PAPERS

PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMEEIOAN AEOHAEOLOGY AND
ETHNOLOGY, HARVAED UNIVERSITY

Vol. IV.— No. 3.

ANIMAL FIGURES

IN THE

MAYA CODICES

BY

ALFRED M, TOZZER Ph.D.

AND

GLOVER M. ALLEN, Ph.D.

Cambridge, Mass.

Published by the Museum

February, 1910

University of California • Berkeley

Gift of

THE ESTATE OF
VICTOR WOLFGANG VON HAGEN

PAPERS

PEABODY MUSEUM OP AMEEIOAN AEOHAEOLOGT AND
ETHNOLOGY, HAEVARD UNIVEESITY

Vol. IV.— No. 3.

ANIMAL FIGUEES

IN THE

MAYA CODICES

BY

ALFRED M. TOZZER Ph.D.

AND

GLOVER M. ALLEN, Ph.D.

Cambridge, Mass.

Published by the Museum

February. 1910

Salem press:

The Salem Press Co., Salem Mass.

1910.

NOTE

It has been thought desirable, for the advancement of the
study of Maya hieroglyphs, that the interpretation of the con-
ventionalized animal figures, which so frequently occur in the
Maya codices, should be undertaken. The Peabody Museum
Committee on Central American Research therefore requested
Dr. A. M. Tozzer to prepare a paper on the subject, and to secure
the valuable cooperation of Dr. Glover M. Allen, a zoologist
familiar with the animals of Mexico and Central America, to
aid in the identification of the various species of animals which
under varying forms are used in connection with the glyphs.

While it is possible that some of the determinations given in
this paper may require further confirmation, it is evident that
the combined studies of Dr. Tozzer and Dr. Allen cannot fail to
be useful to students of the Maya hieroglyphic writing.

F. W. Putnam.
Harvard University,

August, 1909.

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2007 with funding from

IVIicrosoft Corporation

http://www.archive.org/details/animalfiguresinmOOtozzrich

KEY TO THE PRONUNCIATION OF MAYA WORDS

The vowels and consonants have their continental sounds
with the folio wing'except ions : —

a like u in hut

ai like i in island

k (lieltran's c) ordinary palatal k

q (Heltran's k) velar k

0 (Beltran^s o) ts explosive or fortis

0 (Belt ran 's tz) ts non-explosive

s (Beltran's x) like sh in hush

ts (Beltran's ch) like ch in church

ts (Beltran's ch) ch explosive

p (Beltran^s pp) p explosive

% (Beltran's th) t explosive'

LIST OF PLATES

Plate.

L Mollusca: Fasciolaria gigantea'Oliva.

2. Insecta: Honey hee (Melipona).

3. Insecta and Myriapoda.

4. Arachnoidea, Arachnida, Crustacea.

5. Myriapoda, Pisces.

6. Pisces.

7. Amphibia.

8. Amphibia, Reptilia.

9. Reptilia : Rattlesnake (Crotalus).

10. Reptilia: Serpents. /

11. Reptilia : Serpents. ;

12. Reptilia: Iguana, Lizards.

13. Reptilia: Crocodile.

14. Reptilia: Turtles.

15. Aves: Herons, Frigate-bird.

16. Aves : Ocellated Turkey (Agriochans ocellata).

17. Aves: King Vulture (Sarcorhamphus papa),

18. Aves: King Vulture {S. papa), Black Vulture

(Catharista uruhu) .

19. Aves: Vultures. \

20. Aves: Harpy Eagle (Thrasaetos harpyia),

21. Aves: Yucatan Horned Owl {Bubo virginianus

mayensis) .

22. Aves: Yucatan Horned Owl {B. v. mayensis),

23. Aves: Yucatan Screech Owl {Otus choliba thompsoni),

24. Aves: Quetzal (Pharornacrus mocinno).

25. Aves: Blue Macaw {Ara militaris).

26. Aves: Parrots , Turkeys.

27. Aves: Miscellaneous.

28. Various animals.

29. Mammalia : Armadillo and miscellaneous.

30. Mammalia: Deer, Hare.

280 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

31. Mammalia: Yucatan Deer (Odocoileus yucatanensis) .

32. Mammalia: Yucatan Peccary (Tayassu angulatum

yucatanense), YwcatOin Deer (0. yucatanensis),

33. ^Mammalia: Yucatan Peccary {T. a, yiccatanense) .

34. Mammalia: Jaguar, Puma.

, 35. Mammalia: Jaguar, Coyote, Bear.
36, 37. Mammalia: Dog (Cams).

38. Mammalia: Leaf-nosed Bat ( Vampyrus or Phyllostomus) .

39. Mammalia : Monkey {Cebus) and miscellaneous.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT

Fig.

1. Top of Altar T, Copan (Mandslay, I. PL 95) . 32Q

2. Pottery whistle from Uloa Valley, Honduras;

representing a vulture. Peabody Museum
Memoirs. I. No. 4, fig. 15 . . . . 332

3. I

4. f Glyphs of Maya month Moan showing moan-

5. r bird characteristics 339

6. j

7. Quetzal [from the bas-rehef of the Temple

of'the Cross, Palenque .... 341

Glyphs for Maya month Kankin (Ribs of dogs) 364

11.

12.

- ^ y Glyphs for Maya month Zotz (Bats) . . . 365

14.

15. Pottery whistle from Uloa Valley, Honduras

(Peabody Museum Memoirs, I, No. 4,

fig. 14) , representing an ape . . . 36d

Glyphs for Maya day Chuen 367

Glyphs of God C. (Schellhas, Peabody
Museum Papers, IV, No. 1) . . . • 36S

INTRODUCTION.

The various peoples inhabiting Mexico and Central
America in early pre-Columbian times were accustomed to
record various events, especially in regard to their calendar and
the reHgious ceremonials in relation to it, on long strips of skin
or bark. These were usually painted on both sides and folded
together Hke a screen. Several of these codices are still in ex-
istence from the Nahua and Zapotec areas in Mexico, but only
three have come down to us from the Maya region which is
included in the peninsula of Yucatan, the states of Tabasco
and Chiapas in Mexico, and portions of Guatemala and Hon-
duras. These three manuscripts are the Dresden Codex in the
Royal Pubhc Library at Dresden, the Tro-Cortesianus (formerly
considered to have been two, the Troano and the Cortesianus)
in the National Archaeological Museum at Madrid, and the
Peresianus in the National Library at Paris. These pre-Colum-
bian manuscripts have all been published in facsimile. (See
bibliography.)

These remains of a once extensive literature show evidence
not only of considerable intellectual attainments on the part of
their authors but also'of a high degree of artistic skill in the draw-
ings and hieroglyphics. The frequent occurrence in these
manuscripts of representations of animals showing various
degrees of elaboration and conventionahzation has led us to
undertake the task of identifying these figures as far as possible
and studying the uses and significance of the several species, a

(283)

284 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

field practically untouched.* Forstemann in his various com-
mentaries on *the Maya codices (1902, 1903, 1906), Brinton
(1895), and deRosny (1876) have only commented briefly upon
this side of the study of the manuscripts. Seler (1904a) and
some others have written short papers on special animals. Dur-
ing the preparation of this paper there has appeared a brief
account by Stempell (1908) of the animals in the Maya codices.
The author has, however, omitted a number of species and, as
we believe, misidentified others. In making our identifications
we have given the reasons for our determinations in some detail
and have stated the characteristics employed to denote the
several species.

We have not Umited ourselves entirely to the Maya manu-
scripts as we have drawn upon the vast amount of material
available in the stone car\dngs, the stucco figures, and the
frescoes found throughout the Maya area. This material has
by no means been exhausted in the present paper. In addi-
tion to the figures from the Maya codices and a comparatively
few from other sources in the Maya region, w^e have introduced
for comparison in a number of cases figures from a few of the
ancient manuscripts of the Nahuas and the Zapotecs to the
north. The calendar of these two peoples is fundamentally
the same as that of the Mayas. The year is made up in the
same way being composed of eighteen months of twenty days
each with five days additional at the end of the year. There is
therefore a more or less close connection as regards subject
matter in all the pre-Columbian codices of Mexico and Central
America but the manner of presentation differs among the differ-
ent peoples of this region.

*Tlie first two parts of Dr. Seler' s Treatise, "Die Tierbilder der mex-
ikanischen und der Maya-Handschriften" published in the Zeitschrift
fiir Ethnologle, Vol. 41, have appeared during the time when this paper
was passing through the press. The most excellent and exhaustive
treatment by Dr. Seler would seem to render the present paper un-
necessary. It has seemed best,- however, to continue with its pubhca-
tion inasmuch as its field is narrower and more space is devoted to the
Maya side of the question to the exclusion of the Mexican. Dr. Seler,
on the other hand, while by no means neglecting the Maya, has spent
more time in explaining the Mexican figures.

SYNOPTIC CONSIDERATION OF THE MEANING AND
OCCURRENCE OF ANIMAL FORMS

Before taking up the different animals in the codices it
may be well to consider some of the more common ways in
which the figures occur and their connection with the surround-
ing figures.

Manner of representation. The entire body of the
animal may be represented reahstically or the head alone may
be shown. The animal head is frequently attached to a human
body. The animal may appear conventionaHzed to a greater
or less extent and the head in turn may change in the same way
until only a single characteristic of the animal remains by which
to identify it as, for example, the spots of the jaguar or the
feathering around the eye of the macaw. In the case of the
glyphs, a term employed to designate the regular and usually
square characters appearing in lines or columns throughout the
codices and inscriptions, we find both the reahstic drawing and
that where conventionahsm has come in.

The Tonalamatl. The Maya codices are made up, for
the most part, of the records of the sacred period of two hun-
dred and sixty days, a period called in Nahuatl, tonalamatl,
and other numerical calculations. The tonalamatl was used
for purposes of divination in order to find out whether good
or bad fortune was in store for an individual. It is not neces-
sary at this place to go into the different means taken to record
this period of time or its methods of use. It may be well, how-
ever, to explain the usual distribution of the pictures in the
codices, including those of animals, in connection with the re-
presentation of the tonalamatl. A normal period is shown in

(285)

286 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

Dresden 6c-7c. A column of five day signs occurs in the middle
of 6c with a single red dot over it. To the right of this column
stretches a horizontal hne of numbers consisting of alternate
groups of black and red lines and dots. Under each pair of
red and black numbers there is usually a human form and over-
each pair a group of four glyphs belonging to the figure below..
Schellhas (1904) has classified the various figures of gods ap-
pearing in these vignettes of the tonalamatl and lettered them..
References throughout the paper will be made to the gods by
letters and the reader is referred to Schellhas' paper. Animal
figures often take the place of these gods as in the second picture
in Dresden 7c where the screech owl is shown with human body.
The greater number of animal figures in the codices occur in
some connection with these tonalamatls.

Mythological animals. Where figures are shown with
human body and animal head standing alone in the place usually
occupied by one of the various deities in the tonalamatl, there
can be little doubt that they have a mythological meaning and
are to be taken, either as gods themselves, or as representing
certain of the gods. All of the animals are by no means shown
in this position. The screech owl, or Moan bird (as in Dresden
10a) appears most frequently in this way. The king vulture
(Dresden 8a), the dog (Dresden 7a), and the parrot (Dresden
40b) come next in descending importance. The animals repre-
sented as copulating (as in Dresden 13c) might also be con-
sidered as mythological animals as well as the full drawings of
the jaguar (Dresden 8a) and the other animals when they occur
alone in the regular vignette of the tonalamatl. The four priests
in Dresden 25a-28a should also be regarded as representing, in
all probability, the dog as a mythological animal. The idea of
worshipping animals as gods in themselves is strengthened by
noting the ease with which the Maya people worshipped the
horse which was left behind by Cortes in his march from Mexico
across to Honduras (Villagutierre, 1701, pp. 100-101).

Astronomical ideas. Animals frequently have a part to
play in relation to the constellations. Throughout the codices
and, to a less degree, in the stone carvings, we find what have

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 287

usually been considered to be glyphs for several of the constella-
tions. Numerous calculations in the codices make it clear that
the Mayas had a good knowledge of astronomy. These glyphs
are usually oblong in shape and three or more are arranged to-
gether end to end. We have called these the constellation
bands. Various attempts have been made to identify these
signs of the various constellations. Animals frequently are
pictured below these bands. The dog with fire brands in his
paws and often attached to his tail is shown in several places
coming head downward from one of these bands (as in Dresden
36a ). The peccary is also shown in the same position although
the fire brands do not appear (Dresden 68a). A figure with
macaw head occurs once standing beneath one of these bands
with fire brands in his hands (Dresden 40b). The serpent (as
in Dresden 36a), the Uzard-crocodile-hke animal in Dresden 74,
the turtle (Tro-Cortesianus 71a), the vulture (Dresden 38b),
the turkey (Tro-Cortesianus 10b) , and the deer (Tro-Cortesianus
47a) all appear in connection with these constellation bands.
It is impossible at this time to decide upon the part these various
animals play in relation to distinct constellations. In addition
to the animals named, several of the gods, especially god B, are
found below these bands. One of these signs, the one identified
by Forstemann as standing for Saturn, is composed of the head
of the crocodile more or less conventionahzed.

Forstemann (1902, p. 27) identifies the turtle with the sum-
mer solstice and the snail as the animal associated with the
winter solstice. There does not seem to be any one animal
used in connection with any one of the cardinal points. In
Tro-Cortesianus 88c the dog seems to be associated with the
north as shown by the glyph which is ordinarily regarded as
connected with that direction, the ape with the west, and an
unidentifiable bird sitting on a Cimi (death) sign with the south.
The east is connected in this place with a human figure. It
should be stated, however, that it is not absolutely certain that
the usual assignment of the cardinal points, each to its special
direction, is correct. The signs for the east and west as well as
those for the north and south may be reversed. With the ex-

288 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

ception of the assignment of the offering-glyphs to the various
cardinal points which will be discussed later (p. 290) this is almost
the only case where a clear relation can be made out between
the various animals and the signs for the four directions. There
is no definite relation as is seen, for example, in the Vaticanus
3773, 17, 18 where the quetzal is noted perched on the tree of
the east, the eagle on that of the north, the humming bird on
that of the west, and the jaguar on the tree of the south.

Copulation. The conception, the period of pregnancy,
the infant baptism, and possibly, the naming of children are
shown in both the Tro-Cortesianus (91-95) and the Dresden
(13-23). Animals are frequently shown copulating with various
gods or with one another. In Dresden 13c, the deer and god M
and the vulture and the dog; in 19c, the vulture and a woman;
in Tro-Cortesianus 91 d, a god and a woman; and in 92d, an
armadillo and a deer both with female figures. These animals
probably represent in some way the totems of the man or woman
in question and are shown in place of the human figure. The
Lacandones, a Maya people, show at the present time the re-
mains of a totemic system (Tozzer, 1907, pp. 40-42). The
deer (Ke) gens is found at the present time. In the greater
number of cases where copulation is shown a god and a female
figure are pictured. The presentation of the new-born chil-
dren by women with bird head-dresses, also occurring in this
same section of both manuscripts, is discussed later (p. 291).

Animal sacrifices. Various ceremonials occurring at
intervals throughout the Maya year which included sacrifices
to the gods, evidently took up a large part of the time
of the people. Animals composed by far the major part of
the gifts made to the gods. This was especially true in regard
to the ceremonies occurring at the beginning of each year. Ac-
cording to the Maya calendar there were four days only which
could come at the beginning of the year and these came in suc-
cession. Landa (1864, pp. 210-233), the first Bishop of Yuca-
tan, gives a minute description of the rites of the four years
which were named according to the initial day. He also relates
the manner in which the various animalsare employed as offer-

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 289

ings in these rites and also in others taking place at the beginning
of the various months.*

The rites which took place at the beginning and the end of
the year are shown in Dresden 25-28 and in Tro-Cortesianus
34-37. The dog, the deer, and the turkey are the most impor-
tant of the animals shown as being offered to the gods in this
connection. It will not be necessary to consider these animals
in detail at this place as they are each taken up later.

Offerings shown by glyphs. It is, however, in another
connection than that just considered that the animals are shown
as offerings far more frequently throughout the Maya manu-
scripts. In the ceremonies of the four years, the animals and
birds are, for the most part, represented entire and purely as
pictures. Offerings are also shown in the form of glyphs. These
may occur in connection with the figures of the gods or in the
lines of hieroglyphs above the pictures. When they are used
in the former relation they are usually shown as resting in a
bowl or dish (Dresden 35a). It frequently happens that when
a god is making an offering represented by the entire animal or
a glyph of the animal in the main picture, there is a correspond-
ing glyph of the offering above in the Hne of hieroglyphics (Dres-
den 23b).

The fish, iguana, turkey, deer and possibly the lizard

* p. 162. ''Las mugeres no usavan destos derrammamientos, aunque
eran harto santeras ; mas de todas las cosas que aver podian que son
aves del cielo, animales de la tierra, o pescados de la agua, siempre les
embadurnavan los rostros al demonio con la sangre dellos."

p. 164. "Y otras cosas que tenian ofrecian; a algunos animales
les sacavan el corazon y lo ofrecian, a otros enteros, unos vivos,

otros muertos, unos crudos, otros guisados Que sin las

fiestas en las quales, para la solemnidad de ellas, se seerificavan ani-
males, tambien por alguna tribulacion o necessidad."

p. 254. "Tenian buscados todos animales y savandijas del campo que
podian aver y en la tierra avia, y con ellos se junta van en el patio del
templo en el qual se ponian los Chaques .... Sacavan con liberalidad
los coragones a las aves y animales, y echavanlos a quemar en el fuego;
y sino podian aver los animales grandes como tigres, leones o largartos,
hazian los cora^ones de su encienso, y si los matavan trayanles los cor-
agones para aquel fuego."
IV. 19

290 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

are the usual animals shown as glyphs in this connection. The
frigate bird occurs once in the Dresden (35a) and once in the
Tro-Cortesianus (34a) as an offering. The dog, curiously-
enough, does not seem to be represented by an offering-glyph
although he has a glyph of his own when appearing in other
connections. The iguana and fish are shown entire although
drawn very small; the head is the only part usually shown of
the turkey and the haunch of venison of the deer. The head
and feet of the lizard, as has been noted, may also be shown by
a glyph. The turkey and iguana glyphs are very often found
with a Kan sign indicating an offering of maize and bread as
well as that of the animal. In connection with glyphs showing
various offerings of food, there is one which occurs especially
in the Tro-Cortesianus (as in 106a). This shows a row of points
themselves running to a point over a Kan sign. This, as will
be pointed out later (p. 318) may also represent an iguana. The
jar containing a representation of the honey comb (as in Tro-
Cortesianus 107b) might come in here in the consideration of
the offering-glyphs.

In many instances the common offerings shown by glyphs
are found associated with the signs for the four cardinal points
but there does not seem to be any strict uniformity as to the
special offering associated with each direction. In Dresden
29b, the hzard glyph is found in the same group with the sign
commonly assigned to the east, the turkey with the south, the
iguana with the west, and the fish with the north while in Dres-
den 29c, the deer is associated with the east, the fish with the
south, the iguana with the west, and the turkey with the north.
The iguana is usually found with the sign for the west and the
fish with that of the south. The others vary greatly in the as-
signment of the various directions.

Schellhas (1904, p. 17) considers that the fish, the lizard, "the
sprouting kernel of maize or (according to Forstemann, parts
of a mammal, game)" and a vulture's head are symbols of the
four elements. The head which Schellhas interprets as that
of the vulture is certainly the head of a turkey. He remarks
that these signs of the four elements appear with god B in the

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 291

Dresden manuscript. Other gods, as he also notes, are found
with these four offering-glyphs. There seems to be a fifth glyph,
however, (as in Dresden 29b) which we have interpreted as that
of a lizard.

Animals as rain bearers. Various animals are associated
with the rain and water. The serpent is most frequently repre-
sented in this connection. Snails, fish, the turtle, and the frog,
as well as the lizard-crocodile figure in Dresden 74 are naturally
found associated with water. The vulture-headed figure in
Dresden 38b and the vulture as a bird in Tro-Cortesianus 10a
both appear in the rain. The peccary (Dresden 68a), and the tur-
key (Tro-Cortesianus 10b) appear associated with the rain as well
as with the constellation bands. The scorpion (Tro-Cortesian-
us 7a) encloses the rain within its legs.

The connection of an old female figure occurring in many
places in the codices with the rain will be discussed later (p. 316)
when considering the serpent. It remains at this place to com-
ment upon the woman in Tro-Cortesianus 30b from whose
breasts water is flowing. She is represented as having animal
figures seated on her two outstretched hands and on her right
foot together with another animal at her side. God B sits on
her left foot. This picture immediately recalls representations
in the Mexican codices where the various parts of the body of a
god are associated with various day signs, ten of which have
animal names. In the Maya picture, a jaguar is shown on the
right hand, a peccary on' the left, a dog on the right foot, and a
rabbit beside the body at her right. The peccary is not repre-
sented among the Nahua day signs but the other three are
found, namely the oceolotl (jaguar), itzcuintli (dog), and tochtli
(rabbit).

Animal head-dresses. Animal figures- appear perhaps
most frequently as head-dresses of the various gods in the codi-
ces. Here, as elsewhere, from all that can be made out, the relig-
ious character is uppermost as in addition to being a deco-
ration, they undoubtedly have some rehgious signification.
Birds occur by far most commonly in this connection. Both male
and female figures seems to have these head-dresses. The

292 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

same bird is often found as the head-dress of several different
gods as, for example, the turkey which appears with gods A, B,
C, E, and N. The vulture, on the other hand, when used as a
head-dress for male figures, appears exclusively with god F.
The whole bird is seldom represented on the head-dress of the
male figures. It is usually only the head and a part of the body
of the bird which forms but a portion of the whole head-cover-
ing. Landa (1864, p. 148)^' notes the dress of the leader in the
rites. He wears a jacket of red feathers worked with other
feathers and from it hang long plumes. He also wears a feather
head-dress.

Entire birds appear as the sole head-covering only in con-
nection with female figures and then only in one section of the
Dresden (16-18) and a parallel passage in the Tro-Cortesianus
(94-95). In both these places the conception and the bearing
of children are shown together with their baptism. The bird
above the head of each female figure seems to be a badge
of office, possibly the totems which are held by the women and
given to the children. The parrot, quetzal, vulture, screech owl
and the horned owl appear in this connection. It is to be noted
that the birds associated with these women are not really re-
presented as head-dresses at all. They are quite different from
the head decoration composed of a bird's head and feathers
seen in other parts of the manuscripts. In the Dresden es-
pecially, these birds above the women's heads are shown in
almost every case standing with the claws clasping the necklace
at the back of the neck. Landa (1864, pp. 144-154) gives an
interesting account of the method of baptising children. He
also states (p. 304) f that in the month Yaxkin an old woman
brought the Httle girls to the general feast. This old woman

* "Vestido salia con un jaco de pluma Colorado y labrado de otras
plumas de colores, y que le cuelgan de los estremos otras plumas largas
y una como coroza en la cabe9a de las mesmas plumas. "

t " Y a las niSas se les dava una vieja, vestida de un habito de
plumas, que las traia alii y por esto la llamavan Ixmol, la allegadera.
.... Aquella devota vieja allegaria con que se emborachava en casa
por no perder la pluma del officio en el camino."

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 293

was dressed in a garment of feathers. It was understood that
this devoted old woman was not permitted to become intoxi-
cated* lest she should lose in the road the plume of her office.

The serpent appears as a head-dress exclusively with female
figures and then usually when the woman is in the act of offering
something or is associated with water or rain. The centipede
occurs only with god D. Quadrupeds are employed as head-
dresses only very seldom. The head of a deer is, in three places,
used as a part of the head decoration of god M and the head of a
jaguar appears in two places only.

Secular occupations. Animals appear frequently in
scenes showing various occupations. These, although appearing
at first sight as secular, have to do with the reHgion of the peo-
ple and they show in every case acts undertaken in behalf of the
deities. It is almost exclusively in the Tro-Cortesianus that
these rehgious-secular occupations are shown.

Hunting scenes occur in one section of this codex (38-49).
The whole aim of the hunt in these pages is to obtain animals
for sacrifice. In almost every case the various animals are
shown as being captured alive, either in a pitfall or a trap of the
''jerk-up" type." This was undoubtedly in order that the ani-
mal might be killed the moment it was offered to the gods by
having its heart cut out. Deer are most commonly represented
in this hunting section although peccaries and armadillos also
appear. Fishing is shown in one place at least (Dresden 33a).

The practice of agriculture is shown in Tro-Cortesianus
24-28. The sprouting grain is represented as being eaten by a
vulture and a jaguar. Certain gods in this section which relates
to the planting of maize are shown as being attacked by vultures
and blow-flies. Another occupation of the natives depicted in
the Tro-Cortesianus (103-112) is apiculture. This, again, has
clearly some rehgious significance. Pottery-making is shown
in the same manuscript (95-101). It is, however, a purely reli-
gious ceremony. The renewal of the incense-burners is shown.

* "Intoxication was obligatory with the men in many of the religious
rites. This is reported by the early Spanish historians and is the case
at the present time among the Lacandones." (See Tozzer, 1907, p. 136.)

294 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

Animals occur very infrequently in this section. The quetzal
and two vultures are noted seated on top of an oven-Hke cover-
ing under which is the head of god C, probably representing
the idol. There are several other occupations shown in this
codex such as weaving (79c) and the gathering of the sap of the
rubber tree (102b), but as animals do not occur in any connec-
tion with these operations, it is not necessary to dwell upon them.

Animal glyphs. It remains finally to speak of the various
animals which are represented in glyph form as well as drawn
in full in the pictures proper. The creatures pictured in the
codices are often accompanied by their glyphs which appear in
the lines of signs directly above. In many cases, the animal
pictured below is not represented by its glyph above and, vice
versa, the animal glyph may appear without its picture below.
The same is seen also in connection with the representation of
the gods and their glyphs. Both the picture and the glyph
usually appear but either may appear alone. Many times when
the glyph, either of a god or an animal, is shown with no accom-
panying picture, the reason seems to be that there is no room
for the latter on account of the numerical calculations which
take up all the space.

There are some animals in the codices which are represented
by glyphs very frequently. Among these are the screech owl
(the Moan, the bird of death), which has several different glyphs
by which it is recognized, the dog which, in addition to its own
glyph, may be represented by the day sign Oc, the king vulture,
the turtle, the bee (if we consider the day sign Cauac stands for
this insect), and the centipede. Among the animals whose
glyphs only seldom appear may be mentioned the macaw, the
peccary, the tree-toad (god P), the quetzal, and the jaguar.
The glyph for the black vulture (Tro-Cortesianus 26c), the ape
(Tro-Cortesianus 88c), the deer (Peresianus 10), the eagle (Tro-
Cortesianus 107c), and the serpent (Tro-Cortesianus 106c)
seem to appear but once. It might also be well to mention in
this place the glyphs for various molluscs which are used not to
represent the shell but to give the value of zero to the numerical
calculations.

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 295

In the inscriptions glyphs frequently occur which represent
animals either showing the whole body or simply the head. In
the eastern fa9ade of the Monjas at Chichen Itza there are glyphs
for both the king and the black vulture and the peccary. The
macaw and the turtle seem also to be represented by glyphs in
the inscriptions. The Tun period glyph shows vulture-hke
characteristics and the Uinal period glyph certainly resembles
the hzard. The glyphs representing the various animal offer-
ings have already been discussed under a special heading(p. 289).

II

ZOOLOGICAL IDENTIFICATION AND ETHNOLOGICAL
EXPLANATION OF ANIMAL FORMS.

In the descriptions of the animals which follow the general
plan will be to consider first the identification purely from a
zoological point of view, and, secondly, the connection and,
wherever possible, the meaning of the use of the various animal
figures wherever they occur.

MOLLUSCA

Fasciolaria gig ante a. Representations of this marine
sheU are found in several places in the codices. It is the only
large Fusus-like species on the western coast of the Gulf of
Mexico, and, indeed, is the largest known American shell. It
is therefore not strange that it should have attracted the atten-"
tion of the Mayas and found a place in their writings. Several
figures are shown that represent Fasciolaria (PL 1, figs. 1-9).
One in the Codex Vaticanus 3773 (PI. 1, fig. 3) in common
with those shown in PL 1, figs. 2, 6, 9, has the spire represented
by segments of successively smaller size. The species of Fas-
ciolaria occurring on the Yucatan and adjacent coasts is charac-
terized by numerous prominent bosses or projections on its
later whorls, and these, too, appear in conventionaHzed form
in most of the representations. In PL 1, fig. 2, the second
whorl, and in figs. 6, 9, the third whorl is shown with three stout
tubercles in side view, corresponding to those found in this
region of the shell. Figs. 7, 8 (PL 1) are glyphs representing
the same species, but as in fig. 4, the spire is omitted, though
the knobs are present. Round spots of color are evidently in-
tended by the markings on the shells shown in figs. 3, 5, 6 (Pl.l).
(296)

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 297

Fig. 5, shows a further modification of the spire, which here is
made Hke the head of a serpent.

The Mollusca in the codices are not always associated with
the water although this is usually the case. God N (PL 1, fig.
1) sitting with the shell around his body is represented as in the
rain and the shells in PI. 1, figs. 4, 6, appear under water. The
snail (Maya, sot) is considered by the Nahuas as the symbol of
birth and death. The first idea is well brought out in PI. 1, fig.
2, where the human figure is emerging from a shell. The same
idea among the Mayas is seen in PI. 1, fig. 1 , where god N is com-
ing from a shell. As god N is usually associated with the end
of the year, we may have here the complementary idea of death
associated with the shell. The same meaning is brought. out
in the Bologna Codex (PL 1, fig. 3) where the shell is decorated
with flint points, the symbol of death. As the tortoise is often
identified with the summer solstice, as previously pointed out,
so the snail is associated with the winter solstice.

Forstemann's identification of the head-dress of god D
(Dresden 5c), god A (Dresden 9c, 13a), and god E (Dresden lie)
as representing snails is not clear. Stempell (1908, p. 739) also
follows the same course thinking that the knob-Hke prominences
represent the stalked eyes of snails. This seems quite unhkely
as such representations are usually short and occur in too widely
dissimilar connections. Moreover, there are sometimes three
of these instead of but a single pair (Dresden 14a). A similar
attempt has been made by Brinton to identify the head-dress
of the death god (god A) as the snail. The head-dress in Dresden
13a and 13b associated with god A looks far more Hke the head
and upper jaw of some mammal.

Oliva. a univalve shell frequently represented is of an
oval shape, pointed at each end, with a longitudinal lip and a
short spire at one extremity. This is doubtless a species of
Oliva, a marine shell. Mr. Charles W. Johnson informs us that
0: reticulata is the species occurring on the Yucatan shores,
while 0 . splendidula is found in other parts of the Gulf of Mexico.
Representations of this shell are shown in PL 1, figs. 10-12. In
figs. 10, 11, the lip and spire are apparent but in fig. 12 the lip

298 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

only is seen as a white fissure against the general dark back-
ground. An earthenware vessel representing a tapir (PL 28,
fig. 1) shows a string of OUva shells about the animaPs neck and
similar strings very often decorate the belts worn by the person-
ages represented on the stelae of Copan.

The shell in the codices is found in most cases to represent
zero in the Maya numerical calculations. Just as a bar has the
meaning five, and a dot one, so the shell often has the signifi-
cation of zero. This is seen especially in th^ numeration by
position in the codices (PI. 1, figs. 7, 8, 10-14).

Other Mollusca. In addition to the species just described
at least two or three others occur in the Nuttall Codex, but so
conventionahzed that it is out of the question to hazard a guess
at their identity. One (PI. 1, figs. 16, 17) is a bivalve with long
pointed shell, another (PI. 1, figs. 18-20) is rounder with con-
ventionaHzed scroll-hke markings. Figs. 21, 22 (PI. 1) mav
be a side view of the closed bivalve shown in figs. 16, 17, or
possibly a species of cowry. In Uke manner, fig. 13 is probably
a side view of the mollusc shown in fig. 14, for it is seen that in
each case the figure showing the two opened valves has a bi-
partite extended foot, whereas that of the single valve is simple.
This doubhng of the single median foot of the bivalve may be
an artistic necessity for the sake of balance, or perhaps repre-
sents both foot and siphon at the same end. Figs. 23, 24 (PI. 1)
seem to represent molluscs still further reduced and conven-
tionalized. These molluscs from the Nuttall Codex (PI. 1, figs.
15-24) are almost all found represented in the blue water, where-
as those which stand for zero in the Maya codices have no imme-
diate association with either water or rain.

INSECTA

The Honey Bee (Melipona). A portion of the Tro-Corte-
sianus appears to treat of apiculture, as previously noted, or,
at all events, contains numerous figures of bees, some of which
are shown in PI. 2. As stated by Stempell (1908, p. 735) this
is doubtless a species of Melipona, probably M. fulvipes or do-

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 299

mestica. It is well known that this bee was kept by the ancient
Mexicans, and what appear to be improvised hives are shown
in PI. 2, figs. 7, 10, where the combs are noted depending from
the ceiling or walls. These combs are seen to be composed of
cells roughly four-sided for the most part, though in fig. 11
several hexagonal cells are present in the mass of comb held by
the black god, M. Darwin, in his Origin of Species, has called
attention to the form of the comb built by this bee, and con-
siders its irregular cells of from three to six sides intermediate
in their degree of perfection between those of the bumble bee
(Bombus) and the honey bee of Europe (Apis mellifica). The
Caban form in connnection with the hive in fig. 10 may have
some phonetic signifiance as kab is honey in Maya. This sign
occurs very frequently in the pages devoted to apiculture.

The figures of the bees in the codex show a number of inter-
esting variations. In figs. 1-3, 5, 11, the insect is less conven-
tionaUzed than in figs. 4, 6 (PL 2). The hairy feet are well in-
dicated as well as the segmented body and a single pair of wings.
All the figures show an anterodorsal view so that, on account
of the size of the first pair of legs, only the tops of the second
pair appear in PL 2, figs. 1, 3, 5. In fig. 2, however, two pairs
are seen, and in figs. 4, 6, the anthropomorphic tendency is
further shown by providing the insect with two pairs of limbs
each with four or five digits, and a conventionaUzed face, eyes
and mouth. In PL 2, fig. 1, the bee is represented without
mouthparts but antennae only. This may indicate a drone or
a queen bee that takes no active part in the work of gathering
honey or making comb. Fig. 2 is perhaps the least reduced of
any of the figures and shows the worker bee with antennae and
mouthparts.

The so-called '^cloud balls" of the day sign Cauac (PL 2, fig.
8) may represent the honey comb. Cauac is usually supposed
to have some connection with Hghtening and thunder although
Valentini agrees with the authors in associating Cauac with the
bees and honey. The Cauac-like forms in PL 2, figs. 7, 10, have
been described above as hives. The representation of legs in
the full drawing of a bee as four large Hmbs, an anterior and a

300 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

posterior pair, coupled with the method of drawing the insect
as seen from above and in fro^t, may have led to its final ex-
pression by an X-shaped mark shown in connection with the
hives (PL 2, figs. 7, 10). The X is also seen in the day sign Cauac,

Apiculture was common among the various peoples of Cen-
tral America and Mexico. Las Casas speaks of hives of bees
and Gomara states that the bees were small and the honey
rather bitter. Clavigero (Vol. T, p. 68)* mentions six varieties
of bees which were found in Mexico;— the first is the same as
the common bee of Europe, the second differs from the first only
in having no sting and is the bee of Yucatan and Chiapas which
makes the fine clear honey of aromatic flavor. The third species
resembles in its form the winged ants but is smaller than the
common bee and without a sting. The fourth is a yellow bee^
smaller than the common one but, like it, furnished with a sting.
The fifth is a small bee without a sting which constructs hives
of an orbicular form in subterranean cavities and the honey is
sour and somewhat bitter. The Tlalpipiolli, which is the sixth
species, is black and yellow, of the size of the common bee, but
has no sting.

The natives of the country at the present time often culti-
vate hives of bees in logs which they hollow out for this purpose
and keep in a specially constructed shelter. It is, however,
rather the ceremonial side of apiculture that is the interesting
feature and this is clearly emphasized in the Tro-Cortesianus.
The section in this manuscript (80b, 103-112), as has been noted,
is taken up almost exclusively with the culture of the bee
and in all probability represents a definite reUgious ceremony
or series of rites which are connected intimately with bees and
honey. Landa (1864, p. 292) f states that in the month Tzoz
the natives prepare for a ceremony in behalf of the bees which
takes place in the following month, Tzec. In the month Mot
another fiesta is undertaken in behalf of these insects so that

* Quoted in Thomas, 1882, pp. 115, 116.

t " En el mes de Tzoz se aparejavan los senores de las colmenares para
celebrar su fiesta en Tzec."

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 301

the gods may provide an abundance of flowers for the bees
(Landa, 1864, p. 306).*

It seems clear therefore that we have represented in the
pages of the Tro-Cortesianus referred to, the rites carried out in
this connection. The more or less reahstic drawings of the bees
(PI. 2, figs. 1-6,9) represent the god of the bees and to him offer-
ings of food and incense are being made. PL 2, fig. 11, shows
the war god (M) with his eagle head-dress offering a mass of
honey in the comb to the god of the bees.

Curiously enough the bee does not seem to be represented in
the Dresden Codex. Forstemann's identification of the head-
dress of the goddess in Dresden 9a as a bee does not seem to us
to be correct.

In addition to the bees, there occurs in the Nuttall Codex 4
(PI. 3, fig. 4) a curious representation of an insect with a pointed
beak-hke structure and a spine at the posterior extremity of its
human-Hke body. It is engaged in apparent conflict with a
man and may represent a hornet.

Blow-fly (Sarcophaga) . Two figures in the Tro-Corte-
sianus (PI. 3, figs. 1, 2) are of special interest since they appear
to have been frequently regarded as picturing snakes attacking
men. These are thick-bodied sinuous creatures distinguished by
the curious conformation of the mouth and by a lateral row of
dots that may represent the metameric spiracles or, as com-
monly, a demarcation between dorsal and ventral surfaces.
That these are maggots of a blow-fly (Sarcophaga) there can be
little doubt, not only on account of their mouth parts which are
similar to those of the agave maggot (see later) but also because
of their relation to God F whom they are devouring. The latter
in fig. 1 is doubtless dead as shown by the closed eye and it is the
habit of the blow-fly to deposit its eggs in the nasal cavity of
dead animals as well as elsewhere on the body. The fact that
in each case a maggot is attacking the god's nose may indicate
that this habit was known to the artist who, consequently,

* " En este mes (Mol) tornavan los colmenares a hazer otra fiesta como
la que hizieron en Tzec, para que los dioses proveessen de floras a las
avejas."

302 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

shows the larvae in this position. In PI. 3, fig. 2, the god's eye
is not closed but his passive attitude while the maggot devours
his hand and nose does not indicate that he is in full possession
of his strength. In addition to the blow-fly, a screw-fly {Chryso-
myia) lays its eggs on the bodies of animals, often on persons
sleeping, and these may hatch almost at once into small maggots
that penetrate the skin. It may be, therefore, that the larvae
here considered belong to this genus.

In addition to god F, in Tro-Cortesianus 24d, there is
another representation of the same god being attacked by a
vulture. This bird is evidently eating his nose. In this case
the god is shown with the closed eye as in 27d. In Tro-Corte-
sianus 25d the fly seems to be attacking the mouth of god F.
From the fact that no other god is ever found in this connection
it may be suggested that there may be some relation between
god F as a god of human sacrifice and the fact that his dead
body is being eaten by blow-flies and vultures. A portion of
the body of the person sacrificed was usually eaten by those
taking part in the ceremony.

Lepidopterous Insects. In Tro-Cortesianus 28c (PI. 3,
fig. 3) is shown a second insect larva with curiously formed
mouth parts. It is represented as attacking agave which is
springing from the ground as shown by the Caban signs in the
codex. Hough (1908, p. 591) has shown this to be the larva of
Acentrocneme kollari Felder, ''called by the Mexicans guson,
and in Nahuatl mescuillin." This grub, he says, is white, about
an inch long, and tunnels the fleshy leaves of the agave. It is
greatly prized as an article of food for "gusones to this day are
collected in April, boiled, wrapped in the epidermis of the agave,
sold on the streets of Mexico, and are eaten with avidity. To
all appearances they are nourishing and palatable, and it is
said that connoisseurs prefer them to oysters or swallows' nests.' '
Hough beheves "that the discovery of the sap-yielding quahty
of the agave was through search for these larvae. ' '

In the Nuttall Codex occur numerous representations of
insects, some of which appear to represent butterflies or moths
(PI. 3, figs. 5-8) but these are quite unidentifiable. That shown

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 303

in fig. 6 is colored blue in the original, while the others are of
various colors. Possibly the round markings on the wings in
figs. 5; 8, represent the ocelli on the wings of certain species of
moths. In this connection, too, it is interesting to compare
the conventionahzed butterfly with its single eye and pointed
antennae from the Aubin manuscript (PL 3, fig. 9) with one
drawn on the same plan from the Nuttall Codex (PI. 3, fig. 8).

MYRIAPODA

Representations of a centipede (probably a species of
Scolopendra) occur in the Dresden Codex and in several
others examined. That shown in PL 5, fig. 1, from the Vati-
canus 3773, is perhaps the least conventionalized.* This figure
appears partly to encircle a temple, behind which the major
portion of its length is hidden and hence is not here shown. The
bipartite structure coming from the animal's head doubtless
represents the mouthparts, and at its base on either side arise
antennae. The first pair only of legs is shown with a pinching
claw, possibly intended as a conventionahzed hand, while the
rest are simple. The plumes decorating the posterior extrem-
ity are of course extraneous and represent the tail of the quet-
zal or trogon.

In the Dresden Codex, god D constantly appears in connec-
tion with a head-dress from which depends a centipede, greatly
reduced and conventionahzed. Two forms of this centipede
are shown in PL 3, figs. 15, 18. The body appears to consist of
four or five segments each with its pair of ambulatory appen-
dages (though there may not always be the same number of
each) terminated by a circular segment with a conventionalized
three-knobbed structure, apparently corresponding to the por-
tion that bears the quetzal plume in PL 5, fig. 1. The outline of
the head in PL 3, fig. 15, is shown in dotted line but by solid fine
in fig. 18. One of the antennae appears to be omitted from the
former figure, also, but both are present in the latter. The

* Strebel (1899, PL 11) gives several reahstic reproductions of the
centipede from pottery fragments.

304 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

insect-like head is made on much the same plan as that of the
bee (PI. 2, fig. 11), the faciaj portion divided by a median line
into a right and a left half with a small triangle below for a mouth.
The eyes, however, instead of being circular hke those of the bee
are made as narrow elongated projections extending inward
from the dorsal margin of the facial disc.

The glyphs for god D in Dresden 7b (PI. 3, fig. 11), Dresden
7c, and Dresden 14b (PI. 3, fig. 12) undoubtedly show three
forms of the sign for god D, only one of which (fig. 12) is given by
Schellhas (1904, p. 22) among the signs of this god. In each of
these cases the centipede head surrounded by dots is shown in
connection with the main part of the glyph. In Dresden 44b
(PI. 3, fig. 13) there is a glyph which seems to show the same
centipede head although it has no connection with god D in the
place where it is found. In Dresden 27 (PI. 3, fig. 14), moreover,
still another variant of the glyph for god D seems to occur.
This shows a prefix clearly representing the centipede and the
"moon sign" is the main part of the glyph. Directly beside
this in the codex is found the AhauAike sign for god D and god
D himself is represented in the middle section of the page.

The association of god D with the centipede may be ex-
plained by the fact that as this god is regarded as the Moon or
Night god, so the centipede is an animal which frequents dark
places. Another point in this connection may be made if we
consider the head of the centipede in the head-dress and in the
glyphs as representing the day sign Akbal (PI. 3, fig. 10) as Akhal
in Maya means night. It must be admitted, however, that the
head might represent the day signChuen almost as well sls Akbal.
The centipede is connected with death and destruction in the
same way as the owl. Both are shown in Vaticanus 3773, 13,
associated with the ''house of drought."

CRUSTACEA

With one possible exception no crustaceans were
found ' depicted in the Maya codices, but we have intro-
duced figures of two from the Nuttall Codex. The first of these

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 305

(PI. 4, fig. 5) is probably a crayfish, perhaps Cambarus monte-
zumae. It seems unlikely that the so-called Spanish lobster
(Palinurus) can be intended or the powerful spined antennae
would have been shown. It is interesting to note that the
stalked eyes are clearly pictured. The second example seems
to be a crab (PL 4, fig. 6). Two large chelae of nearly equal
size are simply drawn and four rounded projections at the top
of the figure appear to represent the walking legs. Its rotund
form and subequal chelae suggest the land crab, Geocarcinus,
but exact determination is of course impossible. What is cer-
tainly a large crab, perhaps of the same species, is shown in Tro-
Cortesianus 88c (PI. 36, fig. 1) in connection with a dog whose
feet it seems about to pinch with its two large chelae. The shell
is ornamented in a conventionalized way as if with scales.

ARACHNIDA

In Codex~|Borbonicus 9 (PI. 4, fig. 4) there is repre-
sented a stout-bodied form of spider with two sharply
pointed chehcerae projecting from the conventionaUzed mouth.
These characteristics together with the absence of any web,
suggest a large predacious species, probably the tarantula
(Tarantula sp.) which is common in Mexico. The acute
powers of observation shown by the artist are evinced in this
figure since he draws the spider correctly with eight legs instead
of the six or ten sometimes seen in drawings by our own illus-
trators.

ARACHNOIDEA

The scorpion (Maya, sinaan) figures prominently in
the Tro-Cortesianus, two drawings from which are
shown (PL 4, figs. 1, 2). As here conventionahzed, the jointed
appendages are represented as composed of an indefinite num-
ber of round segments. The large chelate pedipalps are also
prominently figured but the smaller walking legs are commonly
omitted. In PL 4, fig. 1, however, there is a pair of posterior
chelate appendages which are probably added to give a more
IV. 20

306 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

anthropoid cast to the figure. The shght projections along the
sides of the body in PI. 4, fig. 2, probably do not represent the
legs. In another drawing (Tro-Cortesianus 44b) these are also
present but further reduced so as not to exceed the heavy fringe
of spines surrounding the body. In PL 4, fig. 1 , the fringe alone
appears. The formidable nature of the scorpion is of course
due to the poisonous sting at the tip of the attenuated abdomen
or ''tail." In the Maya pictures this portion is usually shown
as a grasping organ. Thus in fig. 1 it is similar to the chela and
holds a cord by which a deer has been caught. In fig. 2 the
"tail" is terminated by a hand. The same thing is seen in Tro-
Cortesianus 44b where the hand seizes a cord by which a deer
is snared. The scorpion is represented in the drawings with a
conventionaUzed face that is very characteristic. The facial
disc is divided into three parts by a median area of straight or
irregular lateral boundaries ending anteriorly in two in-turned
scrolls suggesting the alae of the nose. A circular eye is pres-
ent in each of the lateral divisions of the face while from the
oral region projects a forked tongue.

It is of course hazardous to attempt a specific identification
of these figures but, as pointed out by Stempell (1908, p. 739),
there are two large scorpions in Yucatan {Centruroides margari-
tatus and C. gracilis) which are probably the species pictured in
the codices.

The representations of the scorpion in the Tro-Cortesianus
are almost always associated with scenes of the hunt.
As the deer is caught in a trap so Forstemann considers that
PL 4, fig. 1, shows a trap with five appHances, the ''tail" one
alone being effective. Brinton (1895, p. 75) notes that the
Mayas apphed the term sinaan ek, "scorpion stars" to a certain
constellation and suggests that it was derived from the Span-
iards. There is certainly some association between the scorpion
and water as, in Tro-Cortesianus 7a, the fore and hind legs of
the animal enclose a body of water. The scorpion "tail" alone
appears in Tro-Cortesianus 31a and 82a as the tail of a god. Its
significance is difficult to make out. Destruction is indicated
by the scorpion in the Aubin manuscript as suggested by Seler
(1900-1901, p. 71).

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 307

In the Nuttall Codex there is a remarkably beautiful con-
ventionalization of a scorpion (PI. 4, fig. 3) in which the tri-
partite nature of the head is still preserved though it is so re-
duced as to resemble the calyx of a flower. The ''tail", as else-
where, and the legs are present.

PISCES

Figures of fish (Maya kai) occur commonly in the Maya
codices in various connections as well as in the stone carvings,
but none of these seems certainly identifiable. Among the
representations, however, there are clearly several species. One
(PI. 5, figs. 2, 6, 7-9; PI. 6, fig. 9) has a single dorsal fin, power-
ful teeth, and a generally ferocious aspect and may represent
some large predacious variety, perhaps a tunny. The distinct
operculum in most of the figures would preclude their represent-
ing a shark. Other figures picture similar fish without the*
prominent teeth (PI. 5, fig. 4, 5; PL 6, figs. 2, 6, 10, 13). In two.
cases the scales are diagramatically shown by straight or cres^
centric fines (PI. 5, fig. 4, 8). A third species of fish is showi*
provided with two dorsal fins (PI. 6, figs. 3, 11; PI. 7, fig. 6, the
last an excellent stone carving). Others (PI. 6, figs. 7, 14-17)
represent fishes without dorsal fins, one of which (fig. 7) froico.
its length may be an eel, possibly Muraena.

In the Nuttall Codex occurs a remarkable fish with an un^
mistakable wing arising just behind the head nearly at the
dorsal fine. While this may represent a flying fish {Exocetus)^
the head is so bird-fike that the whole may be merely a conL-
bination figure.

Of frequent occurrence in the Dresden is a glyph, two modi-
fications of which are here shown (PI. 6, figs. 4, 5). Stempell
suggests that the vertical fines on the posterior portion of such
figures may be gill sfits and that hence they may represent
sharks in which these orifices are without an operculum.

As with the molluscs, so with the fish, we naturally find
them usually associated with the water. This may be seen
especially well in the Nuttall Codex. In Dresden 33a (PL 6»

308 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

fig. 13) the fish is clearly associated with the operation of fish-
ing as two figures are seated on the edge of a body of water in
the act of casting a net. An eel is shown in the water under
god B in Dresden 65b (PI. 6, fig. 7) and fish are shown just below
the claws of a crocodile in text figure 1. In Dresden 44a god
B holds a fish in his hands. As will be pointed out later (p. 314)
this god is frequently associated with water. In Dresden 44c a
fish appears between god B and an unidentifiable deity. In the
Maya codices the greater number of representations of fish are
in connection with sacrifice. In Dresden 27 (PI. 6, fig. 6) the
fish is pictured resting on two Kan signs, the symbol of maize
or bread, and these in turn on a flat bowl. In Dresden 29b
(Pi. 5, fig. 9) the fish is represented between the red and black
numbers of the tonalamatl. Here again the fish is shown as an
offering.

In two cases only do we find the fish used as a part of the
head-dress and in each case the fish is graphically shown as held
in the mouth of a heron. One of these is in the Dresden Codex
36b (PI. 5, fig. 3) and one in the stone carving of the Temple of
the Cross at Palenque (PI. 15, fig. 5). Fish are often repre-
sented on the stone carvings as feeding upon a water plant.
This is seen in the border at the bottom of the Lower Chamber
of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza (PL 5, figs. 2, 4; PI.
6, fig. 2) . In several instances at Copan fish are shown as form-
ing the sides of the Great Cycle glyph at the beginning of an
Initial Series (PI. 6, figs. 14-17). It has often been suggested
that as the word fish in Maya is kai (usually written cay), there
may be some phonetic significance here, combining the fish,
kai, with the usually drum-Hke sign for stone, tun, making kai
tun or katun. This is the term usually given not to the Great
Cycle but to the period composed of twenty tuns and is probably
derived from kai meaning twenty and tun, a stone.

AMPHIBIA

Frogs. Figures undoubtedly representing frogs (Maya
tmUs or uo) or toads are found in several places in the codices

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 309

and in the stone carvings, but it is quite impossible to refer them
definitely to any of the numerous species occurring in Central
America, if, indeed, the artists had any one species in mind. In
the Tro-Cortesianus frogs are not uncommon. In 31a there are
four (PL 7, fig. 1) with water coming from their mouths. They
are characterized by their stout tailless bodies, flattened heads
and toothless mouths. In lOld (PI. 7, figs. 2, 3) there are two,
the first painted blue with spots of darker blue and the second
white and represented as broken in two in the middle. The
signs of death above the latter clearly show that a dead animal
is indicated. PL 7, fig. 6, shows the end of Altar O from Ccpan
on which a frog and a fish are pictured, the former in dorsal view,
the latter in lateral aspect. The pecuHar pointed snout of
this frog is similar to that of the frog shown in PL 7, fig. 7, also
in dorsal view. A somewhat similar creature (PL 29, fig. 6)
we have included and though it may represent an opossum it
has little to distinguish it from the figures of frogs.*

God B in Tro-Cortesianus 12b should be associated with the
frog. His legs are those of a frog and he appears as if swimming
in the water. Frog in Maya is Uo which is also the name of the
second month of the Maya year. The first day of this month,
according to Landa, corresponds to August 5 of our year and
this is the height of the rainy season in the Maya region. The
sign for Uo does not, however, resemblea frog in any way. The
frog above one of the figures in the Lower Chamber of the Temple
of the Tigers at Chichen Itza (PL 7, fig. 7) has clearly some rela-
tion to the name or totem of the warrior. The Nahua custom
is seen here.

Toads are probably intended in PL 7, figs. 4, 5. In these
the great breadth of the head and mouth together with the short
inflated body combine to produce a very toad-like appearance.
It is not unlikely that they represent the huge marine toad,
Bufo marinus, common from southern Mexico to Brazil and in
the West Indies. There seems to be no distinction in the treat-
ment of frogs and toads in the codices.

♦Attention is also called to two whistles representing frogs in the Me-
moirs of the Peabody Museum, I, No. 4 (Gordon, 1898), PI. 9, figs, i, j.

310 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

Tree-toad {Hyla eximia). Of great interest are the figures
in Tro-Cortesianus 26a and b (PL 8, figs. 1, 3), showing a god
with expanded finger tips. and characterized further by the
presence of two parallel black stripes from the hinder and lower
margins of the eye respectively. The knob-Hke finger tips at
once suggest one of the tree-toads, and the presence of the two
lines seems to indicate Hyla eximia as the species represented.
In this tree-toad there is a long black lateral fine running pos-
teriorly from the tympanum and above it a shorter hne just as
in the drawings. It appears to be a common species in the
valley of Mexico though but Uttle seems to have been written
of its habits. At the beginning of the rainy season it repairs
to pools of water to breed and is then very noticeable from its
loud voice. No doubt its importance in the Maya economy was
from its conspicuousness at the beginning of the rainy period.
This fact is brought out more strongly when we consider that
these gods representing the tree-toad are associated with agri-
culture and the sowing of grain at the beginning of the rainy
season. Forstemann (1902, p. 35) identifies these figures as
god F. They are quite unUke the usual representation of this
god and are clearly god P as Schellhas (1904, p. 39) indicates.
It is interesting to note that the two black fines behind the eye
are also seen in the other gods shown in Tro-Cortesianus 26a
and b although the knob-like finger tips are lacking. The
glyph for this tree-toad god is recognized in the fifth place at
the top of the same page (PL 8, fig. 2) by the same two black
lines under and behind the eye.

REPTILIA

Serpent. It would be impossible in the present paper to
enter into any lengthy discussion of the use of the serpent (Maya
kan) in Mexico and Central America. It seems to be one of the
main elements in the reUgion and consequently in the art of the
Mayas and Mexican peoples. It is represented again and again
in many forms and varied combinations. It underhes the
whole general trend of Maya art. The serpent is often associ-

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 311

a ted with feathers. The culture hero of the Nahuas, Quetzal-
coatl (feathered serpent) corresponds to a similar god among
the Mayas, Kukulcan (also meaning feathered serpent). The
feathers of the quetzal are the ones commonly used in connec-
tion with the serpent.

Any attempt at identification of the species represented is
.beset by grave difficulties for so conventionahzed have the
figures often become that, except in the case of the rattlesnake
with its rattles, there are no characteristic marks by which the
species may be known. It is natural to suppose that the species
used for artistic purposes would be those that are most note-
worthy because of their size, coloring, or venomous quahties.
No doubt a number of harmless species were also used in the
religious ceremonies.* Such may be those used as hair orna-
ments in many of the figures (PI. 8, figs. 7-13, 15) and in which
no indication of a rattle is to be seen. The fierce eye of these
reptiles is shown by means of an exaggerated overhanging brow
•occasionally embelhshed by recurved crests (PI. 8, figs. 10, 11,
13, 15). These crests are sometimes shown as two or three
stalked knobs (PI. 10, fig. 7) that Stempell was misled into
identifying as the eyes of snails. Various heads of snakes usu-
ally with fangs exposed and tongue protruding are pictured in

*We have added here a Spanish description from the Relacion de la
-Civdad de Merida (1900, pp. 66, 67) of the varieties of serpent found in the
country. "Ay una suerte de culebra que llaman los naturales taxinchan,
de una tercia de largo, que para andar hinca la cabeza en el suelo y da un
•salto, y de aquella suerte dando saltos anda, la espalda y la cabeza tiene
doraday la punta dela cola estesecria en los montes,y quando pica a alguna
persona le hazereventar sangre por todos los porosdel cuerpo que parezeque
suda sangre y si no es le haze algun rremedio muere dentro de un dia natural
y para la mordedura desta culebra tienen por rremedio los naturales dar a
bever ala tal persona chile y hoja de piciete molido junto y desleido en
agua, y con esto guarecen e sanan — ay biboras muy grandes y ponzofiosas
de una vara e mas de largo, y tan gruesa como un brazo, que tienen cas-
cabeles en la punta de la cola, y si muerden matan sino se rremedio con
brebedad, y tienen los naturales por rremedio beber chile e piciete como
para la mordedura del taxinchan — ay otras suertes de culebras que se
llaman cocob, de tres y cuatro varas de largo y tan gruesas como una lanza
.gineta, que tanbien son muy ponzonosas, y al que pican haze salir sangre

312 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

PL 8, figs. 4, 6; PI. 9, figs. 2, 4-6: one snake with a spiny back is
shown in PI. 8, fig. 5, but obviously it represents merely the
artist's endeavor to present as terrifying a creature as possible.

Various types of rattlesnalies are shown in PL 9. The pres-
ence of the rattle is of course the characteristic, and this portion
alone is likewise used, in one case, at least, as a glyph (PL 9,
fig. 7). It cannot be denied, however, that some or most of the
snakes in which no rattles appear, are nevertheless intended for
rattlers. It may have been that the figures were so well under-
stood that the addition of rattles in the drawings was quite un-
necessary. This, however, is quite conjectural. The species
of rattlesnake is probably Crotalus hasiliscus or C. terrificus of
southern Mexico and adjacent regions, not C. horridus or ada-
manteus as supposed by Stempell since these two species are
confined to the United States. Among the figures shown on
PL 9, it is noteworthy that five of the rattlesnakes show no
fangs. Some are spotted, but in a wholly arbitrary manner.
Three are unmarked. One is shown coiled about the base
of a tree (PL 9, fig. 5), another coiled ready to strike though
the rattle is pictured trailing on the ground instead of being
held erect in the center of the coil as usually is done (PL 9,.
fig. 9). A rattlesnake is shown held in the hand of a man
in PL 9, fig. 8.

In PL 10, fig. 1, is shown a rattle-less snake with promi-
nent fang, coiled about the top of an altar which may repre-
sent a tree or bush. From the latter fact, it might be
concluded that it was a tree- or bush-inhabiting species^

por todo el cuerpo y por los ojos, como el taxinchan, . . , procuraban guare-
cerse desta ponzona con juros y encantamentos, que avia grandes en
cantadores y tenian sus libros para conjurarlas y encantarlas, y estos en-
cantadores, con pocas palabras que dezian, encantaban y amansaban las
culebras ponzoSosas, las cojian y tomaban con las manos sin que les hiziese
mal ninguno — tanbien ay culebras bobas sin ponzonas, de dos varas y mas
de largo y tan gruesas como el brazo,y suelen ponerse sobre arboles juntos
alos caminos, y quando pasa alguna persona se deja caer encima y se le en-
ros^a y rebuelve al cuerpo y a la garganta, y apretando le procura ahogarl&
y matarle, a sucedido matar algunos yndios cagadores yendo descuidados — •
tanbien tienen estas culebras distinto natural para comer y sustentarse."

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 313

possibly the deadly '' bush-master'' {Lachesis lanceolatus) ,
Other figures (PL 10, figs. 3, 7; PL 11, figs. 1, 2) are intro-
duced here as examples of the curious head ornamentation
frequently found in the drawings. The two first are merely
serpents with the jaws extended to the utmost, and with a
characteristic head decoration. The last is provided with an
elaborate crest. The size and markings of the two serpents
shown in PL 11, as well as their want of rattles suggest that
they may represent some species of large Boidae as Loxocemus
bicolor or Boa (sp?).

After having commented upon the various serpents occur-
ring in the codices and in several other places, we will
now take up the manner and connection in which the
various figures occur. We shall pass over completely the use of
the '' serpent column " at Chichen Itza, the importance of
the serpent motive in the development of the masked panel
as worked out by Spinden, and the countless representations
of the plumed serpent in the whole field of Maya design and
decoration. In the single Temple of the Tigers at Chichen
Itza, the feathered serpent occurs in the round as a column
decoration supporting the portico, as carved on the wooden
lintel at the entrance to the Painted Chamber, again and
again on the frescoes of this room,* in the Lower Chamber
as dividing the bas-relief into zones or panels, and, finally,
as the center of the whole composition of this bas-relief.
It will be seen, therefore, that it will be necessary in a short
paper, to limit ourselves to the representations of the serpent
in the Maya codices.

The serpent is most frequently associated with god B,
Schellhas (1904, p. 17), Fewkes (1894), Forstemann (1906),
and Thomas (1882), seem to agree that god B is to be iden-
tified as Kukulcan, the most important of the deities of the
Mayas and, as pointed out before, appearing in the Nahua
mythology, as Quetzalcoail, and in the Quiche myths as
Gucumatz. It was also noted that the name means both in

* PL 9, figs. 5, 9, show drawings of the rattlesnake which occur on the
fresco.

314 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

Maya and in Nahuatl, the " feathered serpent " or the '' bird ser-
pent." Other authorities consider god B as Itzamna, another
of the main gods of the Mayas. Seler interprets god B as
the counterpart of the Nahua rain god, Tlaloc. It is certain
that when god B and the serpent are associated together
water and rain are usually indicated. God H, ''the Chicchan
god," also has some relation to the serpent. As pointed out
by Schellhas (1904, pp. 28-30), this god often appears char-
acterized by a skin-spot or a scale of the serpent on his temple
of the same shape as the hieroglyph of the day Chicchan
(serpent). The glyph belonging to this deity also shows
the Chicchan sign as its distinguishing mark. Similar signs
appear on the body of the serpent in many places, as in
Tro-Cortesianus 30a (PL 11, fig. 1).

We have already noted that the serpent, god B , and water
are frequently shown together, so the serpent also appears
associated with water and rain, when no figure of god B is
present. From this connection, it can be argued that
there is some relation between the serpent and the coming
of the rains. These facts would give strength to the theory
that god B is to be identified as a rain god. In Dresden
33a, 35a, god B is seated on the open jaws of a serpent, while
the body of the reptile encloses a blue field evidently signi-
fying water. The number nineteen appears on this blue
color. It will be noted that there are nineteen spots on the
serpents in PL 11, figs. 1, 2. In Tro-Cortesianus 3a-6a,
corresponding scenes seem to be shown. The body of the
serpent encloses water, and here the number eighteen appears
in each case. God B occurs always in front of the serpent
and his head appears as the head of the reptile in the first
instance. In Dresden 35a, 36a, the head of god B is pictured
as the head of the serpent in the midst of the water. In
Dresden 37b (PL 10, fig. 8), B is holding a snake in the water.

Water appears in connection with the serpent and god B
in many places in the Tro-Cortesianus. In 9, god B is pictured
pouring water from a jar, a common method of showing
the idea of rain in the codices. In 12b, B again is shown

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 315

perhaps representing a frog, and behind him a serpent. The
reptiles in 13b-18b, are all associated with the idea of rain,
the turtle and frog also appearing in this section. In 30a
(PI. 11, fig. 1), god B and a female figure are both pouring
water from a jar, as they stand on the body of a serpent. In
32a, the black god (L) is seen in the rain, and a serpent is
near, while in 32b and 33b (PL 9, fig. 1), the serpent forms
the belt of god L, and a female figure and water are seen in
both cases. The blue color of the snake and of god B in 31b
(PI. 11, fig. 2) may also suggest water.

God B also occurs in connection with the serpent in Dres-
den 42a (PL 8, fig. 14), where the god is seated on the reptile,
in Tro-Cortesianus, 10 b, where the head of the same god is the
head of the snake, and in Tro-Cortesianus 19a, where god B
again and god A are each seated on the open jaws of a serpent.

The astronomical role of the serpent is noted in Dresden
56b, 57b (PL 10, fig. 3), Tro-Cortesianus 5b, 12b, 15b, and
67b, where the snake is shown in connection with a line of
constellation signs, the kin or sun sign prominent in most
of the drawings. In the "battle of the constellations" in
Dresden 60, the serpent appears forming a sort of altar, the
seat of a figure which is supported by another figure. A
serpent head also appears at the foot of the latter figure.

That the serpent appears associated with the idea of time
seems clear from the fact of the long number series in Dresden
61, 62 (PL 10, fig. 7), and 69, which are shown in the spaces
made by the winding of the serpents' bodies. In Tro-Cor-
tesianus 13a-16a, four large reptiles appear in connection
with the lines of day signs.

The study of the serpent used as a head-dress is inter-
•esting. As noted previously, quite a different kind of snake
seems to be represented when used in this connection. Two
•other points come out in this investigation, namely, that
it is only with female figures that the serpent is employed
3ls a head-dress, and in far the greater number of cases the
women are shown, either in the act of offering something,
or of pouring water from a jar. The usual type of serpent

316 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

head-dress is seen in Dresden 9c (PL 8, fig. 11), 15b (PL 8,.
fig. 12), 18a (PL 8, fi.g. 13), 22b (PL 8, fig. 10), and 23b (PL 8,
fig. 8). In the first case, the offering is a jicara or gourd of
some sacred drink (baltse?), in the second and third examples,.
the dish is clearly shown, but the offering is unidentifiable,
in the fourth case, maize (a Kan sign), and in the last, a fish
resting on a dish. In Dresden 20a (PL 8, fig. 15), a woman
with serpent head-dress is seen associated with the Moan-
headed figure, possibly in the act of offering it as a sacrifice.

In Dresden 39b (PL 8, fig. 7), 43b (PL 8, fig. 9), and 70,.
a similar serpent head-dress is shown on a female figure in
the act of pouring water from a jar. In Tro-Cortesianus,,
the serpent head-dresses differ in type only, and in two out
of the four cases where they appear, water is shown flowing,
from the breasts (30b) of the female figure or from the mouth
(32b). The woman thus represented in connection withi
the water is god I, the water goddess of Schellhas. She is,.
as he notes (1904, p. 31) usually the figure of an old woman.
^'Evidently, we have here the personification oi water in its
quality of destroyer, a goddess of floods and cloud-bursts."'
We are not at all sure that we have here a distinct god as similar
female figures with serpent head-dresses occur frequently in
the Dresden Codex with no suggestion of water. The failure
to find any distinct glyph for this goddess seems to strengthen
the view of not considering her as a separate deity. Finally,
in our consideration of head-dresses, the serpent is to be seen
in Tro-Cortesianus 79c on the head of the first woman wha
is weaving. Possibly, a conventionalized serpent forms the
head covering of the second figure who is represented as dead.

The serpent in Dresden 26c-28c (PL 10, fig. 1) coiled
around the altar which rises from a Tun sign is not easily
explained. In 25c, the altar is replaced by god B and in
the former cases, the reptiles may stand for this god with
whom they are often associated.* The serpent seems closely

* The reader is also referred to the bas-relief of the Lower Chamber of
the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza where a serpent is shown behind
a low altar.

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 317

oonnected with the idea of offerings as the body of a snake
is shown in several instances as the support of the jar con-
taining the various gifts in Tro-Cortesianus 34a, 34b, 35a, 35b,
36a, 36b, and possibly 52c (PL 9, fig. 3).

Finally the serpent is to be noted in a number of miscel-
laneous connections: — in Dresden 36b (PL 19, fig. 11), as
being attacked by a black vulture,* in Tro-Cortesianus 40b
(PL 9, fig. 4) a rattlesnake is biting the foot of one of the
hunters, and in Tro-Cortesianus 66b, where the serpent has
a human head and arm coming from its open jaws. This
is a very frequent method of representing the serpent in the
Maya stone carvings. In Tro-Cortesianus 60c, lOOd (PL 9,
fig. 8), twice, 106a, and 111b, the rattlesnake is shown as a
sprinkler for the holy water in the hand (in the first, second
and fourth examples) of god D. Landa (1864, p. 150) f
describes in the ceremony of the baptism of children, that
the leader of the rite wore on his head a kind of mitre em-
broidered with plumage in some manner and in his hand a
small holy -water sprinkler of wood, carved skillfully, of which
the filaments were the tails of serpents, similar to serpents
with rattles.

In spite of the importance of the serpent in the manu-
scripts and stone carvings, it never seems to appear as a
separate deity. With one exception, no glyph is to be found
representing this reptile as is the case with many of the
animals. Tro-Cortesianus 106c (PL 9, fig. 7) is this exception
showing the rattles of a snake which are found in the line of
glyphs above two of the bees. No serpent appears in the
picture.

The Nahuatl day, Couatl, has the signification serpent,
as suggested before, in discussing the meaning of the name
Quetzalcoatl or Quetzalcouatl. This day sign occurs through-

* Forstemann (1906, p. 15) agrees with Schellhas that this may be a
rebus for the name Quetzalcoatl or Kukulcan. As the bird is a vulture
rather than a quetzal this could hardly be the case.

t "Y con isopo en el mano de un palo corto muy labrado,y por barbas
o pelos del isopo ciertas colas de unas culebras que soncomo caxcavales."

318 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

out the Mexican manuscripts as the head of a serpent (PI. 8,,
figs. 4, 6; PI. 9, fig. 2; PL 10, figs. 2, 4-6).

Iguana. Of the lizards represented, the iguana (Maya.
hu) is the most striking, and is readily identified on account
of the prominent spines along the back. As noted by Stem-
pell, there are two or three species of large lizards in Central
America commonly called iguana, and it is probable that
the one here considered is the Ctenosaura acanthura of Yuca-
tan or Iguana tuberculata of South and Central America.

In the manuscripts the iguana is almost exclusively repre-
sented as an offering (PI. 12, figs. 1-6). It is usually found
on top of the Kan sign, meaning maize or bread,* and this,
in turn, resting in a bowl (PI. 12, figs. 3, 4, 6). Landa (1864,
p. 230) t gives a pleasing confirmation of this offering of an.
iguana with bread. It is possible that the object shown in
Tro-Cortesianus 12b (PL 12, fig. 13) may be the convention-
alized representation of this lizard. It must be admitted
that this interpretation is very doubtful. The triangular
points suggest the lizard, but the pointed character of the
sign as a whole in no way resembles the back of this reptile.
It is found associated with three Kan signs. In Cakchiquel,
a dialect of the Maya stock, K'an, according to Guzman
and Brinton (1893, p. 24) is the name applied to the female
of the iguana or the lizard, and this is believed to be the
original sense of the Maya term. It may also be noted that
the Nahua day sign Cuetzpalin, meaning lizard, is the one
which corresponds with the Maya day Kan. PL 12, figs. 10,
12, 14, show representations of the day corresponding to
Cuetzpalin in the Aubin and Nuttall codices. These show
a stout spineless species with a short thick tail and may be

* Brinton (1893, p. 25) notes that the equivalent of Kan in the
Nahuatl of Miztitlan is xilotl which means ear of corn. This seems to
show the correctness of the usual identification of the Kan sign as mean-
ing maize or bread (pan).

t " Y les ofrecian dos pellas de una leche o resina de un arbol que llaman
kik, para quemar y ciertas iguanas y pan y una mitra y un manojo de
flores y una piedra preciosa de las suyas.' '

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 319

the Gila monster (Heloderma horridum), a large and some-
what poisonous species having much these proportions.

Further offerings are shown in PL 12, figs. 7, 8. These
seem to be the heads and forefeet of lizards, but, from the
shape of the head, perhaps not of iguanas.

In Stela D of Copan, the Uinal period glyph seems to be
represented by a spineless lizard covered with scales (PL 12^
fig. 9). Frog-like characteristics also appear. This stone
monument is remarkable from the fact that the glyphs are
all more or less realistic representations of human and animal
forms. It should be noted that there certainly seems to be
some connection between the Uinal period glyph and the
lizard. PL 13, fig. 9, represents a Uinal glyph from the
Temple of the Foliated Cross at Palenque and the lizard
form is clearly seen in the eyebrow and the upper jaw. Com-
pare also PL 13, fig. 11, and PL 28, fig. 3. A collection of
glyphs of this period shows clearly the lizard-like character
of the face.

That some connection existed between the lizard and the
idea of rain seems clear from a reference in the Relacion de
la Ciudad de Merida (1900, p. 51).* Finally the lizard is
shown in Dresden 3a (PL 12, fig. 11) directly in front of god H
beside the scene of human sacrifice.

Crocodile. The text figure (1) shows a dorsal view of
a crocodile (Maya, ayin) carved on the top of Altar T at
Copan. The general form is considerably conventionalized
with limbs elongated and provided with human hands and
long toes. The protuberances of the back are roughly
shown by oval markings, which are here continued on the
legs. The large scales of the ventral surfaces also appear
at the sides of the body, and along the posterior edges of
the lim^bs. The tail is shortened and bifurcate. The most
interesting portion, however, is the head. The snout is
distinctly pinched in at the base, though broadened again
distally. In the alligator the snout is broad and tapers but

* " Y pintaban un largarto que significaba el Diluvio — y la tierra e
sobre este largarto hazian un gran monton de lena y ponianle fuego.' '

320

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

little. As in other representations of the crocodile, the lower
jaw does not appear, and even in this dorsal view the artist
seems to have deemed it necessary to show the row of teeth
as if in side view, or as though they projected laterally from
the mouth. What may represent ears or ear plugs are shown
one on each side behind the eyes. There are few other ex-
amples of full drawings of the crocodile in the Maya writings.

Fig. 1.
TOP OF ALTAR. T.

COPAN.

Dresden 74 shows an animal which has been considered to
represent a crocodile or alligator but it seems to have
more of the characteristics of a lizard.

Figures of a crocodile {Crocodilus amencanus) are frequent
in the Nuttall Codex, where there is one large figure of the
entire animal (PL 13, fig. 8), making its way along under
water. It is shown with numerous dorsal spines, a long tail,

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 321

and powerful claws. Curiously, however, it has no lower
jaw and the same is true of the numerous glyphs representing
the head of the animal. This is so pronounced a charac-
teristic, that it may be doubted if the open-mouthed head
and the single limb shown in PL 13, fig. 2, really picture the
same animal, though otherwise apparently referable to the
crocodile. In the various glyphs showing the head of this
species, the prominent, elongate eyebrow and the absence
of the lower jaw are noteworthy points, while the teeth may
vary in number from three to six.

The glyphs (PL 13, figs. 1, 3-7) represent the Nahua day
sign Cipactli corresponding to the Maya day Imix. In the
band of constellation signs in Dresden 52b (PL 13, fig. 10),
there occurs a single figure with a long curled eyebrow and
lacking the lower jaw. In the upper jaw three teeth are
indicated. A comparison of this figure with the glyphs in
the Nuttall Codex seems to leave little doubt that it represents
a crocodile. This is the sign which Forstemann (1906, p.
206) interprets as standing for Saturn. PL 13, fig. 12, is
certainly the same sign as it stands in relatively the same
position in the constellation band on Dresden 53a. It repre-
sents the highly conventionalized head of a crocodile. On
Stela 10 from Piedras Negras (Maler, 1901-1903, PL 19) the
same glyph is seen.

The range of the alligator in North America does not
extend to Yucatan, hence the crocodile, which does occur
there, is taken as the original of all these figures. There is
nothing in the latter that would distinguish it from the alli-
gator.

Turtles. Representations of the turtle (Maya, ak) are
not uncommon among the Mayas. At Uxmal there is a ruined
building called Casa de las Tortugas on which at intervals
around the cornice there are carvings of turtles. Turtles
of at least two species occur in the Tro-Cortesianus. With one
exception, they seem to be limited to this codex. That shown
on PL 14, figs. 1-3, 5, is a large species with the dorsal scutes
represented by large diamond-shaped pieces. There is little
IV. 21

322 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

that might be considered distinctive about these turtles^
although one (PI. 14, fig. 5) has the anterior paddles much
larger than the posterior, indicating a sea turtle. What is
doubtless the same turtle is pictured in several places in the
Nuttall Codex. In one of the figures in the latter manuscript,,
the shell is shown apparently in use as a shield (PI. 14, fig. 4) .
This would indicate one of the large sea turtles, and thera
is not much doubt that either the Loggerhead turtle {Thalas-
sochelys cephalo) or the^Hawksbill (Chelone imhricata) is
here intended.

Quite another species is that shown in PI. 14, fig. 6. That
this is a freshwater turtle is plainly indicated by the parasitic-
leeches that are noted fastened by their round sucking-discs
to the sides of its body. The long neck, pointed snout, and
apparent limitation of the dorsal spinous scutes to the central
area of the back may indicate the snapping turtle (Chelydra
serpentina) or possibly -a species of the genus Cinosternum
(probably C. leucostomum) . It is hardly likely that it is one
of the true soft-shelled turtles (Trionyx), as the range of that
genus is not known to include Mexico. The turtle from
Nuttall 43 (PI. 14, fig. 11) may belong to the same species as
its scutes seem rather few, or it may be that the view shown
here is of the ventral side and that the scales indicate the^
small plastron of one of the sea turtles.

The turtle appears alone as one of the figures in the
tonalamatl in several cases in the Tro-Cortesianus, 13a, 17a
(PL 14, fig. 3), 72b (PL 14, fig. 6). It is found associated
with the toad appearing in the rain in Tro-Cortesianus 17b
(PL 14, fig. 2) and alone in the rain in 13a. In Tro-Cortesia-
nus 81c (PL 14, fig. 5), it appears in front of an unidentifiable
god.

Schellhas has called the turtle an animal symbolical of
the lightning basing his opinion, as Brinton (1895, p. 74) tells
us, on Dresden 40b where a human figure with animal head
is holding two torches in his hands. This figure does not
seem to us to represent a turtle, as is commonly supposed,
but a parrot ,^as will be pointed out later (p. 343). Forste-

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 323

mann (1902, p. 27) identifies the turtle with the summer sol-
stice, as has been noted before, explaining that the animal
is slow of motion, and is taken to represent the time when
the sun seems to stand still. He bases his theory (1904,
p. 423) in part on the fact that the sign for the Maya month
Kayab, which is the month in which the summer solstice
occurs, shows the face of the turtle (PI. 14, fig. 10). This
undoubtedly is correct, but he seems to us wrong in classing
as turtles the figure in Dresden 40b (PL 25, fig. 1) with its
accompanying glyph (PI. 25, fig. 6).

The turtle is found in connection with two sun {kivi)
signs beneath -a constellation band in Tro-Cortesianus 71a.
Resting upon his body are three Cauac signs. The single
representation of the turtle in the Dresden Codex is on page
49 (PI. 14, fig. 12) where a god is pictured with a turtle's
head. The heavy sharp beak indicates that he represents
one of the sea turtles previously mentioned. He is shown
transfixed by a spear and corresponds to the other figures in
the lower parts of pp. 46-50. These all have some connection
with the Venus period which is considered in these pages.*

A number of glyphs representing the turtle are found
throughout the codices (PI. 14, figs. 7-10). They are all
characterized by the heavy beak. It may be noted that
these glyphs are virtually the same as the sign for the first
a in Landa's alphabet. As the turtle is called ak or aak in
Maya, the reason is clear for the selection of this sign for an a
sound. These turtle glyphs often occur alone; one, however,
(PI. 14, fig. 7) is found in connection with the swimming
turtle in Tro-Cortesianus 17a (PI. 14, fig. 3) . Figs. 7-9 agree
in having the small scrolls at the posterior end of the eye.
The head shown in PI. 14, fig. 10, has quite a different eye,
though otherwise similar. Its resemblance to the glyph on
PI. 25, fig. 9, is marked and suggests the parrot. Schellhas
(1904, p. 44) gives in his fig. 64, a glyph for the turtle which
seems clearly to be a glyph for the parrot (PL 25, fig. 7).

* See in this connection Seler , 1904.

324 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

AVES

Herons (Ardea herodias; Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis).
Only a few water birds are shown in the Maya works. Several
are found, however, that seem to picture herons (PL 15, figs.
1-7). The best of these (fig. 5), a carving from the west
side panel of the Temple of the Cross at Palenque shows a
crested heron standing on one foot and holding in its bill a
fish. A second figure (PI. 15, fig. 1) is from the stucco orna-
ment from the Palace, House B, at Palenque. It is less
carefully executed, but seems to be a long-necked bird with
a crest and outspread wings curiously conventionalized.
In the Nuttall Codex there is another unmistakable heron
(PI. 15, fig. 4) with the same general characteristics, though
the crest is less prominent, here represented as a series of
erectile feathers separated at their tips. This elongation
of the crest seems to be carried still farther* in what seems
to be the head and neck of a heron from Dresden 37b (PI. 15,
fig. 3) with erectile feathers at intervals along its length.

The heron is seldom employed as a head-dress. In the
Lower Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza,
one of the warriors wears a bird head-dress (PL 15, fig. 2),
which from the length of the bill is probably made from a
heron's head, though the crest seems greatly exaggerated.
The bas-relief on which this is found is strongly Nahua in
feeling and execution. This head covering may indicate,
according to the Nahua fashion, the tribe to which the warrior
belongs. Again in Dresden 36a (PL 15, fig. 7), a man is
shown wearing as a head-dress the head and neck of a heron
that holds in its bill a fish. This head resembles very closely
that of the heron in^ fig. 1. What appears to be a similar
head is shown in PL 15, fig. 6. It is interesting to note that
the heron with a fish (PL 15, fig. 5) from Palenque also forms
a part of a complicated head-dress.

It is, of course, uncertain to which of the several herons
occurring in Central America these representations refer.
Possibly the Great Blue heron (Ardea herodias) or the Louisi-

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 325

ana heron (Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis) is intended. It
seems not unlikely also, that one of the white egrets may be
shown as their crests are fairly conspicuous.

Frigate-bird (Fregata aquila). We have included here
two figures (PI. 15, figs. 8, 9) that undoubtedly represent a
single species of bird. It is characterized by a deeply forked
tail and long beak, which has part way on its length, a cir-
cular object surrounded by a circle of dots. It seems still
problematical what this object may be. In one figure (fig. 9),
the beak is strongly hooked, in the other (fig. 8) it is straight,
but as the latter is plainly a much more carelessly made
drawing, we may infer that the hooked bill is more nearly
correct. This would exclude the Terns (Sterna), to which
Stempell has referred the figures. It seems probable that
the frigate-bird {Fregata aquila) is the species intended, as
this is not only a large conspicuous form on these coasts,
but it has a long and strongly hooked beak and forked tail.
The length of the beak would probably exclude from con-
sideration, the swallow-tailed kite that also occurs in the
region.

Both these birds are pictured, evidently as an offering
or sacrifice. It is very seldom that the whole bird is repre-
sented in this connection, and still more infrequent to find
anything but the turkey, which is the usual bird of sacrifice.
The figure from the Dresden Codex (PI. 15, fig. 9) rests upon
the usual bowl or jar, that from the Tro-Cortesianus (PI. 15,
fig. 8) is pictured upon a grotesque animal head, three Kan
signs and these upon the jar.

In the Tro-Cortesianus 20c, 21c, there occur several
representations of man-like forms with very peculiar heads.
The latter are each provided with a beak-like projection, on
which appears the circle surrounded by dots noted above in
connection with the frigate-bird. Brinton concludes that
this mystic symbol is a representation of the curious knob
on the bill of the male white pelican, and therefore identifies
these curious figures as pelicans. Stempell follows Brinton
in this, but considers that they are the brown pelican {P.

326 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

fuscus), since the white pelican is rare or casual, as far south
as Yucatan. Unfortunately, however, for this supposition,
the brown pelican lacks the curious knob that Brinton be-
lieved to be represented by the circle of dots. Moreover,
this same^ign occurs on the drawings of the bills of the frigate-
bird and the ocellated turkey, and is evidently not of specific
significance. To our minds it is doubtful if the figures under
discussion are birds at all, and we are unable to assign them
a name with any degree of confidence. A pecuHar glyph
occurs in connection with them which may be an aid to their
ultimate identification. Brinton calls the glyph the "fish
and oyster sign."

Ocellated Turkey (Agriocharis ocellata). This turkey
(Maya kup) is an important species in the Maya economy,
and is seen frequently in the manuscripts. This is a smaller
bird than the more northern true turkey {Meleagris) and is
characterized by the presence of curious erect knobs on the
top of the naked head. These are shown in conventionalized
form in the various figures (PI. 16), and afford a ready means
of identification. On the bill of the bird shown in Tro-
Cortesianus 10b (PL 16. fig. 2) occurs again the curious symbol,
a circle surrounded by dots, previously noted under the
frigate-bird and pelican. It probably has some special sig-
nificance. Other figures of ocellated turkeys show but little
in addition to the points just discussed. One shown in PI. 16,
fig. 7, from Codex Vaticanus 3773, however, has a circular
ring about the eye and the wattles are indicated as projec-
tions merely. In fig. 13, they are apparently shown as
stalked knobs found elsewhere in connection with serpent
■head ornaments. It is only the head in this latter figure
which is considered in this interpretation.

In the Nuttall Codex, there frequently occur representa-
tions of a bird that was evidently used for sacrificial purposes.
It is shown with erectile head feathers and a ring of circular
marks about the eye (PI. 26, figs: 12, 14; PI. 27, figs. 2-3)
or with concentric circles (PI. 27, fig. 1). These figures are

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 327

not surely identifiable, but probably represent this turkey.
Possibly they are the chachalaca {Ortalis vetula palli-
diventris), a gallinaceous bird, commonly kept in semi-
domestication in Mexico, whose bare eye ring and slightly
erectile head feathers may be represented by the drawings.
It is probable that this turkey is the bird represented frequently
in the Maya codices as a bird of sacrifice. The head alone
usually appears in this connection, among other places, in
Dresden 34a (PL 16, fig. 10), 41c (fig. 14), 29c (fig. 16), 28c
(fig. 17), and in Tro-Cortesianus 12b (PI. 16, fig. 11), 105b
(fig. 12), 107b (fig. 15). In several of these places the head
is represented as resting on one or more Kan signs, again
meaning bread, as well as on the vessel or jar. In Dresden
26c (PI. 16, fig. 9), the whole turkey is pictured as an offering,
as in the preceding case noted in Dresden 35a (PI. 15, fig. 9).
The whole bird as an offering may also appear in Tro-Cor-
tesianus 4a (PI. 16, fig. 4) corresponding to the offering of
venison and iguana on the following pages. This representa-
tion of the entire bird is very rare although the fish, when
used as an offering, is always represented as a whole and the
iguana is in most cases when used in the same connection.
Landa (1864, p. 222)* confirms the offering of the heads of
birds with bread.

It is, however, the sacrifice of a bird, probably a turkey,
by decapitating, that is especially interesting, as the opera-
tion as shown in the Dresden Codex 25c (PI. 26, fig. 2), 26c,
27c, 28c, in the rites of the four years, is described in full by
Landa. In the codex, a priest is represented as holding in
his hand before an altar, a headless bird. Landa (1864,
pp. 212, 218, 224, 228) f tells us that in the Kan, the Muluc,

*"Y ofrecerle cabe^as de pavos y pan y bevidas de maiz."
t(Kan year) "Sahumavan la imagen, degollavan una gallina y se la pre-
sentavan o offrecian . . . y assi le hazian muchas offrendas de comidas y
bevidas de came y peseado, y estas offrendas repartian a los estrangeros
•que alii se hallavan."

(Muluc year) "Y despues degollavanle la gallina como al passado."
(Ix year) "Y degollavan la gallina ... a la estatua de Kac-u-Uayeyah

328 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

the Ix, and the Cauac years, the priests burnt incense to the
idol, decapitated a "gallina'' (undoubtedly a turkey), and
presented it to the god.

The turkey is also used as a head-dress. Only in one
case, however, Tro-Cortesianus 95c (PL 16, fig. 5), is the whole
bird represented in this connection. This is clearly of to-
temic significance here, as it occurs in that part of the codex
where birth and infant baptism are shown. In many other
places there are curious partial representations of bird heads
in the front of head-dresses which may or may not be identified
as heads of turkeys. Among these are the head-dress of
god H in Dresden 7c, of god E in Dresden He, of god C in
Dresden 13b, of god A in Dresden 23c, and a female divinity
in Dresden 20a (PI. 16, fig. 13). Schellhas (1904, p. 43)
identifies these birds as vultures.

That the turkey is connected with the rain seems clear.
This is especially the case among the Nahuas. In the Aubin
manuscript the rain god, Tlaloc, often appears in the disguise
of the turkey-cock (uexolotl), and in the Vaticanus 3773, 14,
the turkey (PL 16, fig. 7) is represented in the "House of
Rain," in contrast to the owl shown in the " House of Drought "
(Seler, 1902-1903, p. 75). It might be noted also that Fewkes
(1892, p. 228) shows that the turkey is emblematic of the rain
among the pueblo peoples. The same idea seems to be present
among the Mayas, as we note in the Tro-Cortesianus 10b
(PL 16, fig. 2) the turkey is pictured in the rain and sur-
rounded on three sides by bands of constellation signs.

Two methods of capturing the turkey are shown in the
Tro-Cortesianus 93a and 91a (PL 16, figs. 1, 3). By the
first, the bird is captured alive in a sort of wicker basket,
which drops over it at the proper moment. The second
method is by the 'Hwich-up" or snare, which consists of a

ofrescian una cabe9a de un pavo, y empanados de codornices y otras coasa
y su bevida."

(Cauac year) "Como solian y degollavanle la gallina . . . un hombre
muerto y en cima un paxaro cenicero Hamad kiich, en seiial de mortandad
grande, ca por muy mal afio tenian este."

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 329

noose tied to a bent sapling and properly baited. In con-
nection with PL 16, fig. 1, it may be suggested that possibly
this represents a cage rather than a trap, in which the bird is
confined. The Lacandones at the present time often keep
their totem animals in captivity (Tozzer, 1907, p. 40).

King Vulture {Sarcorhamphus papa). Numerous fig-
ures of vultures appear in the codices and elsewhere. In-
deed, they are among the most common of the birds depicted.
Two species only seem to occur in the writings, the king
vulture and the black vulture. The former is a large black
and white bird with the head and the upper part of the neck
unfeathered, except for numerous short, almost bristle-like
plumules. These naked portions are often colored red and
there is a large more or less squarish fleshy knob at the base
of the upper ramus of the beak. This conspicuous pro-
tuberance has been seized upon as a characteristic in the
conventionalized figures, and serves to identify the king from
the black vulture. In addition, a series of concentric circles
about the eye seems to be a rather constant mark of the
king vulture, though they are also sometimes found in con-
nection with figures which, from the absence of the rostral
knob, must represent black vultures (PI. 18, figs. 18, 27;
PI. 19, figs. 7, 10, 11). In the case of the bird shown in PI. 19,
fig. 1, the knob is hardly apparent, and the same is true of
PI. 19, fig. 13. Both these may represent king vultures.
A remarkable figure is that shown in PL 17, fig. 4, in which
an ocellated turkey and a king vulture confront each other with
necks intertwined. The short hair-like black feathers of
the head are represented in this as well as in PL 17, fig. 11,
and in the glyph carved in stone (PL 17, fig. 10), which from
the presence of the knob is probably a king vulture. The
characteristic knob is shown in a variety of ways. Thus,
in PL 17, fig. 1, it is greatly developed and resembles a large
horn wuth a falcate tip. In PL 17, fig. 4, it is sharply angular
and nearly square. Frequently, it is a circle with a centered
ring surmounted by one or two additional rings or terminated
by a mitre-shaped structure (PL 17, figs. 2, 5-7, 8-12). A

330 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

very simple form was found in the carving shown in PI. 17,
fig. 13, where a long projecting knob is seen at the base of
the culmen.

The king vulture seems to have a part to play as a mytho-
logical being, as it is pictured as a god with human body
and bird head in the act of cohabiting with a woman in Dres-
den 19a, and with a dog in Dresden 13c (PL 17, fig. 3). More-
over, the same vulture god is represented on a blue background
and under a band of constellation signs in Dresden 38b, and
is also to be noted in Dresden 8a. Forstemann (1906, p. 66)
fihows that the thirteenth day of the Maya month is reached
in the tonalamatl reckoning at this place. This day is Cib,
which corresponds to the Nahua day Cozcaquauhtli, which
has the meaning vulture, and here, as previously noted, the
vulture god is represented. In Tro-Cortesianus 22c (PI. 17,
fig. 2) and 10a,* the king vulture appears alone, in the first
instance with a blue background, and in the second with a
background representing rain. Rain is also shown in connec-
tion with the vulture god in Dresden 38b, and the black
vulture in Tro-Cortesianus 18b (PL 19, fig. 13).

The king vulture is found employed as a head-dress
tw^ice out of the three times it appears in any connection
with female figures, Tro-Cortesianus 26c (PL 17, fig. 12)
with male figure, and 94c (PL 17, fig. 11) and 95c with female
figures. The last two clearly have to do with the baptism
and naming of infants, as previously explained.

The study of the glyph used to indicate the vulture is
interesting, for we find it recurring again and again through-
out the Maya codices and often when there is no other drawing
of the animal, as in Dresden 39c (PL 17, fig. 5; PL 18, fig. 19).
The first example (glyph 6) is clearly the head of the king
vulture, whereas the second (glyph 3) is probably the head
of the black vulture. The glyph in Dresden 38b (PL 17,
fig. 7) appears in connection with the vulture god directly
below it. In Dresden lib (PL 18, fig. 1), it occurs alone and

♦Forstemann identifies this bird as a black eagle.

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 331

no figure appears in the usual place below. The Tun period
glyph (PI. 17, fig. 10) frequently shows vulture character-
istics especially in the nostril of the face. The teeth, how-
ever, often appearing in the Tun glyph would be against
this theory. The blending of bird and mammal characteristics
is not uncommon in the Maya drawings, however.

The Nahua day sign, Cozcaquauhtli, as previously noted,
has the meaning vulture, and we naturally find this bird
frequently represented in the Mexican codices. In the
Nuttall Codex, the head of the king vulture occurs repeatedly
as a glyph for this day. In its less modified forms (PL 18,
figs. 2-4), the beak is merely a pair of flattened rami, sur-
mounted proximally by the conspicuous quadrangular knob.
The minute hair-like feathers on the otherwise naked head
are shown as a fringe at the throat and crown, while a con-
ventionalized ear is represented posteriorly. A series of inter-
esting figures (PL 18, figs. 5-10) illustrates steps in the further
reduction of this head to a small glyph in which only the beak
with its large squarish knob remains (PL 18, fig. 10).

Black Vulture {Catharista uruhu). It is difficult to
assign any single characteristic to the figures representing
the black vulture (Maya, Csom) other than the long raptorial
beak. A number of drawings probably depict black vultures,
though this cannot be certainly affirmed. Such are those
shown in PL 18, figs. 11, 12, 14, 17; PL 19, figs. 2-4, 13, 14.
Stempell considers the vulture shown in PL 18,' fig. 13, to be
a king vulture, but it has no knob on the beak, and thus is
-quite likely the black vulture. The fact that its head is
shaped much like that of the god with the king vulture head (PL
17, fig. 3) would indicate merely the individuality of the artist.
The coloring of the species under discussion is uniformly
black in the Dresden and Tro-Cortesianus, except in certain
cases where the birds are shown in outline only, as in PL 19*
fig. 12. It is not certain, however, that these two last are
black vultures, though they suggest the species. The two
birds shown in PL 19, figs, o, 6, are almost surely black vul-
tures, and, as represented in the manuscript, are descending

332 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

upon a man. Stempell thinks they may be ravens, but this
is very doubtful, for the raven probably was unknown to the
Mayas, since its range is to the northward. What appears
to be a crest is seen on the head of the bird in PL 19, fig. 4.
The black coloring and the shape of the bill otherwise suggest
the black vulture, though perhaps the crest would indicate
the harpy eagle. Similarly, PL 19, fig. 14, is provided with
a sort of tuft or crest, but its general appearance is suggestive
of the vulture. A pottery whistle (text fig. 2) from the Uloa
Valley evidently represents a black vulture. The head of
the bird shows the characteristic wrinkled appearance seen

Fig. 2.

POTTERY WHISTLE, VULTURE. ULOA VALLEY, HONDURAS.

in the drawings, with the heavy beak. The absence of the
rostral knob would preclude its being a king vulture.

It is natural that this bird should find an important
place in the Maya writing, as it is an abundant species in the
region considered, and of great importance as a scavenger.
The black vulture seems to lack the mythological character
associated with the king vulture. It appears usually in
connection with death and in the role of a bird of prey. This
is especially true in the Tro-Cortesianus where in 24d, 26d
(PL 19, figs. 5, 6) and 28c, it is attacking a human being,
in the first and last cases represented as dead. In 86a and
87a, the bird is shown plucking out the eye of a man. In

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 333

Dresden 3a (PI. 19, fig. 7), it appears at the top of the tree
above the human sacrifice and seems to be in the act of con-
^suming the victim. In Tro-Cortesianus 91c, it also appears
in a tree. In Tro-Cortesianus 40a (PI. 17, fig. 9), and 42a
(PL 19, fig. 1), it is shown as eating the entrails of a deer.
In the first case, the bird looks like a king vulture, although
this is the only instance where this species is shown as a bird
of prey. In Tro-Cortesianus 28b and 36b (PL 18, fig. 17),
the black vulture appears eating the Kan sign. In the first
example, the Kan represents the newly sowed corn, in the
second, the Kan is held by god F. Landa (1864, p. 230)*
records that in the Cauac year there was a ceremony to pre-
vent the ants and the birds devouring the corn. In Dresden
34b and 35b, the vulture is shown on top of the head-dress
of god F, evidently the enemy of the harvest and, again, on
35b (PL 19, fig. 4) on top of the Cauac sign. Its role as a
bird of prey is further shown in Dresden 36b (PL 19, fig. 11),
where it is shown attacking a serpent.

This vulture is associated with god B in Dresden 69b,
with god M in Tro-Cortesianus 70a (PL 18, fig. 12), and with
god D in Tro-Cortesianus 67a (PL 17, fig. 1). The last may
be the king rather than the black vulture, as suggested above.
The black vulture occurs only once as the usual head-dress,
in Dresden 17b (PL 18, fig. 13), and here in connection with
a female figure and the idea of birth. Two birds, probably
vultures, appear over the enclosure around the head of god C
in Tro-Cortesianus 100b (PL 19, fig. 12). In the Lower
Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers occurs a black vulture
in bas-relief with a necklace represented (PL 19, fig. 14).

The glyph of the king vulture has already been discussed.
There are other glyphs which seem to show the black vulture,
although it is quite possible that no sharp distinction was

*"Este alio en que la letra era Cauac y reynava el Bacab-Hozanek tenian,
allende de la pronosticada mortandad, por ruyn, por que dezian les avian
los muchos soles de matar los maizales, y comer las muchas hormigas lo que
sembrassen y los paxaros, y porque esto no seria en todas partes avria en
algunos comida, la qual avrian con gran trabajo."

334 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

made between the two in regard to the glyphs at least. In.
one case (PI. 18, fig. 18), the wrinkled skin of the head and
neck is indicated much as in the case of the king vulture.
A few other glyphs are shown (PL 18, figs. 16, 19, 22, 27),
as well as a variety from the Nuttall Codex in which the mi-
nute hair-like feathers of the head are variously represented,
usually much exaggerated as a sort of crest or comb. PL 18,
fig. 22, is interesting as being the only case in the Maya codices
where the whole figure is shown in the glyph. As noted in
the case of the glyphs of the king vulture, the greater number
of these occur quite alone. They seem to indicate that a
full drawing of the bird is meant to be understood as occur-
ring below.

Several of the carved glyphs (PL 19, figs. 8-10) show the
black vulture heads in some detail with the conspicuously
open nostril and hooked beak. , A carving of the entire
bird may be shown on Stela D from Copan (PL 28, fig. 5),
where the naked head and neck are marked off by lines indi-
cating wrinkled skin. The same lines on the neck of the
bird depicted on PL 28, fig. 2, will probably identify it as a
vulture, and, if the square ornament above the beak certainly
is part of the figure, it is unquestionably the king vulture.
The knob is not, however, clearly on the bird's beak. There
are two interesting glyphs which occur on the eastern fa9ade
of the Monjas at Chichen Itza. The glyphs in this inscrip-
tion are unlike the usual Maya hieroglyphs, although several
of the so-called constellation signs can be made out. The
two glyphs in question represent the entire body possibly
of a vulture, that on PL 17, fig. 13, probably the king vulture,
and that on PL 18, fig. 14, the black vulture.

Harpy Eagle {Tkrasaetos harpyia). In the Nuttall
Codex, what is undoubtedly the harpy eagle is of frequent
occurrence. This great bird is not uncommon in the forests
of southern Mexico and Central America, and must have
attracted the notice of the people from its size. The
elongated feathers at the back of the head form a conspicuous
crest, a feature that characterizes this species in most of the

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 335-

representations. A stone carving from Chichen Itza (PI. 20,
fig. 10) pictures a harpy eagle eating an egg-shaped object,
and another similarly engaged is copied from the Codex
Vaticanus 3773 (PL 20, fig. 14). The former is considered
to be a vulture by Maudslay, but the presence of feathers
covering the head excludes this interpretation. In two
stone glyphs (PI. 20, fig. 1,3), occurs a large bird apparently
devouring something held in its talons, as in PL 20, fig. 10.
From this general resemblance, it seems probable that both
represent the harpy, although no crests are shown on the
glyphs. In the Dresden and the Tro-Cortesianus occur a
few figures of crested birds that probably are the same species.
The crest feathers are reduced to two, however, or, in some
cases, what may be a third projecting forward from the base
of the bill (PL 20, figs. 5, 7, 12, 13). The last two figures
are not certainly identifiable, though it is probable that
they represent the harpy.

The eagle seems to be the bird associated with warriors
in the codices. Seler (1900-1901, p. 89) notes that the
eagle and the jaguar are both the mark of brave warriors
among the Nahuas. In the Aubin manuscript, the warrior
god, Yaotl, is always associated with the eagle (quauhtli).
In the Maya pantheon, god M is usually considered the war
god, as he is almost always armed with a spear. He is seen
in Dresden 74 (PL 20, fig. 13), and in Tro-Cortesianus 109c
with an eagle as a head-dress. There are other gods, how-
ever, who wear a similar head covering. God L appears in
Dresden 14b (PL 20, fig. 7) and again in 14c (PL 20, fig. 5)
with an eagle head-dress. God D in Dresden 23c (PL 20,
fig. 11) has an eagle coming from a Tun sign on top of his
head. The eagle is probably represented at the prow of
a boat in Dresden 43c (PL 20, fig. 12) in which god B is row-
ing. In Tro-Cortesianus 88c (PL 20, fig. 4), a bird which
may represent the eagle appears sitting on a Cimi (death)
sign. Above in the glyphs the character for the south is
shown. Here, clearly, there is some connection between the
signs of the cardinal points in the line of glyphs and the
various creatures pictured below.

336 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

There seems to be only one glyph which can in any way
be taken for that of the eagle in the Maya manuscripts and
this appears only once, in Tro-Cortesianus 107c (PL 20, fig. 9) .
This identification may be questioned, as there is no drawing
of an eagle associated with the glyph. Attention has already
been called to the two stone glyphs in PL 20, figs. 1, 3. There
are various drawings of the glyph for the eagle in the Nahua
and Zapotecan codices (PL 20, fig. 8), as the Nahua day,
Quauhtli, has the meaning eagle. It is interesting to note
in the glyph from the Nuttall Codex (PL 20, fig. 8) the tips
of the feathers are crowned with stone points, a frequent
way of representing birds of prey among the Mexican peoples.

Yucatan Horned Owl {Bubo virginianus mayensis).
Stempell makes a serious mistake by confusing the eared
owl shown in full face with that shown in profile in the draw-
ings, for he considers both to represent the great horned owl.
The figures are, however, quite different in every way. The
owl in full face view is unquestionably the great horned
owl (Maya, ikim), the Yucatan form of which is recognized
by the subspecific title mayensis. This is the bird opposed
to the '' Moan-bird " which, as will be shown later, is associated
with death. In PL 21 are some truly remarkable figures
which seem to represent this horned owl, the first modelled
in stucco from Palenque, the second carved in stone from
Yaxchilan, and the third carved in wood from Tikal. Figs.
1 and 3 show the bird in flight with extended wings. The
two erectile tufts of feathers or "horns" are conspicuously
represented in fig. 3, at either side of the bird's head and be-
tween them the flat top of the crown is secondarily divided
in like manner into three parts, representing the "horns"
and the top of the head. The beetling brows, heavy hooked
beak, and spread talons combine to give a fierce and spirited
mien to the great bird. PL 21, fig. 2, may be a greatly con-
ventionalized owl in which the essential characteristics of
the bird are reproduced in a rectangular design. The large
bill is conspicuous in the center, and in each upper corner
terminates one of the ears. The eyes are represented by

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 337

rectangular areas at the base of the bill, each with three
vertical bars across it. Below the beak, or at either side of
the tip, are the feet, each with the claw cross-hatched.
What seem to be the reduced and highly conventional-
ized wings fill the lower corner of each side of the figure.

The shield in the center of the Tablet of the Sun at Pa-
lenque (PI. 22, fig. 6) shows a face in which the motif seems
to be the full-face view of the horned owl. The hooked bill
curves over the mouth at each side of which is the curious
scroll seen in the same connection in the figures of PI. 21.
The ears are somewhat shorter in proportion than usual
and below each, at the sides of the face, is a large ear-plug,
similar to that elsewhere found. The eyes are still further
conventionalized with a decorative scroll surrounding each.
Another example of the conventionalized owl's head is on
Stela 1 from Cankuan (Maler, 1908, PL 13). We are not
yet ready to advance an explanation of the reason why the
owl should occupy such a prominent position in the art of
the Mayas.

In only one case is the horned owl found in the Maya
manuscripts. In Tro-Cortesianus 95c (PI. 22, fig. 2), this
owl appears as the head-dress of a woman in that portion of
the codex where baptism and naming are shown. An owPs
head seems to be shown on the end of a warrior's staff in the
bas-relief of the Lower Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers
at Chichen Itza (PL 22, fig. 4). PL 22, figs. 5, 7, show two
owls from the Aubin manuscript; the first is considered to
be the screech owl (chiqualli) and the second the horned owl
(tecolotl, in Nahuatl). [PL 22, figs. 1, 3, show two drawings of
owls from Nahua manuscripts.

Yucatan Screech Owl or Moan Bird (Otus choliba
thompsoni). A second species of owl is represented by the
figures on PL 23. This has likewise two feathered tufts or
"ears" on its head and is always shown with the head, at
least, in profile, but the tufts one in front, the other at the
back of the head. The facial disc is not very prominent
the beak rather long, the tail short, and the plumage some-
IV. 22

338 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

what mottled. A dark ring usually surrounds the eye. It
is, with little doubt, the screech owl, the only other form of
eared owl commonly met with in the Central American region,
and in Yucatan is represented by the race above indicated.
This owl, under the name of the Moan bird,* is always asso-
ciated with the idea of death among the Mayas. The famili-
arity of this species and its mournful quavering cry uttered
at night have no doubt led to its association with death and
mystery as with owls in other parts of the world.

This Moan bird has an important place in the Maya pan-
theon, as it is the representative in many places of god A,
the Death god. It appears with a human body in Dresden
7c (PI. 23, fig. 1), 10a (PI. 23, fig. 8), and 11a (PL 23, fig. 3)
and in Tro-Cortesianus 66a (PL 23, fig. 2). In each of these
places, it occupies the space in which one of the regular gods
is usually found. In Dresden 10a, the day reached in the
tonalamatl reckoning is Cimi, meaning death, and here, as
has been noted, is found the Moan bird, the symbol of death,
with another sign of death in the circle just above the head
of the bird (PL 23, fig. 8).

This owl is used as a head-dress itself, but always for
women, Dresden 16a (PL 23, fig. 19), 18b (PL 23, fig. 5),
Tro-Cortesianus 94c (PL 23, fig. 4), and 95c (PL 23, fig. 20).
It occurs in both manuscripts in the pages mentioned several
times before, where birth, baptism, and the naming of children
are shown. The curious figure, with a head similar to PL 23,
fig. 21, carried on the back of some of the women, .is the Moan
sign, referring to the idea of death, possibly to still-birth, as
copulation and birth are shown in this section of the codex
(Dresden 18c, 19c). The Moan is found associated with
man only once in the manuscripts. In Tro-Cortesianus 73b

♦Brinton (1895, p. 74), according to our interpretation, makes a mistake
when he considers the crested falcon as the Moan, "in Maya muan or
muyan." He adds, "Some writers have thought the moan bird was a
mythical animal but Dr. C. H. Berendt found the name still applied to the
falcon. In the form muyan, it is akin in sound to muyal, cloud, muan,
cloudy, which may account for its adoption as a symbol of the rains, etc."

ANIMAL FIGUEES IN THE MAYA CODICES 339

(PL 23, fig. 18), he is found perching on a curious frame-
like structure in which god B is sitting.

There are several glyphs representing the Moan bird or
screech owl; the first type is easily identifiable, as the head of
the bird is clearly pictured (PL 23, figs. 11-14, 16). This
head is frequently associated with the number thirteen (Dres-
den 8b). It may occur in the line of glyphs (Dresden 16c),
and refer to the Moan pictured below, or it may occur in the
line of glyphs with no picture corresponding to it below
(Dresden 53b). PL 23, fig. 15, from Dresden 38c has been
placed with these drawings, although the identification is
not certain. It may refer, however, to the large Moan head
below, on which god B is sitting (PL 23, fig. 11). The second
type of glyph does not resemble in any way the Moan, but
they are clearly signs for it, as they are often found in con-
nection with the picture of the Moan, Dresden 7c (PL 23, figs.
6, 7, 21) and 10a. In both places fig. 7 is associated with
the number thirteen. Schellhas also places PL 23, fig. 17,
among the Moan signs.

One of the eighteen Maya months is named Muan, and
some of the glyphs appearing for this month in the codices
certainly represent the Moan or screech owl. This is espe-
cially so with text figs. 3-6. Forstemann (1904a) considers

Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6.
GLYPHS OF MONTH MUAN SHOWING MOAN-BIRU CHARACTERISTICS.

that the month Muan and, consequently, the sign as well,
refer to the Pleiades.

In connection with the screech owl referring to death,
it is interesting to note that among the Nahuas the owl is
considered of unlucky augury and is usually found in the
"House of Death" and ^'of Drought", as contrasted with

J

340 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

the turkey, considered as a bird of good fortune, and found
in the '' House of Rain."

Coppery-tailed Trogan or Quetzal {Pharomacrus
mocinno). The quetzal is common locally in certain parts
of southern Mexico. Its brilliant metallic green plumage
and the greatly elongated tail feathers make it a very notable
bird. The feathers of the head are erect and stand out as
a light crest, those of the anterior portion being slightly re-
curved. The delicate erect .feathers of the head are well
indicated in Vaticanus 3773, 17 (PL 24, fig. 9) and the tail,
also, in this figure, is only slightly conventionalized with an
upward instead of the natural downward sweep. In most
of the representations, the crest feathers are indicatd by large
plumes, the most anterior of which project forward. They
may be even further modified into three knobs shown in
Dresden 7c (PL 24, fig. 1). The two characteristics of the
quetzal, namely its erect head feathers and its extraordi-
narily long tail feathers, are often used separately. Thus
the tail, which is commonly drawn with the outer feather of
each side strongly curled forward, appears by itself in PL 24,
fig. 8, or it may be seen as a plume in the head-dress of a
priest or warrior and in other connections as an ornament.
A greatly conventionalized drawing of the bird is also shown
in PL 24, fig. 11, in which the head bears a curious knob and
the dorsal feather of the tail is upcurled in the manner of
the other drawings. It is not at once apparent why the long
drooping tail feathers should be shown thus recurved. Pos-
sibly these feathers, when used by the Mayas for plumes,
curled over by their own weight, if held erect, so that the rep-
resentations are a compromise between the natural appear-
ance and that when used as ornament in the head decoration.
The color of the bird and the very long tail feathers have
already been mentioned, and these explain the reason of the
importance of this bird among the Mayas. It is claimed by
several old authorities that the quetzal was reserved for the
rulers, and that it was death for any common person to kill
this bird for his own use. It seems from a statement in

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

341

Landa (1864, p. 190)* that birds were domesticated for the
feathers. This bird occurs again and again in various modi-
fications throughout the Maya art. The feathers of the
quetzal are the ones usually associated with the serpent,
making the rebus, Quetzalcoatl, the feathered serpent, the
culture hero of the Nahuas, or Kukulcan, which has the same
signification among the Mayas. It is impossible to mention
here all the various connections in which the quetzal appears.
The feathers play an important part in the composition of

Fig. 7.
QUETZAL, TEMPLE OF THE CROSS, PALENQUE.

the head-dresses of the priests and warriors, especially those
in the stone carvings. A quotation has already been given
from Landa, showing the use made of feathers in the dress
of the people. Text fig. 7 shows perhaps the most elaborate
representation of this bird. It is found on the sculptured
tablet of the Temple of the Cross at Palenque. The quetzal
is shown seated on top of a branching tree which was long
taken to represent a cross. A similar representation is seen

*"Crian paxaros para su recreacion y para las plumas para hazer sus ropas
galanas."

342 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

on the tablet of the Temple of the Foliated Cross from the
same ruined city. In the Codex Fejervary-Mayer, there
are four trees in each of which there is a bird. A quetzal
is perched in the one corresponding to the east, which is
regarded as the region of opulence and moisture. Seler
(1901, p. 17) suggests that the quetzal in the tree on the two
bas-reliefs at Palenque may represent a similar idea and that
temples which would show the other three trees and their
respective birds had not been built in that center.

The representation of the quetzal as an entire bird is,
after all, comparatively rare. The most realistic drawing
is seen on a jar from Copan in the collections of the Peabody
Museum. The whole body of the bird is shown as a head-
dress in a few places in the codices where birth and the naming
of children are pictured. In Dresden 16c (PI. 24, fig. 3)
and Tro-Cortesianus 94c (PL 24,. fig. 6), the quetzal is the
head-dress of women. In Dresden 13b (PI. 24, fig. 2), a
partial drawing of the bird is shown as a part of the head-
dress of god E, in Dresden 7c (PI. 24, fig. 1) of god H, and in
Tro-Cortesianus 110c of god F. The feathers alone appear
as a female head decoration in Dresden 20c (PL 24, fig. 8).
It occurs as a sacrifice among the rites of the four years in
Tro-Cortesianus 36b (PL 24, fig. 12). In Tro-Cortesianus
70a (PL 24, fig. 5), it is found in the act of eating fruit growing
over the ''young god." In Tro-Cortesianus 100b (PL 24,
fig. 4), the bird is perched over the encased head of god C.

There seems to be a glyph used for the quetzal. In those
drawn in PL 24, figs. 10, 17, it is noticeable that the anterior
part only of the head is shown. The first is a glyph from the
tablet of the Temple of the Sun at Palenque, and at least
suggests the quetzal by the feathers on the top of the head, as
also PL 24, fig. 13, a glyph from Copan, Stela 10, where the
entire head appears in a much conventionaUzed form. Other
glyphs are shown in PL 24, figs. 14-16, in which there is a
single prominent recurved feather shown over the eye, suc-
ceeded by a few conventionalized feathers, then one or more
directed posteriorly. It is to be noted that whereas in many

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 343

previous examples of glyphs the full drawing of the animal
or bird has been found in connection with them, here with the
quetzal glyphs there is no instance where a drawing of the
bird occurs with them. A curious human figure (PL 24,
fig. 19), with a head decoration similar to the frontal curve
and markings on the quetzal glyphs (fig. 14-16), may pos-
sibly represent this bird in some relation.

Blue Macaw {Ara militaris). A large macaw (Maya,
mox or tut ) is undoubtedly pictured in the figures in PL 25.
The least conventionalized drawing found is that shown in
Dresden 16c (PL 25, fig. 2), a bird characterized by long
narrow tail feathers, a heavy bill, and a series of scale-like
markings on the face and about the eye. Further conven-
tionalized drawings are found in PL 25, figs. 3, 10, 13, and
PL 26, fig. 1. In all these the tail is less characteristic, though
composed of long, narrow feathers, and the facial markings
are reduced to a ring of circular marks about the eye. These
last undoubtedly represent, as supposed by Stempell, the
bare space about the eye found in certain of these large parrots.
In addition, the space between the eye and the base of the
bill is partially bare with small patches of feathers scattered
at somewhat regular intervals in rows. It is probable that
this appearance is represented by the additional round marks
about the base of the bill in PL 25, figs. 1, 2, 5, 8, the last
two of which show the head only. There has hitherto been
some question as to the identity of certain stone carvings,
similar to that on Stela B from Copan, of which a portion is
shown in PL 25, fig. 8. This has even been interpreted as
the trunk of an elephant or a mastodon, but is unquestionably
a macaw's beak. In addition to the ornamental cross-
hatching on the beak, which is also seen on the glyph from
the same stela (PL 25, fig. 5), there is an ornamental scroll
beneath the eye which likewise is crosshatched and sur-
rounded by a ring of subcircular marks that continue to the
base of the beak. The nostril is the large oval marking
directly in front of the eye.

The animal in Dresden 40b (PL 25, fig. 1) has always

344 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

been considered to be a tortoise (Schellhas, 1904, p. 44, and
Forstemann, 1904). This animal, together with the dog, is
found beneath the constellation signs carrying firebrands;
both are regarded as lightning beasts. By comparing the
head of the figure shown in PI. 25, fig. 1 , with figs. 2, 4, 5, of
the same plate, the reasonableness of the identification of
this head as that of a macaw and not that of a tortoise ap-
pears clear. The same figure occurs in Tro-Cortesianus
12a (PI. 25, fig. 3) carrying a torch.

In order to make this point clearer, we will take up the
consideration of the glyphs at this place, rather than at the
end of the section as usual. As the macaw in PL 25, fig. 1,
has been hitherto identified as a turtle, so the glyph found in
connection with it (PI. 25, fig. 6) has been considered to stand
for the turtle. PI. 25, fig. 7, is another drawing of the same
glyph. By comparing the markings on the face of fig. 1, it
is seen that a similar ring surrounds the eye shown on the
glyph. The second glyph (PI. 25, fig. 7) is better drawn
and shows, in addition to the eye ring, the slightly erectile
feathers at the back of the head. Comparison with the glyphs
representing turtles (PL 14, figs. 7-10) hitherto confused with
these macaw glyphs shows differences, the most important
of which are of course the eye ring and the feathers at the
back of the head.

Various other glyphs occur which undoubtedly represent
the heads either of macaws or smaller parrots. They are,
for the most part, glyphs from the stone inscriptions. A
crest, resembling that depicted on the head of the quetzal,
is found on a glyph on Altar Q from Copan (PL 25, fig. 10).
The eye ring, however, seems to indicate the macaw which
also has slightly erectile feathers on the head. Much doubt
is attached to the identification of the glyph of the month
Kayae from Stela A, Quirigua (PL 25, fig. 9). It resembles
closely the glyphs of the turtle (PL 14, figs. 7-9) and especially
that on PL 14, fig. 10. The Quirigua glyph has a prominent
fleshy tongue, however, like the parrot. From the fact that
the glyph is certainly that for the month Kayah and the

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 345

Kayab glyphs in the codices (PI. 14, fig. 10) resemble the
sign for a, in the Landa alphabet which seems to stand for
ak (turtle) , we are led to identify this as a turtle rather than
a parrot.

The use of the macaw as a lightning beast has already
been commented upon. The parrot is also used in the co-
dices as a head-dress. As with several other birds the only
places in the manuscripts where the whole bird is shown is
in connection with the bearing of children and the baptism.
Here the parrot head-dress is seen on women, Dresden 16c
(PL 25, fig. 2) and Tro-Cortesianus 94c (PL 25, fig. 13).
There seems to be an exception to the whole bird appearing
as a head-dress exclusively with women in Tro-Cortesianus
26c (PL 26, fig. 1), where god F appears with a head-dress
composed of the whole bird. The bird is also seen as a head-
dress on Altar Q from Copan (PL 26, fig. 3). The head of
the macaw appears as part of the head-dress of god H in
Dresden 11a (PL 26, fig. 13), god E in Dresden lib (PL 26,
fig. 11), god F in Dresden 14b, god D in Tro-Cortesianus
89a (PL 26, fig. 5) and of women in Dresden 12b (PL 26, fig. 6)
and 19a (PL 26, fig. 9). In the rites of the four years in Tro-
Cortesianus 37b, there are two birds which are quite different
from those we have been considering, but which may repre-
sent macaws (PL 25, fig. 12; PL 26, fig. 10).

In the Nuttall Codex, occur several figures of heavy-
billed birds that may be macaws or other smaller parrots
of the genera Amazona or Pachyrhynchus. They are not,
however, certainly identifiable (PL 26, figs. 4, 7).

Imperial Woodpecker (Campephilus imperialis). We
have here introduced two drawings from the Nuttall Codex
(PL 27, figs. 5, 6) which seem to represent the Imperial
ivory-billed woodpecker, a large species that occurs in the
forests of certain parts of Mexico. The figures show a long-
billed bird with acutely pointed tail feathers, a red crest,
and otherwise black and white plumage. The red crest of
the woodpecker is of course highly conventionalized in the
drawings where it is shown as of a number of erect feathers

346 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

instead of the prominent occipital tuft of this bird. The
crest and particularly the pointed tail feathers and long beak
combined with the characteristic coloring seem to leave
little doubt as to the identity of the species figured. This
bird does not seem to appear in the Maya drawings.

Raven (Corvus corax sinuatus) (?). There occurs in the
Nuttall Codex a figure of a large black bird (PL 27, fig. 7) ,
which may be a black vulture, but which, from the presence
of what appear as prominent bristles over the nostril, may
also be a raven. These bristles are rather prominent in
ravens and quite lacking in the vulture, so that we are led
to identify the drawing as representing the former bird.
We have found no other figures that suggest ravens.

Miscellaneous Birds. Four drawings of birds from
the Aubin manuscript are shown here (PI. 27, figs. 8-11),
in order that the conventionalization of the bird form may
be seen. The first two are supposed to represent the parrot
(cocho) and the last two the turkey cock (uexolotl). There
is little in the drawings by which they can be differentiated-
In the codex, the heads of the parrots are colored red. There
is no doubt, however, about the identification, as they occur
in the same relative position on every page of the manuscript
and are two of the thirteen birds associated with the thirteen
gods, the "Lords of the House of Day" (Seler, 1900-1901,
pp. 31-35). From the foregoing, it may be seen that where
there is no question about the identification, the drawing of
the bird form is rather carelessly done and no great attempt
is made to indicate the special characteristics of the different
birds.

As has been shown previously, it is not always possible
to identify without question many of the forms appearing
in the manuscripts. This is especially true with birds. In
Tro-Cortesianus 20c, an unidentifiable bird, painted blue,
appears on the top of the staff carried by god F. The head-
dress of this same god in Tro-Cortesianus 27c is a bird form
and in Tro-Cortesianus 55b, the tonalamatl figure is a bird
whose identity cannot be made out with certainty.

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 347

MAMMALIA

Opossum (Didelphis yucatanensis, D. mesamericana) ,
l^igures representing opossums are not with certainty iden-
tifiable in the Maya writings. We have provisionally iden-
tified as a frog the animal shown in PL 29, fig. 6, although
at first sight the two median round markings might be taken
to represent a marsupial pouch. Stempell considers the
animals found in the upper division of Dresden 25-28 as
■opossums of one of the above species, and this seems very
possible. They are shown with long tails, slightly curved
at the tips, and with long head and prominent vibrissae. A
rather similar figure is found in the Nuttall Codex (PL 34,
fig. 7). There is nothing, however, that seems to preclude
their being dogs and, in our opinion, they represent this
animal.

NiNE-BANDED ARMADILLO (Tatu novemciuctum) . This is
the common species of armadillo (Maya, wets) found through-
out the warmer portion of Mexico and Central America;
where it is frequently used as an article of food, and its shell-
like covering is utilized in various ways. Several repre-
sentations of it occur in the Tro-Cortesianus (PL 29, figs. 1-4),
where it is characterized by its scaly covering, long ears and
tail, and the moveable bands about the body.

This animal is associated with the bee culture, as it is
represented twice in Tro-Cortesianus 103a (PL 29, figs. 1, 3)
seated below a bee under an overhanging roof. The hunting
scenes in the Tro-Cortesianus also show the armadillo; in
48a (PL 29, fig. 4) and in 91a it is shown in a pit-fall. In
the last case the Cauac signs are clearly seen on top of the
trap, whereas in the former case the same signs seem to be
indicated by the crosses. Finally, this same animal occurs
seated in Tro-Cortesianus 92d (PL 29, fig. 2) facing a female
figure. There seems to be no glyph used in connection with
this animal.

Yucatan Brocket (Mazama pandora). Among the
numerous representations of deer in the Maya writings, there

348 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

is but one that appears to show the brocket. This occurs in
Tro-Cortesianus 92a (PI. 30, fig. 2) , where a hoofed animal
with a single spike-Hke horn is shown, seemingly impaled on
a stake set in the bottom of a pit-fall. As stated by Stempell^
this animal from the character of its horns is probably to
be identified as a brocket, though there is nothing to preclude
its being a young spike buck of some species of Odocoileus.

Yucatan Deer {Odocoileus yucatanensis; 0. thomasi).
Several species of small deer (Maya, ke) occur in Mexico and
Central America whose relationships are not yet thoroughly
understood (Pis. 30-32). The species of Yucatan and south-
ern Mexico have small lyrate antlers with few, short tines,
rather different from the broader type of the more northern
species with well developed secondary tines. The former type
of antlers seems to be indicated by the conventionalized
structure shown in PL 32, figs. 8-12. These probably repre-
sent the Yucatan deer or its ally Thomas's deer of southern
Mexico. Two of the figures, both from the Nuttall Codex,,
show the lower incisor teeth (PI. 32, figs. 8, 11), though in
other cases these are omitted. The larger part of the figures
of deer represent the does which have no antlers. For this
reason it is impossible to distinguish females of the brocket
from those of the other species of deer, if indeed, the Mayas
themselves made such a distinction. The characteristics
of deer drawings are the long head and ears, the prominently
elevated tail with the hair bristling from its posterior side
(the characteristic position of the tail when the deer is run-
ning), the hoofs, and less often the presence of incisors in
the lower jaw only and of a curious oblong mark at each end
of the eye, possibly representing the large tear gland.

The deer plays a large part in the Maya ceremonials.
It is an important, perhaps the most important animal offer-
ing as a sacrifice to the gods. Several pages of the Tro-
Cortesianus (38-49) are given over to the hunt and the animal
usually represented is the deer, the hunters are shown, the
methods of trapping, the return from the chase, and the
rites in connection with the animals slain. Tro-Cortesianus

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 349

48b (PL 30, fig. 1) shows the usual method of trapping where
the deer is caught by a cord around one of the fore legs. Tro-
Cortesianus 91a pictures the same method and 92a (PL 30,
figs. 2) shows where the deer is caught on a spike in another
type of trap. In Tro-Cortesianus 86a (PL 31, fig. 5) the deer
appears with a rope around his body held by a god who is
not easily identified.

Interesting descriptions of the hunt are given in several
of the early accounts.* It will be noted that the hunt was
usually connected with the religious rites and the offering
of deer meat and various parts of the body of the deer had
a ceremonial importance. Attention is called to similar

*Relacion hecha por el Licenciado Palacio al Rey. D. Felipe 11 (1866,
p. 31). "Lo que hacian en los sacrificios de la pesca y caza, era que tomaban
un venado vivo y llevabanlo al patio del cu e iglesia que tenian fuera del
pueblo y alli lo ahogaban y lo desollaban y le salaban toda la sangre en una
olla, y el higado y bofes y buches los hacian pedazos muy pequenos y apar-
taban el corazon, cabeza y pies, y mandaban cocer el venado por si, la
sangre for si, y mientras esto se cocia, hacian su baile. Tomaban el Papa
y sabio la cabeza del venado por las orejas, y los cuatro sacerdotes los cuatro
pies, y el mayordomo llevaba un brasero, do se quemaba el corazon conuli
y copa, 6 incensaban al idolo que tenian puesto y senalado para la caza y
pesca. Acabado el mitote, ofrecian la cabeza y pies al idolo y chamus-
cabanla, y despues de chamuscada, la llevaban a casa del Papa y se la
comia y el venado y su sangre comian los demas sacerdotes delante del
Idolo; d los pescados les sacaban las tripas y los quemaban ante el dicho
fdolo. Lo propio era con los demas animales."

Relacion de Cotuta y Tiholon ( 1898, p. 105). *'Un dios que dezian que
eran benados en matando un yndio un benado benia luego a su dios y con
el coragon le untaba la cara de sangre y sino mataba algo aquel dia ybase a
su casa aquel yndio le quebraba y dabale de cozes diziendo que no era buen
dios."

Cogolludo (1688, Book I, Chap. VII, p. 43) "Correan tan pocolos venados,
y tan sin espantarse de la gente, que los soldados de a cavallo del exercito
los alcancavan, y alangeavan, muy a su placer, y de esta suerte mataron
muchos de ellos, con que comieron algunos dias despues . . . Que en que
consistia aquella novedad, de aver tanta maquina de venados, y estar tan
mansos? Les dieron por respuesta; Que en aquellos Pueblos los tenian
por sus Dioses k los venador; porque su Idolo Mayor se les a via aparecido
en aquella figura."

350 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

practices among the Lacandones, the inhabitants of the re-
gion of the Usumacinta at the present time (Tozzer, 1907)^
where the greater part of the food of the people must, first
of all, be offered to the gods before it may be eaten by the^
natives.

The figures of the deer in the codices are clearly associated
with god M, and the latter may be considered a god of the-
hunt as well as a god of war. It is very unusual to find a
quadruped used as a head-dress in any way, and yet in several
cases we find god M has the head of a deer as a sort of head
covering, Tro-Cortesianus 50b (PL 31, fig. 6), 51c (PL 31,.
fig. 7) and 68b. In the first two cases, the god seems to be
supplied with a bow and arrow. In a passage in Landa
(1864, p. 290)* there is a description of this very scene.

In the month Zip, the hunters each took an arrow and
a deer's head which was painted blue; thus adorned they-
danced. God M is found in one case in the Dresden in con-
nection with the deer. In Dresden 13c the animal is repre-
sented as female and is shown in intercourse with god M.

An offering of venison is frequently pictured in the manu-
scripts. Landa (1864, p. 220) f also furnishes a parallel
for this. The haunches of venison arranged as offerings in dishes^
are realistically seen in a number of representations of re-
ligious rites, as in Dresden 28c (PL 31, fig. 14) in the last
of the rites of the dominical days, 35a (PL 31, fig. 12) and in.
Tro-Cortesianus 5a above the serpent enclosing the body
of water, 65a in front of god B or D and 105b (PL 31, fig. 13)
and 108a (PL 31, fig. 15), both of which are in connection-
with the bee ceremonies.

The head of the deer, rather than the legs, is also shown.

*"Y con su devocion invocavan los cagadores a los dioses de la caga, . . .
sacava cada uno una flecha y una calabera de venado, las quales los chaces-
untavancon el betun azul; y untados, vailavan con ellas en las manosunos."

fin the Muluc years, he states "davan al sacredote una pierna de venado"
and also in the same month, "Ofrecian a la imagen pan hecho como yemas-
de uevos y otros como coragones de venados, y otro hecho con su pimienta .
desleida."

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 351

as an offering, in Tro-Cortesianus 69b with god B and Tro-
Cortesianus 78 (PI. 31, fig. 10) in the line of glyphs. The
whole deer may be represented as an offering in Tro-Corte-
sianus 2b (PL 31, fig. 8).*

There are some examples in the manuscripts where the
deer is pictured quite apart from any idea of the hunt or
an offering. In Tro-Cortesianus 14b, it is shown on top of
the body of one of the large snakes and in Tro-Cortesianus
29c (PI. 31, fig. 3), it appears seated on the end of a snake-
like curve. The deer occurs in Tro-Cortesianus 30b (PL 30,
fig. 6) in connection with the goddess from whose breasts
water is flowing. God B appears in Dresden 41c (PL 31,
fig. 1) seated on a red deer. The same animal is also to be
noted in Dresden 60a (PL 30, fig. 5) in connection with the
combat of the planets, f A deer is seen in Tro-Cortesianus
92d seated on a mat opposite a female figure in the same
manner as the armadillo on the same page and a dog on the
preceding page. These, as previously noted, probably refer
to cohabitation. On PL 32, fig. 9, is a deer from the Pere-
sianus and PL 32, fig. 12, shows another from Stela N, east,
from Copan.

The Nahua day Magatl signifies deer and we naturally
find a large number of glyphs representing this animal among
the day signs in the Mexican manuscripts (PL 31, fig. 9; PL
32, figs. 8, 10, 11).

Yucatan Peccary {Tayassu angulatum yucatanense; T,
ringens) . Peccaries (Maya, qeqem) of the T. angulatum group
are common in Mexico and Yucatan, and a number of local
forms have been named. The white-lipped peccaries also
occur, but in the figures it is impossible to distinguish the
species. These animals are characterized by their prominent
snout, curly tail, bristling dorsal crest, and rather formidable
tusks, as well as by the possession of hoofs. By these marks
most of the figures are readily identifiable (PL 32, fig. 1; PL

*Forstemann (1902, p. 20) identifies this animal as a rabbit I
fForstemann identifies this animal as a dog.

352 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

33, figs. 1, 2, 4-6, 9). The tail is, however, often omitted
as well as the erect line of bristles down the back. The pres-
ence of hoofs and the possession of a truncated pig-like snout
are sufficiently characteristic. In the Dresden Codex occur
several figures of undoubted peccaries. Two of these are
pictured in PL 32, figs. 2, 4. In each the hoofs and curly-
tail appear, and in the latter figure the bristling back is con-
ventionally drawn by a series of serrations. These marks
are sufficient to identify the animals. Their heads are further
conventionalized, however, by a great exaggeration of the
snout beyond that slightly indicated in PL 32, fig. 1, and PL
33, figs. 6, 9. Other representations of the peccary, are shown
in PL 32, fig. 5, a man with a peccary's head, and fig. 7 in
which the animal 's hoofs are replaced by human hands and
feet. In both cases the form of the head remains charac-
teristic. A curious combination is shown in PL 32, fig. 3,
an animal whose head and fore feet are those of a peccary, while
the hind feet have five toes, and there is a long tail. The
addition of what look like scales is found in a figure from
the Dresden (PL 32, fig. 6).

The peccary is found in several different connections in
the manuscripts. As deer are found associated with the hunt,
so, but to a much more limited extent, the peccary. It is
represented pictured as being captured in snares of the familiar
''jerk-up" type. Similar drawings show this animal caught
by the foreleg and held partially suspended, Tro-Cortesianus
49a (PL 33, fig. 9),* 49c (PL 33, fig. 1), and 93a (PL 33, fig. 4).
Tro-Cortesianus 41b also shows the peccary associated with
hunting scenes. Another realistic drawing of this animal
in Dresden 62 (PL 33, fig. 6)t represents him as seated on
the open jaws of a serpent connected with a long number
series. We are unable to explain the signification of the
appearance of the animal in this connection. The peccary

♦This animal has been identified by Stempell as an agouti notwithstand-
ing the hoofs and tusks.

fForstemann (1906,. p. 228) suggests that this animal is a bear.

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 353

is pictured in Tro-Cortesianus 27b (PL 33, fig. 5) seated on
the left hand of the goddess from whose breasts water is
flowing.

The peccary seems to be associated with the sky, as it
is seen in a conventionaHzed form in four instances (Dresden
44b, 45b, (PL 32, fig. 4) coming from a band of constellation
signs and in Dresden 68a (PL 32, fig. 2) coming from a similar
band with god E sitting underneath.* Above each of these
conventionalized figures occur the corresponding glyph
forms (PL 33, figs. 7, 8), which show merely the head with
the exaggerated upturned snout. There is a striking resem-
blance between these snouts and those of the stone mask-
like figures so frequently represented as a fa9ade decoration
in northern Yucatan. The presence in the mouths of the
faces there represented of a recurved tusk in addition to other
teeth is a further resemblance to the drawings of peccaries.
Stempell (1908, p. 718) has reproduced a photograph of these
extraordinary carvings and considers them the heads of mas-
todons, apparently solely on account of the shape of the up-
turned snout, whose tip in many of the carvings turns forward.
They certainly do not represent the heads of mastodons, but
we are not ready to say that the peccary is the prototype of
these carvings, although the similarity between the glyphs
(PL 33, figs. 7, 8) and the masks is worthy of note. One
point which does not favor this explanation is the fact that
on the eastern fa9ade of the Monjas at Chichen Itza where the
mask-like panel is seen at its best, we find a reaHstic drawing
of a peccary (PL 33, fig. 2) on the band of glyphs over the
doorway, and it in no way suggests the head on the panel
and is quite different from the head already noted as the
glyph of the peccary in the codices.

Baird's Tapir (Tapirella bairdi). No undoubted repre-
sentations of tapirs occur in the manuscripts here considered.

♦Attention is called to the curious half-human, half-animal figure in
Tro-Cortesianus 2a which may suggest the figures in Dresden 44a, 45a and
which are here identified as peccaries. Both are descending from the band
of constellation signs and the heads of each are not greatly dissimilar.
IV. 23

354 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

Possibly tapirs did not live in the country occupied by the
Maya peoples. At the present time they are found only to
the south of Yucatan. In Central America Baird's and
Dow's tapirs are native, the latter, however, more on the
Pacific coast. We have included a drawing of an earthen-
ware vessel (PI. 28, fig. 1) that represents a tapir, about
whose neck is a string of Oliva shells. The short prehensile
trunk of the tapir is well made and the hoofs are likewise
shown. A greatly elongated nose is found in many of the
drawings of the deities, but it does not seem clear that these
represent trunks of tapirs, or, as suggested by Stempell,
mastodons! Two such heads are. shown in PL 39, figs. 7, 9.
These offer a considerable superficial resemblance to that of
a tapir, but as no other drawings that might be considered
to represent this animal are found, it seems very questionable
if the long noses are other than parts of grotesque masks.
The superficial resemblance of the curious nose pieces of the
masks on the panel of the Maya fa9ades to elephants* trunks
does not seem to us especially significant, as otherwise the
carvings are quite unlike elephants. They have no great
tusks as an elephant should, but, instead, short recurved
teeth similar to those representing peccary tusks, as already
pointed out.

Rabbit (Sylvilagus or Lepus). Rabbits and hares from
their familiarity, their long ears, and their peculiar method
of locomotion, seem always to attract the notice of primitive
peoples. Several species occur in Mexico, including the Marsh
rabbit (Sylvilagus truei; S. insonus), various races of the
Cottontail rabbit {S. floridanus connectens; S. /. chiapensis,
S. f. yucatanicus; S. aztecus; S. orizahae, etc.) and several
Jack rabbits (Lepus alleni pallitans; L. callotis flavigularis ,
L. asellus). It is, of course, quite impossible to determine
to which of these species belong the few representations
found. Several drawings, shown in PI. 30, figs. 3, 4, 7, 8, are
at once identifiable as rabbits from their long ears, round
heads, and the presence of the prominent gnawing teeth.*
*Forstemanii (1906, p. 229) suggests thatfig. 8 is a walrus!

ANIMAL FIGUEES IN THE MAYA CODICES 355

In two of the figures (PL 30, figs. 7, 8), the entire animal is
shown, sitting erect on its haunches, the first with one ear
in advance of the other, a trait more characteristic of the
jack rabbit than of the short-eared rabbits. For convenience
of comparison, we have placed beside these two figures one
of a deer in much the same position. It is at once distin-
guished, however, by its long head, longer bushy tail, and
by the marks at each end of the eye. What at first sight
appear to be two gnawing teeth of the rabbit seem to be the
incisors of the lower jaw. This is the animal identified by
Stempell as a dog.

The animal shown to be a rabbit in Dresden 61 (PI. 30,
fig. 8) is pictured seated on the open jaws of a serpent in the
same way as the peccary on the following page. These two
animals, together with two representations of god B and the
black god (Dresden 61), are each clearly connected with the
serpents on which they are sitting.

The Nahua day Tochtli signifies rabbit and naturally the
animal occurs throughout the Mexican manuscripts as repre-
senting this day (PL 30, figs. 3, 4).

Other Rodents. We have included in PL 29, figs. 5,
7, 8, three undetermined mammals. The second of these
is characterized by the two prominent gnawing teeth of a
rodent and by its long tail. It may represent a pack rat
(Neotoma) of which many species are described from Mexico.
In its rounded ears and long tail, fig. 5 somewhat resembles
fig. 7, but it lacks the gnawing incisors. Still less satisfactory
is fig. 8 from Tro-Cortesianus 24d, at whose identity it seems
unsafe to hazard a guess. It is shown as eating the corn
being sowed by god D.

Jaguar {Felis hernandezi; F. h. goldmani). Through-
out its range, the jaguar (Maya, balam or tsakmul) is the
most dreaded of the carnivorous mammals. It is, therefore,
natural that the Mayas held it in great awe and used it as
a symbol of strength and courage. A few characteristic
figures are shown in PL 34, figs. 1-3; PL 35, figs. 5-14. The
species represented is probably Felis hernandezi, the Mexican

356 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

race of jaguar, or one or the other of the more or less nominal
varieties named from Central America. The distinguishing
mark of the jaguar, in addition to the general form with the
long tail, short ears and claws, is the presence of the rosette-
like spots. These are variously conventionalized as solid
black markings, as small circles, or as a central spot ringed
by a circle of dots (PL 35, fig. 12). Frequently the solid
black spots are used, either in a line down the back and tail
or scattered over the body. The tip of the tail is character-
istically black, and the teeth are often prominent. Such a
figure as this (PL 35, fig. 10) Stempell considers to be a water
opossum (Chironectes) , for the reason that it is held by the
goddess from whose breast water is flowing. This can hardly
be, however, for not only are the markings unlike those of
the water opossum, but the large canine tooth indicates a
large carnivore. Moreover, the water opossum is a small
animal, hardly as big as a rat, of shy and retiring habits,
and so is unlikely to figure in the drawings of the Mayas.

As for the significance of the jaguar in the life of the
Mayas, it may be said that this animal seems to have played
a most prominent part. At Chichen Itza, the building on
top of the southern end of the eastern wall of the Ball Court,
usually called the Temple of the Tigers, has a line of jaguars
carved in stone as frieze around the outside of the building,
and in the Lower Chamber of the same structure, the figure
of a jaguar (Maudslay, III, PL 43) serves as an altar. The
front legs and the head of a jaguar often are seen as the sup-
port of a seat or altar on which a god is represented as at
Palenque in the Palace, House E (Maudslay, IV, PL 44)
and in the Temple of the Beau Relief (Holmes, 1895-1897,
PL 20). Altar F at Copan (PL 35, fig. 7) shows the same idea.
The head of a puma or jaguar (PL 34, fig. 6) appears in the
bas-relief of the Lower Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers
evidently representing a part of an altar. A realistic carving
of a jaguar was found on a stone near the Temple of the
Cones at Chichen Itza (Maudslay, III, PL 52, fig. a), and an-
other occurs near the present hacienda of Chichen Itza carved
in relief on a ledge of rock.

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 357

In the Maya manuscripts the jaguar appears in a number
of connections. Its mythological character is shown in
Dresden 8a (PL 35, fig. 5), where it is pictured as the tonala-
matl figure. The day reached here in the reckoning is /a:,
and this corresponds to the Nahua Oceolotl, which means
jaguar. In Dresden 26, in the pages showing the ceremonies
of the years, the jaguar is carried on the back of the priest,
evidently representing one of the year bearers {Ti cuch haab),
Balam, the name of the jaguar, is the title given to the four
Bacabs or Chacs, the gods of the four cardinal points. In
Tro-Cortesianus 64a, two jaguar heads are noted as the end
of curious bands of Caban signs over a flaming pot. The
second one is shown as dead. A jaguar head is employed
in two places in the Tro-Cortesianus, 34a and 36a, as a head-
dress for a god who is in the act of sowing corn. This animal
appears very infrequently in the pages of the Tro-Cortesianus
given over to the hunting scenes, 41c, 40c, 43b, and, even
here, it never appears in the same way as the deer and peccary,
as an animal for sacrifice.

The jaguar as a predacious beast is noted in Tro-Corte-
sianus 28b (PI. 35, fig. 8), where it is attacking god F in a
similar way as the vultures in the preceding picture. The
jaguar appears in Tro-Cortesianus 30b (PL 35, fig. 10) seated
on the right hand of the goddess from whose breasts water
is flowing. The figure in Tro-Cortesianus 12b between the
various offerings may be a jaguar or a dog, more probably
from its connection with an offering, the dog. A curious
modification of the jaguar may be shown in Tro-Cortesianus
20a (PL 34, fig. 2), where a god is seated on the gaping jaws
of some animal whose identity is uncertain. It may be a
serpent, although the black-tipped tail from which the head
appears to come certainly suggests the jaguar.

There are several carved glyphs in stone that probably
represent jaguars. Two of these (PL 28, fig. 4; PL 35, fig. 9)
have the characteristic round spots, but others are unmarked,
and suggest the jaguar by their general character only (PL 35,
fig. 6). This latter may, of course, represent the puma quite

358 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

as well. A realistic jaguar head appears as a glyph in Tro-
Cortesianus 2a (PL 35, fig. 13). The more usual glyph for
the jaguar is more highly conventionalized, although the
spots and the short rounded ear are still characteristic (PL 35,
fig. 11). A slight modification of this glyph appears in Dres-
den 8a in connection with the full drawing of the animal
below.

The Nahua day Oceolotl, as already noted, means jaguar,
and the jaguar glyph is found among the day signs (PL 34,
fig. 3). Seler (1904, p. 379) associates the jaguar in the
Vaticanus and the Bologna with Tezcatlipoca. He notes
that the second age of the world, in which the giants lived
and in which Tezcatlipoca shone as the sun, is called the
*' jaguar sun." Tezcatlipoca is supposed to have changed
himself into a jaguar.

Puma {Felis bangsi costaricensis) . As shown by Stempell,
there can be little doubt that some one of the mainly nominal
species of Central American puma is represented in Dresden
47 (PL 34, fig. 7). This animal is colored reddish in the
original, as is the puma, is without spots, although the tip
of the tail, as in the pictures of the jaguar, is black. The
animal is represented as being transfixed with a spear.*
Another animal colored red in Dresden 41c seems to repre-
sent a puma. God B is shown seated upon him. A crude
figure from the Painted Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers
(PL 34, fig. 5) is probably the same species of puma. The
cleverly executed head, shown in profile in PL 34, fig. 6, is also
perhaps the same animal, although it may possibly represent
the jaguar. One or the other of these two cats is also in-
tended, in PL 34, fig. 4, a drawing of a piece of pottery.

Coyote (Canis). Two figures from the Nuttall Codex
have been included as possibly representing coyotes (PL 35,
figs. 1, 2). They are chiefly characterized by their prominent
ears and bristling hair, and seem to be engaged in active com-
bat. Coyotes of several species occur in Mexico and though

' *Seler (1904) gives an interesting explanation of the reason why the
puma and the other corresponding figures are shown hit with a spear.

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 359

not generally regarded as aggressive animals are of a preda-
cious nature. No drawings of the coyote have been noted
in the Maya codices.

Dog (Canis). The dog (Maya, peq) evidently played an
important part in the life of the Mayas as it does- with other
races of men generally. On Pis. 36, 37, we have included
■certain figures of dogs from several manuscripts. These
may represent two breeds, for it is well known that both a
hairy and a hairless variety were found by the early discov-
■erers in Mexico.* Hairiness is more or less clearly indicated
in the following figures:— PL 36, figs. 1-7, 12; PL 37, figs.
4, 5. The figures of dogs usually agree in having a black
mark about the eyes that frequently is produced as a down-
ward curved tongue from the posterior canthus. Sometimes,
AS in PL 37, figs. 1-3, 10, this tongue is not blackened. Com-
monly also black patches are elsewhere distributed on the
body, generally on the back. These markings are probably
the patches of color separated by white areas that occur fre-
quently in dogs or other animals after long domestication. f
We have included among the figures of dogs two in which
1ihe eye is differently represented and which are unspotted
(PL 37, figs. 4, 6). These modifications may have some
special significance, but otherwise the animals appear most
closely to represent dogs.

We have already suggested that the animal attired in
man's clothing, and walking erect in Dresden 25a-28a is
likewise a dog, though Stempell believes it to represent the
opossum in support of which he calls attention to its promi-
nent vibrissae and slightly curled tail.

*Relacion de la Ciudad de Merida (1898, p. 63): "Ay perros naturales
dela tierra que no tienen pelo ninguno, y no ladran, que tienen los dientes
ralos e agudos, las orejas pequenas, tiesas y levantadas^a estos engordan
los yndios para comer y los tienen por gran rregalo — estos se juntan con
los perros de espana y enjendran y los mestizos que dellos proceden ladran
y tienen pelo y tambien los comen los yndios cano alos demas, y tambien los
yndios tienen otra suerte de perros que tienen pelo pero tan poco ladran y
son del mesmo tamano que los demas."

fBrinton (1895, p. 72) regards these spots as representing stars.

360 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

The dog played a large part in the religion both of the
Mayas and the Mexican peoples. It was connected especially
with the idea of death and destruction. The Lacandones of
the present time make a small figure of a dog to place on
the grave (Tozzer, 1907, p. 47). This is but one of the many
survivals of the ancient pre-Columbian religion found among
this people. The dog was regarded as the messenger to
prepare the way to the other world. Seler (1900-1901, pp.
82-83) gives an interesting parallel of the Nahua idea of the
dog and his connection with death. He paraphrases Sahagun
as follows: ''The native Mexican dogs barked, wagged their
tails, in a word, behaved in all respects like our own dogs,
were kept by the Mexicans not only as house companions,
but above all, for the shambles, and also in Yucatan and on
the coast land for sacrifice. The importance that the dog
had acquired in the funeral rites may perhaps have originated
in the fact that, as the departed of both sexes were accom-
panied by their effects, the prince by the women and slaves
in his service, so the dog was assigned to the grave as his
master's associate, friend, and guard, and that the persistence
of this custom in course of time created the belief that the
dog stood in some special relation to the kingdom of the dead.
It may also be that, simply because it was the practice to
burn the dead, the dog was looked on as the Fire God's ani-
mal and the emblem of fire, the natives got accustomed to
speak of him as the messenger to prepare the way in the
kingdom of the dead, and thus eventually to regard him as
such. At the time when the Spaniards made their acquaint-
ance, it was the constant practice of the Mexicans to commit
to the grave with the dead a dog who had to be of a red-
yellow color, and had a string of unspun cotton round his
neck, and was first killed by the thrust of a dart in his throat.
The Mexicans believed that four years after death, when the
soul had already passed through many dangers on its way
to the underworld, it came at last to the bank of a great river/
the Chicunauhapan, which encircled the underworld proper.
The souls could get across this river only when they were

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 361

awaited by their little dog, who, recognizing his master on
the opposite side, rushed into the water to bring him over."
(Sahagun, 3 Appendix, Chap. I.)

As might be expected from the foregoing, there are abun-
dant evidences in the manuscripts of the presence of the dog
in the various religious rites and especially those which have
to do with the other world, the Kingdom of the Dead. In
Tro-Cortesianus 35b, 36b, 37a, 37b, the pages showing the
rites of the four years, the dog appears in various attitudes.
In 35b and 36b, it bears on his back the Imix and Kan signs,
in 37a (PL 37, fig. 8) it is shown as beating a drum and sing-
ing, in 37b (PI. 36, fig. 2) it is beside a bowl containing Kan
signs. In all of these places, the dogs seem to be represented
among the various birds and animals which are to be sacri-
ficed for the new years. Landa (1864, p. 216)* states that
in the Kan year a dog was sacrificed. In the Muluc year,
Landa (1864, p. 222) f records that they offered dogs made
of clay with bread upon their backs and a perrito which had
black shoulders and was a virgin. It has already been noted
that two of the dogs represented in Tro-Cortesianus 35b
and 36b have a Kan and Imix sign fastened to the back.
Moreover, we have also pointed out that the Kan sign fre-
quently seems to have the meaning of maize or bread. It
will be noted that in Tro-Cortesianus 36b two human feet
are shown on each of which is a dog-like animal. J These
may indicate the dance in which dogs were carried as noted
by Landa. Cogolludo (1688, p. 184) § also mentions a similar

*"Y que le sacrificassen un perro o un hombre. . . porque hazian en el
patio del templo un gran monton de piedras y ponian al hombre o perro
que avian de sacrificiar en alguna cosa mas alta que el."

t "Avian de ofrescerle perros hechos de barro con pan en las espaldas, y
avian de vailar con ellos en las manos las viejas y sacrificarle un perrito que
tuviesse las espaldas negras y fuesse virgen."

J These might quite as well be rabbits as dogs.

§"De los Indios de Cozumel dize, que aun en su tiempo eran grandes
Idolatras, y usaban un bayle de su gentilidad, en el qual flechaban un
perro q auian de sacrificar."

362 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

dance. Still another reference in Landa (1864, p. 260)*
mentions that in the months Muan and Pax dogs were sac-
rificed to the deities.

Reference has already been made to the identification of
the four priests at the top of Dresden 25-28 as having the
heads of dogs rather than of opossums. It may be suggested
that in the role of the conductor to the other world the dog
is represented as carrying on his back in each case the year
which has just been completed and therefore is dead. This,
of course, would necessitate the identification of god B, the
jaguar, god E, and god A as representing in turn the four
years.

The dog, according to Sahagun's account (p. 360) was
looked upon as the "Fire God's animal/' and as an emblem
of fire. This idea is seen frequently in the Maya manuscripts
where the dog with firebrands in his paws or attached to his
tail is coming head downward from a line of constellation
signs, as in Dresden 36a (PL 37, fig. 3), 40b (PL 37, fig. 1)
or is standing beneath similar signs as in Dresden 39a (PL 37,
iig. 2) and probably in Tro-Cortesianus 13a. His tail alone
has the firebrand in Tro-Cortesianus 36b. Firebrands are
carried by figures which have been identified by us as dogs
in Tro-Cortesianus 24c (PL 37, fig. 6), 25c, and 90a. Here
the animal is represented as in the air holding his firebrands
over a blazing altar beside which god F is seated. In two
out of the four cases, F is shown as dead. The dog in these
latter examples has his eye composed of the Akhal sign. This
same glyph can also be made out with difficulty on the fore-
head of the dog shown in Dresden 36a (PL 37, fig. 3). As
has been noted, Akhal means night and possibly death as
well. It is certain that destruction is indicated in the pre-
ceding examples as well as in Tro-Cortesianus 87a and 88a
(PL 37, fig. 4) where the dog is holding four human figures
by the hair.

Beyer (1908, pp. 419-422) has identified the dog as the

*"Donde sacrificavan un perro, manchado por la color del cacao . . . y
ofrecianles yguanas de las azules y ciertas plumas de un paxaro."

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 363

Pleiades and various other suggestions have been made that
the dog represents some constellation. The more common
form of spotted dog is shown as a single tonalamatl figure in
Tro-Cortesianus 25d and 27d (PL 36, fig. 14) and an unspotted
variety in Dresden 7a (PI. 37, fig. 10). The dog is frequently-
shown as copulating with another animal or with a female
figure. In Dresden 13c (PL 37, fig. 7) the second figure is
a vulture, in Dresden 21b (PL 37, fig. 5) it i& a woman and also
in Tro-Cortesianus 91c (PL 36, fig. 12).

The same animal appears also in a number of
scenes not included in the preceding. In Tro-Cortesianus
88c (PL 36, fig. 1) a dog is seated on a crab and seems to be
connected with the idea of the north as this sign is noted
above the figure; in Tro-Cortesianus 66b (PL 36, fig. 3) a
-dog and another animal (PL 32, fig. 3) are seated back to
l^ack under a shelter; in Tro-Cortesianus 30b a dog is seated
•on the right foot of the woman from whose breasts water is
streaming; in Dresden 29a (PL 37, fig. 12) god B is shown
•seated on a dog; and, finally, in Dresden 30a (PL 37, fig. 9)
god B holds the bound dog by the tail over an altar.

The dog appears from numerous references to be used in
connection with a prayer for rain. Comargo (1843) in his
history of Tlaxcallan states that when rain failed, a proces-
sion was held in which a number of hairless dogs were carried
on decorated litters to a place devoted to their use. There
they were sacrificed to the god of water and the bodies were
eaten.

The glyphs associated with the dog are interesting as we
have, as in the case with the deer, one showing a realistic
drawing of a dog's head in Tro-Cortesianus 91 d (PL 37, fig. 13)
and several others far more difficult of interpretation. PL
37, fig. 11, seems to stand for the dog as it is found in several
places where the dog appears below, Dresden 21b, 40b. It
is thought by some to represent the ribs of a dog which appear
in somewhat similar fashion in PL 37, fig. 8. Some of the

364 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

glyphs in the codices for the month Kankin show the same
element (text figs. 8-10).

The Nahua day sign Itzcuintli signifies dog and corre-
sponds to the Maya Oc (PI. 36, figs. 9-11). This in turn is
considered by many to stand for the dog as the animal of

FIG8. 8, 9, 10.
GLYPHS FOR MAYA MONTH KANKIN (RIBS OF DOG).

death and signifies the end. The sore, cropped ears of the
domesticated dog are supposed to be represented in this
sign, Oc. Nahua and other day signs for Itzcuintli (dog) are
shown in PL 36, figs. 4, 6, 13.

Bear (Ursus machetes; U. horriaeus). In northern
Mexico, in Chihuahua and Sonora, occur a black bear {Ursus
machetes) and the Sonoran grizzly (C7. horriaeus). It is
unlikely that the Mayas had much acquaintance with these
animals since they range more to the northward than the
area of Maya occupation. Stempell has identified as a bear,
a figure in Dresden 37a (PI. 35, fig. 3). This represents a
creature with the body of a man walking erect but with the
head apparently of some carnivorous mammal, as shown by
the prominent canine tooth. This appears as a tonalamatl
figure. The resemblance to a bear is not very clear. Less
doubt attaches to the figure shown in PI. 35, fig. 4, which
seems almost certainly to depict a bear. The stout body,
absence of a tail, the plantigrade hind feet, and stout claws,
all seem to proclaim it a bear of one of the two species above
mentioned. This picture is found in connection with one
of the warriors shown in the bas-relief of the Lower Chamber
of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza. It seems clearly
to designate the figure in much the same way as figures are

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 365

named in the Mexican writings, i.e., by having a glyph show-
ing this nearby. Attention has already been called to the
fact that here at Chichen Itza, and, especially on this bas-
relief, there is much which shows a strong influence from the
north. The two figures in Tro-Cortesianus 43a are probably
bears. Forstemann (1902, p. 68) considers that they are
men masked as Chacs or Bacabs.

Leaf-nosed Bat (Vampyrus spectrum; Artibeus jamai-
censis; or Phyllostomus hastatus panamensis) . Several re-
markably diabolical representations of bats (Maya, soo,
usually written zotz) occur among the Maya remains. These
all show the prominent nose leaf distinguishing the family
Phyllostomatidae and, as the Mayas probably used the largest
and most conspicuous of the native species for artistic repre-
sentation, it is likely that some one of the three species above
mentioned is the one here shown.

The bat had a place in the Maya pantheon. One of the

Figs. U, 12, 13, 14.
GLYPHS FOR MAYA MONTH ZOTZ (BATS).

months of the Maya year (Zotz) was named after this animal
and the glyph for this month shows the characteristic nasal
appendage. This is to be seen more clearly in the glyphs
selected from the stone inscriptions (PL 38, figs. 1, 2, 4-6)
than in those from the codices (text figs. 11-14) although
the nose leaf is still visible in the latter. The day sign Akbal
(night) occurs as the eye in the figures from the manuscripts.
A carving showing the whole body of the bat is used as a
glyph in Stela D from Copan (PL 38, fig. 3). This may also
represent the Bat god who is associated with the underworld,
"the god of the caverns.'^ This god is pictured on the "Vase
of Chama" (PL 38, fig. 7) figured by Dieseldorff (1904, pp.

366

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

665-666) and by Gordon (1898, PI. III). Seler (1904a) has^
discussed the presence of this god among the Mayas, the
Zapotecs, and the Nahuas. The bat does not seem to oc-
cur in the Maya manuscripts as a god, although there are
glyphs which seem to refer to this god (Dresden 17b), as^
pointed out by Seler, when there is no other representation,
of this deity.

No doubt in the times of the Maya civilization, these bats
haunted the temples by day as they do now, and thus became
readily endowed with a religious significance.

Capuchin Monkey {Cehus capucinus, — C. hypoleucus
Auct.) With the possible exception of one or two figures,.

Fig. 15.
POTTERY WHISTLE, APE. FROM ULOA VALLEY, HONDURAS.

mmikeys (Maya, maas or baao) are not represented in the
Maya codices examined. In Tro-Cortesianus 88c (PI. 39,
fig. 4) occurs a curious nondescript animal with what seem
to be hoofs on the forefeet, a somewhat bushy tail of moderate-
length, and a head that appears to be distinctly bonneted,,
somewhat as in the representations of the capuchin. Stem-
pell regards this as a monkey, though recognizing that the-
short bushy tail is unlike that of any Central American
species. The figure seems quite as likely a peccary or possibly
a combination of a deer with some other animal. A glyph
(PI. 39, fig. 5) found directly above the figure just referred

ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES 367

to, suggests a monkey, though it cannot be surely identified.
A pottery whistle from the Uloa Valley (text fig. 15) shows
two monkeys standing side by side with a posterior extension
for the mouth piece. Their heads are shaped as in other
representations of this monkey with a distinct cap or bonnet
and facial discs. A pottery stamp from the same locality
shows a monkey with a long tail (Gordon, 1898, PL 11, fig. f).
It recalls the drawings of monkeys given by Strebel (1899,.
Pis. 1-4).

In the Nuttall Codex are numerous heads and a few other
figures of a monkey, which from the erect hair of the crown,
curling tail, and distinctly indicated facial area must be the
common bonneted or capuchin monkey of Central America.
This species does not occur in Yucatan. What is undoubtedly
the same animal is shown as a head glyph in PL 39, fig. 8,
from the Aubin manuscript. The identifications of the head-
forming glyphs in the Nuttall and the Aubin manuscripts

Figs. '16, 17, 18, 19.
GLYPHS FOR MAYA DAY CHUEN.

are certainly correct as the Nahua day sign {OgomatU) means?,
ape.

Text figs. 16-19, show some of the signs for the day Chuen
from the Maya codices. This is the day corresponding to th&
day Ogomath of the Nahuas. There is little resembHng an
ape in the Maya signs although it has been remarked that the
sign may show the open jaws and teeth of this animal.

Forstemann (1897) as noted by Schellhas (1904, p. 21)
alludes to the fact that the figure of god C, which occurs also
in the sign for the north, in the tonalamatl in Dresden 4a-10a
occurs in the day Chuen of the Maya calendar, and this corre--

368 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

sponds to the day 0(;omatli, the ape, in the Nahua calendar.
This would suggest a connection between god C and the ape
and this may be seen in the glyphs for god C (text figs. 20-24).
Forstemann sees " an ape whose lateral nasal cavity (peculiar
to the American ape or monkey) is occasionally represented
plainly in the hieroglyph picture." He also associates god C
with the constellation of Ursa Minor.

Figs. 20, 21, 22, 23, 24.
GLYPHS OF GOD C.

It will be seen from the detailed examination of the fauna
shown in the codices that after all a comparatively small
part of the animal life of the country occupied by the Maya
speaking peoples is represented. The drawings in some
cases are fairly accurate, so that there is little diffi-
culty in determining the species intended by the artist. At
other times, it is hazardous to state the exact species to which
the animal belongs. It is only in a comparatively small
number of cases, however, that there is any great doubt
attached to the identification. It will be noted that the
drawings of the Dresden manuscript are much more care-
fully and accurately done than those of the Tro-Cortesianus.
A greater delicacy and a more minute regard for detail char-
acterize the Dresden drawings in general.

In the animals selected for reproduction by the Mayas,
only those were taken which were used either in a purely
religious significance for their mythological character (and
here naturally there is to be noted an anthropomorphic
tendency) or animals were chosen which were employed as
offerings to the many different gods of the Maya pantheon.
The religious character of the whole portrayal of animal
life in the codices is clearly manifest, and it is this side of
the subject which will come out more clearly as the manu-
scripts are better known.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Aubin Manuscript, See Seler 1900-1901.
Beyer, Herman.

1908, The symbolic meaning of the dog in ancient Mexico; in American
Anthropologist (N. S.), Vol. X, pp. 419-422, Washington.
Bologna Codex, See Cospiano Codex.
Borbonicus Codex, See Hamy, 1899.
Borgia Codex, See Seler, 1904-1906.
Brasseur de Bourbourg, Charles Etienne.

1869-1870, Manuscrit Troano. Etudes sur le syst^me graphique et la
langue des Mayas; 2 vols., 4° Paris,
Brinton, Daniel Garrison.

1893, The native calendar of Central America and Mexico; in Proceedings
of the American Philosophical Society; Vol. XXXI, pp. 258-314,
Philadelphia.
1895, A primer of Mayan hieroglyphics; in Publications of the University
of Pennsylvania, Series in Philosophy, Literature, and Archaeology,
Vol. Ill, No. 2, pp. 152, Boston.
Camargo, Domingo Munoz.

1843, Histoire de la R^pubUque de Tlaxcallan; in Nouvelles Annales des
Voyages et des Sciences Geographique; IV S^rie, Tome 3, Paris. (Span-
ish edition published by Chavero, Mexico, 1892.)
CogoUudo, Diego Lopez.

1688, Historia de Yucatan; 4P, pp. 791, Madrid.
Cortesianus Codex, See Rada y Delgado, 1893.
Cospiano Codex (formeriy Bologna).

1899, Published in facsimile, Paris. (Loubat edition.)
Dieseldorff, Erwin P.

1904, A clay vessel with a picture of a vampire-headed deity; in Bureau
of Ethnology, Bulletin 28, pp. 665-666, Washington. (Translation of
German edition published in Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologic, 1894, pp. 576-
577.)
Dresden Codex, See Forstemann, 1880 and 1892.
Fej^rvdry-Mayer Codex, See Seler, 1901.

(369)
IV 24.

370 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

Fewkes, J. Walter.

1892, The Mam-zraii-ti; a Tusayan ceremony; in American Anthropolo-
gist, Vol. V, pp. 217-246.
1894, A study of certain figures in a Maya codex; in American Anthropolo-
gist, Vol. VII, pp. 260-274.
Forstemann, Ernst.

1880, Die Maya-Handschrift der koniglichen offentlichen Bibliothek zu

Dresden; 4°, Preface pp. xvii, 74 colored plates, Leipzig.
1892, Second edition of 1880, Dresden.

1902, Commentar zur Madrider Mayahandschrift (Codex Tro-Cortesian-
us);8°, pp. 160, Danzig.

1903, Commentar zur Pariser Mayahandschrift (Codex Peresianus); 8°,
pp. 32, Danzig.

1904, Tortoise and shell in Maya literature; in Bureau of Ethnology, Bulle-
tin 28, pp. 423-430, Washington. (Translation of German edition of
1892. Dresden.)

1904a, The Pleiades among the Mayas; in Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin
28, pp. 523-524, Washington. (Translation of German edition pub-
lished in Globus, Vol. XVI, No. 15, p. 246, 1894.)

1904b, The Day Gods of the Mayas; in Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin 28,

; pp. 557-572, Washington. (Translation of German edition pubHshed
in Globus, Vol. LXIII, Nos. 9, 10, 1898.)

1906, Commentary of the Maya manuscript in the Royal Public Library
of Dresden; in Papers of the Peabody Museum, Vol. IV, No. 2, pp. 48-
266. Cambridge. (Translation, revised by the author, of the German
edition of 1901.)
Gann, Thomas.

1897-1898, Mounds in Northern Honduras; in Bureau of Ethnology, 19th
annual report, part 2, pp. 661-691, Washington.
Gordon, George Byron.

1898, Researches in the Uloa Valley, Honduras; in Memoirs of the Pea-
body Museum, Vol. I, No. 4, pp. 44, Cambridge.

Hamy, Ernest T.

1899, Codex Borbonicus. Manuscrit Mexicain de la Bibhotheque der
Palais Bourbon; Text and plates, Paris.

Holmes, William Henry.

1895-1897, Archaeological studies among the ancient cities of Mexico;
Field Museum of Natural History, Publications 8 and 16 , Anthropological

Series, Vol. I, No. I, Chicago.
Hough, Walter.

1908, The pulque of Mexico; in Proceedings of the United States National
Museum, Vol. XXXIII, pp. 577-592, Washington.
Landa, Diego de.

1864, Relacion de las cosas de Yucatan; Spanish text with French trans-

BIBLIOGRAPHY 371

lation published by Brasseur de Bourbourg; 8°, pp. 516, Paris. (The
references in the text are to this edition). Spanish edition pubHshed by
Juan de Dios de la Rada y Delgado, Madrid, 1884, as an appendix to
his translation of Leon de Rosny's article, Essai sur le d^chiffrement
de Tecriture hieratique de FAm^rique Centrale. Second Spanish
edition in Coleccion de Documentos in6ditos (2d Series); Madrid,
1900, Vol. XIII, pp. 265-411.
1900, See second Spanish edition under 1864. (This contains much that
is not given in the 1864 edition.)
Maler, Teoberto.

1901-1903, Researches in the Usumatsintla Valley; in Memoirs of the

Peabody Museum, Vol. II, Cambridge.
1908, Explorations of the Upper Usumatsintla and adjacent region; in
Memoirs of the Peabody Museum, Vol. IV, No. 1, Cambridge,
Maudslay, Alfred P.

1889-1902, Biologia CentraU- Americana, or Contributions to the know-
ledge of the flora and fauna of Mexico and Central America. Archae-
ology; Text and 4 vols, plates, London.
Nuttall Codex.

1902, Reproduced in facsimile by the Peabody Museum, Cambridge.
Palacio.

1686, Relacion hecha por el Licentiado Palacio al Rey. D. Felipe II en la
que describe la Provincia de Guatemala, las costumbres de los Indios
y otras casas notables; in Coleccion de Documentos ineditos relativos
al descubrimiento , conquista y organizacion de las antiguas posesiones
Espanales de America y Oceania; Tomo VI, pp. 7-40, Madrid.
Peresianus Codex, See Rosny, 1887.
Perez, Juan Pio.

1866-1877, Diccionario de la lengua Maya; sm. 4®, pp. 437, Merida.
Rada y Delgado, Juan de Dios de la.

1893, Codice Maya denominado Cortesianus que se conserva en el Museo
Arqueologio Nacional; 42 colored plates, Madrid.
Relacion de la Ciudad de Merida.

1900, in Coleccion de Documentos ineditos relativos al descubrimiento,
conquista y organizacion de las antiguas posesiones Espanolas de Ultra
mar (Segunda serie), Tomo XI, pp. 37-75, Madrid.
Relacion de Cotuta y Tibolon.

1900, in Coleccion de Documentos ineditos etc., {Segunda serie), Tomo
XI, pp. 93-103, Madrid.
Rosny, Leon de.

1876, Essai sur le dechififrement de F^criture hieratique de FAm6rique

Centrale, Paris.
1887, Codex Peresianus, Manuscrit hieratique des anciens Indiens de
FAm^irque Centrale conserve a la Biblioth^que National de Paris, Paris.

»

372 ANIMAL PI GURES IN T5E MAYA CODICES

Schellhas, Paul.

1904, Representations of deities of the Maya manuscripts; in Papers of
the Peabody Museum, Vol. IV, No. 1, pp. 1-47,' Cambridge. (Revised
translation of second German edition of 1904.)
Seler, Eduard.
1^/ 1900-1901, The Tonalamatl of the Aubin Collection, (English edition),

pp. 147, plates 19, Beriin and London. (Loubat edition.)
1901, Codex Fej^rv^ry-Mayer. Manuscrit Mexicain pr^colombien du
Free Public Museum de Liverpool (M 12014). Text and plates, Paris.
(Loubat edition.)
1902-1903, Codex Vaticanus 3773, Text and plates, Beriin. (Loubat ed.)
1904,' Venus period in the picture writings of the Borgia Codex group; in
Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin 28, pp. 355-391, Washington. (Trans-
lation of German edition of 1898.)
y 1904a, The Bat god of the Maya race; in Bureau of Ethnology, Bulle-
^ tin 28, pp. 231-242, Washington. (Translation of the German edition

of 1894.)
1904b, Antiquities from Guatemala; in Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin 28,
pp. 75-121, Washington. (Translation of the German edition of 1895.
republished in his collected works, Vol. Ill, pp. 578-640.)
1904-1906, Codex Borgia. Eine altmexikanische Bilderschrift der Biblio-
thek der Congregatio de Propaganda Fide; 4°, 2 vols, plates, Berlin
(Loubat edition.)
1909, Die Tierbilder der mexikanischen und Maya-Handschriften: in
Zeitschrift fUr Ethnologie, 1909, pp. 209-257, 381-457 (not completed).
rStempell, W.

1908, Die Tierbilder der Mayahandschrif ten ; in Zeitschrift flir Ethnol-
ogie, 40 Jahrgang, Vol. V, pp. 704-743.
Strebel, Hermann.

1899, Uber Tierornamente auf Thongefassen aus Alt-Mexico ; in Veroffent-
lichen aus dem Konig. Mus. fiir Volkerkunde, Vol. VI, part 1, pp.
1-33, Beriin.
"Thomas, t-yrus.

1882, A study of the Manuscript Troana; in Contributions to North Ameri-
can Ethnology, Vol. V, pp. 234, Washington.
1884-1885, Aids to the study of the Maya codices; in Bureau of Ethnology,
6th annual report, pp. 253-371, Washington.
Tozzer, Alfred M.

1907, A comparative study of the Mayas and the Lacandones. Report
of the Fellow in American Archaeology, 1902-1905; Archaeological In-
stitute of America, 8°, pp. 195, plates 29, New York.
Troano Codex, See Brasseur de Bourbourg, 1867-1870.
Villagutierre Soto Mayor, Juan.

1701, Historia de la Conquista de la Provincia de el Itza; 4°, pp. 660,
Madrid,
Vaticanus 3773, See Seler, 1902.

PLATE 1

MOLLUSCA

Fasciolaria gigantea

1. Man emerging from shell, Dresden 41b.

2. Same, Borgia 4.

3. Bologna 4.

4. Dresden 37b.

5. Vaticanus 3773, 66.

6. Nuttall 16.

7. Sign for zero, Dresden 64.

8. Glyph, Dresden 41b.

9. Nuttall 16.

Oliva ^

10, 11. Sign for zero, Dresden 63. '

12. Same, Dresden 55b.

Other Mollusca

13. Sign for zero, Dresden 54b.

14. Same. Bivalve, Dresden 63.

15. Bivalve, Nuttall 25.

16. Nuttall 49.

17. Nuttall 23.

18. Nuttall 16.

19. Nuttall 36.

20. Nuttall 75.

21. Bivalve closed, seen in profile, Nuttall 75.

22. Same, Nuttall 25.

23. Probably bivalve, Nuttall 16.

24. Same. Nuttall 36.

Plate 1

8

<(^>

10

4S>

11

12 13

14 15

10

18

17

21

22

19

23

(B3v>

20

24

PLATE 2

INSECTA

Honey bee (Melipona)

1. Possibly a drone, Tro-Cortesianus 108a.

2, 3. Tro-Cortesianus 108a.

4, 6 Bees more conventionalized, Tro-Cortesianus 80b.

5. Bee and honey comb, Tro-Cortesianus 109c.

7. Honey combs, apparently in a hive, Tro-Cortesianus lie.

8. Maya day sign, Cauac, possibly representing a honey

comb, Tro-Cortesianus 106b.

9. Tro-Cortesianus 103 c.

10. Honey combs in a hive, Tro-Cortesianus 104a.

11. Bee and honey comb, Tro-Cortesianus 109c.

Plate "2

PLATE 3
INSECTA AND MYRIAPODA

1. Maggots, probably of Blowfly {Sarcophaga) , Tro-Cor-

tesianus 27d.

2. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 24d.

3. Larva of Acentrocneme kollari, Tro-Cortesianus 28c.

4. Conventionalized insect, possibly a hornet, Nuttall 3.

5. Conventionalized insect, unidentified, Nuttall 19.

6. Same, Nuttall 55.

7. Same, Nuttall 5L

8. Butterfly or moth, Nuttall 19.

9. Butterfly, Aubin.

10. Maya day sign, Akbal, possibly representing the head of

a centipede.

11. Glyph belonging to god D, apparently composed of

signs for centipede, Dresden 7b,

12. Glyph for god D, Dresden 14b.

13. Glyph, Dresden 44b.

14. Same, Dresden 27a.

15. Centipede in connection with head-dress of god D,

Dresden 15c.

16. Glyph, Dresden 9b.

17. Same, Dresden 15c.

18. Centipede in connection with head-dress of god D,

Dresden 7c.

Plate 3

10

^

>'•

is

iM

--^^

i6

w

■^^

1

PLATE 4
ARACHNOIDEA, ARACHNIDA, CRUSTACEA

1. Scorpion and deer, Tro-Cortesianus 48c.

2. Scorpion with sting conventionalized as a hand, Tro-

Cortesianus 44c.

3. Scorpion highly conventionalized, Nuttall 22.

4. Spider, possibly a tarantula, Borbonicus 9.

5. Crayfish, Nuttall 16.

6. Crab. Nuttall 37.

Plate 4

PLATE 5
MYRIAPODA, PISCES

1. Parts of a conventionalized centipede with quetzals-

tail, Vaticanus 3773, 13.

2. Fish with teeth, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers,

Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III, PI. 48).

3. Fish captured by heron, Dresden 36b. (Compare PI,

15, fig. 5.)

4. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber

(Maudslay, III,P1. 45).

5. Fish.

6. Pottery fish, Chajcar (Maudslay, IV, PI. 93).

7. Same.

8. Fish as offering, Tro-Cortesianus 3a.

9. Same, Dresden 29b.

Plate &

• f »

^^'
):>i

---■^ssc

^

9

PLATE 6
PISCES

1. Possibly a flying-fish (Exocetus), Nuttall 75.

2. Palenque, Temple of the Cross (Maudslay, IV, PI. 68).

3. Nuttall 36.

4. 5. Glyphs, possibly of a shark, Dresden 40a.

6. Fish as offering, Dresden 27c.

7. Fish without dorsal fins, possibly an eel {Muraena)j

Dresden 65b.

8. Fish as offering, Dresden 23b.

9. Pottery animal from Santa Rita (Gann, 1897-1898,

PL 34).

10. Dresden 44c.

11. Nuttall 16.

12. Palenque, Palace (Maudslay, IV, PI. 11).

13. Fish as offering, Dresden 33a.

14. Fish as part of the Great Cycle glyph, Copan, Stela G,

north (Maudslay, I, PI. 41).

15. Same, Copan, Stela C, south (Maudslay, I, PI. 41.)

16. Same, Copan, Stela D (Maudslay, I, PI. 48).

17. Same, Copan, Stela C, south (Maudslay, I, PI. 41).

Plate 6

PLATE 7
AMPHIBIA

1. Frog (Rana), Tro-Cortesianus 31a.

2, 3. Same, Tro-Gortesianus lOld.

4. Probably a toad {Bufo), Copan, Oblong altar (Maudslay,

I, PL 114).

5. Frog or toad, Tro-Cortesianus 17b.

6. Frog and fish, Copan, Altar O (Maudslay, I, PI. 85).

7. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber

(Maudslay, III, PI. 46).

IV. 25

Flats 7

PLATE 9
REPTILIA

Rattlesnake {Crotalus)

1. Tro-Cortesianus 33b.

2. Nahua day sign, Couatl, Auh'm 10.

3. Tro-Cortesianus 52c.

4. Tro-Cortesianus 40b.

5. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Painted Chamber

(Maudslay, III, PL 40).

6. Nuttall 29.

7. Glyph representing rattles, '^Tro-Cortesianus 106c.

8. Tro-Cortesianus lOOd. i

9. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Painted Chamber

(Maudslay, III, PL 40).
10. Nuttall 54.

PLATE 10
REPTILIA

Serpents

1. Tree snake (possibly Lachesis), Dresden 27c.

2. Nuttall 37.

3. Dresden 57b.

4. NuttaU 5.

5. Nuttall 37.

6. Nuttall.

7. Serpent in connection with long number series, Dres-

den 62.

8. Dresden 37b.

9. Dresden 40c.

Plate 10,

PLATE 11
REPTILIA

Serpents

1. Large snake with conventionalized spots, Tro-Cortesianus

30a.

2. Tro-Cortesianus 31b.

Platb 11

.^^^^j^f^S::^

PLATE 12

REPTILIA

Iguana, Lizards

1. Iguana as offering, Tro-Cortesianus 105c.

2. Iguana, Tro-Cortesianus 3b.

3. Iguana, as offering with Kan, Dresden 43c.

4. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 107b.

5. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 6a.

6. Same, Dresden 29b.

7. Offering, possibly representing a lizard, Dresden 27b.

8. Same, Dresden 34a.

9. Lizard used for Uinal glyph, Copan, Stela D, gl. 4.

(Maudslay, I, PL 48).

10. Nahua day sign, Cuetzpalin (lizard), Aubin 10.

11. Lizard, Dresden 3a.

12. Nuttall 10.

13. Offering, the portion with serrated margin possibly

representing an iguana, Tro-Cortesianus 12b.

14. Lizard. Nuttall 2.

Plate 12

11

14

PLATE 13
REPTILIA

Crocodile (Crocodilus)

1. Glyph of the Nahua day sign, Cipactli, Nuttall 1.

2. Crocodile represented by head and limb, Nuttall 36.

3. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 1.

4. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 4.

5. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 9.

6. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 47.

7. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 1.

8. Nuttall 75.

9. Head of lizard or possibly crocodile used as a Uinal

glyph, Palenque, Temple of the Foliated Cross
(Maudslay, IV, PI. 82, gl. 6).

10. Head of crocodile, Dresden 52b.

11. Head, possibly of a crocodile, Palenque, Temple of the^

Foliated Cross (Maudslay, IV, PL 82, gl. 0, 4).

12. Conventionalized head of a crocodile, Dresden 53b.

Plate 13

10

0 X2

It

PLATE 14
REPTILIA

Turtles

1. Turtle, Tro-Cortesianus 19b.

2. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 17b.

3. Swimming turtle, Tro-Cortesianus 17a.

4. Possibly representing a turtle, Nuttall 33.

5. Turtle, Tro-Cortesianus 81c.

6. Freshwater turtle {Chelydra) with leeches attached, Tro-
I Cortesianus 72b.

7. Glyph for fig. 3.

8. Glyph.

9. Glyph.

10. Glyph.

11. Turtle, Nuttall 43. • ]

12. Turtle god, Aac, Dresden 49.

Plate 14

PLATE 15

AVES

Herons Frigate bird

1. Heron, stucco ornament, Palenque, Palace, House B

(Maudslay, IV, PL 18).

2. Heron head-dress, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers,

Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III, PI 45).

3. Head and neck of a heron, Dresden 37b.

4. Heron, Nuttall 74.

5. Heron with fish, Palenque, Temple of the Cross, West

side panel (Maudslay, IV, PL 71).

6. Heron

7. Heron with a fish as a head-dress, Dresden 36a.

8. Fork-tailed bird, probably a Frigate bird (Fregata

aquild), Tro-Cortesianus 34a.

9. Same, arranged for offering, Dresden 35a.

IV 26

Plate 15

PLATE 16
AVES

OcELLATED TuRKEY {AgriochaHs ocellata)

1. Turkey in trap, Tro-Cortesianus 93a.

2. Turkey, Tro-Cortesianus 10b.

3. Turkey snared, Tro-Cortesianus 91a.

4. Tro-Cortesianus 4a.

5. Tro-Cortesianus 95c.
♦6. Tro-Cortesianus 37b.

7. Vaticanus 3773, 14.

8. Tro-Cortesianus 36a.

9. Whole turkey as offering, Dresden 26c.

10. Head of turkey as offering, Dresden 34a.

11. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 12b.
:12. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 105b.

13. Dresden 20a.

14. Head of turkey as offering, Dresden 41c.

15. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 107b.

16. Same, Dresden 29c.

17. Same, Dresden 28c.

Plate 16

PLATE 18

AVES.

King Vulture {Sarcorhamphus papa), Black Vulture
{Catharista urubu)

1. Glyph of head of King Vulture, Dresden lib.

2. Glyph for Nahua day sign, Cozcaquauhtli, Nuttall 5.

3. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 41.

4. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 5.

5. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 4.

6. Same as fig. 2, showing considerable conventionaliza-

tion, Nuttall 2.

7. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 3.

8. Same as fig 2, further reduced, Nuttall 18.

9. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 3.

10. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 20.

11. Probably a Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 95c.

12. Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 70a.

13. Same, Dresden 17b.

14. Possibly a Black Vulture, Chichen Itza, Monjas, east

(Maudslay, III, PI. 13).

15. Head of Black Vulture, Nuttall 32.

16. Glyph of head of same, Dresden 54b.

17. Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 36b.

18. Head of same, Tro-Cortesianus 26c.

19. Same, Dresden 39c.

20. Same, Nuttall 19.

21. Same, Nuttall 34.

22. Same, Dresden 37c.

23. Same, Nuttall 27.

24. Same, Nuttall 1.

25. Same, Nuttall 34.

26. Same, Nuttall 9.

27. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 19b.

i

Plate 18

8 & 10

^0^

11

13

14

15

17

16

18

19 20 ^l 22

23

24

25

26

®:

27

PLATE 19

AVESc
Vultures

1. Vulture (probably a King Vulture) tearing at entrails

of an animal, Tro-Cortesianus 42a.

2. Nuttall 69.

3. Nuttall 74.

4. Possibly a Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 35b.

5. Tro-Cortesianus 26d.

6. Tro-Cortesianus 26d.

7. Dresden 3a.

8. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, PL 16).

9. Glyph, Copan, Altar K (Maudslay, I, gl. 73).

10. Glyph, Tikal, House 9 (Maudslay, III, PI. 79).

11. Black Vulture and snake, Dresden 36b.

12. Probably vultures, Tro-Cortesianus 100b.

13. Probably a vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 18b.

14. Same, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber, Chichen

Itza (Maudslay, III, PI. 46).

Plate 19

^^g»>-:a

/

PLATE 20

AVES

Harpy Eagle {Thrasaetos harpyia)

^ 1. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, PI. 16, gl. 3).

2. Nuttall 53.

y S. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, PL 16, gl. 13).

■ 4. Tro-Cortesianus 88c.

5. Part of a head-dress, Dresden 14c.

6. Peresianus 2.

7. Dresden 14b.

8. Eagle with crest feathers tipped by flints, Nuttall

9. Glyph, Tro-Cortesianus 107c.

10. Stone carving, Chichen Itza (Maudslay, III, PI. 52) ►

11. Dresden 23c.

12. Possibly an eagle's head, Dresden 43c.

13. Possibly an eagle, Dresden 74.

14. Bologna 7.

Plate

PLATE 21

AVES
Yucatan Horned Owl {Bubo virginianus mayensis)

1. Owl in flight, Stucco ornament, Palenque, Palace, House-

E (Maudslay, IV, PL 43).

2. Stone carving of owl, Yaxchilan, Stela 4 (Peabody Mu-

seum Memoirs, II, PI. 70).

3. Ow in flight, carved in wood, Tikal, House C, linteL

(Maudslay, III, PI. 78).

Plate 21

T227 -n;S7 C^T- ^r

PLATE 22

AVES

Yucatan Horned Owl {Bubo virginianus mayensis)

1. Bologna 7.

2. As a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 95c.

3. Borgia 7.

4. On end of staff carried by warrior, Chichen Itza, Temple

of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III,
PL 49).

5. Aubin 13.

6. Head highly conventionalized, Palenque, Temple of

the Sun (Maudslay, IV, PL 88).

7. Screech-owl (chiqudtli), Aubin.

ATE 2

'PLATE 23

AVES

Yucatan Screech Owl or Moan-bird {Otus choliba
thompsoni)

1. Dresden 7c.

2. Tro-Cortesianus 66a.

3. Dresden 11a.

4. As a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 94c.

5. As a head-dress, Dresden 18b.

6. Glyph associated with Moan-bird, Dresden 7c.

7. Same, Dresden 7c.

8. Dresden 10a.

9. Peresianus 10.

10. Peresianus 5.

11. Glyph representing head, Dresden 38c.

12. Same, Dresden 8b.

13. Same, Dresden 53b.

14. Same, Dresden 16c.

15. Glyph possibly representing Moan-bird, Dresden 38c,

16. Glyph of head, Dresden 53b.

17. Glyph associated with Moan-bird.

18. Tro-Cortesianus 73b.

19. As a head-dress, Dresden 16c.

20. As a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 95c.

21. Glyph associated with Moan-bird, Dresden 7c.

IV 27

i?i?.

PLATE 23

PLATE 24

AVES

Coppery-tailed Trogon or Quetzal (Pharomacrus
mocinno)

1. Head-dress with crest feathers shown as knobs, Dres-

den 7c.

2. Head-dress, Dresden 13b.

3. Same, Dresden 16c.

4. Tro-Cortesianus 100b.

5. Tro-Cortesianus 70a.

6. Head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 94c.

7. Nuttall 33.

S. Conventionalized tail as a head ornament, Dresden 20c.
9. Vaticanus 3773, 17.

10. Glyph, Palenque, Temple of the Sun (Maudslay, IV,

PL 89, gl. O, 9).

11. Trogon descending on a sacrifice, Bologna 8.

12. Tro-Cortesianus 36b.

13. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, PL 111, gl. 54).

14. Glyph apparently representing a trogon's head, Dres-

den 20c.

15. Same, Dresden 9b.

16. Same, Dresden 3a.

17. Head, Nuttall 43.

18. Tro-Cortesianus 26c.

19. Figure with head ornament resembling a trogon glyph ^

Dresden 20c.

Plate 24

PLATE 25

AVES

Blue Macaw {Ara militaris)

1. Figure with macaw head and holding firebrands, Dres-

den 40b.

2. Head-dress, Dresden 16c.

3. Tro-Cortesianus 12a.

/' 4. Glyph, Copan, Stela 11 (Maudslay, I, PL 112, gl. 12).
./ 5. Same, Copan, Stela B (Maudslay, I, PL 38).
6. Glyph used in connection with fig. 1.
. 7. Glyph.
f^ 8. Stone carving of upper mandible and head, Copan,
Stela B (Maudslay, I, PL 37).
9. Head, probably of a turtle, month sign Kayab, Quirigua,
Stela A (Maudslay, II, PL 7, gl. 14).
y 10. Head, probably of a macaw, Copan, Altar Q (Maudslay,
I, PL 93).
11. Tro-Cortesianus 37b.
V^ 12. Head, probably of a macaw, Copan, Stela A (Maudslay,
I, PL 30, gL 19).
13. Tro-Cortesianus 94c.

Plvte 25

fK

— «r-3

12

PLATE 26
AVES
Parrots, Turkeys
1. Macaw as a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianusj 26c.

\/ 3.

2. Bird of sacrifice, doubtless an Ocellated Turkey (Agrio-
chans) Dresden 25c. (Compare also Dresden 26c
27c, 28c.)
Head-dress, probably a macaw, Copan, Altar Q (Mauds-
lay, I, PI. 92).

4. Possibly a parrot (Amazona), Nuttall 4.

5. Head-dress, head of a macaw, Tro-Cortesianus 89a.

6. Head-dress, possibly representing a parrot, Dresden 12b.

7. Possibly a parrot {Amazona), Nuttall 71.

8. Glyph representing a macaw's head, Tikal, Temple C

(Maudslay, III, PI. 78).

9. Parrot-like head-dress, Dresden 19a.

10. Possibly a macaw, Tro-Cortesianus 37b.

11. Parrot-like head-dress, Dresden lib.

12. Bird of sacrifice, probably an Ocellated Turkey or a

Chachalaca, Nuttall 22.

13. Parrot-like head-dress, Dresden 11a.

14. Head of Ocellated Turkey or a Chachalaca, Nuttall 5.

Plate 26

//

<^

12

13

U

PLATE 27 ^ '

AVES
Miscellaneous

1. Bird of sacrifice, an Ocellated Turkey or a Chachalaca,

Nuttall 2.

2. Same, Nuttall IG.

3. Same, Nuttall 19.

4. Same, Nuttall 1.

5. Woodpecker possibly Campephilus imperialis, Nuttall 74.

6. Same, Nuttall 71.

7. Possibly a Raven {Corvus corax sinuatus) , Nuttall 48.

8. Parrot (cocho), Aubin 11.

9. Same, Aubin 13.

10. Turkey-cock {uexolot), Aubin 11.

11. Same, Aubin 13.

Plate 27

^\m<u^

*)!«»&•

^ / ^

^

>8

;/

y

PLATE 28
Various Animals

1. Earthenware vessel representing a tapir {Tapir ellay

with a necklace of Oliva shells (Seler, 1904b, p.
106, fig. 23).

2. Stone carving, possibly of a King Vulture {Sarcorham-

phus papa), Copan, Altar T (Maudslay, I, PL 96).

3. Stone carving, possibly a lizard, Copan, Stela 6 (Mauds-

lay I, PL 107).

4. Stone carving, probably a jaguar (Felis onca hernandezi),

Copan, Stela 2 (Maudslay, I, PL 102).

5. Stone carving of a Black Vulture (Catharista urvbu),

Copan, Stela D (Maudslay, I, PL 48).

6. Lizard (?) attacked by two birds (?) perhaps vultures,

Quirigua, Altar B (Maudslay, II, PL 15).

Plate 28

PLATE 29
MAMMALIA

Armadillo and Miscellaneous

1. Nine-banded Armadillo {Tatu noremcinctum) , Tro-

Cortesianus 103a.

2. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 92d.

3. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 103a.

4. Armadillo captured in a pitfall, Tro-Cortesianus 48a.

5. Undetermined animal, Dresden 14c.

6. Undetermined animal, possibly a frog or a marsupial,.

Tro-Cortesianus 33a.

7. Rodent, Nuttall 11.

8. Undetermined animal, Tro-Cortesianus 24d.

Plate 29"

PLATE 30
MAMMALIA
Deer, Hare •

1. Yucatan deer, caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 48b,

2. Yucatan brocket (Mazama pandora) caught in a pit-

fall, Tro-Cortesianus 92a.

3. Glyph for hare or rabbit, Nuttall 16.

4. Same, Nuttall 5.

5. Yucatan deer, Dresden bUa.

6. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 30b.

7. Hare or rabbit, Nuttall 22.

8. Same, Dresden 61

IT 28

Plate 30

PLATE 31

MAMMALIA

Yucatan Deer {Odocoileus yucatanensis)

1. Doe, Dresden 45c.

2. Same, Fegervary-Mayer 26.

3. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 29c.

4. Same, Nuttall 50.

5. Same captured in snare, Tro-Cortesianus 86a.

6. Head-dress of god M, Tro-Cortesianus 50b.

7. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 51c.

8. Doe, Tro-Cortesianus 2b.

9. Head of same, Nuttall 43.

10. Head of doe as sacrifice, Tro-Cortesianus 77.

11. Same, Peresianus 10.

12. Haunch of venison as a sacrifice, Dresden 35a.

13. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 105b.

14. Same, Dresden 28c.

15. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 108a.

Plate 31

^ 1

^-cO

11

13

la

^ 12

14

15

PLATE 32

MAMMALIA

Yucatan Peccary (Tayassu angulatum yucatanense) ■
Yucatan Deer {Odocoileus yucatanensis)

1. Peccary, Nuttall 79.

2. Same, Dresden 68a.

[^3. Combination, a peccary's head and forefoot, with long
tail and hindfoot without hoofs, Tro-Cortesianus 66a

4. Peccary, Dresden 45b.

5. Man with peccary head, Copan, Sela D, east (Maudslay,

I, PL 46).

6. Combination animal, with hoofs and dorsal crest of a

peccary and scales of a reptile, Dresden 75.

7. Peccary, Nuttall 9.

:8. Yucatan deer, with conventionalized antler, glyph for

Nahua day sign, Maqatl, Nuttall 26.
'9. Same, Peresianus 5.

10. Glyph for Nahua day sign Ma<;atl, Aubin 10.

11. Same, Nuttall 5.

12. Deer, Copan, Stela N, East (Maudslay, I, PI. 79).

1

Plate 32

2

PLATE 33

MAMMALIA

Yucatan Peccary {Tayassu angulatum yucatanense)

1. Peccary caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 49c.

2. Glyph, Chichen Itza, Monjas, East (Maudslay, III,

PL 13).

3. Head as a head-dress, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers,

Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III).

4. Peccary caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 93a.

5. Tro-Cortesianus 30b.

6. Dresden 62.

7. Glyph representing a peccary's head, Dresden 45b.

8. Same, Dresden 43b.

9. Peccary caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 49a.

Plate

^

PLATE 34

MAMMALIA

Jaguar, Puma

1. Jaguar {Felis hernandezi), Nuttall 24.

2. Man seated in the open mouth of an animal, possibly

a jaguar, Tro-Cortesianus 20a.

3. Nahua day sign, Oceolotl, Aubin 9.

4. Pot representing a jaguar or puma (Gann, 1897-1898,

PL 34).

5. Probably a puma {Felis bangsi costaricensis) , Chichen

Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Painted Chamber
(Maudslay, III, PI. 40).

6. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber

(Maudslay, III, PI. 50).

7. Probably a puma, Dresden 47.

Plate 34.

PLATE 35

MAMMALIA

Coyote, Bear, Jaguar

1. Probably a coyote (Canis), Nuttall 6.

2. Same, Nuttall 26.

3. Possibly a bear (Ursus), Dresden 37a.

4. Same, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers (Maudslay,

III, 38).

5. Jaguar {Felis hernandezi), Dresden 8a.

6. Glyph, probably of a jaguar head, Copan, Stela 4

(Maudslay, I, PL 104).

7. Copan, Altar V (Maudslay, I, PL 114).

8. Jaguar, Tro-Cortesianus 28c.

9. Stone carving of jaguar head, Palenque, Palace, House

C (Maudslay, IV, PL 24).

10. Jaguar, Tro-Cortesianus 30b.

11. Glyph, probably of a jaguar.

12. Head of jaguar in fresco, Santa Rita (Gann, 1897-1898,

PL 31).

13. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 2a.

14. Same. Nuttall 27.

fLATE 35

"^^^^^

PLATE 36
MAMMALIA

Dog iCanis)

1. Dog and crab, Tro-Cortesianus 88c.

2. Tro-Cortesianus 37b.

3. Tro-Cortesianus 66b.

4. Head, Nuttall 34.

5. Nuttall 72.

6. Head, Nuttall 20.

7. Probably a dog, Nuttall 3.

8. Aubin 9.

9. Glyph for day sign Oc.

10. Same.

11. Same.

12. Tro-Cortesianus 91d.

13. Glyph for Nahua day sign Itzcuintli, Aubin 9.

14. Tro-Cortesianus 27d.

PLATE 35

PLATE 37
MAMMALIA

Dog (Canis)

1. Dog bearing firebrands, Dresden 40b.

2. Same, Dresden 39a.

3. Same, Dresden 36a.

4. Tro-Cortesianus 88a.

5. Dresden 21b.

6. Tro-Cortesianus 24c.

7. Dresden 13c.

8. Tro-Cortesianus 37a.

9. Dresden 30a.

10. Dresden 7a.

11. Glyph supposed to represent a dog's ribs, Dresden 13c.

12. Dresden 29a.

13. Head, Tro-Cortesianus 91d.

Platb 37

PLATE 38

MAMMALIA

Leaf-nosed Bat (Vampyrus spectrum or Phyllostomus hasta-
tus panamensis)

L Glyph, Chichen Itza, Akat 'Cib (Maudslay, III, PL 19.)

2. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, PL 8).

3. Bat god, drawn as glyph, Copan, Stela D (Maudslay,

I, PL 48).

4. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, PL 8).

5. Glyph, Palenque, Temple of the Inscriptions (Mauds-

lay, IV, PL 60, gL Q 1).

6. Glyph, Tikal (Maudslay III, PL 74, gl. 41).

7. Bat god used as decoration on pattery, Cham.i (Dle^el-

dorff, 1904).

IV 29

PLATE 39
MAMMALIA

Monkey and Miscellaneous

1. Capuchin monkey {Cebus capucinns), Nuttall 1.

2. Same, Nuttall 5.

3. Head of same, Nuttall 38.

4. Nondescript animal, possibly a combination of monkey

and peccary, Tro-Cortesianus 88c.

5. Glyph, possibly representing a monkey, found in con-

nection with fig. 4.

6. Glyph of head of monkey, Nuttall 1.

7. Head of long-nosed god, Tro-Cortesianus 30a.

8. Head of monkey, glyph for Nahua day sign, Ogomatli,

Aubin 9.

9. Long-nosed god, Tro-Cortesianus 30b.
10. God with head-dress, Dresden 5c.