nature,
117. its perfection is that perfect love, which casteth out fear,
292. common men may be convinced of it on real evidence,
239. Does it teach us to be selfish? 95, n., 104, 328. KEMEDIES. See Diseases, Assistance, Compassion,
FOR DISEASES, long unknowu, and known now to but few, 188.
c c
386 Index of Words and Things.
REMEDIES FOR Diseases (continued).
neither certain, perfect, nor universal, 188. analogous to Chi-istianity, viewed as a remedy, 187-90. FOR the MISERY and evil in the world, 204. exhibit both severity and indulgence, 204. Remorse, follows vice only, 53.
REPENTANCE. See Pardon, Reformation.
does not seem sufficient to expiate guilt, 206-8. pardon, not admissible by the sole efficacy of it, 209. made acceptable through Christ, 216.
its efficacy taught by the Gospel, 216, 152. who are said in the prayer of Manasses not to need it, 210, n.
RESENTMENT.
roused by a perception of faultiness, not of mere harm, 55. contradicts the objection to religion on the opinion of necessity, 125.
RESIGNATION.
the same reasoning applicable to this as to active virtues,
105. habits of it may be requisite to all creatures, 105-6.
how formed, 106. affliction, the proper discipline for it, 106. moderates our passions, and tends to make us easy and satisfied, 106. Resolutions to do well are properly acts, 86. Restitution of all things, 186.
REVELATION. See Religion, Christianitg, Evidence, Scrip- ture.
likely to contain things liable to objections, Pt. II., Ch. III., 175.
want of universalitv and deficiencies in the proof of it, Pt. II., Ch. VI., 222.
what is implied in the scheme of it, 10-11, 156-60.
particular scheme of the universe cannot be known with- out it, 65.
determines the time only of future punishment, &c., 41, n.
time at which the hinderances of justice will be removed cannot be known without it, 71.
that natural religion came into the world by it, 122, 171.
a real one may be concluded from the existence of pre- tended ones, 122.
Index of Words and Things. 387
REVELATION {continued).
opinion of necessity does not destroy the proof of re- vealed religion, 126.
light of nature, no reason against it, 147.
not to be considered of small importance provided natural religion be followed, 148.
teaches natural religion purely and authoritatively, 150.
of the relations in which we stand to the Son and Holy Spirit raises obligations of duty, 156.
the essence of revealed religion in one aspect con- sists in these, 157.
to be considered as teaching us new facts and new rela- tions raising duties, 158.
alone shows us how to obtain spiritual benefits, 160.
scheme of it to be searched for in the Scriptures, not de- termined beforehand by reason, 166.
is not contrary to natural religion, 166.
no presumption against it, that it contains things not discoverable by the light of natm-e, 166.
there must be innumerable things not to be discovered without it, 168.
no presumption against supposing one, when man was first placed on the earth, 171.
we are incompetent judges of it, 176.
supposed revelations may be proved false by internal evidence, 176.
our being incompetent judges of the course of nature makes our being so of revelation likely, 177.
we are no judges beforehand how it should be com- municated, 179.
we cannot say that any particular form of it would not have answered God's purposes, 180.
raises a practical duty so long as any proof at all re- mains of it, 181.
what reason can judge concerning it, 189.
its nature may be compared with what Ave should have expected from enthusiasm, &c., 191.
has a greater tendency to promote virtue, &c., than could have been expected from them, 191.
probably gave origin to sacrifices, 215.
a light shining in a dark place, 226.
if it were universal men would still be in diff"ereut re- ligious situations, 229.
is itself miraculous, 249-50, 171.
its evidence circumstantial as well as direct, 265.
388 Index of Words and Things.
REVELATION {continued).
may be considered as wholly historical, 267.
the doubtfulness of its evidence under the circumstances proves its truth, 269-70.
its reception, &c., one of the most important events in the history of mankind, 274.
" it is a poor thing to clear it by showing the same diffi- culties in natural religion," 286.
it is unreasonable to urge against it alone, what is of equal weight against natural religion, 288.
inattention to it immoral, 300. Revolutions, sometimes brought about by the sense of injustice, 55.
REWARDS. See Punishments, Goverjiment, Moral, General laws, Virtue. government bv rewards and punishments, Pt. I., Ch, II.,
32. even brutes are governed by them, 125. natural rewards of virtue, 53-8. when given to vicious actions, are not according to the
intent of nature, 59. some grounds for the hope of them in the virtuous, 60,
&c. what are real rewards and punishments, 37. hope of them, a proper motive to obedience, 104. RIDICULE. See Levitt/, Ludicrous, Scorn.
religion no more subject to it than nature, 10. of the notion of smaller pains being punishments, 37. may be occasioned by expressions, though not by the thing expressed, 239.
this ridicule may hinder the perception of truth, 238. unanswerable, 299.
of Scripture, before serious examination, an offence against natural piety, 274. Roman Empire, plainly was divided into about ten parts as
foretold by Daniel, 264. Rom,e, Greece, and Babylon, how noticed in prophecy, 268.
SACRIFICE. See Christ, Mediator, Vicarious. its prevalence disproves the idea of the sufficiency of repentance, 208. heathen sacrifices traditional probably from a revelation, 215.
thought efficacious, but the manner is not clear, 216.
Index of Words and Things. 389
SACRIFICE (continued).
commanded to the Jews, 215.
Levitical, a shadow of Christ's, 212. efficacious in some degree, 216. Safety, an important consideration in matters of action, 284.
SAMENESS. See Personal Identity.
same, not applied to vegetables as it is to persons, 315.
SANCTIONS. See Punishment.
of civil and divine government, 37.
of the dictates of the moral faculty, 119. Satirical writing, has some analogy to the prophetic, 260.
SATISFACTION.
of Christ, 216. See Sacrifice, Atonement.
is a consequence of virtue, 36, 48, 54.
[perfect] satisfaction does not belong to man, 294.
no natural institution of life is satisfactory, 293.
SCEPTICISM. See Doubtfulness, Obligations. no justification of fearlessness in religion, 44.
requires men to have some solicitude about it, 243. immorality and irreligion not excused by it, 308. what the ancient sceptics must have admitted, 297. how far a man can go towards speculative infidelity, 308.
SCHEME. ^QQ Nature, Course of Nature.
The government of Gob a scheme incomprehensible, Pt.
I., Ch. VII., 127. Christianity a scheme imperfectly comprehended, Pt.
II., Ch. IV., 192. a scheme, or system implies variety, 228.
SCOPvN. See Ridicule.
part of the prophetical writings treated with scorn, 176. great weakness to be influenced by it, 265. scorn and contempt of revelation in some persons, 301. proportioned to their inattention, 308.
SCRIPTURE. See Revelation, Christianity, Evidence.
its design is to give an account of the world as God's world, 267.
this distinguishes it from all other books, 267. in what its notices terminate, 269. antiquit}' of its first parts, 269.
mistakes of transcribers, inc., not gi-eater than its anti- quity makes probable, 275-6. profession of natural religion may be owing to it, 226.
390 Index of Words and Things.
SCRIPTURE (continued).
reason must judge of its morality and evidence, 189, 190,
221. mode of discovering its meaning, 186. maj^ contain things not yet discovered, 186. duty of searching it, 166. where we may determine its seeming meaning not the
true one, 166. Origen's observation concerning difficulties in it, 5. future punishments spoken of by heathens as by it,
41, n. its account of our state hereafter, 93. proves natural religion, 150. always puts the stress on moral, rather than on positive
duties, 164. Scripture, not reason, shows what Christianity is, 166. its stj'le objected against, 175 what' it tells us, verv briefly stated, 177, at more length,
267-9. -See 211-15. its authority not overthrown by certain objections, 181. modes of arguing applicable to other books, not so to this,
326, 181. our understanding of it may be increased as our natural
knowledge is, 186. events may ascertain its meaning, 186. precepts recorded in it justify actions otherwise vicious,
190. ascribes natural punishments to God's justice, 203. its account that mankind is in a state of degradation,
confirmed by observation, 211. declares that every one shall not understand, 239. relates miracles as part of its history, 246. its miraculous history, confirmed by the establishment of
the Jewish and Christian religions, 246. cannot be rejected till proved of no authority, 247. may have a greater meaning than its compilers perceived,
262. its extent and structure afford the largest scope for criti- cism, 269. civil history no way confutes, but rather confirms it, 274. nothing in its history gives ground of suspicion against
its truth, 275. wh}' it begins with an account of the creation, 267. SECURITY. See Safeti/.
sense of it arises from being true to virtue, 60.
Index of Words and Things. 39 1
SECURITY {continued).
of finite creatures may depend upon their having habits
of virtue, 98. of highest state may depend upon the practical sense of things obtained in a state of probation, 100. Seeds, how few come to maturity, 103. Self. See Personal Identity.
Self-deceit concerning the evidence of Christianity, 235. SELF-DENIAL.
not essential to virtue and piety [in themselves], 101. highly conducive to discipline and improvement, 101. as necessary to secure our worldly, as our eternal in- terest, 76, 80. how required in upright creatures, 97. productive of resignation to God's will, 106. SELF-GOVERNMENT. See Domestic Life, Recollection. recollection and self-government necessary to temporal
prosperity, 80. virtuous self-government improving as well as right, 98. SELF-LOVE. See Interest. reasonable, 75, 95, n. the passions opposed to it, 75.
coincident with the will of God and part of the idea of virtue, 95, n., 105.
not perhaps always, however, 105. in what sense it needs strengthening, 95, n. a proper motive of action, 105. is moderated by active virtue and obedience, 106. how far, and to Avhat purpose, moral discipline strengthens
it, 104-6. with particular affections, distorts and rends the mind, 106. Selfish, in what sense religion teaches us to be so, 104, 328. Sensation, a state of, 25. See Judgment. Sense of Interest. See Interest. Sermons preached at the Rolls, referred to, 75, 118, 125, 138,
306. Shaftesbury, Lord, cited, 48.
Shame, arises from a sense of blameworthiness, 54. Simplicity. See Oneness. SLEEP.
shows that our living powers may exist unexercised, 15,
29. shown by experience only not to destroy them, 27.
392 Index of Words and Things.
SOCIETY. See Civil Government.
natural, 51.
its power increased by being under the direction of virtue, 60.
the future state may be one of society, 93. SON OF GOD. See Christ, Moral duties,^SiC.
Mediator between God and man, 1.57, &c. Speculations concerning the constitution of the world, 7. Staff, used in the same way that our limbs are, 23. Strabo, cited, 28, n.
STRANGE.
EVENTS occur in most persons' lives, 275. EXPRESSIONS in this treatise, how accounted for, 297.
STYLE OF THE SCRIPTURES, 305.
its inaccuracy does not overthrow their authority, 180, 175. Success in temporal pursuits, doubtful both in its common and in its true sense, 293.
SUMMARY.
of the whole work, 10-11.
of the first part, 141-4.
of the second part, 303-7.
of revealed religion considered as historical, 267-9, 270-3.
of Christianity, 193-5.
of the doctrines of Scripture concerning Christ as a Me- diator, 211-16. Swoons prove the same things as sleep more strongly. See
Sleep. System. See Scheme,
TEMPORAL Interest, -vf^xerv in danger from ourselves, 74. TEMPTATION. See Particular Affections, Fall, Trial,
Difficulties. no moral possibility of doing wrong without it, 73. external and internal how connected, 75. with respect to our worldly interest, 74-7. to forego a greater temporal good for a less, 76. viciousness of the world, the great temptation, 77, 103. what are the chief temptations of the generality of the
world, 236. makes this an improving state of discipline, 99, 234, &c, makes this present world peculiarly fit to be a state of
discipline, 99, &c. to reject religion without any consideration of it at all,
234-5.
Index of Words and Things. 393
TEMPTATION {continued).
implied in the ideas of a general righteous judgment, 73. of moral government, 73. but especially of probation, 73. its greatness diminishes our perception of ill desert, 325.
TENDENCIES. See Consequences, Means.
when natural may be expected to prevail over accidental
hinderances, 72. to Avrong are inherent in particular affections, 97. means may seem to tend to the contrary end to that they
bring about, 133. tendencies of the manner of our redemption, 220.
TESTIMONY. See Evidence.
the strongest evidence we can have for many facts, 254.
may possibly be overcome, 253.
enthusiasm not so easy an account of it, as its truth, 254.
its force, not destroyed by confuting like testimony in other cases, 256.
human testimony, a natural ground of assent, 256.
natural laws of human actions require its admission, 257.
that men are liable to enthusiasm and capable of deceit weakens, but does not destroy it, 256.
what destroys its evidence, 257.
that of the early Christians declared by their conversion, the same as if it had been written, 251.
of S. Paul to the truth of Christianity, 248. Theory of Virtue, going over and talking of it tends to pro- duce practical indifference, 86. 7'trfe,howwe are assured that it will ebb and flow to-morrow, 1.
TRIAL. See Temptation, Probation, Discipline, Difficulties. a state of Probation as implying it, Pt. I., Ch. IV., 72. our state of temporal trial how constituted, 74. how men act under it, 76.
our difficulties increased by the misconduct of our- selves, and others under it, 77. affords no just ground of complaint, 79. thedeficiency of evidence may be part of some men's, 229. may be as to whether we will take care to inform our- selves impartially, 242. our being placed in a state of trial, how rendered credi- ble, 79. speculative difficulties may make the larger part of some men's, 236.
394 Index of Words and Things.
TTNBELIEVERS. See Scepticism.
KJ what they must acknowledge, 266, 282.
how they endeavour to show the evidence of Christianity insufficient, 252.
must admit it to be considerable, 258.
UNDERSTANDING. See Maturity, Moral. its most pious exercise, 220. our probation in respect of it, 234.
UNION.
its vast force, 61.
of good men with other orders of virtuous beings possi- ble, 64. the union of good men now prevented, 64. Universal monarch, the head of a perfectly virtuous society
would become so, 67. TTniversality, objections to Christianity from the want of it, Pt. II., Ch. VI., 222.
UNIVERSE. See World, 3Iaterial.
the scheme of it cannot be known without revelation, 65.
UNREASONABLE. See Reason.
unreasonable actions ground of remorse, 53.
USE AND EXERCISE. See Habits. naturally yielded to, 88.
VARIOUS readings in the Scripture do not overthrow its authority, 180.
VEGETABLES.
their decay not exactly analogous to our death, 29. vegetable world, subservient to the animal, 130. what same means when applied to them, 315.
VERACITY. See Falsehood, Jtistice, Public Spirit.
a special means of uniting society, 63.
with justice, the natural rule of conduct in a supreme Being, 118.
mankind naturally endued with it, 255.
our natural regard to it, 330.
should be our rule of life, 332.
only violated b}^ intentional deceit, 332.
not by the use of common forms of speech, 332. Verisimile, 2, n. Vexed, being vexed with oneself, a result of faultiness, 53.
Index of Words and Things. 395
VICARIOUS PUNISHMENTS. See Assistance, Mediator, Christ. considered by way of Analog}-, 203-20. may be fit and absolutely necessary, 219.
VICE. See Evil, Folly, Indulgence, Moral, Punishment.
does not consist merely in the intention or tendency to
produce unhappiness, 330. manner in which a habit of it is formed, 97. this life is to some a discipline of it, 103. passion a poor excuse for it, 145. its natural bad consequences, judicial punishments, 37,
203.
those in a future life maybe by way of natural con- sequence, 160. private vices may have good effects and yet have been
better avoided, 134. hinderances to its complete punishment accidental, 64, 70. it must be the misery of every creature, 9. considerations showing its enormity, 205. imprudent wilfulness as well as actual vice, punished, 39. vice punished as such, 52.
whence this proceeds, 57. discountenanced as such, 56. infamous and why, 57. punished as mischievous to society, 51, 71. some actions though vicious, rewarded by the operation
of general laws, 59. ridiculous for men to think themselves secure in it, 144, how, incongruous, unsuitable, disproportionate and unfit,
326. approbation of it for its own sake monstrous, 58. Avhat if it had the same effects as virtue ? 68. no such declaration in its favour as in that of virtue, 69. its snares render this world peculiarly fit for a state of
discipline, 101. it is uncertain whether anything can be gained by it,
certain that little can, 145. provision may have been made against its ruinous con- sequences always following, 205. its awful effects in this present world, 206. consists chiefly in the want of the virtuous principle, 325.
VIRTUE. See Self-government, See, Justice, Moral, Pru- dence, Goodness. Dissertation on its nature, 321.
39^ Index of Words and Things.
VIRTUE (continued).
what it consists in, 58, 323.
has regard to actions, 323, n.
inconsistent with the idea of ill desert, 324.
common instances of it produce a very weak feeling of good desert, 325.
does not consist Avholly in benevolence, 329.
going over its theory, may harden the heart, 86.
habit of it how formed, 85-6.
its improvement progressive, 98.
improved by temptation, 99, &c.
how secured, 95.
self-denial not essential to it [in itself], 101.
has a natural tendency to prevail over vice, 60, 64, 70. this tendenc}^ hindered, 64. the hinderances to it accidental, 64-72.
its final triumph, credible and likely, 60-72.
the practice of it includes a reference to revelation, 149, 156, 274, 300.
is generallv attended with more satisfaction than vice, 48, 49, 57.
yet there may be exceptions, 49.
rewarded as such, 52, 71.
as beneficial to society, 51-71.
conciliates good offices, 54-5.
public honours and advancements its natural rewards, 55.
favoured as such, 56.
peace and delight sometimes arise necessarily from it, 57.
nothing in the human mind contradictory to it, 58.
necessarily distinguished from vice, 58.
some actions though virtuous punished by the operation of general laws, 59.
so far as a man is true to it he is on the side of the Di- vine administration, 59-60.
being true to it gives rise to a sense of security, secret satisfaction, and implied hope, 60.
it and vice tend to produce their good and bad effects in a greater degree than they do, 60.
tends to increase the power of a society directed by it and how, 62.
conditions of the prevalence of power directed by it, 63.
much less power under its direction would prevail over much more not so, 64.
existence of this tendency, not refuted by its being hin- dered, 65.
Index of Words and Things. 397
VIRTUE icoyitinued).
to see it work out its effects in one order of beings may
be very useful to others, 65. it and vice will probably be rewarded and punished in a
higher degree hereafter, 70, improvement in virtue and piety the end of our being
placed here, 83. we need improvement in it, and for that this life is a fit
state of discipline, 92. reasonable self-love, part of the idea of it, 404, 95, n.,
104. practical principle of it, how strengthened, 95. habits of it, improvement in it, and this is advancement
in happiness, 96.
necessary to all, even to perfect creatures, 94. how necessary in a future state, 96. the necessary exercise of moral attention, &c., implies an
effort of virtue more real, constant, &c., 101. it may be promoted by what seems opposed to it, 133. moral virtue alone makes us acceptable to God, 164. in general there is a universally acknowledged standard
of it, 323. profession of it universal, 323. Voice of Nature m the conduct of Providence declares for vir- tue, 59.
TT/'ARXIXGS. See Consequences. \ V against the consequences of vice, &c., 36, 43.
fearful effect of disregarding them, 43-4. Waste apparent in nature to us unaccountable, 104. Waterland, his tract on the nature, obligation, and efficacy of
the Christian Sacraments, cited, 157, n. llliat we were to he, the effect of what we would do, 107.
WICKEDNESS.
voluntary, 82.
the danger of it taught by the Gospel, 152. Wilfulness has the effects of vice, 39.
WILL. See Character, GOD.
of God, may be regarded as absolute, or conditional, 242.
our sin and its effects in these two views, 242. how determined. See Fitness, 120, n. Wisdom, in the book of Proverbs, 42.
Words show the existence of something they were meant to represent, 322.
398 Index of Words and Things.
WORLD. See Material, Universe, Earth, Nature.
how we ought to form our notions of its government and
constitution, 5-6. peculiarly fit to be a state of discipline for depraved
creatures, 99. its viciousness makes it a state of virtuous discipline to
good men, 103. is a theatre of action, 107.
the natural world and its government, a progressive scheme, or system, 199.
probably intended to be subordinate to the moral,
130. both alike incomprehensible, 129-30. its histor}', how given in Scripture, 267. no account of its origin can be given without an intel- ligent Author, nor of its general design without a moral Governor, 140.
WRONG. See Injury.
sense of it, implied in remorse, 53. and in resentment, 322.
YO UNG people, their hazards in temporal matters, 74. YOUTH. See Infancy. effects of misbehaviour in it, 78.
the state for acquiring what is necessary in manhood, 90. no sufficient excuse for rashness and folly, 40. an opportunity which may be lost for ever, 91.
IXDEX OF TEXTS CITED OR REFEERED TO.
Page |
Page |
||
Genesis i. |
267. |
Malachi I. 11, |
272. |
Beut. xxviii. 37, |
278. |
III. |
272. |
64, |
271. |
Ecclns. XLii. 24, 25, |
84. |
XXX. 2, 3, |
271. |
3Ianasses' Prayer, |
210, n. |
Job XXXIII. 24, |
214. |
Matt. VI. 23, |
239, n. |
Psalm ex. 4, |
212. |
IX. 11, 13, |
164. |
Proverbs I. |
42-3. |
XI. 25, |
239, n. |
XX. 27, |
303. |
XII. 1, 7, |
164, 165. |
XIII. 11, 12, |
239, 11. |
||
Isaiah ii. |
272. |
XX. 28, |
213. |
VIII. 14, 15, |
272. |
XXVI. 28, |
211. |
XI. |
272. |
XXVIII. 18, |
194. |
XXTX. 13, 14, |
239, n. |
19, |
156. |
XLV. 17, |
271. |
||
XLIX. 5, |
272. |
3Iark X. 45, |
213. |
6, |
272. |
John I. 3, |
268. |
LIII. |
212,272. |
9, |
211. |
LVI. 7, |
272. |
29, 36, |
211. |
LX. 21, |
67,271. |
III. 5, |
160. |
Jer. XXX. 11, |
271. |
16, |
209,306. |
XXXI. 36, |
271. |
19, |
239,11. |
XL VI. 28, |
271. |
35, |
214. |
V. 22, 23, |
194,214. |
||
Daniel, |
264. |
44, |
239, u. |
II. 44, |
269. |
VI. 14, |
214. |
VII. 7, |
264. |
VIII. 12, |
211. |
14, 22, |
67,269. |
XI. 51, 52, |
213. |
27, |
269. |
52, |
193. |
IX. 24, |
212. |
XIV. 2, |
194. |
XII. 10, |
239, n. |
2, 3, |
215. |
Hosea VI. 6, |
165. |
xviii. 36, |
215. |
Amos IX. 15, |
271. |
Acts, III. 21, |
248. 186, 269 |
Malachii. 10, 11, |
272. |
xvii. 31, |
194. |
400
Index of Texts cited.
Romans l. 18, III. 25, |
Page 146. 211. |
2 Tim. I. 10, lu. 13, |
Page 146,152 239, n. |
|
V. 10, |
213. |
Titus 11. 12, |
214. |
|
11, XV. 19, |
211. 249. |
Hebreivs, II. 10, |
212, n. 213. |
|
1 Cor. I. 27, |
175,195. |
14, |
214. |
|
II. 14, |
239,n. |
V. 9, |
213, 306 |
|
V. 7, |
211. |
VI. 1, |
186. |
|
VI. 20, |
213. |
vn. 25, |
213. |
|
XI. 23, &c. |
248. |
VIII. 4, |
5, |
212. |
XII. 8-28, |
249. |
IX. 26, |
216. |
|
XIII. 1, 2, 8, |
249. |
28, |
21.3. |
|
XIV. |
249. |
X. 1, |
212. |
|
XV. 8, |
248. |
4,5 |
,9, |
10, 212. |
25-8, 2 Cor. IV. 4, V. 19, VIII. 12, XII. 12, 13, Galat. I. III. 2, 5, 13, |
194-5. 239, 11. 213. 227. 249. 248. 249. 213. |
1 Peter 1. 11, 19, 11. 21, III. 18, 2 Peter I. 19, II. 1, III. 13, |
12, |
194. 213. 215. 213. 226. 213. 193. |
IV. 4, |
194. |
1 John 11. 1, |
2, |
213. |
Ephes. II. 16, III. 9, |
213. 268. |
2, IV. 18, |
211. 292. |
|
IV. 12, 12, 13, V. 2, |
1.53. 215. 209,211. |
Revelation, III. 21, V. 9, |
211,n. 215. 213. |
|
Philip. II. 6-11, 8, 9, 2 Thess. I. 8, |
194. 214. 215. |
12, X. 7, XI. 15, 17, |
13, |
214. 269. 215. 42, n. |
1 Tim. II. 5, |
201,211. |
XIV. 4, |
21.3. |
|
6, |
213. |
XXII. 5, |
269. |
|
III. 16, |
195. |
11» |
255. |
|
THE |
END. |
|||
CHISWICK PRESS : |
PRINTED BY < |
:. WHITTINGHAM, T |
OOK |
S COURT, |
CHANCERY LANE.
Date Due |
|||
- n^ iti iV'iiiVfrir |
|||
'• |
|||
1 I |
|||
^-^) |
|||
.ijrd , |
|||
■'^^i^iii |
<J4^jJ/ |
||
^ >i^^ |
U. L^/ |
||
1 1 |
|||
1 |
|||
f) |
^^w
1 1012 01006 9690
.%^^
^T^
W''^^ '•■^^f.'' '^
.w*^